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119
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III. TITLE PAGE OF EARLY PLAY WHICH SERVED AS MARLOWE'S CHIEF SOURCE FOR Doctor
Faustus, IN REVISED VERSION (i636).
Following Matthew xii.3 i, moreover, these six sins were held to be irre-
missible.6
Faustus commits all of these sins, some of them not once but repeat-
edly. Each time he becomes less able to repent because his habitual sin-
fulness binds him ever tighter to the consequences of his previous acts.
The result is a progressively renewed allegiance to sin. The shaping of
the play in terms of a conventional understanding of the nature and kinds
of sin against the Holy Ghost has thus two important consequences: it
makes Faustus'damnation unambiguous, and it helps to clarify the sense
in which Faustus' fall is tragic.
We first see Faustus engaged in a deliberative inquiry. His intention
to "levell at the end of every Art" indicates that, quite appropriately,
he is making a rational judgment rather than a willful choice.7 Pro-
ceeding with his inquiry, Faustus systematically excludes logic, medi-
cine, and law, concluding, "When all is done, Divinitie is best." Of
course, Faustus cannot rest here. He has limited his range of choices,
but he has yet to decide which art to choose.
Such a decision was traditionally viewed as the conclusion of a prac-
tical syllogism. What appears to be ironic is the means Faustus employs
to construct his syllogism. Faustus is apparently practicing the Sortes
Virgilianae: opening a text (here, of course, the Bible rather than Vir-
gil) and taking as a guide to decision or action the first verse the eyes
light on. (The same technique is used for comic effect in Rabelais's Gar-
6For Augustine's varied opinions, see De Serm. Dom. in Monte 1.22; De Corrept. et
Gratia 12.35; Epist. 185.1149. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Pt. II of 2nd Pt., Q. 14, Art. 1-4.
Subsequent references to Aquinas are to the Summa. The Sermons of John Donne, ed.
George R. Potter and Evelyn M. Simpson (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1953-62), V, 93-94.
7Except when the A text is indicated, I quote the B text of s6i6 from Marlowe's Doctor
Faustus 1604-I616: Parallel Texts, ed. W. W. Greg (Oxford, 1g5o). On the deliberation that
should precede choice, see Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, III, 2, 3 ( 1112a 15, 113a I 1);
Aquinas, II-I, Q. 14, Art. 1.
122
123
124
Before he can receive his tidings of great joy, however, he has to sign
away his soul with his own blood. A second portent occurs: the blood
congeals. Faustus ponders its possible significance, but can find none.
He parodies the last words of Christ while he signs the deed, and a third
portent occurs: the words Homofuge appear on his arm. But as before,
Faustus remains resolute. Then, distracted by the dance of the devils
and presumably swayed by their symbolic gifts of "Crownes and rich
apparell," Faustus hands the "Deed of Gift" to Mephostophilis.
The giving of the deed to Mephostophilis is largely a symbolic act, an
expression of his firm commitment to evil more than an act quintes-
sentially evil in itself. It is the sequence of events leading to this dramatic
gesture that is important. These events consistently turn upon issues of
Faustus' own good, and Faustus consistently responds to questions of
what is best for him by some version of "Evil be thou my Good." The
process by which Faustus comes to sign away his soul thus points up how
his fall occurs through his own free will acting on deliberate, considered
choice.
We next see Faustus in his study, chopping logic with Mephostophilis.
Faustus' conclusion to their disputation on the place of man in creation
illustrates Robert Burton's observation that a man in the grip of the devil
"doth resist, and hath some good motions intermixed now and then.""1
This time Faustus' conclusion-"If Heaven was made for man, 'twas
made for me"-is sound, and he decides to act upon it: "I will renounce
this Magicke and repent" (11.579-580). This drama builds even more
as Faustus momentarily withstands the words of the Bad Angel and re-
I1The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), Pt. 111, Sec. iv, Memb. 2, Subs. vi; Everyman
ed. (London, 1932),111I,048.
125
Even though despair may have removed any hope of God's mercy,
Aquinas explains, man can still extricate himself from sin by consider-
ing the disorder and shamefulness of his actions. Faustus comes to pre-
cisely the opposite conclusion. He reveals that the pleasures for which
he sold his soul are valuable to him only as distractions, as pastimes, to
make him forget his deep despair. Yet he then declares that these pleas-
ures are sweet, that they possess him with joy and therefore concludes,
"Why should I die then, or basely despaire?" This is circular reason-
ing, and it has the effect of removing him even further from repentance:
"I am resolv'd, Faustus shall not repent." Not simply despairing, Faus-
tus is now impenitent.
As he continues disputing with Mephostophilis, however, another
good motion comes about when he feels contempt not for God but for
his informer:
127
Faustus' pastimes console him with worldly mirth and thus serve to con-
ceal his despair from himself, but their very diversion makes him lose
himself all the more irrevocably. From the point of view of the audience,
the comic scenes show Faustus being perceptibly diverted from his true
end, God, and so brought to an everlasting death.
The soliloquy Faustus gives after his haggling with the horse trader
represents still another means of passing the time. Faustus does recog-
nize his condition:
What art thou Faustusbut a man condemn'dto die?
Thy fatall time drawesto a finall end;
Despairedoth drivedistrustinto my thoughts.
(11.1546-48)
128
129
These truthful words are motivated by love and pity and not, as Faustus'
soon will be, by wrath and envy; yet their effect on Faustus leads not to
acknowledgment but to resistance of truth. His reaction is not hope but
rather despair of God's mercy:
Where art thou Faustus? wretch, what hast thou done?
Hell claimes his right, & with a roaring voice,
Saies Faustus come, thine houre is almost come,
And Faustus now will come to do thee right.
