Public Administration

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Contents Public Administration and Environmental Studies
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
Chapter 2: Administrative Behavior 20
Chapter 3: Accountability and Control 51
Chapter 4: Financial Administration 65
Chapter 5: Environmental Management 76
Chapter 6: Environmental Economics 91
Chapter 7: Environmental Concern and Corporation 99
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Introduction
An Introduction to Public
Administration
Chapter Structure
1. Introduction
2. Meaning, scope and significance of public administration
3. Comparative Public Administration and Development Administration
4. Public and Private Administration: State versus market debate
5. New Pubic Administration - New Public Management perspective.
Introduction
Public Administration is an activity as old as human civilization. In modern age it
became the dominant factor of life. To Study about meaning, scope and importance of
Public Administration is the main objective of this chapter.
Public Administration as independent Subject of a social science has recent origin.

Traditionally Public Administration was considered as a part of political science. But in
Modern age the nature of state underwent change and it became from police stale to
social service state. As a consequence, the Public Administration, irrespective of the
nature of the political system, has become the dominant factor of life. The modern
political system is essentially bureaucratic and characterized by the rule of officials.
Hence modern democracy has been described as executive democracy or
bureaucratic democracy. The administrative branch, described as civil service or
bureaucracy is the most significant component of governmental machinery of the
state.
Meaning, scope and significance of public administration

Administer is a English word, which is originated from the Latin word ad and
ministrare. It means to serve or to manage. Administration means management of
affairs, public or private.
Various definitions of Public Administration are as follows-
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Prof. Woodrow Wilson, the pioneer of the social science of Public Administration says
in his book The study of Public Administration, published in 1887 Public
Administration is a
detailed and systematic application of law.
According to L. D. White, Public Administration consists of all those operations having

for their purpose the fulfillment of public policy as declared by authority. Both above
definitions are done from traditional viewpoint and related only to the functions and
actions of Administration.
Following thinkers have taken a broard view while defining Public Administration -
According to Simon - By Public Administration is meant the activities of the executive

branches of the national, state, & local governments.
According to Willough - Public Administration in broadest sense denotes the work

involved in the actual conduct of governmental affairs, and in narrowest senses
denotes the operations of the administrative branch only.
According to Gullick - Public Administration is that part of the science of

administration
which has to do with government and thus, concerns itself primarily with the executive
branch where the work of the government is done.
According to Waldo -Public Administration is the art and science of management as

applied to the affairs of the state.
Marshall E. Dimock -Administration is concerned with what and How of the

government. The what is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of afield which
enables the administrator to perform his tasks. The How is the technique of
management according to which co-operative programs are carried to success.
All above modern definitions of Public Administration emphasize the value based
character of Public Administration and Public Administration as a science and art of
administration. A close scrutiny of the definitions reveals that Public Administration
has following important characteristics or features.
Important characteristics of Public Administration:-
1. It is part of executive branch of government.

2. It is related with the activities of the state.
3. It carries out the public policies.
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4. It realise the aspirations of the people as formulated and expressed in the laws.
5. Waldo and other thinkers insist on the commitment and dedication to the well-being
of the people. Otherwise Public Administration behaves in a mechanical, impersonal
and inhuman way.
6.Public Administration is politically neutral.
The views of L.D. White and traditionalist on the one hand and those of Gullick and the
scientific management school on the other hand differ regarding the nature and scope
of Public Administration. Hence, we should understand various perspectives about the
scope of Public Administration.
Scope of Public Administration:-

Following are the three important perspectives about the scope of Public
Administration.
1. Narrow perspective or POSDCoRB perspective.
2. Broad perspective or subject matter view.
3. Prevailing view.
Narrow perspective or posdcord perspective
Luther Gullick is the main exponent of this perspective. According to him the scope of
public administration is narrow or limited. It is also regarded as POSDCoRB view. It
insists that the Public Administration is concerned only with those aspects of
administration which are related with the executive branch and its seven types of
administrative functions.
These seven types of functions which shows the scope of Public Administration are as
follows
1. P stands for planning
2. O stands for organization
3. S stands for staffing.
4. D stands for Directing.
5. Co. stands for Co-ordination.
6. R stands for Reporting
7. B stands for Budgeting
1. P stands for Planning -

Planning is the first step of Public Administration. i.e. working out the broad outline of
the things that need to be done.
2. O stands for organization -

It means establishment of the formal structure of authority through which the work is
sub-divided, arranged and co-ordinated for the defined objective.
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3. S stands for staffing -

It means the recruitment and training of the staff and maintenance of favorable
conditions of work for the staff.
4. D stands for Directing -

It means the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and
general orders and instructions, and thus guiding the enterprise.
5. Co stands for Co-ordination -

It means interrelating the various parts of organization such as branches, divisions,
sections of the work and elimination of overlapping.
6. R stands for Reporting -

It means informing the authority to whom the executive is responsible as to what is
going on.
7. B stands for Budgeting -

It means accounting, fiscal planning and control.
Evaluation -
POSDCORB Perspective about the Scope of Public Administration is limited and narrow.
It stressed on the tools of Public Administration. It does not show the substance of
administration. It is a technique oriented perspective, not a subject oriented.
Broad perspective or subject - oriented perspective:-
Prof. Woodrow Wilson, L D While are main exponent of this perspective. They have
taken a very broad approach about the scope of Public Administration.
According to them (A) Public Administration covers all three branches of the
government. Legislative, Executive and Judicial and their interrelationship. Legislative
organ makes the laws, Executive organ of the government implements the laws. And
judicial organ of the government interprets the laws. There is interrelationship
between these three organs.
B) Scope of Public Administration is like a cooperative group. It consist of all from class
one officer to class four employees.
C) Public Administration is a part of the political process. It has an important role in the
formulation of public policy at all levels, from national to grassroot. It is closely
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associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the
community. It
has been influenced in recent years by the human relations approach.
Prevailing view :-
Prevailing view divides the scope of Public Administration into two parts.-
1) Administrative theory
2) Applied administration
1. Administrative theory -
It includes the following aspects.
a) Organizational Theory -
The Structure, organization, functions and methods of all types of public authority
engaged in administration, whether national, regional or local and executive.
b) Behavior
The functions of administrative authorities and the various methods appropriate to
different types of functions.
c) Public Personal Administration -

The problems concerning personnel administration are recruitment, training,
promotion, retirement etc. and the problems relating to planning, research,
information and public relation services.
2. Applied administration
It includes the following aspects :-
a) Political functions -
It includes the executive - legislative relationship, administrative activities of the
cabinet, the minister and permanent official relationship.
b) Legislative function -
It includes delegated legislation and the preparatory work done by
the officials in connection with the drawing up of bills.
c) Financial functions -
It includes total financial administration from the preparation of the budget to its
execution, accounting and audit etc.
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1) Defense - Functions relating to military administration.
2) Educational function - It includes functions relating to educational administration.
3) Social welfare administration -It includes the activities of the departments

concerned with food; housing, social security and development activities.
4) Economic Administration -It is concerned with the production and encouragement

of industries and agriculture.
5) Foreign administration -It includes the conduct of foreign affairs, diplomacy,

international
cooperation etc.
d) Local administration -It concern with the activities of the local self-governing
institutions.
The modern state cannot confine its field of activities to only maintenance of law and
order, dispensation of justice, collection of revenue and taxes. The modern state is
expected to provide more and more services and amenities to the people. This results
in tremendous growth both in the governmental responsibilities as well as in the
administrative machinery of the state. Naturally the scope of public administration is
increased.
Role and Importance of Public Administration
In todays modern state and in developing countries functions and role of Public
Administration is very important. The role and importance of Public Administration are
as follows.
1. It is the basis of government.

2. It is the instrument of change in the society.
3. It plays vital role in the life of the people.
4. It is an instrument for executing laws, policies, programs of the state.
5. It is a stabilizing force in the society as it provides continuity.
6. It is instrument of national integration in the developing countries which are facing
class wars.
1. It is the basis of Government

It is possible for a state to exist without a legislature or judiciary; but not even the most
backward state can do without administrative machinery. The modern state cannot
confine its field of activities to merely maintenance of law and order, dispensation of
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Justice, collection of revenue and taxes and participation in welfare activities. The
modern welfare state is expected to provide more and more services and amenities to
the people. Public
Administration is the machinery used by the state to place itself in a position to make
plans and programs that can be carried out.
2. It is the instrument of change in the society -

Public Administration is regarded as an instrument of change and is expected to
accelerate the process of development. In our country, the government has
undertaken the task of leveling down the economic inequalities, spreading education
among all abolishing
untouchability securing equality of status, rights of women and effective and all round
economic and industrial development. The burden of carrying out these social changes
in a planned and orderly way rests upon the Public Administration of the country. The
success of Indian democracy will depend not only on the wisdom of the legislature but
more on the capability and sense of purpose on the part of the Administration.
3. It plays vital role in the life of the people -

Today every aspect of human life come within the range of Public Administration.
Various departments of government such as education, social welfare, food,
agriculture, health, sanitation, transport, communication etc. are run by the
department of Public Administration. Thus Public Administration is rendering various
types of services to the people from birth to death of an individual.
4. It is a stabilizing force in the society as it provides continuity

Public Administration is carried on by the civil servants who are the permanent
executives. Political executives i.e. ministers may come and go, systems of government
or constitutions may undergo change but administration goes on forever. Hence, Public
Administration is a great stabilizing force in society. It is a preserver of the society and
its culture.
5. It is instrument of national integration in the developing countries which are facing

class wars
The success of government is dependent on the ability of public administration. The

future of civilized government rests upon the ability, to develop a service and
philosophy and a practice of administration competent to discharge the Public
functions of civilized society.
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Comparative Public Administration
Comparative Public Administration (CPA) attained its greatest intellectual influence

during the post World War II era, although it was utilized much earlier. In 1887, for
example, Woodrow Wilsons article, considered the first articulation of public
administration as a field of study, clearly emphasized the comparative approach as the
foundation of developing administrative principles. Wilson argued for putting away all
prejudices against looking anywhere in the world but at home for suggestions in the
study of public administration. He emphasized that nowhere else in the whole field of
politics y, can we make use of the historical, comparative method more safely than in
this province of administration (Wilson, 1887). During the early part of the 20th
century, Max Weber also differentiated and compared three types of authority system:
traditional, charismatic, and legalrational, producing in the process one of the most
influential conceptualizations in social sciences the bureaucratic model. To underscore
the attributes of the bureaucratic rational model of administration, Weber compared it
to other systems that were prevalent in other times and places. What matters here is
that the comparative approach was central to Webers theory on authority systems
throughout history.
Purpose
The primary purpose of CPA has been the development of administrative knowledge
through comparisons of administrative experiences in different contexts. From early
years, one of the driving forces of the momentum for cross-cultural administrative
studies was the search to discover patterns and regularities from which generalizations
can be established to enhance theory construction and reform application. Context
(ecology or environment) refers to social, political, economic, and historical factors that
influence public administration. A greater specificity of contextual relations is decisive
for resolving issues surrounding administrative change, particularly the role of culture,
which has increasingly received recognition in organization and management studies.
The search for administrative patterns and regularities cross-culturally afforded the
CPA to show diversity of the human experience as well as the amazing uniformity
within any given country or civilization. Students learn from comparisons how to
explore, reflect, and understand the whole human experience, not to be confined to an
ethnocentric perspective. The examination and analysis of what is often regarded as
novel or unfamiliar systems would certainly open up the range of inquiry to include
learning about similarities and differences that could balance outlooks and reduce
internalized biases build over years of parochial learning.
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The CPA has been remarkably committed to administrative change and reform in its
cross-cultural search for discovering the best practices or for differentiating practices
that work from those that do not. Proven practices, then, can be designated as most
worthy patterns and generalizations to be applied or benchmarked for improvements
worldwide. This reformist commitment ultimately would improve the general efficacy
of public administration as a field of study. Comparative research was often centered
on characteristics and conditions of administrative systems associated with good
performance.
Development Public Administration
In both theory and practice, the landscape of public administration has fundamentally
changed in recent years in terms of unprecedented shifts in its ideological
underpinning, structural configuration, and normative inclination largely based on
market-driven assumptions or principles. These paradigmatic changes are
encapsulated often as New Public Management (NPM), which continues to draw
considerable attention, especially in the form of divergence-convergence debate
(Pollitt, 2002). It represents a more drastic transition in the developing world where
the postcolonial state-centric model of public management, known as Development
Administration, came under greater challenge posed by this newly emerging market-
centered model. With few exceptions, the voluminous research and debate on the
study and practice of NPM in developing nations have been relatively indifferent
towards the compatibility of such a businesslike model with the contextual realities of
these countries.
The emergence of other sets of context-neutral propositions and/or models (e.g. best
practices, good governance, etc) may have worsened the level of ambiguity in public
administration in the developing world where the major domains of society are
intensely interconnected, and thus, complicated. In this regard, the reexamination of
intellectual contribution made by Fred W. Riggs is crucial, as he devoted almost his
entire lifetimes work to exploring how the administrative systems in developing
nations are considerably shaped by their contexts of politics, economy, and culture,
and to why the Western models are relatively less relevant to (even dysfunctional in)
such unique contexts.
As briefly mentioned at the beginning, public administration in most developing
countries has gone through drastic reforms based on the market-driven principles and
models (e.g. NPM, Best Practices, Good Governance) which are often empirical-
reductionist, ideographic, and non-ecological. These contemporary administrative
models highlight the importance of narrow empirical data, performance indicators, and
results or outcomes; focus largely on empirical case studies without any grand
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nomothetic generalization; and claim universal applicability in different parts of the

world without much concern for ecological or contextual diversity.
First, during the recent decades, too many drastic and intensive reforms in public
sector management have been adopted in too many countries, which need to be
compared, critically understood, and systematically generalized to make some
theoretical sense. The nomothetic approach outlined by Riggs in this IRAS article and
applied in most of his other work can provide a valuable lesson in this regard.
Second, the contemporary market-driven reform models have largely been based on a
Universalist approach, which has been embraced in many developing nations often
under the influence of international agencies, although such models may not be
appropriate for these countries with weak private capital and entrepreneurship, less
developed market forces and alarming levels of poverty requiring subsidized basic
services. In this regard, the message inherent in the ecological approach suggested by
Riggs needs to be taken seriously into account.
Third, in line with the common imitative nature of administrative reforms adopted in
the past, many regimes in developing countries have recently introduced promarket
models originating and borrowed from the experience of developed nations. Riggs
always opposed such contextless imitative reforms and emphasized the importance of
building the nationally or domestically suitable models of public administration in
these countries based on their own contexts and needs.
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Difference between Development Administration with other traditional Administration

are as follows;
Development Administration
1. Change - oriented
2. Goal and result oriented
3. Flexible and dynamic
4. Its objectives are complex and multiple
5. Concerned with new tasks.
6. Believes in decentralization
7. Stress on planning
8. Creative and innovative
9. Stress on participation of people
Traditional Public Administration

1.Status-quo oriented
2. Emphasis on economy and efficiency
3. It is hierarchical and rigid.
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4. Its objectives are simple and limited.

5. Concerned with routine operations.
6. Believes in centralization.
7. Does not rely much on planning.
8. It resists organizational change.
9. Stress on directions from authority.
Public Administration v. Private Administration

The expansion of public sector into industrial enterprises has been into practice for
quite some time, a little over half a century now. The public sector organizations in
order to function efficiently are borrowing heavily from the business knowledge,
administration and process orientation of the private organizations. However, there
still remains a considerable difference between these two administrative practices.
It would be interesting to learn about both similarities and differences between these
two to arrive at a better understanding. Let us first understand the differences and see
what the authors and subject matter experts have to say about it.
According to Paul H. Appleby the public administration is different from private
administration in three important aspects, the first is the political character, secondly
the breadth of scope, impact and consideration and public accountability. These
differences seem very fundamental and very valid in the Iight of our own exploration of
the subject in previous articles.
Josia Stamp went a step further and identified four aspects of difference of which the
only one similar to that of Applebys is that of public accountability or public
responsibility as Stamp identifies it. The other three are:
Principle of uniformity
Principle of external financial control
Principle of service motive
Herbert Simon cited very practical and easy to understand differences based on
popular beliefs and imagination and therefore might seem more appealing. He said
that public administration is bureaucratic while private administration is business like.
Public administration is political while private administration is apolitical. And finally;
the aspect most of us would swear by that public administration is characterized by red
tape while the private administration is free of it.
The management Guru Peter Drucker sums up the difference in more comprehensive
manner. He says that the very intuition which governs both kinds of administration is
different from each other. While the public administration functions on service
intuition the private administration follows the business intuition. They also have
different purposes to serve, with different needs, values and objectives. Both of them
make different kind of contribution to the society as well. The way the performance
and results are measured is different in a public administration than that of private
one.
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Let us now understand the similarities between the two and see to what extent and in
which areas are they similar. You would be surprised to know that there are many
similarities between the ways in which a public and a private administration functions.
The similarities are so much that some subject matter experts and authors like Henry
Fayol, M P Follet, Lyndall Urvick do not treat them as different. Fayol said that all kinds
of administration function on some general principle irrespective of them being public
or private. The planning, organizing, commanding and controlling are similar for all
administrations.
The above arguments and several other points suggested and illustrated by other
authors as well clearly point out that there are more similarities between the two
administrations than what we see and understand.
The managerial aspects of planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling
are the same for public and private administration
The accounting aspects like maintenance of accounts, filing, statistics and
stocking are the same
Both of them have a hierarchical chain of command or reporting as the
organizational structure
Both get influenced, adopt and reform their own practices in the light of best
practices of the other. They also share the same pool of manpower
And lastly they share similar kinds of personnel and financial problems
The State Vs Market Debate
For much of the 1990s, the debate in India gradually shifted against a major role for the
State in the economy and for primacy to the market and private enterprise. Even
services like water and electricity were considered for transformation into private
market-driven enterprises. Dr Ravi Kanbur of Cornell University pointed out in a recent
lecture at ISEC in Bangalore that this shift was not confined to India and had occurred
during the 1980s in Latin America, Africa, Asia and the old Soviet Union and its
satellites. The stimulants were the collapse of the Soviet Union and the rise of the
Chinese economy as a powerful driver of world trade and investment. Economic
opinion saw a shift in the pendulum from the primary role for the State in the economy
in the 1950s and 1960s to a dominant role for private enterprise and the market.
This shift in the relative roles of the State and private enterprise took place first in the
US and UK. When the first archconservative American Presidential candidate Barry
Goldwater in the 1960s preached less government, few took him seriously. His disciple
Ronald Reagan as President introduced policies and programmes that were to the right
of Goldwater. He embraced the Laffer curve and cut taxes, increased defence spending
to record levels, pushing the Soviet Union into economic breakdown as it tried to
compete, and raised deficits to unprecedented levels. Todays President Bush is
outspending Reagan, has cut taxes and threatens more, and has converted a huge
budget surplus into a mind-boggling deficit. Yet nobody calls him as they did Reagan, a
slave of voodoo economics.
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The Washington consensus represented a standard programme laid down by the

