Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

December 22-24,2013, Roorkee

CENTRIFUGE MODEL STUDIES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SLOPES WITH

AND WITHOUT NAILS SUBJECTED TO SEEPAGE

V. M. Rotte, Research Scholar, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India. Email: vmrotte@iitb.ac.in
B. V. S. Viswanadham, Professor, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai400076, India. Email: viswam@civil.iitb.ac.in

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of centrifuge model tests on the behaviour of a slope subjected to
seepage with and without soil-nails. Centrifuge model tests were carried out at 30 gravities on model slopes with
horizontal back slope having an inclination of 2V:1H and slope height of 7.2 m using a 4.5 m radius beam
centrifuge facility available at IIT Bombay. Nail inclination of 25 with horizontal was adopted for reinforcing
slope along with polyester fiber-blended plaster of Paris facing. The slopes were subjected to rise in ground water
table within the slope by using a seepage flow controller during centrifuge test. All the models were instrumented
with pore pressure transducers and displacement transducers. An un-reinforced slope was observed to fail once the
seeping water reaches the toe of the slope after 5 days of seepage. In comparison, the slope strengthened with soil-
nails was found to significantly improve its stability and deformation behaviour at the onset of seepage. Finally,
slope stability analysis of centrifuge models with and without soil-nails was carried-out and results were compared
with those of physically observed centrifuge tests.

INTRODUCTION slopes/walls under various field and laboratory

Failure of any slope is predominantly caused due to conditions and contributed their work to others.
the gravity forces. However, other driving forces
also exist such as water flow, tectonic stresses, Back slope

Active zone
seismic activity, etc. These driving forces are Nail head

resisted by the strength of the soil. When this Resistant
zone

resistance offered by the soil is less than the Typical
Sv

Ln distribution of Sh
driving force, slope failure occurs. However, axial forces
H
resisting force can be increased by adding Soil-nail

reinforcement to the slope. Soil-nailing is one of z

Slope
facing

the soil reinforcing techniques used for the

stabilizing natural slopes and existing manmade
slopes. In India, over the last decade, the soil
nailing technique has been considerably used for
various applications such as the stabilization of
road/rail side slopes, basement excavations,
additional support for bridge abutments and side
walls of the approaches for subways (Sivakumar
Babu[1]). Figure 1 presents a schematic view of a
typical soil-nailed slope at the onset of
development of pore water pressures due to
seepage of water (where u is the pore water
pressure at a location shown in Fig. 1, which is z
units below the water surface level). Details of a
soil-nailed slope with nail layout are clearly shown
in the Fig. 1. Several investigators have modelled
and studied the performance of soil-nailed
u = wz Base layer
Firm foundation
a) Cross section b) Nail layout
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of a soil-nail
reinforced slope with facing (Rotte and
Viswanadham[2])
Li et al.[3] performed a full-scale test to study the
effect of surcharge weight and rise in pore water
pressure on the performance of a soil-nailed slope.
Nail forces were found to increase with an increase
in pore water pressures and increase in the applied
pressure in the form of surcharge weights. Further,
the presence of nails was found to reduce
deformations of the slope. Though the full scale
physical model tests are the best option to
understand the actual behaviour of soil-nailed

