GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

1. What is GDOP and VDOP?

GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) describes error caused by the relative position of
the GPS satellites. Basically, the more signals a GPS receiver can see (spread apart
versus close together), the more precise it can be. From the observers point of view, if
the satellites are spread apart in the sky, then the GPS receiver has a good GDOP. But if
the satellites are physically close together, then you have poor GDOP. This lowers the
quality of GPS positioning potentially by meters.

VDOP (vertical dilution of precision) is a measurement of accuracy in standard deviation

in vertical height. Mathematically VDOP is defined as
U
VDOP =
R

2. What is the significance of DOP in positioning estimation?

The concept of dilution of precision (DOP) originated with users of the Loran-C navigation
system. The idea of Geometric DOP is to state how errors in the measurement will affect
the final state estimation. This can be defined as

Conceptually you can imagine errors on a measurement resulting in the Measured

Data term changing. Ideally small changes in the measured data will not result in large
changes in output location, as such a result would indicate the solution is very sensitive to
errors. The interpretation of this formula is shown in the figure to the right, showing two
possible scenarios with acceptable and poor GDOP.

3. Explain about the geometry of Ellipsoid

In geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a mathematically defined surface that approximates
the geoid, the truer figure of the Earth, or other planetary body. Because of their relative
simplicity, reference ellipsoids are used as a preferred surface on which geodetic network
computations are performed and point coordinates such as latitude, longitude, and
elevation are defined.
 A rotational ellipsoid is another mathematical approximation to earth's shape. It is an
imaginary, regular and smooth mathematical surface over which computation of
coordinates becomes very easy. An ellipsoidal surface can be further approximated by a
sphere.
The above figure gives the most important surfaces from the view point of positioning
the actual earths surface, and its approximation in the form of geoid and ellipsoid. The
separation between ellipsoid and geoid is indicated by Geoidal undulation (N). The normal
distance earths surface and geoid is called orthometric height (H). The normal distance
earths surface and ellipsoid is called the geodetic height (h). An approximate relationship
between these quantities is given by
h=H+N
Since geoid is also very irregular, it is approximated by another surface called mean sea
level (MSL)

4. What do you mean by antispoofing?

The function of anti-spoofing (AS) of the GPS system is designed for an anti potential
spoofer (or jammer). A spoofer generates a signal that mimics the GPS signal and
attempts to cause the receiver to track the wrong signal. When the AS mode of operation
is activated, the P code will be replaced with a secure Y code available only to authorised
users, and the unauthorised receiver becomes a single L1 frequency receiver. AS had
been tested frequently since 1 August 1992 and formally activated at 00:00 UT on 31
January 1994 and now is in continuous operation on all Block II and later satellites.

5. Why L-band is selected as the GPS transmission frequency band when compared
to VHF and C-Band?

All GPS signals are in the L-band of the frequency spectrum ( 12 GHz). Because L-band
waves penetrate clouds, fog, rain, storms, and vegetation, GPS units can receive accurate
data in all weather conditions, day or night. There are circumstances in which GPS units
may not receive signals accurately, such as inside concrete buildings or under heavy
forest canopies.

6. List out salient features of WAAS

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by
the Federal Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS),
with the goal of improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability. Essentially, WAAS is
intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, including precision
approaches to any airport within its coverage area.
Salient features:
Accuracy: position accuracy of 7.6 meters (25 ft)
Integrity: Integrity of a navigation system includes the ability to provide timely
warnings when its signal is providing misleading data that could potentially create
hazards. The WAAS specification requires the system detect errors in the GPS or
WAAS network and notify users within 6.2 seconds.
Availability: Availability is the probability that a navigation system meets the
accuracy and integrity requirements. Before the advent of WAAS, GPS
 specifications allowed for system unavailability for as much as a total time of four
days per year (99% availability).