International Monetary Fund for countries that came to it for emergency assistance
when their economies had reached such unsustainable levels of borrowing that they
were unable to service their debts. It called for cutting deficits, raising domestic taxes
and cutting import duties, opening the economy to foreign investment and moving
towards a convertible currency. The most indebted nation in the world has a
ballooning deficit. But the prescription has not been applied to the US.
When the dollar is the reserve currency for the world, everyone wants to trade with it,
its economy has vast resources, enormous innovation and rising productivity, it is the
only superpower in military and economic terms and people want to keep their money
there. So long as international funds keep flowing into the US for investment in
Treasury bonds and other financial and physical assets, the US can, as it does, finance
current consumption using the savings of foreigners.
That is why the Washington consensus applies everywhere but in Washington. The US
today has rising inequalities, growing poverty, the rise of robber barons among
companies and their paid managers, the collapse of pension funds that are primarily
invested in equities and lack of health care to a growing number of the aged and poor.
Unemployment is rising, inflation rearing its head. The extreme rightward swing of the
economic policy pendulum in the US is bound to swing leftwards in future years.
In comparison, India remains left of center. Not only is our currency not tied rigidly to
the dollar in a currency board as many others are, it is not even fully convertible.
Import duties are still among the highest in the world. Income tax slabs are so low that
even in purchasing power parity terms, those who do pay taxes are probably among
the most heavily taxed in the world. State-owned enterprises if one takes account of
infrastructure and other services account for a much larger proportion of the economy
than just public enterprises that have been the object of on-off disinvestment.
After the last elections it has been argued that technocratic solutions must be
tempered by political realism. This is the rationale for the move against disinvestment
and more investment in physical and social infrastructure by the State. Ownership does
not matter. What does is that they are run efficiently and competitively, producing a
good return on investment for the State. There is a crying need to redress the declining
public investment in agriculture for almost two decades and to spend more to achieve
health and education for all. But the real issue is the ability of the State to spend more,
to do it efficiently and effectively deliver health, education and other social services to
those for whom they are intended.
Economists must rethink the extent of sustainable deficits, the degree of acceptable
inflation and the means to manage the economy so that these can be controlled as
desired. But getting their relationships right is part of the technocratic solutions
essential to prevent harm as we resume a greater role for the State in the economy.
The swing must be carefully calibrated so that we are able to build on the gains of the
last decade.
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The New Public Management
The public administration, in the last twenty years, has undergone profound changes
linked to the altered socio-economic context of modern post-industrial societies.
Previously, public organizations had an organizational and managerial structure on the
lines of a bureaucratic model and did not possess the necessary capacity to deal with
the new needs of the citizens. The rising complexity, the lack of financial resources and
European politico-economic integration required a process of modernization in public
administration.
This process has affected:

a) The managerial perspective, taking public systems in the direction of new principles
and instruments to be used in the process of organizational, managerial and
information system innovation;
b) The political perspective, leading the public sector towards new forms of
legitimization
c) The juridical perspective, prompting the public sector to acknowledge the social
economic changes in society by introducing a new legal framework to suit the new
conditions.
New Public Management principles
The arrival of New Public Management has represented, over the last twenty years,one
of the most significant events for the study and practice of public administration in
most industrialized countries. This could be seen as an epochal evolution in the way
the public sector is conceived, although doubts still exist regarding the components,
the central characteristics and the definition itself.
In fact, the initials NPM represent a wide-scale formula, to which various meanings
are attributed. These range from the general idea of modernization of the public
sector to the narrower meaning of rationalization of the public administration. The
NPM makes claims to being universal; in fact, initiatives of the NPM type are common
enough throughout the OCSE countries and have reached most Commonwealth
countries, not to mention the ex-communist countries. This does not mean that a
complete uniformity of application has been found. On the contrary, in this regard it is
possible to highlight differences between one country and another, since the profiles
for modernization range from complete openness towards market forces and
privatization (Great Britain), to a radical re-planning of the public sector in line with the
model of the private sector (NewZealand); from cases of rapid advance towards
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managerial running, to cases of coexistence with residual links with more traditional
forms of bureaucratic government in accordance with pre-defined rules. (Japan,
Germany, Austria).
A greater impact of NPM-type ideas has also been noted in Anglo-Saxon contexts
(though with internal differences) when compared to eastern regions of continental
Europe.This could quite reasonably be due to the long tradition based on the
predominance, in most European countries, of a school of
thought of a juridical nature with regard to the public administration. NPM should not
be understood as a continual, uniform push towards a common public sector model; if
anything it might be seen as a global change permitting differentiated local solutions,
i.e. a widespread shift, as regards convergence, towards a limited variety of new and
more uniform ways of government by the public administration. In other words, the
global movement is rendered compatible with a certain number of differentiated
models, which, in their individual cases, reflect the way in which the following variables
combine and interact:
Specific components introduced within each model and the order of priorities
assigned to them;
The speed of the reform movement (which depends on the vitality and degree of
convergence of the guiding forces);
The internal and external conditions determining the context in which the process of
modernization has to develop; and
The approach taken in order to complete each model.
In spite of the above-mentioned observations, which aim to mitigate assumptions

about the universality or globalization of NPM, it is, at the same time, possible to try to
extrapolate a table for general reference.
The basic features of the NPM ideas might be synthesized into three fundamental
elements :
1. Re-definition of the boundaries between State and market through privatization and
externalization.
2. Re-formulation of the macro-structure of the public sector by delegating state

functions (at the lower organizational level) within the macro-structure (this
phenomenon could be denominated institutional decentralization or external
decentralization).
3. Re-definition of operational rules characterizing the way in which the public sector
carries out its functions and achieves its goals. This third component might be
considered as characterized by seven main sub-components:
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a. Toning down of the ties conditioning the public sector as compared to the private
sector. This phenomenon includes the transformation of state economic bodies into
limited companies and might, generally speaking, be called formal privatization;
b. Re-structuring of activities/businesses in the public administration, so that they are
operating on a commercial basis, i.e. in a state of equilibrium between costs and
revenue (corporatization);
c. State competition (internal market);
d. Devolution of functions and competences from the center towards outermost units
or the lowest organizational levels within every entity in the public sector (this
phenomenon might be called internal decentralization);
e. Re-definition of the administrative machinery replacing the bureaucratic model with
the managerial one, shifting from the organization formally structured and law-
oriented, to management and efficient breakdown of public resources, according to
the new economic role of the states functions f. Deregulation of the functioning of
economic and social systems; and
g. Re-definition of citizens roles and rights.
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Administrative Behaviour Public Administration and Environmental Studies
Administrative Behavior
Chapter Structure
1. Decision making with special reference to H. Simon,
2. Communication and Control
3. leadership theories
4. Theories of motivation (Maslow and Herzberg) in Public Administration
5. Role of Civil Service in developing societies
6. Administrative Ethics.
Decision Making Theories

The decision-making as a process of administration has a wide range of application
mainly in public administration and at the beginning of the fifties of last century it
came to the limelight. Behind this the work of a celebrity of public administration was
active and he was H. A. Simon. His renowned workAdministrative Behaviour; A Study
of Decision-Making Process in Administrative Organisation was published in 1948.
Herbert Simon divided the concept into two main partsone is decision being
arrived at and process of action. Mere making of decision is not enough and therefore
its implementation. So both these sections are interconnected and important. Herbert
Simon once said: a theory of administration should be concerned with the processes of
decision as well as the processes of action. Simon pointed out that for the proper
management of an organisation a policy of comprehensive in nature is required to be
adopted.
So decision-making is a very important part of an organisation. Herbert Simon, in fact,
is the pioneer in the field of decision-making concept because he felt that if decision
were not taken properly and timely that may spoil the objective of the business
organisation and keeping this in mind it is essential that an organisation will resort to
utmost caution as to the adoption of decision and at the same time will focus on the
implementation of the decision. So both taking and implementing decision are
important.
Definition:
Decision-making is usually defined as a process or sequence of activities involving
stages of problem recognition, search for information, definition of alternatives and
the selection of an actor of one from two or more alternatives consistent with the
ranked preferences.
BIBS 20
Public Administration and Environmental Studies Administrative Behaviour
Definition offered by the C.O.D. is, the mathematical study of strategies for optimal
decision-making between options involving different risks or expectations of gain or
loss depending on the outcome.
Decision making theory is a theory of how rational individuals should behave under risk
and uncertainty. It uses a set of axioms about how rational individuals behave which
has been widely challenged on both empirical and theoretical ground.
This definition has been offered by the author of an article published in Oxford Concise
Dictionary of Politics. The author emphasises on the rationality of individuals and at the
same time how they should behave.
So we can say that decision-making denotes the formulation of general policy for the
management of an organisation which may be business organisation or administrative
organisation. The point to note is that the nature and implementation of decision-
making may be different in both places but it remains that in every case the
importance of decision-making remains intact. To sum up, the decision-making means
the adoption and application of rational choice for the management of private,
business or governmental organisation in an efficient manner.
Nature:
If we go through the numerous stages of decision-making and the implementation of
the decision we shall find that it has certain features, some of which are briefly stated:
1. In one of his writings Herbert Simon has said that decision or decision making is a
matter of compromise. Why it is called so? There are number of alternatives, before a
policy/decision maker and while making decision he is to select one or more
alternatives which will be suitable for him or which will serve his purpose.
While pursuing this policy or technique the decision-maker is forced to make
compromises and the main aim of compromise is to fulfill the objective of the
organisation or management. The compromise becomes inevitable on another ground.
The policy maker must see that the policy is not divorced from real situation and the
real situation chiefly relates to the declared policy of the management or government
organ.
An abstract policy adopted with a lot of fanfare may not come to the benefit of the
government department. So whenever the state authority adopts any policy or takes a
decision it must see that conflict between the authority and policy will not arise. That is
why it has been found that the policy maker is compelled to make compromises and
modifications of approaches and policies or decisions.
2. There must be rationality in decision making process. We have just now pointed out
that compromise and decision making both is linked with each other. The policy maker
makes compromises on the ground that this policy/decision will be a realistic one.
Similarly, while a decision is being made the decision maker must demonstrate utmost
rationality.
He must consider all the aspects of policy such as elements entering into the policy
making process, implication of implementation or feasibility of application etc. While
BIBS 21
the decision-maker considers actively all these aspects it will be found that he is
rational. A decision should be both subjectively and objectively rational.
A decision would be objectively rational if it maximised the given values in a given
situation, subjectively rational if it maximised attainment relative to the actual
knowledge of the subject.
3. An important characteristic of decision-making is that it is never a product of a single
man. It does not originate from a single brain; it is always the product of several men
or brains who work together. In any governmental organisation several bureaucrats or
officers work together and after considering all the aspects a decision is taken.
Different agencies or organisations or institutions overtly or covertly participate in the
decision-making process. As for example, in liberal democracies pressure groups,
political parties and various non-governmental organisations participate, though not in
a formal way, in the decision-making activities.
This is because the liberal democracies treat all these as part of the political system
and since the decision of the government affects all, their opinion should form a part of
the decision making process. Even in autocracies the decision can reasonably be called
the outcome of joint ventures. Different persons act as advisers to the autocrat and
their suggestions influence the decision-making.
4. Decision-making does not relate to one issue or question but to a number of issues.
Some of the categories of decision have been identified by Wasby:

(a) Who made the decision?
(b) What was the decision?
(c) When was the decision made?
(d) How was the decision made?
(e) Where was the decision made?
(f) What were the characteristics of the decision situation?
(g) To what class or subclass of decisions does the decision belong?
(h) Why was the decision made?
Whenever a department or an agency of a government takes any decision or decides
to take a decision that automatically comes into any one of the above noted
categories. The decisions are never taken in vacuum. The decisions are made to serve
definite purposes/purpose. We have already noted that behind every decision there
must be rationality of the decision maker and there is no place of idiosyncrasy.
5. Experts of public administration and governmental organisations are of opinion that
though rationality is the predominant determiner of decision-making process very
often irrationality or partiality enters into decision making process and it is believed
that this is inevitable in a democratic set up. Even in non-democratic systems
irrationality becomes the focusing point of decision.
BIBS 22
For example, the government is forced, (because of political consideration) to give

priority to an irrational demand of a section of the community. But generally speaking
this type of irrationality does not become the common feature. However, this sort of
occurrence is unavoidable.
6. It has been observed by many scholars that irrationality and rationality conception
gives birth to a lot of confusion because the policy maker is chiefly motivated by real
situation which sometimes gives no credence to rationality. In other words, conflict
arises between rationality and reality or the general welfare of the bodypolitic. The
policy maker firmly believes that if rationality is given priority that may jeopardies the
prospect of welfare principle and in that situation the policy maker may be compelled
to give his preference for the general welfare consideration. So the dichotomisation
between rationality and irrationality may appear irrelevant.
However, this issue should not blur the conceptualization of rationality idea because in
special circumstances the rationality principle may be neglected but this should never
be the general principle. If rationality is not given due importance the decision-making
process and the objective of public utility concerns will be adversely affected.
Decision-Making and Pure Science of Politics:
It has been claimed by many, specifically by Robert Dahl (Modern Political Analysis,
Fifth edition) that decision-making processes constitute the pure science of politics.
Now, the question is what is meant by pure science of politics? Dahl says that in earlier
times pure science of politics denoted evaluation and normative analysis of politics
because in those days normative approaches to the study of politics was considered
scientific political phenomena and concepts were evaluated in the background of
norms or normative values and the norms which could win the test were considered
scientific.
But this outlook underwent sea changes in course of time and political scientists began
to show indifference to normative aspects of political science. Modern approach such
as behaviouralism of Easton or structural-functionalism of Almond heavily relied upon
empirical analysis and the decision-making theory could not keep itself away from this
type of approach. For arriving at decision, it was thought, facts, data, information etc.
are essential as well as their interpretation and application appeared to be a must.
Robert Dahl says: the term science has increasingly come to mean an empirical
science of politics. According to this view, ah empirical science of politics would be
concerned exclusively with the validity of the factual or empirical elements. The
implication of this contention is that without the help of data, facts and information
the policy maker cannot make any decision. Rationality along with the data is the most
important element of decision-making process.
In order to arrive at an acceptable and viable decision the application of rationality is
not all, in order to be the decision rational empirical analysis is also essential which
demands that the policy maker must test his decision empirically. Here several
conceptual processes are mingled together. For example, decision-making process is
BIBS 23
inextricably associated with rationality, empiricism, application of other scientific

methods.
The amalgamation of all these methods or streams of analysis has become inevitable
because of the fact that decision-making, nowadays, is increasingly being considered
very important part of the management of government business.
Naturally it is asserted that decision, as far as practicable, should be rational and
scientific. That is why it has been found that the decision maker of the present epoch
has become dependent on the empirical data and scientific methods.
Advent of scientific methods has become crucial because of the reason that modern
age and the management of governmental agencies is becoming complex and in such
circumstances speculation and inept handling will make any decision inchoate.
The interference of the scientific methods thus seems to be ineluctable. Application of
sophisticated technology in management and globalisation has not adversely affected
the importance of management in organisation. Rather all these have made
management and politics more scientific.
Snyders Theory of Decision-Making:
Central Idea of Snyder:
The post-Second World War period witnessed a revolution in the thought system of
political science. We have already touched behaviouralism, structural-functionalism
communications theory etc. Now we shall focus our attention on Snyders approach to
the study of political science which is commonly known as decision-making theory or
approach to the study of politics.
From the mid-fifties to the end of fifties Richard Snyder published a series of writings
whose chief objective was to propagate the importance of decision-making approach.
His decision-making theory can be explained in the form of following points:
1. We know that the general systems theory of David Easton and the structural-
functional approach of Gabriel Almond and other related theories are more or less
static in nature which means that all these theories deal with those elements that are
static. But Snyders point of view is that society is not only complex but also dynamic.
If so the real approach to the study of politics would be to conceptualise the analysis so
that it can cope with dynamic aspects of society or the changes that are taking place
very frequently. Snyder, therefore, claims that his decision-making approach is
dynamic. While the decision makers make decision they consider all the (or most of
the) situations. If they fail to do this the decision will not achieve acceptability and
credibility.
2. It has been observed by Snyder that the decision-making process has been playing a
very crucial part in the administration of any business organisation or governmental
department. But it is unfortunate that none took care of analysing the concept in
details. Only in the fifties of the last century two persons, Herbert Simon and C.I.
Bernard dealt with the decision-making concept.
Simons Models of Man and Bernards The Function of the Executive were published in
1957 and 1958 respectively. Snyder draws our attention to two important points. One
BIBS 24
is decision-making plays so important a role in any business organisation and

governmental department that it cannot be neglected at all. Secondly, if so a
comprehensive theory based on empiricism and scientific methods is to be built up. It
is interesting to note that Snyder, Simon and Bernard are contemporary.
Snyder says that it is essential to go through the processes of the decision making,
what factors are involved in this process, to analyse the decision, their impact upon the
society. If we treat the subject in this way we shall find that the concept has dynamised
the political system and processes of analysing political phenomena.
3. We know that in liberal democratic systems various groups, political parties and non-
governmental organisations play important role in the administration. Decision-making
process includes all of them (or most of them) into the orbit of analysis.
Why Decision-Making?
1. Richard Snyder has maintained that in every society there is political action and
behind every action there is the role of human activity. Again human action relates to
policy decision. How the society is to be managed or governmental department is to be
administered all is related to the decision taken by human beings.
That is the policy/decision is the dynamic force of action. Therefore, in order to study
the society or the management of department it is necessary to analyse all the aspects
of policy-making.
2. Analysis of policy-making processes also helps us to acquire a comprehensive
knowledge about the dynamics of society. Knowledge about dynamics of society is
required for the formulation of future policy. Society is always changing and naturally
todays policy may be irrelevant for future.
So it is very important for the formulation of a policy for future generation. If we stop
our activity, society or its advancement will come to a halt.
3. Different elements such as human beings, economic factors, political phenomena,
governmental departments, different institutions, organisations, groups etc. are
actively or inactively involved in the social activities. But for a comprehensive social
management a composite decision must be made and this cannot be done with the
formulation of decision. Situations, factors, elements, processes, persons all are to be
brought under an umbrella and this is decision.
Factors Influencing Decision-making:
Decision-making differs from society to society. A decision suitable for a developed,