Page 1 of 8
V. M. Rotte & B. V. S. Viswanadham
slopes subjected to seepage, they are time
consuming, expensive and difficult to perform in a
controlled manner. A reduced scale 1-g model test
is another option to study the behaviour of a slope
with and without soil-nails. However, one of the
limitations of reduced scale 1-g model test is that
stress levels in the models are much smaller than
those in full-scale structures, thus leading to
different soil properties and loading conditions.
Centrifuge modelling offers the advantage of
achieving identical stress fields in scaled-down
model and proto-type. The use of the centrifuge
modelling technique for testing models of artificial
and natural geotechnical structures has been
recognized as an effective way of predicting their
performance at prototype scale. Several
investigators used this technique to model and
study the behaviour of existing/man-made slopes
with and without reinforcement.
Davies and Jones[4] conducted a series of
centrifuge tests to investigate the influence of soil
nails on the stability of an excavated steep sided
cutting. The stiffness of the nails appeared to have
little influence over the overall stability and as the
ground water level was raised, the axial load in the
nails was observed to increase in order to maintain
stability of the slope. However, the influence of
facing type on the stability and deformation
behaviour of soil-nailed slopes was not addressed.
Tufenkjian and Vucetic[5] conducted dynamic
centrifuge tests on soil-nailed excavation models
and reported that longer nails provided greater
stability to soil-nailed slopes under dynamic
events. Zhang et al.[6] performed model tests on
soil-nailed steep cuttings of unsaturated silty clay
using a centrifuge. The requirement for stability of
the nailed cuttings was summarized as: L/H > 0.48
and horizontal and vertical spacing < 1.8 m.
External failure occurred in densely reinforced
shorter nails, while internal failure occurred in
sparsely reinforced longer nails. Morgan[7]
performed a series of centrifuge model tests to
study the influence of slope inclination and nail
density on the performance of soil-nailed slopes. It
was concluded that the reduction in effective
stress, increase in slope inclination and reduction
in reinforcement density helped to fully utilize the
nail capacity.
Ng et al.[8] carried out two centrifuge tests to
investigate the effect of soil-nails on the slope
subjected to seepage. It was observed that use of
soil-nails prevented the slope from forming a
continuous slip surface when subjected to rising
groundwater. However, the presence of soil-nails
did not prevent the formation of the crack at the
crest and localized failures between nails at the toe
of the slope. Deepa and Viswanadham[9] and
Viswanadham and Deepa[10] conducted centrifuge
model tests with and without soil-nails and
presented the importance of soil nailing in
stabilizing a slope subjected to seepage. It was
concluded that soil nailing technique has a
significant effect in improving the performance of
a slope subjected to seepage. Increase in vertical as
well as horizontal spacing of nails and decrease in
nail length reduced the stabilizing effect. Soil
nailing technique is effective in improving the
stability and deformation behaviour of slopes
subjected to seepage. Nail inclination has an
influence on the performance of soil-nailed slopes.
In addition, stiffness and facing material type
influence the deformation behaviour of soil-nailed
slopes subjected to seepage (Rotte and
Viswanadham[2]. The objective of this paper is to
highlight the significance of nail reinforcement
with slope facing on the stability and deformation
behaviour of a slope subjected to seepage.
CENTRIFUGE MODELLING OF SOIL-
NAILED SLOPES
Centrifuge Equipment
The 4.5 m radius large beam centrifuge facility
available at the Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay (IITB), India, was used in the present
study. Specifications of the centrifuge were given
by Rajesh and Viswanadham[11]. The in-flight
proceedings of front elevation of the slope with and
without soil nails were recorded using a digital
camera having 3.2 mega pixels resolution.
The main advantage of using centrifuge model
testing is that an artificial high acceleration field is
applied making the model material heavier, so that
the magnitude and distribution of stress are the
same in the model as in the full scale prototype. In
a centrifuge, this stress similarity is achieved by
Page 2 of 8
 Centrifuge model studies on the performance of slopes with and without nails subjected to seepage