7. What are the applications of DGPS?

Land Surveying
Determining the position of Aircraft.
Tracking flight paths of an aircraft

8. Explain how GPS can be used in surveying

A GPS baseline uses two survey-quality GPS receivers, with one at each end of the line
to be measured . They collect data from the same GPS satellites at the same time. The
duration of these simultaneous observations varies with the length of the line and the
accuracy needed, but is typically an hour or more. When the data from both points is later
combined, the difference in position (Latitude, Longitude and Height) between the two
points is calculated with special software. Many of the uncertainties of GPS positioning
are minimized in these calculations because the distortions in the observations are similar
at each end of the baseline and cancel out.

9. What are the features of Galileo space segment?

The GALILEO Space segment is composed of a constellation of 30 Galileo satellites, each
of which will broadcast navigation timing signals together with navigation data providing
the clock and ephemeris correction data which are essential for navigation.
The GALILEO space segment will comprise 30 satellites in a constellation with three
orbital planes at 56 nominal inclination.[1] Each plane will contain 8 operational satellites,
equally spaced, 45 apart, plus two spare satellite to replace any of the operational
satellites in case of failures. The orbit altitude of 23 222 km results in a constellation
configuration that repeats itself after ten days during which each satellite has completed
seventeen revolutions.

10. What is GPS?

The Global Positioning System refers to a constellation of 24 satellites (plus some hot
spares for when one fails) put into space by the U.S. Department of Defense to help
locate stationary and moving features on or near the Earths surface. The satellites send
out radio signals that receivers use to determine position, velocity and time.

11. Define Julian Day

The Julian Day Number (JDN) is the integer assigned to a whole solar day in the Julian
day count starting from noon Universal time, with Julian day number 0 assigned to the day
starting at noon on January 1, 4713 BC, proleptic Julian calendar (November 24,
4714 BC, in the proleptic Gregorian calendar), a date at which three multi-year cycles
started (which are: Indiction, Solar, and Lunar cycles) and which preceded any dates in
recorded history.[4] For example, the Julian day number for the day starting at 12:00 UT on
January 1, 2000, was 2,451,545.

12. What are the various error sources in GPS?

13. What is meant by Global Co-Ordinate System?

A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables

every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The
coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position,
and two or three of the numbers represent a horizontal position. A common choice of
coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation.
Every point that is expressed in ellipsoidal coordinates can be expressed as a rectilinear
x y z (Cartesian) coordinate. Cartesian coordinates simplify many mathematical
calculations. The Cartesian systems of different datums are not equivalent.
The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a standard for use in cartography, geodesy, and
navigation including GPS. It comprises a standard coordinate system for the Earth, a
standard spheroidal reference surface (the datum or reference ellipsoid) for raw altitude
data, and a gravitational equipotential surface (the geoid) that defines the nominal sea
level.

14. Differentiate between Spoofing and Anti Spoofing

A GPS spoofing attack attempts to deceive a GPS receiver by broadcasting counterfeit

GPS signals, structured to resemble a set of normal GPS signals, or by rebroadcasting
genuine signals captured elsewhere or at a different time. These spoofed signals may be
modified in such a way as to cause the receiver to estimate its position to be somewhere
other than where it actually is, or to be located where it is but at a different time, as
determined by the attacker.
Anti-Spoofing: This encrypts the P-code so that it cannot be mimicked by a transmitter
sending false information. Few civilian receivers have ever used the P-code, and the
accuracy attainable with the public C/A code was much better than originally expected
(especially with DGPS). So much so that the antispoof policy has relatively little effect on
most civilian users. Turning off antispoof would primarily benefit surveyors and some
scientists who need extremely precise positions for experiments such as tracking tectonic
plate motion