industrialised and highly educated society may not be equally suitable for a very
backward agricultural society or a tribal area. For this situation the decision or the
decision-making process is not at all responsible. A decision is made not for the
decision itself but for the inhabitants of society.
Naturally the crux of the issue is how to be aware of the situation or material
environment suitable for decision making and the chief exponent of the concept was
BIBS 25
aware of it. Snyder has said that there are mainly three factors which in one way or
other influence the decision-making process.
1. The first is internal setting of the society: The nature and functioning of the social
organisation such as political parties, pressure groups, non-governmental
organisations, public opinion, agencies helping the formation of public opinion, nature
of the political system etc. All these elements enter into the domain of decision-making
process. In a democratic society social, political and other types of organisations enjoy
freedom in their day to day activities.
A good rapport exists between the authority on the one hand and numerous
organisations on the other hand. But in an autocratic regime such a situation cannot be
thought. Naturally the content and type of decision in both regimes need not be
identical. Again, the process of socialisation in all systems is not same. When the policy
maker proceeds to decide a policy it is his duty to bring all these factors into his active
consideration.
Especially the socialisation has an important part in the entire process. This is due to
the fact that for an effective decision cooperation between the decision-makers and
common people is necessary. Cooperation means peoples participation. Again, for the
implementation of decision peoples cooperation is also required. All these are made
easy by a high degree of socialisation.
2. There is external set up or setting. This condition is especially important for the
policy maker who makes decisions for the external relations of the state. It is known to
all the students of international politics that today the term international society has
earned wide publicity and all the nation-states are the members of this society.
When the decision-maker of a state makes a policy/decision he must be aware of the
fact that his decision must be in conformity with the policies and objectives of other
nations and this should not lead to conflict among nations. If this were the objective of
the decision-maker he cannot make policy according to his personal preferences or
sweet will.
Moreover, in this age of globalisation the nation-states have come closer to each other
and the interdependence among them has surpassed all the past records. It is
absolutely unimaginable for a state; whatever may the extent of power (in military
sense) and wealth be, to decide alone, to go alone and to live alone.
So, while making any policy, it is obligatory on the part of every state to think deeply
about the impact of its policy upon other states. A failure in this respect will invite
complexities and animosity among the states. It is generally observed that in the
present day world system domestic policy cannot be separated from world politics and
a policy maker must keep this in mind.
3. The decision-making is a process and passes through a number of stages. Many
persons organisations, institutions etc. are involved in the decision-making process and
even an ordinary decision cannot be taken abruptly. Serious and considerable thought
is invested for a proper decision.
BIBS 26
Snyder says that the communication and information network is closely associated
with the decision-making process. Because for a decision various information and data
are necessary and this can be provided by an efficient communication network. The
psychological factor is also involved in the formulation of a policy.
For what purpose the authority is going to formulate a decision which means the
motive of the policy maker. When all the materials are at the disposal of the policy
maker he starts to formulate a policy. Moreover, there are different structures of a
political system and these structures have their allotted functions.
The purpose of policy making is to embrace all these structures and their functions.
Not only this, the purpose of all decisions is to make suitable all the structures and
their functions for changed situations.
If so the decision-maker must see that the structures and organisations are doing their
duties and he must consider what changes are required (if changes are at all necessary)
to bring about improvement upon the organisational and functional aspects of political
and other institutions. Viewed in this light Snyder claims that his approach may be
applied in political science in general.
Decision-Making Theories:
New Tendency:
Before the end of the 1950s an elaborate idea about decision-making theory was built
up by many and among them the most prominent figures, were Richard Snyder,
Chester Barnard and Herbert Simon. The last two scholars developed a theory mainly
for the public administration. Richard Snyder was interested in domestic and
international politics and he applied his model in these two segments of political
science.
But there is an overlapping of decision making process so far as public administration
and political science are concerned. Some of the concepts of decision making meant
for the public administration have also their strong bearing in political science.
However, the central idea formulated and developed in the fifties continued to spread
its wings and influence even in the seventies and early eighties.
Following is the remark of a well-known author: Indeed during the 1960s and 1970s a
distinctive area of study, policy analysis was developed. This set out to examine how
policy was initiated, formulated and implemented and how the policy process could be
improved.
We call it a new tendency because interest about decision-making had already
emerged in the mid-fifties but in the sixties arid seventies separate areas for the study
of decision-making were selected and scholars devoted more time and intellect for the
proliferation of the concept. Several factors contributed to the emergence of decision-
making theory and the most important of them is the strong urge to verify the concept
with the help of data and scientific principles.
Kinds of Theories:
BIBS 27
Decisions are quite common to all forms of political systems such as authoritarian
structures, democratic set up, totalitarian regimes. The management of a government
department, the administration of private organisation and even a philanthropic
association require decision and not one decision but a bundle of decisions.
But the making of decision is not all, the implementation, revision and other aspects
are also equally important.
Considering all these some have divided the decision-making process into several
models and these may be stated in the following ways:
Rational actor model, Incremental model, Bureaucratic organisation model and Belief
system model.
Rational Actor Model:
The basic idea of the rational actor model is derived from economic theory and
utilitarianism. The core concept of the theory is based on the idea of Economic man
who takes all sorts of decision on the basis of rationality and utility.
The economic man or the rational man decides to pursue a particular process which
thinks in his judgment rational and which will ensure maximum utility. So rationality
and utility are the two important criteria that lie at the heart of decision-making
process.
While the decision is going to be made the following procedures are strictly adhered
to:
(1) The issue or area is identified on which the policy is to be made.
(2) The objective of the policy is decided: The policy maker decides for what purpose
the policy is going to be made.
(3) Materials or means are to be collected for making a policy.
(4) It may be that all the means or materials could not be used and then in that case
the decision-maker selects only the relevant materials.
It is clear from the above analysis that the two criteria are active in the entire process
of decision-makingrationality and utility. Keeping these two criteria in mind the
policy-maker proceeds and proceeds very cautiously. He does not leave anything to
chance. He wants to maximise the utility from the policy he is going to make.
Rational actor model may reasonably be compared with a well-known concept of
economics or business management, and it is cost-benefit approach which denotes
that when a businessman decides to adopt a policy he will see first of all how much
cost he will have to incur for the implementation of the policy and then how much
benefit he expects to receive.
Policy-makers and politicians fall under this category because of the accountability.
They think that if the policy does not generate expected benefits or results they are not
supposed to implement or take any decision. A decision must always be goal or benefit
oriented. Borrowing from economists the political scientists have applied the rational
actor model in political science for the purpose of making decision and it received
forthwith admiration from many corners.
BIBS 28
Incremental Model:
There is a second theory which is called incremental model. For a perfect and bold
decision it is necessary that facts and information must be correct and impartial. But in
practice this situation hardly prevails. The consequence is the policy/decision becomes
faulty. Because of this drawback the decision-makers are not interested in making one
time policy.
They feel that policies are to be formulated in such a way that there will be enough
scope of review and change whenever required. This creates a scope for a new model
labeled as Incremental Model
Stated briefly, the model is: Policy-making is therefore a continuous, exploratory
process, lacking overriding goals and clear cut ends, policy-makers tend to operate
within an existing pattern or framework adjusting their position in the light of feedback
in the form of information about the impact of earlier decisions.
What transpires from the above analysis is the decision maker adopts a tendency of
evasion. He wants to avoid or evade problem or uncertainty and for that reason he
decides to follow a policy of incrementalism. Policy is not prepared once for all, rather
it is made step by step and the decision-maker proceeds stage by stage. In such an
approach there is great importance of flexibility in the policy formulation.
The policy-maker knows that a policy cannot be made once for all. Situation and
circumstances change very frequently and the policy maker must amend policy other-
wise it will not be able to serve the purpose. For this particular reason the exponents
(particularly C. E. Lindblom) have propounded a thesis that it is a continuous process.
In the same line of thought another observer points out: Policy is not made once for
all, it is made and remade endlessly. Policy making is a process of successive
approximation to some desired objectives. If circumstances demand any change or
reconsideration of policy, the decision maker takes steps in that direction.
The administrator or the policy-maker uses the past experience while making policy
and he moves very cautiously. His movement comprises also very small steps. He
avoids big jumps that would go beyond current knowledge. The decision-maker, of
course, makes prediction but that is based on past experience. The decision-maker
avoids radical change in any policy formulation his technique is incremental change or
successive change.
Incrementalism also envisages, at limited scale, comparison of satisfactory results. If
the consequence of the implementation of policy are satisfactory the decision-maker
will make next step. Lindblom, the chief exponent of incrementalism, has said that in
this approach of decision making there is very little scope of change, mistake and
miscarriage of any policy because the policy maker refrains himself from taking any
type of risk.
His past experience is his best guide. Moreover, there is ample scope of modification.
We, therefore, see that in this model of decision-making, policy-makers are not
BIBS 29
inclined in making policy at one stroke. He proceeds step by step and also is very
cautious, and in the process he amends and changes earlier policy.
Bureaucratic Organisation Model:
We shall now deal with a model which was framed in the background of Cuban Missile
crisis in 1962 and the model was championed by Graham Allison in 1971. We have
already noted that the bureaucratic structure or the political organisation of political
system have positive influence on the policy making processes.
It is believed that the large political and other organisations have their own values,
ideas and long cherished and well guarded inclinations. All these create definite impact
upon the decision-making processes. Hence, while decision is being made, the
organisational process cannot be neglected.
In all political systems bureaucrats play a crucial role in the various stages of the
formulation of decision. The head of the state, Prime Minister, Foreign Minister etc.
have a role no doubt but the real and important role is generally played by the
bureaucrats. However, the structure and the extent of influence of bureaucrats in all
political systems are not identical everywhere.
The bureaucrats and related agencies have their own outlook, values and assessment
about incidents and when policy making process starts the top government officers
and allied agencies release their efforts to guide the formulation of policies in the light
they cherish. In fact, the liberal democratic system state does not play an overriding
role.
The state as state exists and it guides, but it is not the final voice on any national and
international issue, organisational structure and bureaucracy are deciding factors. The
exponents of the model believe that though the ministers have a positive role in the
policy-making process, the actual function is performed by bureaucrats and it is held
that during the Cuban crisis this came to limelight. The heads of the states had a role
but more important role was played by bureaucrats.
Belief System Model:
Generally there is a belief system which can be termed as ideology or deep-rooted

belief. Some scholars are of opinion that in the arena of decision-making beliefs or
ideologies have a very important influence. Here crops up a confusion. If the decision--
makers are rational it will be supposed that they are not to be influenced by beliefs and
ideology. But this argument does not stand the test of reality.
If the belief or attachment to ideology is pervasive, or firm the decision-maker may
temporarily give priority to ideology or belief. The policy makers of a communist
country will not formulate such a policy as will violate basic principles of communism
although rationality demands the violation.
Two examples may be cited. In 1956, Britain, USA and France launched a combined
attack against General Nasser, the President of Egypt, on the issue of the
BIBS 30
nationalisation of Suez Canal. Nasser wanted fund from USA and Britain for the
construction of Aswan Dam on the river Nile.
First these two powers agreed and subsequently when they refused Nasser got
assurance from the then USSR and this infuriated the two big powers and they
attacked Nasser. Here the anti-communist feeling worked. The Cuban Missile Crisis is
also the consequence of the same belief.
Fidel Castro, the President of Cuba, got economic and military assistance from
communist Russia which was against American interest. These two are the handiwork
of anti- communist feeling and policy makers made it a part of their policy/decision.
Stages of Decision-Making:
We shall now deal with a very important and interesting aspect of decision-making and
it is various stages of decision-making. The decision-making can be divided into several
stages. For example, at the very rudimentary stage it is to be decided that time is quite
ripe for taking a decision because a problem has arisen and in order to cope with it a
decision is to be adopted. Again the problem is not to be allowed to aggravate.
Taking of a decision is not all it is to be properly formulated. Then the issues of
implementation and evaluation arise. Researchers have divided all these into four
different categories which are: Policy initiation, policy formulation, policy
implementation and policy evaluation.
Policy Initiation:
Policy initiation is the crucial stage of decision-making. A policy is initiated, generally, in
the background of problems or critical issues. As for instance, there is pollution of
different types and their harmfulness is quite known to all. But policies are not taken as
soon as problems arise and this generally happens. There is a gap between the
emergence of problem and the taking of a decision or clusters of decisions.
The problem of pollution started to arise in the fifties and sixties and the authorities
began to think about it in the eighties. Similarly, there are the problems of
unemployment and terrorist activities which are particularly crucial in some parts of
the globe. Though the problems are quite old taking of action had actually started in
the last decade of the twentieth century. This we call policy initiation.
Policy may originate from two sources. The first is the government or the authority of
the political system can take action. This may be called policy from the above. In
democracy very often the political parties, pressure groups, public opinion, mass
media, political agitation etc. create pressure on the authority to take a decision in
order to give relief to the people or to meet their demands. The authority knows that if
demands are not met that will open the door to complications.
Number of factors play important role in the initiation of decisions. Some of them are
stated briefly. Scholars, writers and academics are very important factors. These
persons are not directly associated with the political activities and government but
BIBS 31
their writings and opinions initiate the decision-making process. J. M. Keynes,

observations influenced the British government to adopt anti-unemployment mea-
sures.
Similarly, many liberal thinkers expressed their anti-state views in unequivocal terms.
However, the chief originators or initiators of decisions are government, parties,
groups, people themselves. People sometime create such situation or events that
force the government to take policy on the eve of election parties declare schemes
through manifestos and after victory implement them.
Formulation of Decision:
Once it has been decided that in order to cope with the situation or problem a decision
is to be prepared, policy-makers then proceed to adopt decision and this is called
policy/decision formulation which is the second stage. Making of decision is also highly
complex because the persons associated with this task cannot do the job at a stroke.
Various proposals and alternatives are placed before the policy-makers and they are to
select only the necessary ones. This is a tough job because the quality and efficacy of
the decision depends to a large extent on the elements with the help of which it has
been made. Again the policy/decision-making is a composite which means number of
persons is involved in the preparation. Differences of opinion there may be and these
must be settled before a policy is finally made.
Policy formulation also has a stage. The policy must be stated in clear terms and the
objectives shall be stated clearly. It is the duty of the decision-makers to say that the
decision has been formulated in the background of certain problems and issues and it
is designed to perform such and such tasks.
In the decision it will also be stated that priority to some issues has been given. A
decision is not a permanent matter, with the change of time and circumstances the
policy must be able to adjust and there shall be provisions.
There is another aspect of policy formulation. A policy may be formulated on the basis
of consultation which means that only few decision-makers are not involved in the
formulation works. They do the job in deep consultation with others who are supposed
to be associated with it.
Sometimes we see that few persons formulate a policy without taking into
consideration of others views and finally it is imposed on others. The former can
conveniently be called democratic procedure and the latter an autocratic method.
The formulation of policy may aim either at short-term or long-term objectives.
Whatever be the case the formulators must proceed taking into consideration of the
nature of the objectives. It has been found that the nature of policy depends on the
attitude, outlook and belief of the persons who provides the leadership in the
formulation. Margaret Thatcher was the P.M. of Britain during the period 1979-1990.
She formulated a number of policies whose core elements constitute deregulation and
privatization combined with authoritarian social policy. In economic and social policies
she wanted to reduce the importance and role of the state but once the state has
BIBS 32
adopted a policy of privatization that must be implemented by it with authoritarian

power.
The Marxists also formulate policy for radical changes of society. But the final decision
is taken by few top brass of party or bureaucracy. Even in the USA, top industrialists
are found taking important part in the policy formulation.
Implementation of Policy:
Implementation of decision is the third stage of policy. In conventional analysis there is

a dichotomy between policy-making and policy implementation. The political leaders
or the government formulate decision and then it is left for the bureaucrats to
implement it. In this way there is a clear dichotomy between formulation and
implementation. But in recent analysis this dichotomy has been kept aside.
The formulators of the decision decide the aspects of implementation. They will not
formulate such policies as well face problems in the period of implementation. If the
formulators could not predict these problems implementation will face not only
troubles, the very objective will remain unrealized. In a democratic state if the persons
in charge of implementation do not do the job properly the political leaders must be
prepared to give explanations to the electorate. There is another aspect of
implementation. Once a decision has been implemented the formulators will have to
study the impact of the decision. This is necessary because of the reason that if the
policy fails to reach the goal its revision or reformulation will be required. Of course,
hundred percent successes in implementation can never be expected.
But there is moderate range and if it is not achieved the persons will review the policy.
So we find that implementation of policy is a stage which can warn the formulators. In
democratic systems the impact of the implementation of policy is highly considered
because the persons want to know the effects of policy. This they did taking account of
the forth-coming elections.
Evaluation:
The final stage of the decision-making process is the evaluation. The policy makers or
the authority after the implementation sits to ponder over the pros and cons of the
policy. The chief objective is to study the success and failure of the policy. This is called
evaluation. On what basis the authority starts to evaluate the decision which has been
implemented? It collects facts, data or information about the decision and on the basis
of all these the evaluation task is done. Needless to say that here, the communication
network function and the political system fully utilises this for its purpose. What are
the consequences of evaluation?
(1) If the activities of the decision are fully unsatisfactory that is the decision has
squarely failed then the authority/policy makers may think of abandoning the policy.
Of course this is not a very usual procedure because if the decisions were made after
applying a good deal of rationality the question of abandoning it does not arise. If it is
abandoned a new policy is being imitated to replace the old one.
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(2) If the decision is partly successful, the decision-makers start to investigate the
causes of such results and if they feel that there are reasonable grounds of partial
success and partial failure, then in that situation they seriously think about revising the
decision keeping the causes of failure in mind.
(3) In the cases of complete and partial failure the authority orders a thorough enquiry.
It wants to know whether the decision itself is defective or ill-timed or inappropriate.
(4) If the cause of the failure is the defective or ineffective communication network,
then the policy makers will make an attempt to rectify the communication system.
(5) The failure may be caused by the peoples unwillingness to accept the decision. If
the people feel that the decision implemented by the political authority of the state
cannot meet their needs, they will not co-operate with the authority in this regard. Or
the people may object to the policy or ideological or political grounds the
implementation may cause problems.
(6) The success of a policy/decision largely depends upon peoples acceptability and
this again depends on the answer to the questionwho gets? What? And at what
cost? In the operative aspects of the decision this questions are of vital importance.
If a policy is rejected root and branch, a new policy is initiated by the authority and the
stages start anew. A decision is initiated, formulated, implemented and finally
evaluated. One point is the whole process of decision making along with its
implementation are very complex and almost all the segments of society are
interlinked with each other. In democracy there is no question of imposing a decision
on the public. People always view decision from the standpoint of teleology.
General Assessment:
1. There is a large proliferation of the decision-making theory. There is a decision-
making approach in business organisation. For the satisfactory management and
administration of the big business organisation, decision-making process is being
structured and it is periodically assessed and amended to suit the needs of time and
attitude of society, people etc. Again there is a decision-making approach for domestic
politics. The bureaucrats and other policy makers formulate policies for agencies and
various governmental departments. Thirdly, there is a decision-making approach for
international politics. So these are the three different approaches. Andrew Heywood
suggests four different models viz. Rational actor model, Incremental model, Bureau-
cratic organisation model and Belief system model.
All these models suggested by Heywood have viewed decision-making theory from
their respective standpoints. It is generally believed that all these models unnecessarily
create confusion in the minds of readers. -We can ask what is the exact approach to
the study of decision-making approach?
2. Critics have raised objection about the too much emphasis on rationality. The term
rationality is associated with the concept of economic man who seeks to take a venture
in the business world on the basis of cost-benefit calculation. The critics observe that
what holds good for one discipline may not hold good for another discipline. Rational
economic man and rational policy-maker are not same or identical persons. The
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approaches of both are likely to differ and to produce different results. Hence the
application of rationality with same context may raise eyebrows.
3. The application of rationality raises question. For examples, it means the decision
maker very carefully proceeds while he decides to take an action or announce a policy.
He weighs all the aspects and sides of any venture. This is rationality. Secondly, he
analyses and judges all the alternatives and their advantages and disadvantages.
Thirdly, after considering everything he takes a decision. This is called rationality. But
critics argue that this is the extreme manifestation of rationality and it is too difficult to
apply in reality. Situation, alternatives, circumstances etc. are subject to change and in
that case the concept of rationality will prove futile.
4. Some critics are of opinion that too much dependence on alternatives and numerous
other considerations are not the suitable way of framing decisions. This excessive
dependence is the manifestation of irrationality. The decision-maker will definitely
weigh the pros and cons of all alternatives and factors but, in ultimate analysis he will
have to take a final decision. This will reveal his intelligence, acumen, experiences, and
ability to form opinion and to take decision. A good decision-maker is one who takes
decision on his own after considering everything.
5. Rationality of the decision maker can never be the sole determiner of any effective
policy/decision. For an effective policy besides rationality also required other elements
such as correct and impartial facts and information, normative value of society beliefs
and faith etc. It is unfortunate that Snyder fails of give due consideration to all these
elements/factors. A decision-maker frames a policy on the basis of news provided by
an efficient communication-network. But this is also a quite separate issue and the
relation between decision-making and the communication network is to be properly
studied and investigated. In Snyders analysis we do not find that confirmation.
6. There is another drawback of this approach. In the decision-making process very
often personal liking/disliking, phobia etc. play vital role. When this happens the
decision-making process and the decision itself both are bound to be imperfect.
Without highlighting this aspect Snyder has committed a mistake.
During the heyday of Cold War period Washington was at loggerhead with Moscow
without any valid reason. The main plank of animosity was intolerance, blind
opposition to others belief and faith and to destroy the opposite. All these cannot be
the proper criteria of decision-making process, but during the Cold War they were.
Since these constituted the bases of decision-making process the decision itself failed
to be imperfect and defective.
7. When examined more closely rational calculation may not appear to be a
particularly convincing model of decision-making. The model is more easily applied to
individuals. The implication of this criticism is the individuals in their personal cases
may take the help of this model and for large business organisations or governmental
departments this is not a fruitful way.
8. Y. Dror has criticised Lindbloms incremental model of decision-making. Dror argues
that incremental change by successive limited comparison is only adequate if the
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results of present policies are reasonably satisfactory, if there is continuity in the