accelerating a model of scale 1/N to N times the Model Soil-Nail

earths gravity. To model soil-nailed slopes, the Aluminium tube with inner diameter of 5 mm and
scaling considerations of parameters related to soil, outer diameter of 6 mm was used to model soil-
slope and soil-nails need to be satisfied and were nail. Soil-nail interface behaviour was simulated by
discussed by Rotte and Viswanadham[2]. applying a thick layer of epoxy covered with
standard sand (having particle size in the range of
Model Materials 1.18 to 0.3 mm) on the surface of the aluminium
tube. The embedded length of the nails within the
Model Soil slope was 200 mm. At 30 g, the 200 mm long
Model soil selected for the present study was silty model nail was equivalent to a 6 m long steel bar
sand and formulated by mixing locally available of 42 mm diameter with a grouting layer of 180
poorly graded Goa sand and a blend of mm thickness. A 20 mm x 20 mm Perspex sheet
commercially available kaolin in the proportion of with 6 mm thickness was used as nail head.
80:20 by dry weight. The reason for blending 20%
kaolin clay by dry weight with sand in dry state Model Slop Facing
was to induce binding properties to sand and also A fiber blended plaster of Paris (PoP) facing sheet
to ensure stability to the slope subjected to seepage with 198 mm in length, 230 mm in height and 5
in the present study. Table 1 provides a summary mm in thickness was prepared to model a slope
of properties of model soil used in this study. facing in a centrifuge. Commercially available
Purposely, the model soil classified as SM was polyester fibers with 30 mm length and weighing
prepared and used for constructing slope models 0.5% by dry weight of PoP were mixed uniformly
with and without soil-nails to allow seepage of with PoP powder. Finally, 60% water was added to
water during centrifuge tests relatively in a short the mix for preparing a homogeneous paste. The
duration. fiber blended PoP facing was casted by pouring the
paste in to specially prepared mould of 198 mm x
Table 1 Summary of properties of model soil used 230 mm x 5 mm dimensions. Fiber blended PoP
in the present study was allowed to set fully for 3 days. In the present
study, a nail layout of 70 mm x 70 mm was
Property Value selected for the soil-nailed slope and the holes of 9
Specific gravity G 2.63 mm diameter were drilled according to the nail
layout. Fiber blended PoP had a unit weight of 12.1
Effective particle size D10 (mm) 0.001
kN/m3. The modulus of elasticity (Ef) and
Average particle size D50 (mm) 0.25
unconfined compressive strength (qu) of the fiber
Void ratio e 0.40
blended PoP were measured as 320 MPa and 4.6
Classification (Unified Soil
SM MPa respectively.
Classification System)
a
Maximum dry unit weight d (kN/m3) 18.75 Test Package and Test Procedure
a
Optimum moisture content w (%) 9 In the present study, a container having internal
b
Cohesion c (kN/m2) 12.5 dimensions of 760 mm in length, 200 mm in width
b
Angle of internal friction ( ) 28.3 and 410 mm in height was used for making slope
c 1.54 x models at normal gravity. One of the walls of the
Coefficient of permeability k (m/sec)
10-6 container is made of a thick transparent Perspex
sheet for monitoring the model behavior during the
a
Standard Proctor tests were conducted on test and the others were made of well-machined
moist-compacted soil at maximum dry unit mild steel plates. The friction between the front
weight and optimum moisture content; and rear walls and soil was reduced by applying a
b
Consolidated undrained triaxial tests; cfalling thin layer of white petroleum grease before placing
head tests thin flexible polythene sheet strips. With this
arrangement, the friction effects can be reduced,

Page 3 of 8
V. M. Rotte & B. V. S. Viswanadham
and plain strain conditions can be approximated
(Deepa and Viswanadham[9]). Before lubricating
the inner sides of the Perspex sheet, a rectangular
grid of permanent markers 340 mm x 220 mm in
size was pasted firmly on the inner side of the
Perspex sheet. Both the slope models were 300 mm
high including a slope height of 240 mm and a base
height of 70 mm. A toe drain was provided at the
right end of the container to permit drainage at the
downstream end.
Model preparation
A base layer of 70 mm thickness was made using
the model soil, moist-compacted at its maximum
dry unit weight (dmax) and optimum moisture
content (OMC). The model slopes were 240 mm
high with a 2V:1H slope achieved by using a
temporary wooden block placed in front of slope
face during compaction of the soil. A thin non-
woven geotextile strip of 200 mm in length and 60
mm in breadth was provided at the toe of the slope
to prevent premature failure of the slope due to
piping for unreinforced slope models. After
compaction of each layer, specially designed L-
shaped plastic markers were placed at a distance of
20 mm from the slope face. The positions of these
markers were traced by performing image analysis
of the photographs of the front elevation of the
slope during various stages of tests. In order to
reduce friction between the plastic markers and
Perspex wall, white petroleum grease was applied
to one of the surfaces of the markers. This was
done to facilitate free movement of the markers
with the soil. In addition, a red colored food dye
was placed at intervals on the top of each
compacted layer to trace the movement of water
within the slope body. After construction of the
slope, the supports were removed. A specially
designed wooden template was prepared to drive
the nails at an inclination of 25. Facing with pre-
punched holes was placed by matching the holes
prepunched in slope facing at normal gravity itself.
Nails were driven through the slope face with the
help of wooden hamlet. When 200 mm of the nail
was driven into the slope, the nail head was placed
and held in position by means of key pins.
Figure 2 shows a schematic cross-section of the
model soil-nailed slope used in the present study.
Slopes with and without soil-nails were
instrumented using linear variable differential
transformers (LVDTs) and pore pressure
transducers (PPTs). For measuring the surface
settlements of the slope, three (LVDTs) were
placed on the top surface of the slope. PPTs were
used to measure the developed pore water pressure
within the slope during the tests. The positions of
LVDTs and PPTs are shown in Fig. 2. One PPT
(PPT-1) was placed at the bottom of seepage tank
and the others were placed 10 mm below the
surface of the base layer.
L3
L2
L1
Permanent
Water Facing markers
inlet
40 105 95
Nail
Nail head
Perforated
240
side
Toe
drain
Water
tank PPT2 PPT3 PPT4 PPT5
Base
70
PPT1 20 100 130 100 layer
Fig. 2 Schematic cross-section of a model soil-
nailed slope (all dimensions are in mm).
All the slopes were constructed with a slope
inclination of 63. 43 (2V:1H). Model VBS-1 was an
un-reinforced slope. Model VBS-12 was reinforced
with soil nails having a square nail layout (Sv = Sh =
70 mm). The centrifuge model tests were performed
on slopes with and without soil nails at a g-level of
30 as the critical factor of safety for the unreinforced
slope was just above 1 at this gravity level. After
attaining 30g, the centrifuge was rotated at a constant
angular speed of 80 rpm, water was allowed to seep
in through the model slope, and its behaviour was
observed until global or localized failures occurred.
All data from the LVDTs and PPTs were recorded at
1 second intervals using the data acquisition system
mounted on the right-hand side of the basket.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
CENTRIFUGE TEST RESULTS
Centrifuge experiments were undertaken to
understand the deformation behaviour and stability
of soil-nailed slopes when subjected to seepage
conditions. These centrifuge model tests aimed to
Page 4 of 8
 Centrifuge model studies on the performance of slopes with and without nails subjected to seepage