15. Write some GPS data formats

GPS data is displayed in different message formats over a serial interface. There are
standard and non-standard (proprietary) message formats. Nearly all GPS receivers
output NMEA data. The NMEA standard is formatted in lines of data called sentences.
Each sentence contains various bits of data organized in comma delimited format (i.e.
data separated by commas).
 Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX)
Compact Receiver Independent Exchange Format (CRINEX)
Standard Product 3 (SP3)
Ionospheric Map Exchange Format (IONEX)
Exchangeable image file format
Geography Markup Language
KML, the equivalent format compatible with Google Earth.
NMEA 0183
NMEA 2000
TCX, Garmin Training Center XML

16. Mention the new GPS signals and their frequencies that are planned to be
introduced in the near future

The new signals are phasing in incrementally as new GPS satellites are launched to
replace older ones. Most of the new signals will be of limited use until they are broadcast
from 18 to 24 satellites.
Aimed at improving the performance for civilian users, the GPS Modernization Program
will introduce the new signals designed for civilian use: L2C, L5, and L1C. The legacy civil
signal, called L1 C/A or C/A at L1, will continue broadcasting in the future, for a total of
four civil GPS signals:

L2C (1227.6 MHz): It enables the development of dual-frequency civil GPS receivers to
correct the ionospheric group delay. For professional users with existing dual-frequency
operations, L2C delivers faster signal acquisition, enhanced reliability, and greater
operating range. L2C broadcasts at a higher effective power than the legacy L1 C/A signal,
making it easier to receive under trees and even indoors. This signal is available since
2005, with the launch of the first IIR-M satellite.The full availability capacity will be
managed with 24 satellites.

L5 (1176.45 MHz): L5 is broadcast in a radio band reserved exclusively for aviation safety
services. Future aircraft will use L5 in combination with L1 C/A to improve accuracy (via
ionospheric correction) and robustness (via signal redundancy). Beyond transportation,
L5 will provide users worldwide with the most advanced civilian GPS signal, as it transmits
at a higher power than current civil GPS signals, and has a wider bandwidth. Its lower
frequency may also enhance reception for indoor users. It will be compatible with other
GNSS systems, with the goal to be interoperable as well. This signal is available since the
launch of the Block IIF satellites.

L1C (1575.42 MHz): It has been designed for interoperability with Galileo. It will be
backward compatible with the current civil signal on L1, be broadcast at a higher power
level, and include advanced design for enhanced performance. The design will improve
mobile GPS reception in cities and other challenging environments. Other satellite
navigation providers are adopting L1C as a future standard for international
interoperability. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), the Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), and China's BeiDou System all plan to broadcast
L1C. The United States will launch its first GPS IIIA satellite able to transmit L1C signal
by April 2016.
17. What is the principle of DGPS?

Differential correction techniques are used to enhance the quality of location data gathered
using global positioning system (GPS) receivers. Differential correction can be applied in
real-time directly in the field or when postprocessing data in the office. Although both
methods are based on the same underlying principles, each accesses different data
sources and achieves different levels of accuracy. Combining both methods provides
flexibility during data collection and improves data integrity.

18. What is the orbital period for GLONASS system?

The GLONASS satellites are placed in roughly circular orbits with the nominal orbital
altitude 19,100 km and an orbital period of 11 hours, 15 minutes, 44 seconds.

19. Write operating frequencies for GALILEO system

20. List the six Kelplesian elements

1) a = Semi-major axis = size

2) e = Eccentricity = shape
3) i = inclination = tilt
4) = argument of perigee = twist
5) = longitude of the ascending node = pin
6) v = mean anomaly = angle now
21. What do you mean by multipath error?

The whole concept of GPS relies on the idea that a GPS signal flies straight from the
satellite to the receiver. Unfortunately, in the real world the signal will also bounce around
on just about everything in the local environment and get to the receiver that way too.
The result is a barrage of signals arriving at the receiver: first the direct one, then a bunch
of delayed reflected ones. This creates a messy signal. If the bounced signals are strong
enough they can confuse the receiver and cause erroneous measurements.
Sophisticated receivers use a variety of signal processing tricks to make sure that they
only consider the earliest arriving signals (which are the direct ones).