nature of the problem, and if there is continuity in the available means for dealing with
it. Lindbloms incrementalism cannot satisfy all these ifs simultaneously.
9. There is hardly any importance of the political leadership in the bureaucratic
organisation model. In both parliamentary and presidential systems political leadership
always gets precedence over the bureaucratic leadership. But bureaucratic
organisational model offers us a scheme in which bureaucracy plays a leading role in
policy-making process.
This is unusual. F.D. Roosevelts role in New Deal period is known to many. All the
major policies to combat the Great Depression were initiated by him and bureaucracy
had nothing to do. But so far as the importance of bureaucracy in policymaking affairs
is concerned Ralph Miliband, noted Marxist, holds the view that in USA bureaucracy
plays vital part in both policy formulation and administration.
(a) A bundle of drawbacks stated above should not detract our attention from the
contribution Snyders theory of decision-making makes to the analysis of international
policies in general and power politics in particular.
During the Cold War period and even in subsequent years Snyders decision-making
approach was profusely used to explain the international events and the gestures of
the big and superpowers. The decision-making approach is regarded as a convenient
and effective method of analysing foreign policy and the relations among nations. So,
the worth of the approach is undeniable.
(b) We know that in international relations and politics (sometimes two are separate)
there are several factors such as states, individuals, international organisations,
transitional organisations etc. In different spheres these actors have been found to be
active. In the wide area of foreign policy both the states and the individuals are both
actors.
It is the duty of the state to prepare the general guideline of any foreign policy and the
individuals prepare the foreign policy. This is the decision-making. Without individuals
(they may be bureaucrats, technocrats or any other person) the decision making
concept will never be translated into reality. The state is an abstract concept. The
individuals perform everything and the decisions go in the name of state.
(c) It has been observed by the critics that the decision-making theory is more
concerned with the processes of decision-making and less with the consequences of
decisions. But this criticism is unfounded.
In the incremental model it has been said that the policy-makers do not always jump
upon policy-making. They proceed slowly and cautiously and study the consequences
of a policy after which they decide the next course of action. Every decision-maker
meticulously observes the impact of the policy and after that considers how to
proceed.
(d) Snyder has approached decisions-making from a particular angle which is
individuals play important part. But we have analysed other models which highlight the
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other aspects of the decision-making approach. For example, some scholars have said
that beliefs and ideology have important part in the decision-making process.
Again, various organisations and institutions have made their contribution to the
making of foreign policy or decision making processes. So Snyders theory does not
offer us a complete picture about decision-making process.
But this does not mean that his approach is wrong or has no meaning in reality. The
credit of Snyder is he is a pioneer in this field and he has drawn our attention to the
fact that decision making approach can conveniently be used to study foreign policy
and to investigate international events.
The state cannot move in an uncharted sea and if it tries to do so that will be a fruitless
venture. Hence for the proper and effective performance and administration
decision/policy is essential and if so there must be a logical and scientific method of
policy making. Decision-making is an important part of state administration and we
should not have any hesitation in admitting that Snyder has done a seminal job by
initiating and popularising the decision-making approach to politics.
Simons Theory
Simon is one of the most influential social scientists and his role in shaping the
20th century social science was unparalleled. Simon published his doctoral dissertation
as administrative behaviour in 1947 and it is one of the 20th centurys ten top most
influential works in political science, public administration and management.
Simon was influenced by Foletts idea on group dynamics in organizations and the
human relations approach pioneered by Elton Mayo and others. Barnards functions of
the executive had a positive influence on Simons thinking about administration.
Simon sought to develop a science of administration and unlike classicists made human
decision making as the central theme of his studies. He considered decision-making as
a process of drawing conclusions from premises, therefore premise rather than whole
decision is unit of analysis.
He equated administration with decision-making and laid emphasis on how decisions

are made and how they be made more effectively.
Another reason for acceptance and popularity of Simons theory was due to its
apparent subsuming of several administrative functions such as Fayols POCCC and
Gulicks POSDCoRB into a single all-embracing concept of decision-making.
Simon disapproved policy-administration dichotomy both on descriptive and normative

grounds and in its place proposed fact-value dichotomy based on his decision-making
schema. To Simon, science of administration should be based on factual premises of
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decision-making. This should be based on systematic, empirical investigation and

analysis, inductive and descriptive methods.
Simon believed that science of administration is applicable to both private and public
organisation as they have more similarities than differences.
Simon criticized narrowness of the traditional approach and the principles of

administration and calls them proverbs and myths. Simons says that when research has
been done, when a basic vocabulary to the satisfaction of many scholars has been
developed, when decision making has been analysed, when limits to rationality
imposed by restricting abilities, habits, values and knowledge have been explored fully
then and only then it may be possible to have valid principles of administration and
know-how to apply them.
Decision-making:
An organisation is viewed by Simon as structure of decision makers. To him decisions

are made at all levels of the org, some of them affecting many members, while others
are relatively less important decisions about detail.
Each decision is based on a number of premises and Simon focuses his attention on
how these premises are determined. Some of these premises pertain to the decision-
makers preference, some to his social conditioning and others to the communications
he receives from organization units.
As per Simon, decision-making process involves three phases
1. Intelligence activity finding occasion for decision-making. The executive tries to

understand the organizational environment and identifies conditions which need fresh
action.
2. Design activity identifying, developing and analyzing all possible courses of action
3. Choice activity choosing among courses of action
Simon says that those 3 stages appear to be simple and one preceding the other, in
practice the sequence is more complex. Each stage may involve all the 3 stages in itself.
In conclusion few more words may be stated. The decision-making approach is not
without any limitations. But the mere fact is that it has immense importance in the
present day structure of administration and relation between authority and public. The
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state must do some works for the welfare of the people, and that requires policy
formulation.
Communication & Control
Communication Theory
You have a brilliant idea with you but dont possess the power of communication. You
have a strong desire for something, but cannot express your desires. Life would be dull,
blank and the world would not be worth living. Such is the power of communication.
To express themselves, human beings need to communicate. An individual has to
communicate to express his feelings, pass on information to the other human beings
and share his thoughts and feelings.
Communication theory was proposed by S. F. Scudder in the year 1980. It states that all
living beings existing on the planet communicate although the way of communication
is different.
Plants communicate their need to be taken care of and watered immediately through
visible changes in the colour of the leaves, and the falling of leaves and flowers.
Animals communicate by sounds, several movements to indicate that they are hungry
or unwell or need medical attention.
A mother would never understand that her child is hungry unless and until the child
cries. Crying is again a form through which the child communicates that he is hungry
and needs food. The same applies when he is injured, where he uses crying again as a
tool to communicate his pain and need of urgent medical attention.
Thus the universal law of communication theory says that all living beings whether
they are plants, animals, human beings communicate through sound, speech, visible
changes, body movements, gestures or in the best possible way to make the others
aware of their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness or any other information.
Like human beings, animals also communicate among themselves through gestures
and body movements. Monkeys always carry their babies with them wherever they go,
again a way through which the mother tries to communicate that their babies are safe
and the mother is there to take good care of them. During the mating season of
animals, communication through gestures plays a very important role in bringing them
close, the same way a peacock dances to attract its partner.
Another model of communication says that communication is simply the process of
transferring information from the sender to the recipient where the recipient decodes
the information and acts accordingly. Large number of people also supports this model
of communication.
Communication Theory Framework
Let us examine communication and communication theory through the following
viewpoints:
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Mechanistic - The mechanistic view point says that communication is simply

the transmission of information from the first party to the second party. The
first party being the sender and the second party being the receiver.
Psychological - According to the psychological view point, communication is
simply not the flow of information from the sender to the receiver but actually
the thoughts, feelings of the sender which he tries to share with the
recepients. It also includes the reactions, feelings of the receiver after he
decodes the information.
Social - The social view point considers communication as a result of
interaction between the sender and the receiver. It simply says that
communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech. How one
communicates is the basis of the social view point.
Systemic - The systemic view point says that communication is actually a new
and a different message which is created when various individuals interpret it
in their own way and then reinterpret it and draw their own conclusion.
Critical - The critical view point says that communication is simply a way with
the help of which an individual expresses his power and authority among other
individuals.
To summarize the communication theory proposes that to survive, every living entity,
needs to communicate with others and also among themselves. Communication is a
dire need of survival.
Controlling Theory
Control theory is one point of view that attempts to answer this question. The theory
starts with the premise that people are essentially interested in satisfying their needs
and desires and do not want to experience negative consequences. They particularly
do not want to have others look poorly on them and risk losing support and approval
from those in their life. Control theory identifies these bonds we have with others as a
main reason most people do not violate laws.
Control theory has also been used to explain why most people do not engage in
other deviant behavior. Deviant behavior is acting in a way that does not fit in with the
norms of society. Deviance may or may not also be criminal behavior, actions that
violate the law. For instance, dancing on the sidewalk by myself may not violate any
laws, but the behavior could be considered deviant, depending on the circumstances.
Imagine what would happen if you decided you wanted a new television, but did not
want to pay for it. You steal it, get caught, and are punished for your criminal act. Was
it worth it? For most people, the possibility of obtaining a television is no reason to risk
their freedom to live outside of jail or risk the judgement of people in their life. Being
punished with jail time is an example of an external control. External controls are
people and institutions--such as police, family, friends, teachers, the government, and
other authority figures --that will respond if you behave outside of the norm.
The other type of control is internal control. This includes our values, our conscience,
and our desire to receive approval from other people, particularly those in our close
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relationships. Internal and external control impact our willingness to obey laws and
adhere to cultural norms, including ones we don't like. Even if we didn't get caught
stealing the television, many people would feel guilty about taking something they did
not buy. An internal control might even cause a person to turn herself into the police.
Turning herself in would relieve a sense of guilt caused by internal controls, even if this
means she would be punished by external controls.
Our Bonds with Society
Travis Hirschi, the criminologist who described control theory, proposed that there are
four elements of our bond with society that prevent most people from violating the
law and acting in other deviant ways. These bonds are attachment, commitment,
involvement, and belief.
Attachment is the bond we have with the people in our life. We typically do not want
these people to view us negatively or disapprove of our behavior. We want acceptance
and approval from others close to us, in most cases. How would you feel if your
parents or loved one found out you had stolen something expensive? What if you had
assaulted a person or murdered someone? How do you think this would affect how
they view you and interact with you?
Commitment is a feeling of having invested resources and time to create a particular
life and viewing this investment as worthy of protection. Even if you're tempted to
violate the law in some way, your sense that you have invested heavily in a particular
(non-deviant) path might prevent you from 'throwing it all away.'
Control theory also states that if you're engaged in a variety of typical activities that
don't violate norms and laws, your involvement will prevent you from spending time
committing deviant or criminal behaviors. If you're engaged in productive things like
work, parenting, exercising at the gym, going to the movies, and so on, you won't have
a lot of unstructured time available to you. Thus, you'll probably not have the time or
drive to steal that TV.
Motivation
Motivational Theory
1. Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory:
It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Maslows
need hierarchy theory Maslows theory is based on the human needs. Drawing chiefly
on his clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a hierarchical manner
from the lower to the higher order.
In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves
to motivate man. Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated in order to
motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as shown in
figure.
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1. Physiological Needs:
These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air,
water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of
human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behaviour. These needs are to
be met first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological needs
are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.
2. Safety Needs:
After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and
security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and
protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and,
hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these
become inactive once they are satisfied.
3. Social Needs:
Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship,
belongingness, etc. It is this socialising and belongingness why individuals prefer to
work in groups and especially older people go to work.
4. Esteem Needs:
These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which
indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence.
The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and capability of
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being useful in the organisation. However, inability to fulfill these needs results in
feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.
5. Self-Actualisation Needs:
This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs
of human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the
need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.
The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become
actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the persons
motivation to transform perception of self into reality.
According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The
second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need
does not emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes
on. The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However,
Maslows need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors.
The main criticisms of the theory include the following:
1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may
be overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the
social need may emerge.
2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.
3. Researches show that mans behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of
behaviour. Hence, Maslows preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of
doubtful validity.
4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For
example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the
rest of his life if only he/she can get enough food.
Notwithstanding, Maslows need hierarchy theory has received wide recognition,

particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theorys intuitive
logic and easy to understand.
2. Herzbergs Motivation Hygiene Theory:
The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and propsed a new
motivation theory popularly known as Herzbergs Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor)
Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants
and engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania.
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He asked these people to describe two important incidents at their jobs:
(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and
(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident
method of obtaining data.
The responses when analysed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The
replies respondents gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly
different from the replies given when they felt bad. Reported good feelings were
generally associated with job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job dissatisfaction.
Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or
maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors have become
known as Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation
Herzbergs motivational and hygiene factors have been shown in the Table
According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. The

underlying reason, he says, is that removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job
does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual
continuum. The opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction and the opposite of
dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.
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According to Herzberg, todays motivators are tomorrows hygiene because the latter
stop influencing the behavior of persons when they get them. Accordingly, ones
hygiene may be the motivator of another.
However, Herzbergs model is labeled with the following criticism also:
1. People generally tend to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame
failure on the external environment.
2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.
3. Even job satisfaction is not measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that a
person may dislike part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.
4. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.
Role Civil Service in a Society
India is a democratic country and in this system, power confers with the people. The
power is exercised through its designated representatives who have the command to
manage them for particular period. The civil services by quality of its knowledge,
experience and understanding of public affairs support the chosen representatives to
device effectual policy and have great responsibility to implement these policies for the
welfare of society and enhancement of nation. Parliamentary democracies are
generally pigeonholed by a permanent civil service which helps the political
policymakers and political executives.
India is a constitutional fairness and its operations are usually depends upon four
supports that include Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, and Free Press. Each one of
these has been assigned its role in democratic establishment. First pillar is associated
with the governance of the State. Effective and efficient institutions form the strength
of an efficacious development and governance process. One of the basic components
of Indian governance planning is the concept of an unbiased, honest, efficient and
valiant civil service which is the core of the Executive whether it is All India Services or
the other Civil Services. They form the stable structure and support of Indian
Administration System.
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The civil service is a subdivision of government which is usually grouped with the
Executive, and without which governments cannot function. These are men and
women who establish the permanent staff of the departments of governments. They
are expert administrators. Some academicians refer jointly to these employees as
public administration or the bureaucracy, or public service. Olaopa (2008) stated that
civil service, although commonly used, is usually misinterpreted. According to Lawson,
(1974), the civil service is the term used to designate servants of the state or the
central government employed as civilians.
It does not include ministers or cabinet members or the Judiciary. In some countries, it
usually does not cover local government employees nor the staff of public enterprises.
In this framework, the civil service will embrace civilian employees of state and federal
governments only, excluding cabinet ministers and the judiciary. Idode, (1986),
explained civil service as the "array of administrative and professional staff employed,
on permanent and pensionable basis to established posts, by the state, to advise on
and execute its policies.
Historical review of civil services: Civil service is described as the body of government
officials who are recruited in civil administration that are neither political nor judicial.
The public administration system in India has been established since ancient times.
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Therefore, the notion of civil service was predominant in India from earlier period in
history. In the past era, the civil servants performed the role of servants of the king.
The Mauryan administration employed civil servants in the name of adhyakshas and
rajukas. The investigation for civil servants in those days too was very stringent as
revealed by Kautilya's Arthasastra. The expanse of the region and the need to hold it
intact made it vital for the Mauryan administration to recruit civil servants based on
excellence.
The modern history of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) began with the East India Company.
In the period of 1800 AD, Lord Wellesley realised that the administrators of the Empire
must be qualified, expertise, and character established the College of Fort William
where every worker of the company was to be sent for a three-year course of
education of the standards of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Among other
subjects taught were ethics and international law, and in addition, Indian history and
oriental languages. The Directors, however, while accepting the proposal decided that
the college should be in England. This is how that, for a whole half-century and more,
all members of the Civil Service were qualified and specially trained at the East India
College at Haileybury. The method of employment was by competitive examination but
the method of entry was by nomination of the Directors.
There is immense importance of the civil service system in the administrative system
which acts as most vital tool for governance of India. In post-independent, India civil
service was reorganised. There are three tiers of administration that include
Union/Central Government, State Government, and Local Government. At the central
level, the civil service include the All India Services, namely the Indian Administrative
Service (IAS). Indian Foreign Service (IFS), Indian Forest Service (IFS), and Indian Police
Service (IPS). Besides these, there are other Central Services such as the Indian
Revenue Service, Indian Railways Service, etc. at central level. The State Governments
have their own set of services like State Civil Service. Gradually, with time, the role of
civil services has transformed that depend on the schedule of the governance of that
specific period. During British period, enforcement of law and order and collection of
revenue was major issue of civil services officers. After independence of India, when
the Government has attained the role of Welfare State, civil services has imperative
role in implementing national and state policies of welfare and planned development.
The importance of the civil service to the Indian administrative system develops from
the following factors:
1. Service presence throughout the country and its strong binding character.
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2. Non-partisan advice to political leadership in the midst of political instability

and uncertainties.
3. Effective policy-making and regulation.
4. Effective coordination between institutions of governance.
5. Leadership at different levels of administration.
6. Service delivery at the cutting edge level.
7. Provide "continuity and change" to the administration.
It has been observed that civil services are considered as main component of Indian
administrative system that has the responsibility to accomplish the development
objectives and welfare of the state. If these objectives have any failure or
shortcomings, it has been thought that it is a failure of civil services. It is thought that
India's vast administration is maintained at huge cost by the country's taxpayer whose
average income is among the lowest in the world. But public perceives for the
members of the civil service, who are responsible for higher coordination and policy
makers as `burdensome low-performers' and corrupt and incompetent to govern the
country.
Major responsibilities of civil servants to government and society: It has been found
that The Civil Servant has crucial role to ensure continuity and change in
administration. The civil servants are dictated by the rules and procedures.
1. The prime responsibility of civil services executives to society is to serve the
government it has elected. It denotes that civil services must offer same
standard of free, frank, impartial and responsive advice, and the same level of
professionalism in administration and delivery of services, policies, programs
irrespective of political party in power.
2. Another accountability of civil services executive is to openly involve in all
actions within the framework of ministerial actions to government and
legislature.
3. Specifically, civil servants are responsible for public interest in maintaining the
law and ensuring that proper procedures are followed.
4. Civil servants has close relations with society as they serve array of services. It
entails that they must adopt ethical practices to deal with public.
5. Civil servants need to serve the society by ensuring that entitlement and
services provided to it under law and government policies are delivered
effectively, impartially, courteously and professionally.
6. Civil services officers also responsive to the need of people, treating its
member with courtesy and with sensitivity to their rights and aspirations.
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Ethics in Public administration