This is precisely the opposite of being withdrawn from sin. The dagger
he accepts from Mephostophilis of course symbolizes his intention to
commit suicide, the ultimate act of despair. But, much as Una prevents
the Red Cross Knight from killing himself in the Cave of Despair, so the
Old Man checks Faustus: "O stay good Faustus, stay thy desperate steps."
His next lines are far more emphatic than Una's, however, for while she
argues that the knight has a share in heavenly mercies, the Old Man wit-
nesses to an extraordinary circumstance:
I see an Angell hover ore thy head,
And with a vyoll full of pretious grace,
Offers to poure the same into thy soule,
Then call for mercy, and avoyd despaire.
(11. 1835-38)
This could be the Good Angel, but the drama is increased if it is taken
to be not a guardian angel but a special emissary from God. These angels
were believed to come to men only on rare occasions: to inspire prophets,
to deliver warnings, or to act on behalf of the good in an emergency.16
16Robert Hunter West, The Invisible World: A Study of Pneumatology in Elizabethan
Drama (Athens, Ga., 1939), p. 29.
130
This time his blood does not congeal, signifying that sin by custom has
now grown into nature. Because such customary acts make him even
more hateful unto God, the response of Mephostophilis is heavily ironic:
"Do it then Faustus, with unfained heart, / Lest greater dangers do
attend thy drift."
Parallel to Faustus' impenitence, a sin against God, is his desire to
torment the Old Man. His urging Mephostophilis to torture "that base
and aged man" is motivated by envy of a brother's spiritual good. Meph-
ostophilis' admission that he cannot touch the Old Man'ssoul once again
places the grounds for Faustus' backsliding in a highly ironic light:
His faith is great,I cannottouch his soule;
But what I mayafflicthis body with,
I will attempt,which is but little worth.
(11.1860-62)
Truly resolute, the Old Man provides an example of holy dying: his
faith is proven and not found wanting. Particularly interesting in this
regard are his lines on laughter:
Ambitiousfiends,see how the heavenssmiles
At your repulse,and laughsyour state to scorne,
Hencehel, for hence I flie unto my God.
(A, 11.1384-86)
The laughter provoked by Faustus' trial of his art was worldly mirth;
now we are reminded of the higher order of spiritual mirth. The first is
allied with the devil; the other with God. One of the more rigorous me-
dieval notions was that a prolonged contemplation of the day of doom
should still all laughter.18Those that persisted in levity would receive
their due reward hereafter. As Mephostophilis taunts Faustus, "Fooles
that will laugh on earth, most weepe in hell" (1. 1994). But alongside
this severe sobriety existed the more genial attitude that laughter could
have spiritual value. In The Rule and Exercises of Holy Living, for
example, Jeremy Taylor quotes approvingly a saying from a medieval life
of St. Anthony: "'There is one way of overcoming our ghostly enemies;
spiritual mirth, and a perpetual bearing of God in our minds': this ef-
fectively resists the devil, and suffers us to receive no hurt from him."19
The Old Man's faith, or the perpetual bearing of God in his mind, and
his spiritual mirth do enable him to fly unto his God despite the ambi-
132
All that Faustus can do now is realize his own predicament. In one
sense, of course, his realization is explicitly didactic, but insofar as his
awarenessgrows quite literally out of a race against time, it is highly dra-
matic. Faustus now sees that the knowledge he sought proved in the at-
tainment to be only cunning; that for the "vaine pleasure of foure and
twenty yeares hath Faustus lost eternall joy and felicitie" (11. 1960-
6i). Yet in contrast to the earlier scene (11. 1546-51) in which he
postponed repenting because there was still time, time has now run out
and he is the worse: "I writ them a bill with mine owne bloud, the date
is expired: this is the time, and he will fetch mee." He weeps because he
has lost eternal happiness, but we might remember that this grief is en-
tirely self-centered; he has not progressed to the point where he feels
grief at having offended God's love.
Because Hell is a condition as well as a location-"Hell hath no lim-
its, nor is circumscrib'd,/ In one selfe place: but where we are is hell"
(11.513-514)-Marlowe is able to represent Faustus suffering the tor-
tures of Hell while he is still alive. After the throne, a symbol of Heaven,
descends to music, Faustus is shown the "bright shining Saints"in order
20Augustine, De Serm. Dom. in Monte 1.22. Abject though he is, Faustus is not hum-
ble; rather, he is guilty of that insidious form of pride which believes that one's sins are
too great even for God to forgive: "But Faustus offence can nere be pardoned, / The
serpent that tempted Eve may be saved, / But not Faustus" (11.1937-39).
133
Faustus' fury at the Old Man is now more explicable. Envy of others'
spiritual good has become a state of being for Faustus, whose sin is iron-
ically punished by sin even as he commits it. The discovery of Hell
further emphasizes Faustus' privation, and the suffering of the damned
he beholds fills him with horror: "0, I have seene enough to torture me."
But, as the Bad Angel gleefully tells him, his torment has only begun and
will soon extend to his other senses as well.
His experiences have changed his mind, as Mephostophilis said they
would, but the striking of the clock underlines that time has nearly run
out. Increasingly frantic, Faustus wants time to stop so he can repent,
yet his very distraction at its passing precludes even a deathbed repent-
ance. For the last time, he calls out of the depths of despair, but, as
before, his will is bound by habitual sin:
O I'le leape up to heaven:who puls me downe?
One dropof bloud will saveme; oh my Christ,
Rend not my heart,for namingof my Christ.
Yetwill I call on him: 0 spareme Lucifer.
(11. 2048-5 1)
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