22. Explain geodetic latitude, longitude and height.

The geodetic latitude (there are many other defined latitudes) of a point is the angle from
the equatorial plane to the vertical direction of a line normal to the reference ellipsoid.
The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a plane
passing through the point, both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
The geodetic height at a point is the distance from the reference ellipsoid to the point in a
direction normal to the ellipsoid.

23. Distinguish LAAS and WAAS

Like the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), LAAS relies on GPS for basic
navigation signals. However, with WAAS, GPS-corrected navigation signals come from
space, broadcast from WAAS geostationary satellites.
With LAAS, the GPS-corrected navigation signal is broadcast from a LAAS VHF data
broadcast transmitter at or near the airport.
Although LAAS and WAAS will operate independently, LAAS will complement WAAS by
providing GNSS Landing System (GLS) landing service for Category II/III precision
approach operations.
LAAS will also provide GLS Category-I capability at locations where WAAS service may
not be available.
Other differences between WAAS and LAAS include the manner in which the availability
of the systems are computed, the manner in which avionics receive information on
approach procedures, and the vertical alert limits (VAL) associated with each system.
24. Compare GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO

25. What is the need of augmentation?

A GPS augmentation is any system that aids GPS by providing accuracy, integrity,
availability, or any other improvement to positioning, navigation, and timing that is not
inherently part of GPS itself.
A satellite's positioning accuracy is impeded by errors in its clock and signal delays caused
by atmospheric conditions. Also called a "differential GPS" (DGPS), an augmentation
system compensates for those discrepancies by transmitting corrections to the GPS
receivers either via satellite or terrestrial radio.
Instead of the normal GPS accuracy, which is approximately 15 to 70 feet, augmented
systems pinpoint a location within a range of two to 10 feet, depending on the system, and
as little as four inches in the case of commercial systems.

26. Explain briefly the integration of GPS and pseudolite

The availability of real-time GPS positioning at centimeter-level accuracy has attracted the
attention of the mining industry. This is mainly because accurate real-time positioning is a
key component that leads to automating the heavy and expensive mining machines. As
such, smart mining systems can be developed that not only increase mining safety but
also reduce costly labor

The satellite signal will be partially blocked as

the pit deepens. As such, in deep open-pit
mining, GPS alone cannot be used reliably for
mining positioning. One promising system that
can augment GPS to ensure high-accuracy
positioning at all times is the pseudolite (short
for pseudosatellite) system. A pseudolite is a
ground-based electronic device that transmits
 a GPS-like signal (code, carrier frequency, and data message), which can be acquired by
a GPS receiver. Unlike GPS, which uses atomic clocks onboard the satellites, pseudolites
typically use low-cost crystal clocks to generate the signal.

The addition of pseudolite signals improves both system availability and geometry. The
number and locations of the pseudolites can be optimized to ensure the best performance
of the system.

27. Describe briefly ECEF co-ordinate system

ECEF ("earth-centered, earth-fixed"), also known as ECR ("earth-centered rotational"), is

a geographic coordinate system and Cartesian coordinate system, and is sometimes
known as a "conventional terrestrial" system.[1] It represents positions as an X, Y, and Z
coordinate. The point (0,0,0) is defined as the center of mass of the earth,[2] hence the
name "earth-centered." Its axes are aligned with the international reference pole (IRP) and
international reference meridian (IRM) that are fixed with respect to the surface of the
earth,[3][4] hence the description "earth-fixed." This term can cause confusion since the
earth does not rotate about the z-axis (unlike an inertial system such as ECI), and is
therefore alternatively called ECR.

The z-axis extends through True north, which does not coincide with the instantaneous
earth rotational axis.[3] The slight "wobbling" of the rotational axis is known as polar
motion.[5] The x-axis intersects the sphere of the earth at 0 latitude (the equator) and 0
longitude (prime meridian in Greenwich).