Public administration is viewed as a part of the executive branch of government.
Following Charles de Montesquieu ideas we may recognize executive as an element of
the state power and this element consists of agencies, ministries and other structures
jointly referred to as Public Administration. This view of public administration
combines in general all activities concerning public good and public interest. Within the
administrative state machinery we may find public administration officials, special
administrative procedures and many other mechanisms, which are characteristic to all
bureaucratic organizations. Public administration is a part of our daily life and to a large
extent governs it. The administrative apparatus consist of people who are also
members of the local community (communities). Citizens and public officials, who have
access to power, have to coexist together in one area, one space.
The difference between them is that public administration officials have to provide
services in aid of community. Because of this work, based on public monies and
property the possibility of betraying public trust is probable. There is no simplest thing,
than spending someones money, even if we do not get direct profits. Ethical behavior
and decisions maintaining citizens trust, ensure effective and efficient use of
resources, and allow government to preserve individual rights while assisting those
who will benefit the most. Ethics is one of the vital components that allow democracy
to thrive in any country. Ethics in government is critical to realizing the promises of
democracy. In a democracy, government has an obligation to treat everyone equally
and to provide the greatest good to most of citizens.
The effective operation of democratic government requires that public officials and
employees be independent, impartial, and responsible to the people. Government
decisions and policies should be made within the proper structure of government;
public office shall not be used for personal gain; and the public has to have confidence
in the integrity of its government. When ethical wrongdoings and scandals occur in
government, they pose a threat to the democratic principles of the rule of law, equity,
and individual rights. Fraud, bribery, and other abuses in government take the power
from people and give it to a few in position of control, which distorts the concept of
the equality of all participants of public life.
The definition of social ethics embraces a set of norms, assessments and opinions,
which are characteristic of a group of people. This very simple definition of ethics
points to society, citizens, groups of people as creators of norms and standards of
behavior. Ethics are standards of conduct. These standards can be applied to personal
behavior. Ethics distinguish between the right and wrong ways directing behavior in
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our personal and professional life. Following this way of thinking we may establish a
definition of administrative ethics using the words: norms, legal regulations,
assessments of public administration officials, public service. Public service ethics are a
prerequisite to, and underpinning of public trust, and are a keystone of good
governance. Public service is a public trust. Citizens expect public servants to serve the
public interest with fairness and to manage public resources properly on a daily basis.
Fair and reliable public services inspire public trust and create a favorable environment
for businesses, thus contributing to wellfunctioning markets and economic growth.
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Accountability and Control
Accountability and Control

Chapter Structure
1. The concepts of Accountability and control
2. Legislative, executive and judicial control
3. Citizen and Administration: Role of civil society & people's participation
4. Right to Information
Accountability of Public Administration;
Transparency and accountability are often talked about in the context of

administration in general and civil services reforms in particular. Accountability of
public administration implies that for every action and inaction in government and its
consequences there is a civil servant responsible and accountable to the government,
the society and the people. Political accountability implies an established legal
framework based on the rule of law and independence of judiciary to protect human
rights, secure social justice and guard against exploitation and abuse of power. On the
other hand Bureaucratic accountability ensures a system to monitor and control the
performance of government offices and officials in relation to quality of service,
inefficiency and abuse of discretionary powers. The phenomenal increase in the
functions of the government leads to the expansion in the powers and functions of
public administration. Power in a democratic society needs to be controlled and
greater the power, the greater is the need for the control as the grant of power carries
with it the possibility of misuse of power. The major dilemma before the governments
of the day is to vest the sufficient power to serve the purpose in the view, but at the
same time to maintain adequate control. The need for effective control of
administration thus is obvious.
Legislative Control
In India the legislature, the representative body of the people exercises control over
the administration. The administration cannot act contrary to the guidelines laid down
by the legislature. It lays down the broader policy of administration. The legislature not
only defines the functions of the government but also provides the finance for its
various programs. The control over financial matters is exercised through the various
committees established by the legislature. The administration cannot spend a single
rupee without the sanction of legislature. The administration is expected to keep the
accurate account of all financial transactions and submit the reports of such
transactions to the legislature. The legislature also deals with the matter related with
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Accountability and Control Public Administration and Environmental Studies
public personnel. The manner of recruitment of the public personnel, their number,
their duties and powers, their service conditions, rules of procedure, code of conduct
etc. are determined by the legislature.
The failure to adhere to those rules accounts for the disciplinary action against the
administration. Further the public personnel are held responsible for their official acts.
They are supposed to keep the proper records of their official acts and submit the
reports to the legislature at least once a year, when called upon by the legislature
giving a full account of their acts. The legislature may also conduct the special
investigation or inquiry of the manner in which administrative affairs have been
conducted. The legislature has the general power of direction, supervision and control
over administration.
The means of legislative control:
The opportunity to exercise control over the administration assumes several forms
such as questions, resolutions, Zero-Hour Discussions, Adjournment Motions, Vote of
Censure, Budget and the Parliamentary Committees. These various means are
discussed below.
The Presidents Speech: Every new session of the parliament opens up with the speech
of the President. The President in his speech spells out the broader policies and
activities of executives in the foreseeing future. The first four days of every session are
set aside for the general discussion on the speech. The members of the parliament
hold discussions on the Presidential speech which give them the opportunity to
criticize the executive action.
Discussion on Budget: The parliament every year sanctions the funds for the
expenditure of the executive. After the budget is presented by the Finance Minister in
the Parliament the general discussion on the budget takes place. In the process of
enactment of the budget every department puts forth the demands for grants and for
the approval of the Parliament. At this stage the members of Parliament get the
opportunity to discuss and evaluate the affairs of the administration of various
departments. The members of the opposition can also move cut motions to express
their displeasure with the working of the administration at this stage. Thus the
discussion on the finance bill provides the members of Parliament an opportunity to
discuss the entire administration.
Question Hour :
It is a very powerful technique of legislative control over administration. During the
session of the Parliament, every parliamentary day starts with the question hour. The
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first hour of the day is reserved for questions. The purpose of the question hour is to
elicit information or clarification on the matters pertaining to public interest. The
members of the Parliament address written questions to the government. On an
average thirty questions are asked. If the members of parliament are not satisfied with
the answers they can ask supplementary questions. In practice the actual purpose of
the question hour is to draw public attention to the failure and abuse of authority by
the government or to address the public grievances.
Adjournment Motions :
To draw the attention of the government to the questions of urgent nature and of
public importance such as flood, earthquake etc. The device of adjournment motion is
used. If the moving of adjournment motion is permitted by the presiding officer then
the normal business of the House is suspended for the day and the immediate debate
takes place. During the debate and the discussion on the adjournment motion the
members of parliament get an opportunity to criticize the administration. Adjournment
Motion is the tool of day today control.
Censure Motion:
This means the Vote of No-Confidence. The members of the Parliament have the right
to move the Vote of No-confidence in order to express the total disapproval of the
policy of the government or the part of it. In case of an adverse vote the government
has to resign.
Debates on the legislation:

The bill of law passes through various stages before the enactment. The various
readings of the Bill provide an opportunity to the members of Parliament to criticize
the entire policy underlying the bill.
Parliamentary committees:
The Parliamentary committees act as a tool of effective control over the
administration. The financial committees of the Parliament such as Public Accounts
Committee, Estimates Committee and the Committee on Public Undertakings exercise
detail and substantial control over the financial matters. The Committee on Assurances
reports on as to what extent the assurances given by the ministers on the floor of the
House are implemented in a specified time limit required for the purpose. Such enquiry
makes ministers more responsible and careful and administration to take quick action
on the given promises.
Audit :
The office of Comptroller and Auditor General audits all the government accounts to
ensure that the money granted by the Parliament have been used for the stated
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purpose and the amount has not exceeded without sanction of the supplementary
grant by the parliament and the expenditure confirms to the rules. The reports
regarding the same are submitted by the CAG to the Parliament.
Limitations of Legislative Control :

Though the legislature lays down the general policy of the government by enactment,
amendment of laws, it has been observed that in practice this responsibility is shifted
to the executive branch. The executives generally take initiative in Policy Making in
which civil servants play a decisive role. In majority of the cases even the bills of
legislation originate from the executive branch and the bureaucracy.
The work of the administrative branch has increased in volume and complexity. The
members of the parliament who meet only during the session do not have the
necessary time and expertise to control the expanding administrative work.
Members of the Parliament often do not possess the required technical knowledge of
the various departments and therefore cannot effectively criticize the working of the
department and their demands for grants.
In the parliamentary form of government the administrative officials are not directly
responsible to the legislature. They cannot be called before the House to give
explanation of their official acts. Though they can be called by the Committees of
Parliament they are not obliged to answer personal criticism. It is the Minister who
shoulders the responsibility for the administrative acts of his department.
Administrators thus are only indirectly responsible to the legislature.
Legislative, executive and judicial control
Executive Control
In a responsible form of government executives control over administration is one of

utmost importance. Generally the public policies originate from the Chief Executive
and they are implemented by the Civil Servants. The Civil Servants unlike the
Chief Executive enjoy the permanent tenure and are not affected by ups and downs in
the political fortune. Therefore there is the need for the control of the Civil servants by
the Chief Executive to ensure that their work confirms to the executive expectations.
This is a very difficult task. There are various methods of Executive control over
administration. They are explained below.
The overall responsibility of policy-making lies with the Chief Executive which is
performed with the help of cabinet ministers in the parliamentary system of
government. By formulating the policy the executive gives direction to the
administrative action. The ministers of the various departments are also responsible
for the direction, supervision and guiding of the departmental administration and its
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functioning. Overall coordination and control of the various branches of administration

is the responsibility of the Chief Executive.
Executive also has control over the financial matters pertaining to administration.
The Executive prepares the budget of the department, determines the sources of
income and sanctions the amount of expenditure that the department can incur. The
amount sanctioned cannot be exceeded by the administration. Thus the executive can
exercise continuous control over the administration through financial regulation.
The personnel requirements of the department are determined by the Executive.

Executive lays down the general principles for recruitment of the civil service. The
recruitment to the higher posts in a department is the Executive prerogative. The
ministers select their own Secretaries and Deputy Secretaries. The Chief Executive has
the overall power to appoint and remove the public servants till they remain in power
during the pleasure of the President.
Delegated legislation is another form of Executive control over public officials. The
Parliament generally passes the law in the skeleton form and details are filled up by the
executive departments. Further the Chief Executive has the power to issue ordinances
when the parliament is not in session and they are as authoritative and powerful as an
act passed by the legislature. This executive power can be effectively used to lay down
the rules and regulations of the administrative action.
Judicial Control
Public administration exercises a large volume of power to meet the citizens need in
modern democratic welfare state. Today administration is not concerned with only
pure administrative function but also involved with a large number of quasi-legislative
and quasi-judicial functions. In this respect they have a number of chances to become
arbitrary or master of the citizens. So it is very necessary to control them. By judicial
control is meant the power of the courts to examine the Legality of the officials act and
thereby to safeguard the fundamental and other essential rights of the citizens.
The underlying object of judicial review is to ensure that the authority does not abuse
its power and the individual receives just and fair treatment and not to ensure that the
authority reaches a conclusion, which is correct in the eye of law. It comprises the
power of a court to hold unconstitutional and unenforceable any law or order based
upon such law or any other action by a public authority which is inconsistent or in
conflict with the basic law of the land The role of judiciary in protecting the citizens
against the excesses of officials has become all the more important with the increase in
the powers and discretion of the public officials in the modern welfare states. But the
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courts cannot interfere in the administrative activities of their own accord. They can
intervene only when they are invited to do so by any person who feels that his rights
have been abrogated or are likely to be abrogated as a result of some action of the
public official. Secondly, the courts cannot interfere in each and every administrative
act, as too much of Judicial action may make the official too much conscious and very
little of it may make them negligent of the rights of citizens.
Generally judicial intervention in administrative activities is confined to the following

cases:
a) Lack of Jurisdiction:
If any public official or administrative agency acts without or beyond his or her
authority or jurisdiction the courts can declare such acts as ultra-virus. For instance,
according to administrative rules and procedures, in all organizations, the competent
authority is identified for taking decisions and actions. If any authority or person other
than the competent authority takes action, the courts intervention can be sought
under the provisions of lack of jurisdiction.
b) Error of Law:
This category of cases arises when the official misconstrues the law and imposes upon
the citizen obligations, which are absent in law. This is called misfeasance in legal
terminology. The courts are empowered to set right such cases.
c) Error of Fact:
This category of cases is a result of error in discovering cases and actions taken on basis
of wrong assumptions. Any citizen adversely affected by error of judgment of public
official can approach courts for readdress ail.
d) Error of Procedure:
Due procedure is the basis of governmental action in a democracy. Responsible
government means a government by procedure. Procedure in administration ensures
accountability, openness and justice. Public officials must act in accordance with the
procedure laid down by law in the performance of the administrative activities. If the
prescribed procedure is not followed the intervention of the courts can be sought and
legality of administrative actions can be questioned.
e) Abuse of authority:
If a public official exercises his or her authority vindictively to harm a person or use
authority for personal gain, courts intervention can be sought. In legal terms, it is
BIBS 56
called malfeasance. The courts can intervene to correct the malfeasance of

administrative acts.
Forms of Judicial control over Administration;
Judicial Review
The judicial review implies the power of the courts to examine the legality and
constitutionality of administrative acts of officials and also the executive orders and
the legislative enactments. This is very important method of judicial control The
statutes made by Parliament and State Assemblies itself provide that in a particular
type of administrative action, the aggrieved party will have a right of appeal to the
courts or to a higher administrative tribunal. Sometimes, legislative enactment itself
may provide for judicial intervention in certain matters.
Statutory Appeals
The statutes made by Parliament and State Assemblies itself provide that in a
particular type of administrative action the aggrieved party will have a right of appeal
to the courts or to a higher administrative tribunal. Sometimes, legislative enactment
itself may provide for judicial intervention in certain matters. The State is liable for the
tortuous acts of its officials in respect of the non-sovereign functions only.
Criminal and Civil Suits against Public Officials

In India civil proceedings can be instituted against a public official for anything done in
his official capacity after giving two months notice. When criminal proceedings are to
be instituted against an official for the acts done in his official capacity, previous
sanctions of the Head of the State i.e., the President or the Governor is required. Some
functionaries like the President and the Governor are immune from legal proceedings
even in respect of their
personal acts. Ministers, however, do not enjoy such immunity.
Extraordinary Remedies
Apart from the methods of judicial control already discussed, there are the
extraordinary remedies in the nature of writs of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus,
Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Waranto. These are called extraordinary remedies
because the courts grant these writs except the writ of Habeas Corpus, in their
discretion and as a matter of right and that too when no other adequate remedy is
available. A writ is an order of the court enforcing compliance on the part of those
against whom the writ is issued. In India these writs are available under the provisions
of the Constitution. While the Supreme Court is empowered to issue these writs or
orders or directives only for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights, the High Courts
are empowered to issue these writs not only for the enforcement of Fundamental
Rights but also for other rights. We will discuss these writs now.
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Habeas Corpus:
Habeas Corpus literally means to have the body of. This writ is an order issued by the
court against a person who has detained another to produce the latter before the
court and submit to its orders. If it is found that the person in unlawfully or illegally
detained, he will be set free.
Mandamus:
Mandamus literally means command. If a public official fails to perform an act which is
a part of his public duty and thereby violates the right of an individual, he /she will be
commanded to perform the act through this writ.
Prohibition:
It is a judicial writ issued by a superior court to an inferior court, preventing it from
usurping jurisdiction, which is not vested with it. While Mandamus commands activity,
Prohibition commands inactivity. This writ can be issued only against judicial or quasi-
judicial authorities to prevent exercise of excess of jurisdiction by a subordinate court.
As such, its significance as a method of judicial control over administration is limited.
Certiorari:
While Prohibition is preventive; Certiorari is both preventive and curative. It is a writ
issued by a superior court for transferring the records of proceedings of a case from an
inferior court or quasi-judicial authority to the superior court for determining the
legality of the proceedings.
Quo Waranto: Literally, Quo Waranto means on what authority. When any person
acts in a public office in which he/she is not entitled to act, the court by the issue of
this writ, will enquire into the legality of the claim of the person to that office. If the
said claim is not well founded, he or she will be ousted from that office. It is, thus, a
powerful instrument against the usurpation of public offices.
Limitations of judicial control over administration

The effectiveness of judicial control over administration is limited by many factors.
Some of these limitations are:
1. Unmanageable volume of work:

The judiciary is not able to cope up with the volume of work. In a year the courts are
able to deal with only a fraction of cases brought before it. Thousands of cases have
been pending in Supreme Court, High Courts and Lower Courts for years together for
want of time. There is an increase in the cases of litigation without a commensurate
expansion of judicial mechanism. This excessive delay in the delivery of justice
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discourages many to approach the court. The feeling of helplessness results in denial of
justice to many.
2. Post-mortem nature of judicial control:

In most of the cases the judicial intervention comes only after enough damage is done
by the administrative actions. Even if the courts set right the wrong done, there is no
mechanism to redress the trouble the citizen has undergone in the process.
3. Prohibitive Costs:
The judicial process is costly and only rich can afford it. There is some truth in the
criticism of pro-rich bias of judicial system in India. As a result, only rich are able to
seek the protection of courts from the administrative abuses. The poor are, in most
cases, the helpless victims of the administrative arbitrariness and judicial inaction.
4. Cumbersome procedure:
Many legal procedures are beyond the comprehension of common man. The
procedural tyranny frightens many from approaching the courts. Even though the
procedures have a positive dimension of ensuring fair play, too much of it negates the
whole process.
5. Statutory limitations; the courts may be statutorily prevented from exercising

jurisdiction in certain spheres. There are several administrative acts, which cannot be
reviewed by courts.
6. Specialized nature of administrative actions: The highly technical nature of some

administrative actions act as a further limitation on judicial control. The judges, who
are only legal experts, may not be able to sufficiently appreciate the technical
implications of administrative actions. As a result, their judgments may not be
authentic.
7. Lack of awareness: In developing societies, most of the people who are poor and
illiterate are not aware of judicial remedies and the role of the courts. As a result they
may not even approach the court to redress their grievances. The courts which can
intervene only when it is sought may be helpless in this situation. The general
deprivation of people also results in deprivation of justice to them.
8. Erosion of autonomy of judiciary; There is executive interference in the working of

judiciary. The quality of judiciary mostly depends on the quality of the judges. The Law
Commission made many recommendations to ensure the judicial standards of the
bench. The suggestion to create Judicial Commission with responsibility for judicial
appointments deserves serious consideration. In recent years, there are many
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allegations of corruption against judges. This undermines the prestige and the
effectiveness of the judiciary.
Citizen and Administration: Role of civil society & people's participation