study the effectiveness of soil-nailing technique found to maintain its stability even after subjecting
and the necessity of slope facing for soil-nailed to seepage of 29.75 days.
slopes with the data obtained by LVDTs for
100
measuring surface settlements and PPTs for Seepage tank PPT 1
measuring water pressure within the slope. In 80
PPT 2

Pore water pressure (kPa)

PPT 3
addition, markers embedded within the front 0.6 m PPT 4
elevation of the slope were used to trace the failure 60 PPT 5
3.6 m
surface, if any, and markers along the facing were
used to obtain face movements at the onset of 40
7.5 m
seepage during the centrifuge tests through image 20
analysis. 10.5 m

Pore Water Pressure Profiles 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Seepage time (days)
Figure 3 shows the development of pore water
Fig. 3 Variation of pore water pressure with
pressure within the slope for models VBS-12 with
seepage time (VBS 12)
the seepage time in prototype dimensions. As can
be noted from Fig. 3, steady-state seepage 10
conditions could be achieved within 3 to 4 days of 9 Slope profile
seepage. Based on the measured pore water 8 1 day
1.25 days
pressure data, pressure heads at various PPT 7
Head of water (m)

1.5 days
locations were determined and phreatic surfaces 6 3 days
were plotted for all tested models at different 5 5.75 days
4 6.5 days
seepage times in the prototype dimensions. Figure 7.75 days
3
4 depicts the phreatic surfaces developed at 30 days
2
various seepage times within the reinforced slope 1
model (VBS-12). These phreatic surfaces were 0
further used to estimate factor of safety of the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

slope against global stability failure. Horizontal distance from upstream end of slope (m)
Fig. 4 Developed phreatic surfaces at various
Deformation Profiles seepage time (VBS 12)
Figures 5a,b show the surface settlements
normalized with height of the slope (Sc/H) for Figures 7a,b show the status of the front elevation
various u/H values. In this paper, u/H is defined of the models before and after initiation of failure
as the ratio of pore water pressure measured by or penultimate stages of the test during flight at
PPT3 at a horizontal distance of 245 mm from toe
of the slope to the product of bulk unit weight of Horizontal distance from crest of the slope (m)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
the model soil and slope height H. Unreinforced 0.0
slope model VBS 1 failed after attaining u/H =
0.51 with Sc/H = 0.15 and maximum Sc/H = 0.35
was observed at the end of the test. However, a 0.1
at u/H =
reinforced slope VBS 12 was found to be stable
0.510
Sc/H

even after reaching u/H = 0.51 with maximum 0.511 0.2

Sc/H = 0.013 and experienced only a surface crack 0.511
at u/H = 0.46. Figures 6a,b present the variation 0.513
0.519 0.3
of surface settlements experienced by the slope
0.527
models VBS-1 and VBS-12 with seepage time at 0.545
30g. Model VBS-1 experienced catastrophic 0.4
failure by the development of circular slip surface a) Unreinforced slope (VBS-1)
at t = 7.5 days, However, model VBS-12 was