This means that ECEF rotates with the earth, and therefore coordinates of a point fixed
on the surface of the earth do not change. Conversion from a WGS84 datum to ECEF can
be used as an intermediate step in converting velocities to the north east down coordinate
system.
28. Name four satellite navigation systems other than GPS

Global: Russia: GLONASS, Europe: GALILEO

Regional: India: IRNSS (NAVIC), China: BeiDou, Japan: QZSS

29. What are the different types of DOPs?

GDOP is computed from the geometric relationships between the receiver position and
the positions of the satellites the receiver is using for navigation. GDOP Components are:

PDOP = Position Dilution of Precision (3-D), sometimes the Spherical DOP.

HDOP = Horizontal Dilution of Precision (Latitude, Longitude)
VDOP = Vertical Dilution of Precision (Height)
TDOP = Time Dilution of Precision (Time)

While each of these GDOP terms can be individually computed, they are formed from
covariances and so are not independent of each other. A high TDOP (time dilution of
precision), for example, will cause receiver clock errors which will eventually result in
increased position errors.

30. Define WGS-84 datum and explain all parameters

WGS84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and geodetic datum.

WGS84 is based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that describe the
Earth's size, shape, and gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS84 is the standard U.S.
Department of Defense definition of a global reference system for geospatial information
and is the reference system for the Global Positioning System (GPS). It is compatible with
the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS). The current realization WGS84
(G1762) follows the criteria outlined in the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)
Technical Note 21 (TN 21). The responsible organization is the National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency (NGA).

Origin: Earths center of mass being defined for the whole Earth including oceans
and atmosphere.
Z-Axis: The direction of the IERS Reference Pole (IRP). This direction corresponds
to the direction of the BIH Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) (epoch 1984.0) with
an uncertainty of 0.005".
X-Axis: Intersection of the IERS Reference Meridian (IRM) and the plane passing
through the origin and normal to the Z-axis. The IRM is coincident with the BIH
Zero Meridian (epoch 1984.0) with an uncertainty of 0.005".
Y-Axis: Completes a right-handed, Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed (ECEF) orthogonal
coordinate system.
Scale: Its scale is that of the local Earth frame, in the meaning of a relativistic
theory of gravitation. Aligns with ITRS.
Orientation: Given by the Bureau International de lHeure (BIH) orientation of
1984.0.
Time Evolution: Its time evolution in orientation will create no residual global
rotation with regards to the crust.
 WGS84 identifies four defining parameters. These are the semi-major axis of the WGS84
ellipsoid, the flattening factor of the Earth, the nominal mean angular velocity of the Earth,
and the geocentric gravitational constant as specified below.

Parameter Notation Value

Semi-major Axis a 6378137.0 m

Flattening Factor of the Earth 1/f 298.257223563

Nominal Mean Angular Velocity 7292115 10-11 rad/s

Geocentric Gravitational Constant GM 3986004.418 108 m3/s2

The value of GM includes the mass of the Earth's atmosphere. GPS users should retain
the original WGS84 GM value of 3986005.0 108 m3/s2 as specified in the GPS interface
control document (ICD-GPS-200) and the NIMA Technical Report 8350.2.

31. How can we overcome signal multipath while calculating a positional value?

Good receivers use sophisticated signal rejection technique to minimize the multipath
problem. By using a special type of antenna that incorporates a ground plane (by using a
circular metallic disk of about 50 cm diameter) the low elevation angle signal reaching the
antenna can be prevented. For highest accuracy, the preferred solution is to use choke
ring antennas which has 4 to 5 concentric rings around the antenna that trap any indirect
signals. Multipath affects only high accuracy survey type measurements.

32. Explain briefly about ephemeris data

The satellites broadcast two types of data, Almanac and Ephemeris.