The strategy of active citizenship and its implications for the way we organize and
control public services for and within our communities, is both a subject of increasing
relevance to the citizens as well as a phenomena of ever-greater importance in political
and social life in India. The role of the public in shaping communities of the future has
long been emphasised in discussions on the good governance paradigm. The image of
citizens joining together in governance has been the dream of advocates of democratic
self-government. The concept of citizen-centric governance represents the
quintessential idea of democracy. India is the worlds largest democracy and, by
comparative standards, a well-functioning one at that. Indias democratic experience
till now has ascertained that good governance must necessarily aim at an expansion of
social opportunities and removal of poverty.
Unbundling Citizen Centric Governance
Citizen centric governance has long been a part of deliberations in the public domain in
India. The traditional paradigm of the political system provides for linkages to citizens
primarily through electoral politics, public opinion polls, customer satisfaction surveys,
public hearings, organised group activities, and individual contacts. Public consultation
and deliberation among citizens and between citizens and government in the
traditional paradigm has been largely passive. Early nineteenth century onwards,
franchise was extended to previously excluded sections of population, particularly in
the western world. However, the role of the citizen as an engaged partner in the
governing process has been minimal and they have only limited information about the
governments public affairs. Citizens play a secondary role in setting agendas,
developing budgets, implementing programs, or evaluating outcomes. As a
consequence of these factors working together, a wide gulf exists between the public
expectations of democratic theory and the practice of democracy in community
governance.
Benchmarks of Effective Public Service
Delivery Public service delivery exhibits the supply side of citizen centric
administration. This includes the parameters, laws, policies and institutions that the
government puts in place in keeping with its commitment for enhancing citizens
participatory role in the governing process. Effective public service delivery implies
involvement of citizens at all stages of a programme, that is, planning, implementation
and monitoring. Granting of such agency to the citizens needs to be operationalized
through institutionalization of a variety of mechanisms to encourage peoples
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participation in governance across public agencies at all levels. To start with,

institutions need to follow the principle of subsidiarity, wherein a larger body does not
exercise functions that can be carried out efficiently by one smaller and lesser body;
the former must support the latter and help to coordinate its activity with the activities
of the whole community. Once institutions are decentralized and powers devolved in
this manner, it would be easier for the citizens to associate with them at a more local
and familiar level. This, in turn, would lead to a more clear exposition of the functions
of different institutions and particular public officials within them. Internal procedures
of government organisations require simplification for the benefit of citizens and public
officials alike.
Peoples Participation in Governance
The form and extent of peoples participation in governance processes reflects the
level to which government agencies and citizens have been able to engage
constructively for improved outcomes with regard to better service delivery, public
policy reforms, redressal of grievances and such like. Peoples participation in
governance can also broadly be seen as the demand side of citizen centric
administration. Citizens participation in governance does not embody a deepening of
democracy alone; it reflects a compete shift in the hitherto existing paradigm of
development- a shift from viewing people as recipients of development to active
participants in the development process. The concept of peoples participation in
governance is quintessentially based on the idea that people have the power and
avenues to exercise legitimate control over governance matters that affect their lives,
business and communities. It builds on the existing social capital in communities,
consisting of trust, mutual understanding, shared values and behaviour that bind
together the members of a community and make cooperative action possible. The
basic premise is that such interaction helps people commit themselves to each other
and knit the social fabric.
Democratizing impetus of citizen participation in governance
We have argued along familiar lines to establish that participatory governance makes
for better citizens, better governments and better decisions. The inclusion of a broader
spectrum of citizens makes for improved circulation of information, greater oversight
over the political process, and more robust public debate. These all presumably lead to
more effective and equitable policies. However, experiences around the world have
taught us that this is far from practical. So how can democratic and effective
participatory mechanisms be promoted? A Sao Paulo based think tank Centro
Brasileiro de Anlise e Planejamento conducted research on the various mechanisms of
social participation related to public policies in Brazil. 6 The two main conclusions of
this research were, first, the success of participatory mechanisms depends on the
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combination of several elements: committed public officials, mobilised citizens, and

innovative design features. Each of these elements alone will be insufficient to
overcome the enormous difficulties of bringing marginalised groups into the policy
process. Indeed, success almost invariably requires the simultaneous presence of state
actors interested in building alliances with civil society, of citizens and civil
organizations that display interest in participating in public policies, and of design
features that reduce the asymmetric distribution of resources among participants.
Second, participatory governance brings to the fore issues related to the distribution of
power.
Exploring Potency of Civil Society
The interplay between social capital and citizen centric administration Social capital in
communities has led to the formation of the Social Capital Institutions or the Third
Sector, which perform service, value guardian, advocacy and community building roles.
These institutions include grassroots level community based initiatives like Residents
Welfare Associations and Self Help Groups, and cooperatives of various types to
voluntary organisations, charitable societies and trusts as well as self-regulating
professional bodies such as the Medical Council of India, Bar Council etc. in terms of
participation of the corporate sector, the alignment of business operations with social
values- the essence of Corporate Social Responsibility- is the crux of its ability to
contribute to social development alongside economic development. As we have
observed, the civil society has tremendous potential to achieve good government. This
stands in direct contrast to traditional understanding that it is electoral
competitiveness, institutional design, political polarisation, bureaucratic capacity and
socio-economic modernity that determine the stability and responsiveness of
governments. Social capital theory has provided us with an additional explanatory
variable for the same. But what is the logic of the micro-linkages that tie a communitys
cooperative capacity to achievement of good governance? Civil society engagement
makes citizens sophisticated consumers of politics. Owing to active participation in
community associations, citizens are provided opportunities to discuss civic affairs. It
increases their awareness of political issues, giving them a platform to discuss whether
the government is doing everything in its capacity to improve the welfare of its people.
Right to Information
Information and knowledge are critical for realizing the human aspirations and
improvement in quality of life. In the knowledge society, acquisition of information and
knowledge and its application have intense and pervasive impact on productive gains.
People who can access to information and understand how to make use of the
acquired information in the processes of exercising their political, economic and legal
rights become empowered, in turn, build their strengths and assets. In view of this,
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almost every society has made endeavors for disseminating knowledge resources by
way of putting in place the mechanisms for free flow of information so that the citizens
can access them without waiting for it. This system ensures them to make proper
choices for participation in development process.
The efforts to disseminate information and knowledge through the use of

communication technologies such as radio, television, newspaper and internet have
yielded positive results for instance, about the new techniques of farming, health care
facilities, hazards of environmental degradation, opportunities for learning and
earning, legal remedies for combating gender biases, etc., have, over the time, made
significant contributions to the well being of under privileged mass. Democratization of
information and knowledge, by way of creating conditions for sharing among the
people, who are partners in development, is critical to the task of equalizing
opportunities for development. In view of this, the Right to Information (RTI) 52
facilitates the process for free flow of information, which forms the basis for a healthy
debate on issues of vital importance to every section of the society. India has initiated
some measures for making public institutions accountable to the people. It has been
mandated by law that people have the power to monitor and inspect the functioning
of political-bureaucratic institutions on regular basis, which is also known as social
accountability in the present context.
Social audit, community monitoring, Right to Information are some of the well-known
tools of social accountability. Right to Information is the bulwark of democratic
government. This right is essential for the proper functioning of the democratic
process. Right to Information is an integral part of the freedom of speech and
expression enshrined in Article 19(1) (A) of the constitution, which is regarded as the
first condition of liberty. It occupies preferred position in the hierarchy of liberties
giving succor and protection to other liberties. The expression freedom of speech and
expression in Article 19(1) (a) has been held to include the right to acquire
information and disseminate the same.
It includes the right to communicate it through any available media whether print or
electronic or audio-visual, such as, advertisement, movie, article or speech. .This
freedom includes the freedom to communicate or circulate ones opinion without
interference of others from our country, as well as from abroad. Without adequate
information, a person cannot form an informed opinion. In less than a decade, the
flourishing movement for the right to information in India has significantly empowered
the ordinary citizen. The citizen may now exercise significant check over the arbitrary
use of power by the public office functionaries and thereby the democratic set-up of
the country is expanding. People of India have 53 battled long to achieve the
constitution and thereby acquires the inalienable fundamental rights. The right to
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information is also one of fundamental rights in the constitution. But the right does not
carry with it a right in an absolute sense to gather information.
A reasonable restriction on the exercise of the right to know or right to information can
always put in order to ensure the security of the State. Generally, the exemptions/
exceptions under the laws referred to in Article 19(2) entitled the Government to
withhold information in the following matters:
1. International relations.
2. National security (including defense) and public safety.
3. Investigation, detection and prevention of crime.
4. Internal deliberations of the Government.
5. Information received the confidence from a source outside the Government.
6. If the information can violate the right to privacy of an individual, if disclosed.
7. If information can confer an unfair advantage on some persons or to an unfair
disadvantage i.e. of an economic nature, (including trade secrets), if disclosed.
8. Information which is subject to a claim of legal professional privilege, e.g.
communication between a legal adviser and the client; between a physician and the
patient.
9. Information about scientific discoveries.
10. Much of these have come under by the Right of Information Act, 2005.
The statutory right to information gives a legal right to have an access to government-
held information which in fact strengthens democracy by ensuring transparency and
accountability in the actions of public bodies. It enhances the quality of citizen-
participation in governance from mere vote-casting, to involvement in the decision-
making that affects her or his life. A statutory right to information would secure for
every citizen the enforceable right to question, examine, audit, review and assess
government acts and decisions, to ensure that these are consistent with the principles
of public interest, probity and justice. Alternatively, the greater the restrictions that are
placed on access, the greater the feelings of `powerlessness and alienation. Without
information, people cannot adequately exercise their rights and responsibilities as
citizens or make informed choices. Government information is a national resource.
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Financial Administration
Financial Administration
Chapter Structure
1. Budget: Meaning, Preparation & Enactment
2. Finance Ministry and its role
3. Audit and Accounts - Comptroller and Auditor General
Budget : Meaning
With the emergence of Welfare State, Governments have come to look after virtually
every sphere of human life. They have to perform manifold functions from maintaining
law and order, protecting their territories to implementation of plans for economic and
social betterment. Besides, they provide a variety of social services like education,
health, employment and housing to the people. Needless to say, Government require
adequate resources to discharge these functions effectively. Where is this money to
come from and who is to sanction the funds? The necessary funds are mobilised from
the countrys resources by way of taxes both direct and indirect, loans both long-term
and short-term, to meet the Governmental expenditure. In India, the principal sources
of revenue are customs and excise duties and Income-tax on individuals and
companies.
Need for Budget
It is not as if the Government can tax, borrow and spend money the way it likes. Since
there is a limit to the resources, the need for proper budgeting arises to allocate scarce
resources to various Governmental activities. Every item of expenditure has to be well
thought out and total outlay worked out for a specific period. Prudent spending is
essential for the stability of a Government and proper earnings are a pre-requisite to
wise spending. Hence, planned expenditure and accurate foresight of earnings are sine-
qua-non of sound Governmental finance.
Parliamentary Control over Finance
Ours is a Parliamentary system of Government based on Westminster model. The
Constitution has, therefore, vested the power over the purse in the hands of chosen
representatives of the people thus sanctifying the principle no taxation without
representation. Preparation of Budget for the approval of the Legislature is a
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Financial Administration Public Administration and Environmental Studies
Constitutional obligation of the Government both at the Centre and the State levels.
Legislative prerogative over taxation, legislative control over expenditure and executive
initiative in financial matters are some of the fundamental principles of the system of
Parliamentary financial control.
There are specific provisions in the Constitution of India incorporating these tenets. For
example, article 265 provides that no tax shall be levied or collected except by
authority of law; no expenditure can be incurred except with the authorisation of the
Legislature (article 266); and President shall, in respect of every financial year, cause to
be laid before Parliament, Annual Financial Statement (article 112). These provisions of
our Constitution make the Government accountable to Parliament.
The Budget
The Annual Financial Statement, laid before both the Houses of Parliament
constitutes the Budget of the Union Government. This statement takes into account a
period of one financial year. The financial year commences in India on 1st April each
year. The statement embodies the estimated receipts and expenditure of the
Government of India for the financial year.
Demands for Grants
The estimates of expenditure included in the Budget and required to be voted by Lok
Sabha are in the form of Demands for Grants. These Demands are arranged Ministry-
wise and a separate Demand for each of the major services is presented. Each Demand
contains first a statement of the total grant and then a statement of the detailed
estimate divided into items.
Presentation
In India, the Budget is presented to Parliament on such date as is fixed by the
President. The Budget speech of the Finance Minister is usually in two parts. Part
A deals with general economic survey of the country while Part B relates to taxation
proposals. General Budget was earlier being presented at 5 P.M. on the last working
day of February, but since 1999 the General Budget is being presented at 11 A.M. on
the last working day of February, i.e. about a month before the commencement of the
Financial year except in the year when General Elections to Lok Sabha are held. In an
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election year, Budget may be presented twicefirst to secure Vote on Account for a
few months and later in full.
The General Budget is presented in Lok Sabha by the Minister of Finance. He makes a
speech introducing the Budget and it is only in the concluding part of his speech that
the proposals for fresh taxation or for variations in the existing taxes are disclosed by
him. The Annual Financial Statement is laid on the Table of Rajya Sabha at the
conclusion of the speech of the Finance Minister in Lok Sabha.
Budget Documents
Along with the Annual Financial Statement Government presents the following
documents: an Explanatory Memorandum briefly explaining the nature of receipts and
expenditure during the current year and the next year and the reasons for variations in
the estimates for the two years, the Books of Demands showing the provisions
Ministry-wise and a separate Demand for each Department and service of the Ministry.
The Finance Bill which deals with the taxation measures proposed by Government is
introduced immediately after the presentation of Budget. It is accompanied by a
memorandum explaining the provisions of the Bill and their effect on the finances of
the country.
Vote on Account
The discussion on the Budget begins a few days after its presentation. In a democratic
set-up, Government is anxious to give Parliament full opportunity to discuss the
budgetary provisions and the various proposals for taxation. Since Parliament is not
able to vote the entire budget before the commencement of the new financial year,
the necessity to keep enough finance at the disposal of Government in order to allow it
to run the administration of the country remains. A special provision is, therefore,
made for "Vote on Account" by which Government obtains the Vote of Parliament for
a sum sufficient to incur expenditure on various items for a part of the year.
Normally, the Vote on Account is taken for two months only. But during election year
or when it is anticipated that the main Demands and Appropriation Bill will take longer
time than two months, the Vote on Account may be for a period exceeding two
months.
Discussion
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The Budget is discussed in two stages in Lok Sabha. First, there is the General
Discussion on the Budget as a whole. This lasts for about 4 to 5 days. Only the broad
outlines of the Budget and the principles and policies underlying it are discussed at this
stage.
Consideration of the Demands by Standing Committees of Parliament
After the first stage of General Discussion on both Railway as well as General Budget is
over, the House is adjourned for a fixed period. During this period, the Demands for
Grants of various Ministries/Departments including Railways are considered by
concerned Standing Committees (Rule 331G). These Committees are required to make
their reports to the House within specified period without asking for more time. The
system of consideration of Demands for Grants by the Standing Committees was
introduced from the Budget for the year 1993-94. The Standing Committee consists of
45 Members, 30 from Lok Sabha and 15 from Rajya Sabha. The reports of the Standing
Committees are of persuasive nature (Rule 331N). The report shall not suggest
anything of the nature of cut motions.
After the reports of the Standing Committees are presented to the House, the House
proceeds to the discussion and Voting on Demands for Grants, Ministry-wise. The time
for discussion and Voting of Demands for Grants is allocated by the Speaker in
consultation with the Leader of the House. On the last day of the allotted days, the
Speaker puts all the outstanding Demands to the Vote of the House. This device is
popularly known as guillotine. Lok Sabha has the power to assent to or refuse to give
assent to any Demand or even to reduce the amount of Grant sought by Government.
In Rajya Sabha there is only a General Discussion on the Budget. It does not vote on the
Demands for Grants. Only so much of the amount is subject to the vote of Lok Sabha as
is not a "charged" expenditure on the Consolidated Fund of India. The "charged"
expenditure includes the emoluments of the President and the salaries and allowances
of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha and the Speaker and Deputy
Speaker of Lok Sabha, Judges of Supreme Court, Comptroller and Auditor General of
India and certain other items specified in the Constitution of India. Discussion in Lok
Sabha on charged expenditure is permissible but such expenditure is not voted by the
House. Members have full opportunity to criticise the budgetary provisions during the
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course of discussion as also to make suggestions for improving the financial position of
the country.
Cut Motions
Motions for reduction to various Demands for Grants are made in the form of Cut
Motions seeking to reduce the sums sought by Government on grounds of economy or
difference of opinion on matters of policy or just in order to voice a grievance.
Appropriation Bill
After the General Discussion on the Budget proposals and Voting on Demands for
Grants have been completed, Government introduces the Appropriation Bill. The
Appropriation Bill is intended to give authority to Government to incur expenditure
from and out of the Consolidated Fund of India. The procedure for passing this Bill is
the same as in the case of other money Bills.
Finance Bill
The Finance Bill seeking to give effect to the Governments taxation proposals which is
introduced in Lok Sabha immediately after the presentation of the General Budget, is
taken up for consideration and passing after the Appropriation Bill is passed. However,
certain provisions in the Bill relating to levy and collection of fresh duties or variations
in the existing duties come into effect immediately on the expiry of the day on which
the Bill is introduced by virtue of a declaration under the Provisional Collection of Taxes
Act. Parliament has to pass the Finance Bill within 75 days of its introduction.
Supplementary/Excess Grants
No expenditure in excess of the sums authorised by Parliament can be incurred
without the sanction of Parliament. Whenever a need arises to incur extra expenditure,
a Supplementary estimate is laid before Parliament. If any money has been spent on
any service during a financial year in excess of the amounts granted for that service
and for that year, the Minister of Finance/ Railways presents a Demand for Excess
Grant. The procedure followed in Parliament in regard to Supplementary/Excess Grants
is more or less the same as is adopted in the case of estimates included in the General
Budget.
Budget of a State/Union Territory under Presidents Rule
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Budget of a State under Presidents rule is presented to Lok Sabha. The procedure
followed in regard to the Budget of the Union Government is followed in the case of
State Budget also with such variations or modifications, as the Speaker may make.
Budget Preparation & Enactments
The budget process in India, like in most other countries, comprises four distinct phases.
Budget formulation: the preparation of estimates of expenditure and receipts
for the ensuing financial year;
Budget enactment: approval of the proposed Budget by the Legislature through
the enactment of Finance Bill and Appropriation Bill;
Budget execution: enforcement of the provisions in the Finance Act and
Appropriation Act by the governmentcollection of receipts and making
disbursements for various services as approved by the Legislature; and
Legislative review of budget implementation: audits of governments financial
operations on behalf of the Legislature.
Process starts August-September
In the Union government, there is a budget division in the department of economic affairs
under the Ministry of Finance. This division starts the process of formulation of the next
financial years Union budget in the months of AugustSeptember every year.
To start the process, the budget division issues an annual budget circular around the last
week of August or the first fortnight of September every year. This annual budget circular
contains detailed instructions for the Union government ministries/departments relating to
the form and content of the statement of budget estimates to be prepared by them.
Estimates, revised estimates and actuals
It must be noted that the ministries are required to provide three different kinds of figures
relating to their expenditures and receipts during this process of budget preparation. These
are: budget estimates, revised estimates and actuals. Let us consider, for instance, the case
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of budget preparation in the second half of the calendar year 2011. The Union government
would prepare the budget for 2012-13 during the time period of September 2011 to
February 2012. In this case, the approval of Parliament would be sought for the estimated
receipts/expenditures for 2012-13, which would be called budget estimates.
At the same time, the Union government, in its budget for 2012-13, would also present
revised estimates for the ongoing financial year 2011-12. We may note here that the
government would not seek approval from Parliament of revised estimates of 2011-12;
but, these revised estimates would allow the government to reallocate its funds among
various ministries based on the implementation of the budget for 2011-12 during the first
six months of financial year 2011-12.
Finally, ministries would also be reporting their actual receipts and expenditures for the
previous financial year 2010-11. Hence, the Union budget for 2012-13 would consist of
budget estimates for 2012-13, revised estimates for 2011-12, and actual expenditures and
receipts of 2010-11.
Planning Commission's role