Page 5 of 8
V. M. Rotte & B. V. S. Viswanadham

8 7
Horizontal distance from crest of the slope (m)
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
and without soil-nails with u/H. Unreinforced
0.00 slope was stable and showed the factor of safety
just above 1 under unsaturated conditions.
0.01 However, as the pore water pressure increased, the
at u/H = factor of safety for the un-reinforced slope was
0.02
observed to fall below 1 after u/H = 0.51,

Sc/H
0.11
0.46
0.03 indicating a slope failure. In comparison with the
0.48
0.49
unreinforced slope, factor of safety for a nail-
0.50
0.04 reinforced slope was more than 1 and the slope was
0.51 stable even after u/H = 0.51. The results of
0.05
stability analysis of slopes with and without soil-
b) Reinforced soil-nailed slope (VBS-12) nails were compared and found to corroborate
closely with the physically observed centrifuge
Fig. 5 Variation of normalized surface settlements model test results.
with horizontal distance from crest of the slope at
various u/H values (in prototype dimensions) Horizontal distance from creast of the slope (m)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0
A circular failure surface was observed for an
unreinforced slope (VBS- 0.5

Surface settlements (m)

distinct formation of failure surfaces was observed Seepage time =
1
for soil-nailed slope (VBS-12) at the same value of 5 days
5.04 days 1.5
5.1 days
the formation of tension crack away from the crest
5.25 days 2
of the slope was observed for soil-nailed slope. 5.5 days
Table 2 presents the summary of centrifuge test 6 days 2.5
results. 7.75 days
3

Table 2 Summary of centrifuge test results a) Unreinforced slope (VBS-1)

Test ts Horizontal distance from creast of the slope (m)
legend () Sv/H = Sh/H Scmax/H (days) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0
VBS-1 -a -a 0.35 7.75
VBS-12 25 0.29 0.0132 29.75 0.05

Surface settlements (m)

-a = Not relevant; H = Height of slope; Sh = Seepage time =
0.1

Horizontal spacing of nails; Sv = Vertical spacing 1 days 0.15

of nails; Scmax = maximum crest settlements at the 6.25 days
0.2
end of test; ts = Seepage time; = Nail inclination 7.75 days
0.25
with horizontal 9.5 days
11 days
0.3
29.75 days
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SOIL-NAILED 0.35
SLOPES b) Reinforced soil-nailed slope (VBS-12)
Stability analyses was carried out for slope models
with and without soil nails in terms of prototype Fig. 6 Variation of surface settlements with
dimensions based on simplified Bishops method horizontal distance from crest of the slope at
using Oasys slope software (Oasys, 2011[12]). various seepage times (in prototype dimensions)
Circular failure surfaces were used in the analysis.
The slopes were analyzed using phreatic surfaces CONCLUSIONS
measured during the centrifuge test. Figure 8 This paper addresses the behaviour of slopes
presents variation of factor of safety for slopes with subjected to seepage, with and without nails. The

Page 6 of 8
 Centrifuge model studies on the performance of slopes with and without nails subjected to seepage

impact of seepage on the stability and deformation The effect of soil-nail reinforcement on the
of slopes with and without nails was simulated by performance of slopes subjected to seepage flow
raising the groundwater table within the slope was evaluated. From the data obtained from the
during flight at 30g using a custom developed centrifuge model tests conducted, and from
seepage simulator. . stability analyses carried out on slopes with and
without nail reinforcement, the following
conclusions can be drawn.
The unreinforced slope underwent failure
when subjected to seepage. As u/H reached
the value of 0.51 within the slope (at a
horizontal distance of 7 .5 m from the toe for a
slope with 7. 2 m height and = 63 .43 ) a
crack developed and a catastrophic failure was
observed by the development of circular failure
a) Unreinforced slope (VBS-1)
surface.
The maximum crest settlement observed for
the soil-nailed slope was 0.095 m, whereas for
unreinforced slope it was 2.5 m. Slope
reinforced with soil-nails and slope facing,
exhibited nearly 25 times lower crest
settlement values and performed superior than
unreinforced slope. This confirms the role of
soil-nails for improving the stability and
deformation behaviour of the slope subjected
to seepage.
Performance of the slope without soil-nails and
facing was significantly affected. The presence
of the facing element effectively prevents
localized failures near the toe at the onset of
b) Reinforced soil-nailed slope (VBS-12) seepage. The facing should be considered as an
Fig. 7 Status of front elevation of slope models important element while designing soil-nailed
before and after the test slopes.
The results of stability analysis of soil-nailed
2.2 slopes were compared and found to
Soil-nailed slope corroborate closely with the physically
1.8
Unreinforced slope observed centrifuge model test results.
Factor of safety