Almanac data is course orbital parameters for all SVs. Each SV broadcasts Almanac
data for ALL SVs. This Almanac data is not very precise and is considered valid for
up to several months. Ephemeris data by comparison is very precise orbital and clock
correction for each SV and is necessary for precise positioning. EACH SV broadcasts
ONLY its own Ephemeris data. This data is only considered valid for about 30 minutes.
The Ephemeris data is broadcast by each SV every 30 seconds.
GPS satellites transmit information about their location (current and predicted), timing and
"health" via what is known as ephemeris data. This data is used by the GPS receivers to
estimate location relative to the satellites and thus position on earth. The Ephemeris Data
can also be used to predict future satellite conditions (for a given place and time) providing
a tool for planning when (or when not) to schedule GPS data collection.

33. Give any three real applications of GPS

Prevention of Car Theft: By installing a tracking device on a vehicle, the location of it can
always be known. The vehicle can be easily recovered, but the device will also act as a
deterrent for thieves. This will prevent the nightmare of having a car stolen from occurring
in the first place. (And there are countless great stories about GPS devices leading car
owners, and the police, right to the car and thieves location.)
 Pets: A tracking device can be easily embedded under a pets skin. If they ever get lost,
searching for the pet then becomes a lot easier. (And all the dog owners out there know
that all it takes is the possibility of food down the street for dogs to abandon ship.)

Disabled People: Just like with the elderly, a disabled person who uses tracking services
that offer emergency calls can be quickly helped in case of an emergency.
Company Vehicle Fleet Tracking: Using the devices for fleet tracking lets companies
manage their the routes of their fleets. This cuts back on wasted time and fuel, increasing
the overall efficiency of a company.
34. Explain briefly the types of GPS augmentation systems

DGPS: Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to Global

Positioning System that provides improved location accuracy, from the 15-meter nominal
GPS accuracy to about 10 cm in case of the best implementations. DGPS uses a network
of fixed, ground-based reference stations to broadcast the difference between the
positions indicated by the GPS satellite systems and the known fixed positions. These
stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudoranges and
actual (internally computed) pseudoranges, and receiver stations may correct their
pseudoranges by the same amount. The digital correction signal is typically broadcast
locally over ground-based transmitters of shorter range.
Types: Local Area and Wide Area DGPS

SBAS (WAAS, GAGAN): A satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) is a system that

supports wide-area or regional augmentation through the use of additional satellite-
broadcast messages. Such systems are commonly composed of multiple ground stations,
located at accurately-surveyed points. The ground stations take measurements of one or
more of the GNSS satellites, the satellite signals, or other environmental factors which
may impact the signal received by the users. Using these measurements, information
messages are created and sent to one or more satellites for broadcast to the end users.
SBAS is sometimes synonymous with WADGPS, wide-area DGPS.

GBAS (LAAS): A Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) is a civil-aviation safety-

critical system that supports local augmentation at airport level of the primary GNSS
constellation(s) by providing enhanced levels of service that support all phases of
approach, landing, departure and surface operations. While the main goal of GBAS is to
provide integrity assurance, it also increases the accuracy with position errors below 1 m
(1 sigma)

35. Explain about software improvements in GPS

There are three basic types of GPS Software:

1. Preplanning Software
2. Software used by receiver to track and record the satellite data
3. Post Processing software
Some manufacturers provide receivers capable of performing real time differential
navigation using normal hardware and upgraded receiver software. This trend will
increase in the future and additional processing software will be included with the receiver.
 Software improvements ranging from increased targeting at the application level to
increased automation and user-friendliness as a general principle. Software is important
in carrier phase measurement techniques. OTF-AR algorithm has been responsible for
increased productivity and flexibility of todays GPS

36. Discuss about Errors and DGPS accuracies

Differential GPS can eliminate all errors that are common to both the reference receiver
and the roving receiver.These include everything except multipath errors (because they
occur right around the receiver) and any receiver errors (because they're unique to the
receiver).
37. Explain briefly about GPS time