The ministries would provide budget estimates for plan expenditure for budget estimates
for the next financial year, only after they have discussed their respective plan schemes
with the Central Planning Commission. The Planning Commission depends on the finance
ministry to first arrive at the size of the gross budgetary support, which would be provided
in the budget for the next annual plan of the Union government. In principle, the size of
each annual plan should be derived from the approved size of the overall Five-Year Plan
(12th Five-Year Plan, 2012-13 to 2016-17, in the present instance). However, in practice,
the size of the gross budgetary support for an annual plan also depends on the expected
availability of funds with the finance ministry for the next financial year.
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Call to reduce deficit

In the past few years, the finance ministry has been vociferously arguing for reduction of
fiscal deficit and revenue deficit of the Union government, citing the targets set by the
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act and its rules. Hence, presently, the
aspirations of the Planning Commission and Union government ministries with regard to
spending face the legal hurdle of this Act, which has made it mandatory for the Union
government to show the revenue deficit as nil (total revenue expenditure not exceeding
total revenue receipts by even a single rupee) and the fiscal deficit as less than 3 per cent of
GDP. This means new borrowing of the government in a financial year cannot exceed 3 per
cent of the countrys GDP for that year.
Final stages
Also, during the final stage of budget preparation, the revenue-earning ministries of the
Union government provide the estimates for their revenue receipts in the current fiscal
year (revised estimates) and next fiscal year (budget estimates) to the finance ministry.
Subsequently, usually in the month of January, more attention is paid to finalisation of the
estimated receipts. With an idea about the total requirement of resources to meet
expenditures in the next fiscal year, the finance ministry focuses on the revenue receipts
for the next fiscal.
In the final stage of budget preparation, the finance minister examines the budget
proposals prepared by the ministry and makes changes in them, if required. The finance
minister consults the prime minister, and also briefs the Union Cabinet, about the budget
at this stage. If there is any conflict between any ministry and the finance ministry with
regard to the budget, the matter is supposed to be resolved by the Cabinet.
In the final stage, the budget division in the finance ministry consolidates all figures to be
presented in the budget and prepares the final budget documents. The National
Informatics Centre (NIC) helps the budget division in the process of consolidation of the
budget data, which has been fully computerised. At the end of this process, the finance
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minister takes the permission of the president of India for presenting the Union budget to
Parliament.
As per the Constitution, the Union budget is to be presented in the Lok Sabha on such a
day as the president may direct. By convention, Union budget has been presented in Lok
Sabha by the finance minister on the last working day of the month of February every year.
The finance minister, by convention, makes a speech while introducing the budget. The
annual financial statement is laid on the table of Rajya Sabha only after the finance minister
concludes his budget speech in Lok Sabha. The budget documents are made available to
the members of Parliament after the finance bill has been introduced in Lok Sabha, and the
House has been adjourned for the day. It may be noted that the budget process in India
lacks transparency in one aspect: while enactment of the Budget by the legislature and the
review of its implementation are reasonably transparent, the process of budget
preparation by the government is carried out behind closed doors.
Duties of Ministry of Finance
The Ministry of Finance must manage government financial assets, propose economic
and financial policy, and coordinate and supervise these actions as empowered by law.
Its main duties and functions are to:
Prepare the annual fiscal budget and issue adequate regulations for its
execution.
Manage government financial assets.
Propose bills related to the management of government employees,
particularly bills related to staffing, salaries, benefits and pensions.
Amortize debt and coordinate financial activities carried out within the scope
of its power, for the different ministries and their related entities.
Be aware of and report on any initiative of a financial nature involving public
expenditure and indebtedness before it is debated by Congress.
Participate in the negotiation of international free trade and financial
agreements.
Exercise all powers and rights as conferred on it in the Central Bank Law.
The other functions of the MOF are as follows:
1. Economic Policy, Financial Administration and Control

2. Economic Analysis
3. Allocation of Economic / Financial Resources
4. Money, Monetary Policy Formulation and Implementation
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5. Banking (including Agricultural Development Bank)

6. Insurance
7. Statement of Income and Expenditure (Budget)
8. Revenue Policy and Planning
9. Revenue Investigation
10. Revenue Administration and Collection
11. General Pricing Policy
12. International Relations for Economic Development and Economic System
13. International Conference on Economy and money
14. Foreign Aid / Assistance
15. Foreign Debt
16. Foreign Exchange and Control
17. Public Debt and Guarantee
18. Salary, Allowances, Travel and Daily Allowances, Pensions, Gratuity, etc.
19. Policy Formulation on Salary, Allowances, Bonus, Investment / Share and the
Dividend of the Public Enterprises
20. Government Treasury Administration
21. Accounts / Control
22. Office of the Auditor General
23. Provident Fund
24. Policy Formulation, Coordination and Privatisation of Public Enterprises
25. Revenue and Financial Administration Training
26. Capital Market
Roles Comptroller and Auditor General

The role, function and duties of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) are
elaborated by an act of the Parliament passed in 1971.
Articles 148 to 151 of the Indian constitution creates and regulates the office of
Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Dr. D.D. Basu considers the office of the
Comptroller and Auditor General as pivotal to the control of entire financial system
of the country. Dr. Ambedkar felt that the Comptroller and Auditor General of India
shall be the most important officer under the constitution of India.
The constitution has instituted the British system of responsible government in India.
The substance of responsibility is that the executive i.e. the Prime Minister and the
Cabinet remains answerable for all their activities to the popularly elected chamber of
the legislature. The responsibility becomes empty unless financial activities of the
government are subject to parliamentary scrutiny. For this it is imperative that there
should be an independent authority to examine and scrutinize the financial
transactions of the government. With this object in view, the Government of India Act
of 1935, made the Auditor General of India irremovable except in like manner and on
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like grounds as a judge of the Federal Court. The office of the Comptroller and Auditor
General is an adaptation of the office of the Auditor General under the Act of 1935.
The constitution makes the Comptroller and Auditor General the guardian of the public
purse. His primary duty is to see that neither the union government nor the
government of any state spends any money from the consolidated fund without
legislative appropriation. Since he is the impartial head of the audit and accounts
system of India, it is essential that he should be independent of executive control.
To secure this independence, it has been provided that though appointed by the
President; he does not hold office during the pleasure of the President like other
officers of the union government. He may be removed from office through a process of
impeachment. His salary and allowances cannot be varied to his disadvantage during
his tenure of service.
He is appointed for a term of six years. His salary is equal to that of a Supreme Court
Judge. He enjoys the rank of a secretary to the government of India. The salary and
allowances of the Comptroller and Auditor General together with those of his staff are
charged on the revenue of India and are non-votable in the Parliament.
The role and duties of the Comptroller and Auditor General are elaborated by an act of
the Parliament passed in 1971. An amendment of this act in 1976 has relieved him
from preparing the accounts of the government.
The Comptroller and Auditor General audit the account of the union
government and report to the President. The annual report relating to the
accounts of the Central Government is submitted to the President. The
President lay the report before both the Houses of the Parliament for
consideration.
It is the duty of the CAG to ensure that proper approval of the Parliament has
been taken prior to spending the public money from the Consolidated Fund of
India. He reports on all expenditures from the Consolidated Fund as well as from
the Contingency Fund.
He also audits and reports on the trade and manufacture by government
departments. Accounts of Public Corporations are also audited by him.
The functioning of the Comptroller and Auditor General in India is exposed to several
criticisms. In India the emphasis is almost exclusively on audit rather than on control of
expenditures. In England, the government departments require authorization from the
Comptroller. Thus whenever money is withdrawn for expenditure, the Comptroller is
satisfied that there is legal authority for the expenditure. In India, the Comptroller and
Auditor General comes into the picture only at the audit stage i.e. after the
expenditures have already been made. Some critics also question the wisdom of
commenting on extravagance of the government by the Comptroller and Auditor
General.
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Environmental Management Public Administration and Environmental Studies
Environmental Management
Chapter Structure
1. Concept and Significance of environmental management
2. Sustainable development
3. Sustainability reporting
4. Environmental Planning and Management
5. Environmental Impact Analysis
6. Environment Management in India
Concept and Significance of environmental management

There was a time when, as an educated person, you would have been expected to
converse confidently about any intellectual or cultural topic. You would have read the
latest novel, been familiar with the work of the better-known poets, have had an
opinion about the current state of art, musical composition and both musical and
theatrical performance. Should the subject of the conversation have changed, you
would have felt equally relaxed discussing philosophical ideas. These might well have
included the results of recent scientific research, for until quite recently the word
philosophy was used to describe theories derived from the investigation of natural
phenomena as well as those we associate with philosophy today. The word science is
simply an anglicized version of the Latin scientia, which means knowledge. In German,
which borrowed much less from Latin, what we call science is known as Wissenschaft,
literally knowledge. Science did not begin to be used in its restricted modern sense
until the middle of the last century.
As scientific discoveries accumulated it became increasingly difficult, and eventually
impossible, for any one person to keep fully abreast of developments across the entire
field. A point came when there was just too much information for a single brain to
hold. Scientists themselves could no longer switch back and forth between disciplines
as they used to do. They became specialists and during this century their specialisms
have divided repeatedly. As a broadly educated person today, you may still have a
general grasp of the basic principles of most of the specialisms, but not of the detail in
which the research workers themselves are immersed. This is not your fault and you
are not alone. Trapped inside their own specialisms, most research scientists find it
difficult to communicate with those engaged in other research areas, even those
bordering their own. No doubt you have heard the clich defining a specialist as
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Environmental Management
someone who knows more and more about less and less. We are in the middle of what
journalists call an information explosion and most of that information is being
generated by scientists. Clearly, the situation is unsatisfactory and there is a need to
draw the specialisms into groups that will provide overarching views of broad topics. It
should be possible, for example, to fit the work of the molecular biologist, extracting,
cloning, and sequencing DNA, into some context that would relate it to the work of the
taxonomist, and the work of both to that of the biochemist. What these disciplines
share is their subject matter. All of them deal with living or once-living organisms. They
deal with life and so these, as well as a whole range of related specialisms, have come
to be grouped together as the life sciences. Similarly, geophysics, geochemistry,
geomorphology, hydrology, mineralogy, pedology, oceanography, climatology,
meteorology, and other disciplines are now grouped as the earth sciences, because all
of them deal with the physical and chemical nature of the planet Earth. The third, and
possibly broadest, of these groupings comprises the environmental sciences,
sometimes known simply as environmental science. It embraces all those disciplines
which are concerned with the physical, chemical, and biological surroundings in which
organisms live.
Obviously, environmental science draws heavily on aspects of the life and earth
sciences, but there is some unavoidable overlap in all these groupings. Should
paleontology, for example, the study of past life, be regarded as a life science or,
because its material is fossilized and derived from rocks, an earth science? It is both,
but not necessarily at the same time. The paleontologist may date a fossil and
determine the conditions under which it was fossilized as an earth scientist, and as a
life scientist reconstruct the organism as it appeared when it was alive and classify it. It
is the direction of interest that defines the grouping. Any study of the Earth and the life
it supports must deal with process and change. The earth and life sciences also deal
with process and change, but environmental science is especially concerned with
changes wrought by human activities, and their immediate and long-term implications
for the welfare of living organisms, including humans.
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Sustainable development
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept
of sustainable development can be interpreted in many different ways, but at its core
is an approach to development that looks to balance different, and often competing,
needs against an awareness of the environmental, social and economic limitations we
face as a society.
All too often, development is driven by one particular need, without fully considering
the wider or future impacts. We are already seeing the damage this kind of approach
can cause, from large-scale financial crises caused by irresponsible banking, to changes
in global climate resulting from our dependence on fossil fuel-based energy sources.
The longer we pursue unsustainable development, the more frequent and severe its
consequences are likely to become, which is why we need to take action now.
So is it all just about the environment?

Living within our environmental limits is one of the central principles of sustainable
development. One implication of not doing so is climate change.
But the focus of sustainable development is far broader than just the environment. It's
also about ensuring a strong, healthy and just society. This means meeting the diverse
needs of all people in existing and future communities, promoting personal wellbeing,
social cohesion and inclusion, and creating equal opportunity.
If sustainable development focuses on the future, does that mean we lose out now?
Not necessarily. Sustainable development is about finding better ways of doing things,
both for the future and the present. We might need to change the way we work and
live now, but this doesn't mean our quality of life will be reduced.
A sustainable development approach can bring many benefits in the short to medium
term, for example:
Savings - As a result of SDC scrutiny, government has saved over 60m by improving
efficiency across its estate.
Health & Transport - Instead of driving, switching to walking or cycling for short
journeys will save you money, improve your health and is often just as quick and
convenient.
How does it affect me?

The way we approach development affects everyone. The impacts of our decisions as a
society have very real consequences for people's lives. Poor planning of communities,
for example, reduces the quality of life for the people who live in them. (Sustainable
development provides an approach to making better decisions on the issues that affect
all of our lives. By incorporating health plans into the planning of new communities, for
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instance, we can ensure that residents have easy access to healthcare and leisure
facilities.
How do we make it happen?
We all have a part to play. Small actions, taken collectively, can add up to real change.
However, to achieve sustainability in the India, we believe the Government needs to
take the lead. The SDC's job is to help make this happen, and we do it through a
mixture of scrutiny, advice and building organisational capacity for sustainable
development.
The History of sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development formed the basis of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The
summit marked the first international attempt to draw up action plans and strategies
for moving towards a more sustainable pattern of development. It was attended by
over 100 Heads of State and representatives from 178 national governments. The
Summit was also attended by representatives from a range of other organisations
representing civil society. Sustainable development was the solution to the problems
of environmental degradation discussed by the Brundtland Commission in the 1987
report Our Common Future.
The remit of the Brundtland Report was to investigate the numerous concerns that had
been raised in previous decades, namely, that human activity was having severe and
negative impacts on the planet, and that patterns of growth and development would
be unsustainable if they continued unchecked. Key works that highlighted this thinking
included Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962), Garret Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons
(1968), the Blueprint for Survival by the Ecologist magazine (1972) and the Club of
Rome's Limits to Growth report (1972).
The concept of sustainable development received its first major international
recognition in 1972 at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm. The term was not referred to explicitly, but nevertheless the international
community agreed to the notion - now fundamental to sustainable development - that
both development and the environment, hitherto addressed as separate issues, could
be managed in a mutually beneficial way.
The term was popularised 15 years later in Our Common Future, the report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development, which included what is deemed
the 'classic' definition of sustainable development: "development which meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs".
It was not until the Rio Summit, however, that major world leaders recognised
sustainable development as the major challenge it remains today.
More recently, the World Summit on Sustainable Development was held in
Johannesburg in 2002, attended by 191 national governments, UN agencies,
multilateral financial institutions and other major groups to assess progress since Rio.
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The Johannesburg Summit delivered three key outcomes: a political declaration, the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and a range of partnership initiatives. Key
commitments included those on sustainable consumption and production, water and
sanitation, and energy.
Sustainability Reporting
We all know the mantra that what gets measured gets acted on, but is sustainability
reporting changing the world and what does the future hold?
This is a particularly poignant moment to be asking these questions. At the very
moment the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) has grasped the nettle by unveiling new
simplified G4 guidelines, the broader territory of measurement and transparency is in
danger of becoming more complex and potentially confusing.
The GRI has been the go-to place for sustainability reporting for years and has
responded to growing concerns at the sheer weight of metrics by going back to core
principles such as materiality and dropping its perverse incentive of giving a better
score to companies that ticked more of the boxes.
But the sigh of relief is tempered by practitioners now having to grapple with how to
relate their sustainability programmes to the emerging integrated reporting
movement.
In particular, the International Integrated Reporting Committee (IIRC) is currently
piloting its methodology for companies to produce one combined financial,
environmental and governance report that can illustrate how they are creating value
over time. There are also new reporting tools being developed, with particular interest
focused on the US-based Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB), which is
developing sector-specific key performance indicators to appeal to the financial
markets.
A focus on sustainability helps organizations manage their social and environmental
impacts and improve operating efficiency and natural resource stewardship, and it
remains a vital component of shareholder, employee, and stakeholder relations.
A full 95% of the Global 250 issue sustainability reports. Firms continuously seek new
ways to improve performance, protect reputational assets, and win shareholder and
stakeholder trust.
Sustainability disclosure can serve as a differentiator in competitive industries and
foster investor confidence, trust and employee loyalty. Analysts often consider a
companys sustainability disclosures in their assessment of management quality and
efficiency, and reporting may provide firms better access to capital.
The benefits of reporting include:
Better reputation
A 2011 survey on corporate reputation found that expanding transparency and

reporting positive deeds were the two most important ways to build public trust in
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business. The 2013 Boston College Center for Corporate Citizenship and EY survey
revealed that more than 50% of respondents issuing sustainability reports reported
that those reports helped improve firm reputation.
Meeting the expectations of employees

A 2011 survey conducted by EY and GreenBiz found that employees were a vital
audience for sustainability reporting, with 18% of reporters citing employees as a
reports primary audience. More than 30% of reporters in the 2013 Boston College
Center for Corporate Citizenship and EY survey saw increased employee loyalty as a
result of issuing a report.
Improved access to capital
Recent research found that reporting firms ranked highly for sustainability have
Kaplan-Zingales Index scores that are 0.6 lower than the scores for low-sustainability
companies. A lower score signifies fewer capital constraints.
Increased efficiency and waste reduction
In a 2012 global survey of sustainability reporters, 88% indicated that reporting

helped make their organizations decision-making processes more efficient.
Sustainability reporting requires companies to gather information about processes
and impacts that they may not have measured before. This new data, in addition to
creating greater transparency about firm performance, can provide firms with
knowledge necessary to reduce their use of natural resources, increase efficiency and
improve their operational performance.
In addition, sustainability reporting can prepare firms to avoid or mitigate
environmental and social risks that might have material financial impacts on their
business while delivering better business, social, environmental and financial value
creating a virtuous circle.
For reporting to be as useful as possible for managers, executives, analysts,
shareholders and stakeholders, a unified standard that allows reports to be quickly
assessed, fairly judged and simply compared is a critical asset. As firms worldwide
have embraced sustainability reporting, the most widely adopted framework has been
the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Sustainability Reporting Framework.
Environmental Planning and Management