This study concludes that the performance of

1.4 reinforced slope with soil-nails and slope facing
was found to be many times superior to the
1 unreinforced slope. The application of the
centrifuge modelling technique and stability
analysis to study the deformation and stability
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
behaviour of slopes with and without soil nails
Normalized pore water pressure (uPPT3/H) subjected to seepage has been demonstrated to be a
valuable research methodology. This soil-nailing
Fig. 8 Variation of FOS with normalized pore
technique can be used for strengthening canal
slopes, ash pond dam slopes, natural slopes,
Levees, rail/road side slopes, retaining walls,

Page 7 of 8
V. M. Rotte & B. V. S. Viswanadham
deformed geogrid reinforced soil walls, etc.
However, further research on soil-nailed slopes
supplemented by numerical studies and centrifuge-
based experimentation is warranted.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support extended by
the staff at the National Geotechnical Centrifuge
Facility of the Indian Institute of Technology,
Bombay, India, in the course of the present study.
REFERENCES
1. Sivakumar Babu G.L. (2009) Interim
Guidelines for Soil Nailing Technique in
Highway Engineering Applications. Ministry
of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways,
Government of India, New Delhi, India,
Research Scheme R-86, pp. 168.
2. Rotte, V. M., and Viswanadham, B.V.S.
(2013), Influence of nail inclination and facing
material type on soil-nailed slopes, Ground
Improvement Jl., 166 (2), 86-107.
3. Li, J., Tham, L. G., Junaideen, S. M., Yue, Z.
Q., and Lee, C. F. (2008), Loose fill slope
stabilization with soil nails: full-scale test, Jl.
Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., ASCE, 134(3),
277-288.
4. Davies, M. C. R., and Jones, A. M. (1998),
Stability of a steep excavation retained by soil
nails, Proc., Centrifuge 98, T. Kimura, O.
Kusakabe and Z. Takemura (eds.), Balkema,
(Pubs.), Tokyo, 773-778.
5. Tufenkjian, M. R. and Vucetic, M. (2000),
Dynamic failure mechanism of soil nailed
excavation models in centrifuge, Jl. of Geotech
and Geoenv Engineering, ASCE, 126(3), 227
235.
6. Zhang, J. P., Zhang, J. and Qui T. (2001)
Model tests by centrifuge of soil nail
reinforcements. Jl. of Testing and Evaluation,
ASTM, 29(4), 315328.
7. Morgan, N. (2002), The influence of variation
in effective stress on the serviceability of soil-
nailed slopes, Doctoral thesis, University of
Dundee, UK.
8. Ng, C. W. W., Zhou, R. Z. B., Zhang, M.
(2006), The effects of soil-nails in a dense
steep slope subjected to rising groundwater,
Proc., 6th Int. Conf. on Physical Modeling in
Geotechnics 2006, Ng C.W.W., Zhang L. M.
and Wang Y. H. (eds), Taylor & Francis
(Pubs.), London, 397-401.
9. Deepa, V., and Viswanadham, B. V. S. (2009),
Centrifuge model tests on soil-nailed slopes
subjected to seepage, Ground Improvement. Jl.,
162(3), 133-144.
10. Viswanadham, B. V. S., and Deepa, V. (2010),
Evaluation of performance of soil-nailed slopes
subjected to seepage in a centrifuge, Proc., 7th
Int. Conf. on Physical Modeling in Geotechnics
2010, S. Springman, J. Laue, and L. Seward,
(Eds.), Taylor and Francis(Pubs.), London,
1151-1156.
11. Rajesh, S. and Viswanadham, B.V.S. (2009),
Evaluation of geogrid as a reinforcement layer
in clay based engineered barriers, Applied clay
Science, 46(2), 153-165.
12. OASYS Slope version 19: Stability analysis for
geotechnical structures with or without
reinforcements. London, 2011.
Page 8 of 8