GPS Time is a uniformly counting time scale beginning at the 1/5/1980 to 1/6/1980
midnight. January 6, 1980 is a Sunday. GPS Time counts in weeks and seconds of a week
from this instant. The weeks begin at the Saturday/Sunday transition. The days of the
week are numbered, with Sunday being 0, 1 Monday, etc. GPS week 0 began at the
beginning of the GPS Time Scale. Within each week the time is usually denoted as the
second of the week. This is a number between 0 and 604,800 (60 x 60 x 24x 7).
Sometimes the second-of-week (SOW) is split into a day of week (DOW) between 0 and
6 and a second of day (SOD) between 0 and 86400.

GPS Time is derived on the basis of measurements from a set of cesium and rubidium
frequency standards in place at the monitoring stations and on board the satellite. GPS
Time is ahead of UTC by 14 seconds as of January 2006.

38. Distinguish between Global and Regional datum

Regional datum: In a simplified way, a regional geodetic datum is one chosen for its "best
fit" in a particular region. A regional geodetic can be defined with 7 parameters/conditions:
Two elements to define the geometrical ellipsoid
Latitude and longitude of the initial point.
A reference azimuth for orientation.
The geoid height at the initial point, usually assumed to be 0.0.
The assumption that the ellipsoid minor axis is parallel to earth's spin axis.

Global: While a regional geodetic datum has an arbitrary origin, the origin of a global
geodetic datum is taken to be earth's center of mass and a reference ellipsoid is chosen
on the basis of a global "best fit." Thus, points on or near any part of the world can be
accurately related to any other point tied to the same datum. According to Helmut Moritz
(1980), a global geodetic datum is defined by:
The datum origin is located at earth's center of mass.
The Z axis points in the direction of the Conventional International Origin (CIO)
defining a mean North Pole.
The X axis is parallel to the Zero Meridian adopted by the Bureau International De
L'Heure (BIH) and known as the Greenwich Mean Astronomical Meridian.
A reference ellipsoid defined by 4 physical geodesy parameters:

39. List out salient features of wide area DGPS

40. Explain about GPS/Cellular integration

Handset-based location technology integrates GPS with cellular communication through

the installation of a GPS chipset in the handset of the wireless phone. With selective
availability being turned off permanently, this technology would locate the wireless
emergency 911 callers with an accuracy that exceeds the FCC requirement by a factor of
ten. Unlike network-based technology, handset-based location technology is very simple
to implement and does not require the installation of additional equipment at the base
stations (e.g., GPS timing receivers). One of the drawbacks of the handset-based location
technology, however, is that only new cellular phones can be equipped with GPS. In
addition, the GPS signal is very weak to be received inside buildings.

In the near future, the development of a new generation of cellular technology, the 3G
wideband digital networks, will be completed. The 3G cellular technology supports voice,
high-speed data, and multimedia applications. In addition, this technology uses common
global standards, which not only reduces the operational cost but also makes the system
useable worldwide. Moreover, with this new technology, devices can be turned on all the
time for data transmission, as subscribers pay for the packets of data they
receive/transmit.

41. Discuss about future GPS satellites

The GPS constellation is a mix of new and legacy satellites. The new generations, or
blocks, of GPS satellites under development as part of the GPS modernization program
are the following:

GPS Block IIR(M)

GPS Block IIF
GPS Block III (Increment IIIA and beyond)

42. What are ellipsoid and geoid?

That the earth does not have a geometrically perfect shape is well established, and the
geoid is used to describe the unique and irregular shape of the earth. However, only
recently have the more substantial irregularities in the surface created by the global mean
sea level (MSL) been observed. These irregularities are an order of magnitude greater
than experts had predicted. Controlled by the gravitational potential of the earth, these
irregularities form very gentle but massive "hills" and "valleys." This astonishing finding
was made possible through the use of GPS