Environmental planning is the process of evaluating how social, political, economic
and governing factors affect the natural environment when considering development.
The goal of environmental planning is to come up with a win-win situation for society
and the environment. With successful environmental planning, society wins by being
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able to use the area in productive ways, and the environment wins by being able to
sustain itself for future generations.
There are three components of environmental planning that must be considered. First,
is the current status of the natural environment. This component will take into
consideration the existing state of the area to be developed. This may include
evaluating the existing uses, features and natural resources of the land, as well as
existing infrastructure and buildings.
The second component of environmental planning is vision. This involves setting goals
and measurable objectives and takes into consideration the rules, regulations, laws and
needs of society. The third component is implementation. This involves putting the
vision into action and considers the materials, personnel and technology that may be
needed to carry out the plan.
Environmental planning is a complex study because it not only has to consider the
complexities of the natural environment but also the needs and desires of humans.
Therefore, environmental planners need to understand the human decision-making
process to best manage the relationship between humans and the environment.
Environmental decision making can be defined as the process of evaluating the ways
humans go about making choices that impact the natural environment. How
individuals or groups decide to use energy, natural resources and even outdoor
recreational areas are all part of the planning process. The steps includes are as
follows;
Step One:
The public and elected officials recognize the need for environmental planning
Step Two:
Officials then commit people and funding to the environmental planning effort, and
appoint an environmental advisory committee to assist the planning commission. An
Advisory Committee is suggested with 8-12 Members with various range of
backgrounds.
Step Three:
The planning commission, staff, and the environmental advisory committee conduct an
Environmental Needs Assessment Survey and solicit public input. Mail a survey to each
household or a sample of households in the community to get public opinion.
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Step Four:
The planning commission, staff, and the environmental advisory committee develop a
factual base of environmental conditions and analyze the information. It should include
a Natural Resource Inventory and a Built Environment Inventory. Natural Resource
Inventory includes air, water, soils, geologic formations, farmlands, forests, plant and
animal species. It will identifies location, quantity, and quality. It will also built
Environmental Inventory includes location, number, age, and condition of the housing
stock, commercial and industrial buildings, parks, and public buildings.
The inventories will identify areas that can be developed and carrying capacity of
developed areas, help to compare standards with actual conditions, discover current
trends and perform SWOT Analysis. Preforms studies to project development trends
based on sprawl vs smart growth with compact development. It will also explains that
sprawl results in greater loss of open space and increases dependence on automobiles
for transportation
Step Five:
The planning commission, staff, and the environmental advisory committee draft a
vision statement, broad goals and specific objectives for the Environmental Action
Plan. The action plan will incorporate; Overall policy directive for the local government
Goals: clear, decisive, avoid "should"
Objectives: spell out the ways the goals can be obtained
Step Six:
The planning commission, staff, and environmental advisory committee draft an Action
Strategy to articulate a set of land use controls, infrastructure spending, tax programs,
and other regulations that will put the Environmental Action Plan into practice
Step Seven:
Elected officials solicit public input and adopt the Environmental Action Plan
Step Eight:
The planning commission and elected officials implement, monitor, and evaluate the
performance of the Environmental Action Plan through an annual review, and make
revisions and updates as needed.
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Environmental Impact Analysis

An environmental impact analysis is typically conducted to assess the potential impact
a proposed development project will have on the natural and social environment. This
may include an assessment of both the short- and long-term effects on the physical
environment, such as air, water and/or noise pollution; as well as effects on local
services, living and health standards, and aesthetics.
One provision of the law requires that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) be
written for major federal actions and made available to all, including to the general
public. An EIS must include: the environmental impacts of a proposed action;
unavoidable adverse environmental impacts; alternativesincluding no action; the
relationship between short-term uses of the environment and maintenance of long-
term ecological productivity; irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources;
and secondary/cumulative effects of implementing the proposed action. Now, most
state and local governments also require that environmental impact analyses be
conducted prior to any major development projects.
Environmental impact analyses are often challenging because they call for making
projections with incomplete information. Methods of assessing the impacts typically
include both objective and subjective information making it difficult to quantify.
Therefore, the methods are frequently seen as complex and, oftentimes, controversial.
Despite being a requirement for many development projects, the function of an
environmental impact statement is merely procedural. There is no specific legal force
of action if information stemming from an environmental impact analysis confirms that
a particular project may harm the environment. As a result, it is often left up to the
courts to rule on whether risks to the environment are overstated or not.
Although an environmental impact analysis often raises more questions than it

answers as it examines the various links between social, economic, technological, and
ecological factors involved in a potential development project, it also provides a
practical and interesting approach to the understanding and appreciation of the many
complexities and uncertainties involved with these interrelationships.
Conceptual Approach
It must be a basic premise that all developments will produce some environmental
impacts and therefore the basic question is how much is acceptable under the
circumstances? The obvious consensus is that the country needs development but only
of the kind that is sustainable and in conformity to national development priorities.
The challenge throughout is to find an acceptable level that will strike the necessary
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balance between the need to develop and the need to protect vital environmental
processes. Also important is the planned scale of the infrastructural development and
their potential to unravel the social fabric and lifestyles of the people in the area within
which they are based.
The impacts of this development will be felt mainly in the areas of physical alterations
to the coastal and inland ecosystem, solid and liquid waste disposal, water supply and
distribution, energy generation, effects on the native wildlife species of the area from a
combination of factors, extraction of materials and transportation. The point has been
made that no project of this size can be successfully implemented without some
negative environmental impacts, however it is incumbent on the developer to reduce
these to their lowest possible level, or negate them entirely if the situation allows. The
developer will be aided in this undertaking by the impacts and mitigation discussion in
the relevant sections of this report and summarized in the tables below. These cover
the aspects of project activities which have been identified by the DOE as liable to
produce significant environmental impacts among others.
Environmental Principles in Impact Analysis

In principle the need to address some requirement(s) of the human species gives rise
to the definition and implementation of some specific development project(s) or
program(s). In the context of the proposed expansion development, the human
requirement to be addressed is the need for recreation and knowledge of the
ecosystem. In the case of the latter this relates to the research and educational
components of the project. Inherent in development projects and programs are
activities which alter the environment, or cause some environmental disturbance.
These environmental disturbances have a number of 5-2 effects which in turn leads
to environmental impacts, which are categorized as being either negative or positive.
Environmental impacts are in principle hierarchal and in this regard are described as
being sequentially primary, secondary, tertiary, etc., in orientation. Primary impacts
are those impacts arising immediately from particular development activities such as
land clearing or dredging, and affect basic ecosystem functions such as primary
productivity, metabolic rate, mechanical damage to anatomical structures and the
physical destruction of habitats. The primary impact parameters in turn have another
level of impacts on various ecosystem components, which are qualified by both
magnitude and direction. This is unlike the primary impacts, which within the context
of the current EIA varies in magnitude only In the case of primary impacts, this may be
explained by the fact that variations in the magnitude of these parameters in and of
themselves are neither deleterious nor beneficial. Conversely, under the current
analytical process outlined in the EIA Impact Rating Matrix, although a relationship may
exist, the magnitude of change of the particular parameter may be so small or
insignificant, that no discernible impact is identified.
Environment Management in India
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Overview
Indias economic growth over the past few years has raised the prospect of eliminating
extensive poverty within a generation. But this growth has been clouded by a
degrading physical environment and the growing scarcity of natural resources that are
essential for sustaining further growth and eliminating poverty. It is no coincidence
that the poorest areas of the country are also the most environmentally-stressed
regions, with eroded soils, polluted waterways, and degraded forests. Simultaneously,
rapid growth has unleashed greater public awareness and an unprecedented demand
for the sound management of natural resources including air, water, forests, and
biodiversity. Environmental sustainability is rapidly emerging as the next major
development and policy challenge for the country, and will be central to the 12th Five
Year Plan which is currently under preparation.
The Challenges
Pollution: Water, land and air contamination associated with growth are increasing
exponentially. Rapid investment in the manufacturing sector, that includes 17 highly
polluting industries that are on the Central Pollution Control Boards Red List, has
fuelled this growth. The share of the most polluting sectors in Indias exports has
increased dramatically during the last decade suggesting that India could be emerging
as a net exporter of pollution-intensive commodities. These trends indicate the need
for greater investment in environmental management.
Natural Resources, Ecosystems and Biodiversity: In rural areas, poverty has become
intertwined with resource degradation - poor soils, depleted aquifers and degraded
forests. To subsist, the poor are compelled to mine and overuse these limited
resources, creating a downward spiral of impoverishment and environmental
degradation. There is growing pressure to better protect Indias pockets of mega-
biodiversity which are increasingly recognized as being of immense significance for
global biodiversity, yet are increasingly threatened. Greater investment in the
protection of these natural assets would yield a double dividend of poverty alleviation
and the improved sustainability of growth.
Coastal Zone Management: Indias coastal zone is endowed with fragile ecosystems
including mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, and unique marine and terrestrial
wildlife, which contribute in a significant manner to the national economy. Economic
activities such as rapid urban-industrialization, maritime transport, marine fishing,
tourism, coastal and sea bed mining, offshore oil and natural gas production,
aquaculture, and the recent setting up of special economic zones have led to a
significant exploitation of these resources.In addition to the contribution of increased
economic activity, coastal development and livelihoods are under stress due to a
higher incidence of severe weather events, which have the potential to inflict
irreversible damage to lives and property, for communities that are traditionally poor
and vulnerable to economic shocks.
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Environmental Governance: The pace of infrastructure investments, which could reach

$500 billion in the 12th Five Year Plan, calls for integrated and coordinated decision-
making systems. This is made especially challenging by fragmented policies and
multiple institutional legal and economic planning frameworks, with often conflicting
objectives and approaches.
Environmental Health: The health impacts from pollution are comparable to those
caused by malnutrition and have a significant impact on the productivity, health and
the quality of life. Environmental health challenges are largely caused by poverty-
related risks associated with poor access to basic services, such as safe drinking water
and sanitation, and poor indoor air quality. The contamination of surface waters and
the spread of pathogens are promoted by the alteration of catchments and watersheds
that have accompanied rapid urbanization and intensive farming. Despite significant
improvements in rural water supply and sanitation over the past few decades, water-
related diseases still account for a large number of avoidable child deaths every year.
Climate Change: India is highly vulnerable to climate change due to a combination of;
(i) high levels of poverty, (ii) population density, (iii) high reliance on natural resources,
and (iv) an environment already under stress (for instance water resources). By mid-
century, the mean annual temperature in India is projected to increase 1.1 to 2.3 C
under the moderate climate change scenario of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (A1B), with anticipated deterioration of agro-climatic conditions. In the
higher portion of that range, the loss to Indian GDP would be greater than the world
average, and could be close to 5 %. Simultaneously, there is likely to be greater
variability in rainfall, leading to higher risk of increased frequency and severity of
droughts, floods and cyclones.
Reflecting the size of its economy and population, India is ranked as the sixth largest
emitter of greenhouse gas emissions in the world. However, by most measures, India
would be classified as a low carbon economy. It has: (i) a low intensity of emissions per
unit of GDP ( on par with the world average); (ii) per capita emissions that are among
the lowest in the world (at about 10 percent of the developed country average) and (iii)
forest cover that has stabilized. However, Indias emissions are set to grow
substantially due to its sustained economic growth.
Government Priorities
India has made a substantial effort in attempting to address environmental challenges.
It has enacted stringent environmental legislation and has created institutions to
monitor and enforce legislation. The National Environmental Policy (NEP) recognizes
the value of harnessing market forces and incentives as part of the regulatory toolkit,
and India is one of only three countries worldwide which has established a Green
Tribunal to exclusively handle environmental litigation. On environmental governance,
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the GOI is contemplating the establishment of the National Appraisal and Monitoring
Authority (NEAMA) to carry out environmental appraisals.
During the current 11th Five Year Plan, the Government issued regulations to promote
an integrated and inclusive approach to coastal zone planning and the sound
management of hazardous wastes, issued a number of critical policies (e.g. revised
river conservation strategy and the National Biodiversity Plan), and established a
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau to supplement existing conservation measures for
species at risk, such as tigers. In response to the threat of climate change, the Prime
Ministers National Council on Climate Change issued Indias first comprehensive
National Action Plan in June 2008. In the run-up to Copenhagen, India also volunteered
its own target to reduce carbon intensity by 20 to 25 percent by 2020 against a 2005
baseline and established an Expert Group on Low Carbon Growth to identify how best
to meet this challenge.
World Bank Support

Responding to these pressures, the World Bank has developed a multi-pronged
approach to address environmental issues and mitigate its lending risks:
A Sound Program of Knowledge Products and Lending: This seeks to improve the
knowledge base for environmental solutions, and to pilot a number of programs to
address key environmental challenges.
Risk Management and Mainstreaming through Cross Support Activities: Through the
World Banks safeguard policies, a sound mechanism for decision making has been
developed. A number of tools to enable the integration of environmental management
in project design, and minimize the environmental footprint of the Banks operations
have also been developed.
Country Systems and Capacity Building Initiatives help build institutional capacity, and
include the piloting of country (state) systems for managing risks of World Bank
projects.
List of Active Projects

The World Bank has a growing relationship and portfolio in the environment sector.
Projects under implementation include the following. Integrated Coastal Zone
Management Project ($222mn approved June 2010) to help build the appropriate
institutional arrangements, capacity and advanced knowledge systems needed to
implement the national program on integrated coastal zone management. It will also
help pilot this approach in three coastal states, Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal,
through a range of complementary pilots in select coastal stretches to build state-level
capacity.
Capacity Building for Industrial Pollution Management Project ($65mn approved June
2010) to build tangible human and technical capacity in state agencies in Andhra
Pradesh and West Bengal for undertaking environmentally sound remediation of
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polluted sites and to support the development of a policy, institutional and

methodological framework for the establishment of a National Program for
Rehabilitation of Polluted Sites (NPRPS).
The National Ganga River Basin Authority Project ($1bn approved in May 2011): to
build capacity of its nascent operational-level institutions, so that they can manage the
long-term Ganga clean-up and conservation program; and implement a diverse set of
demonstrative investments for reducing point-source pollution loads in a sustainable
manner, at priority locations on the Ganga.
Biodiversity Conservation and Rural Livelihoods Project (GEF/IDA $23m approved in
May 2011): to develop and promote new models of conservation at the landscape
scale through enhanced capacity and institutional building for mainstreaming
biodiversity conservation outcomes.
Pipeline Projects
Environmentally Sustainable Development Policy Loan in the State of Himachal
Pradesh: The proposed Development Policy Loan will seek to establish a framework for
environmental sustainability, which will promote the participation of the state public
and private sectors in the National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency, develop a
policy and institutional framework for the further development of environmentally
sound hydropower development, and enable sustainable development in a number of
key sectors of the economy including: tourism, industry, and agricultural development
and horticulture.
Global Environmental Facility (GEF): Following the recent replenishment, the World
Bank has been requested to prepare a number of projects to be financed by the GEF,
namely: Climate Resilience through Community-Based Approaches in Semi-Arid Areas,
Integrated Biodiversity Hotspots and Improvements, Adaptive Management Tools in
Sustainable Land Management, and Integrated Ecological Management of the
Lakshadweep Sea.
Research
Energy Intensive Sectors of the India Economy: Options for Low Carbon Development:
The study looks at five sectors of the Indian economy that accounted for three quarters
of Indias CO2 emissions from energy use in 2007 power generation, energy-intensive
industries (like iron and steel, cement, fertilizer, refining, pulp and paper etc), road
transportation, commercial buildings and residential housing. It presents three carbon
emission scenarios, outlining the different growth paths that India could follow from
2007 to 2031 -- the end of the Fifteenth Five Year Plan.
Sundarbans Sustainable Socio-Economic Development: The objective of the Non-
Lending Technical Assistance is to assess measures that would build resilience of the
socio-economic and biophysical system and achieve long term sustainable
development. Resilient systems are those having a capacity to adapt when faced with
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persistent stresses, but the adaptive capacity of those residing in the Sundarbans has
been undermined on an ongoing basis. Historic sea level rise from deltaic subsidence,
salinity intrusion, flooding and nutrient loss in local soils have all conspired over the
past century to render this one of the most hazardous areas in the Indian sub-
continent.
India 2030: Vision for an Environmentally Sustainable Future: This study deals with a
broader debate on the implications of rapid economic growth on environmental
sustainability and the need to rethink Indias current institutional arrangements in light
of promoting long-term environmentally sustainability. The primary objectives of the
study are to identify environmental challenges, opportunities and constraints to
growth that will emerge in India over the next few decades and suggest policy
responses and develop strategies to harmonize the twin objectives of growth and
environmental sustainability in urban and ecologically fragile hill areas.
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Environmental Economics
Environmental Economics
Chapter Structure
1. Principal and applications of energy costing and pricing
2. Energy audits
3. Energy management
4. Energy conservation
Principal and applications of energy costing and pricing

India is the fourth largest consumer of energy in the world after USA, China and Russia
but it is not endowed with abundant energy resources. It must, therefore, meet its
development needs by using all available domestic resources of coal, uranium, oil,
hydro and other renewable resources, and supplementing domestic production by
imports. High reliance on imported energy is costly given the prevailing energy prices
which are not likely to soften; it also impinges adversely on energy security. Meeting
the energy needs of achieving 8 per cent 9 per cent economic growth while also
meeting energy requirements of the population at affordable prices therefore presents
a major challenge. It calls for a sustained effort at increasing energy efficiency to
contain the growth in demand for energy while increasing domestic production as
much as possible to keep import dependence at a reasonable level.
Energy intensity, defined as the energy input associated with a unit of gross domestic
product (GDP), is a measure of the energy efficiency of a nations economy. Indias
energy intensity has been declining over the years and is expected to decline further.
Falling energy intensity implies that the growth in energy used is less than the growth
of GDP, which in turn implies that energy elasticity, that is, the ratio of the growth of
energy to the growth of GDP is less than unity. In fact, this elasticity has been declining
over the years. Total primary energyGDP elasticity 14 Energy was around 0.73 during
the period 198081 to 2000 01 and it declined to 0.66 in the period 198181 to 2010
11. The elasticity of commercial energy is higher than that of total primary energy
because of the ongoing shift from non-commercial to commercial energy. However,
even this elasticity declined from a level of 1.09 in the period 198081 to 2000 01 and
to 0.91 during 200001 to 201011. The decline in share of non-commercial energy
could be attributed to increased availability of clean fuels and replacing traditional
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Environmental Economics Public Administration and Environmental Studies
fuels such as wood and cow dung cakes to meet household energy needs. The Twelfth
Plan continues to focus on enhancing household access to cleaner forms of energy with
an aim to promote sustainable development.
In India, production and pricing of the three major forms of commercial energy viz.
petroleum, coal and electricity are under government control. Whereas both supplies
and prices of these energy forms and their products are administered, the demands
are not. In fact except for electricity which is sometimes rationed, energy demand gets
determined from the interaction of various market forces. Energy is demanded both
for direct use (private consumption) and indirect use (input into production processes).
In addition to income, the major determinants of these demands are prices of both
energy producing and using sectors. If energy prices increase, the direct use of energy
will come down in response. By and large such effects are observable in private
consumption. On the other hand, for energy using sectors energy cost will increase
which will ultimately be passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices and their
demand will get 2 Energy Pricing in India depressed. As a consequence of energy price
increase, all other prices will tend to go up from the cost side but tend to go down
from demand side.
The ultimate impact will be the net effect of these two competing forces. This is one
side of the story. The other major variable which determines demand is income. Factor
incomes are generated from production activities in various agricultural and non-
agricultural sectors and depend on the production levels, wage and profit rates. In
India wage rates in the formal sectors are partially indexed to consumer price index
(CPI). When energy prices increase, the consumer price index increases and so do the
wage rates. Profit rates often respond to excess demand situations. Thus changes in
energy prices result in overall wage-price changes and hence affect the demand
pattern for all commodities including energy. One has to consider all these linkages in a
realistic manner for assessing the impact of energy price changes. As both production
and pricing of energy sectors are under government control the surpluses from these
activities accrue to government revenue account in the form of contributions from
public enterprises.
When energy prices are increased one would expect that surpluses will increase in
nominal terms. But on the expenditure account government has to pay more as its
own energy consumption cost will increase. Both these elements will determine the
overall budgetary impact in terms of changes in overall budget deficit. Therfore, the
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revenue objective of energy price changes should be analysed in the light of these
linkages. In India like all other non-oil rich countries, substantial portion of petroleum
crude which is used in petroleum refining industries is imported and will continue to be
imported for several years in future as well. Import of crude petroleum constitutes the
single largest element in the total import bill. Petroleum price changes will directly
affect the level of crude oil import and consequently the trade deficit and balance of
payment. Management of trade deficit is one of the major tasks of the government
and energy pricing especially that of petroleum can be a tool for doing so.
The welfare of its people always occupies a position of high priority in all government
policy decisions. One of the indicators of welfare is the pattern of income distribution.
As pointed out earlier, when energy prices are increased factor incomes change in a
complicated way changing the pattern of income distribution. For any purposeful
assessment of impacts of energy price changes this aspect ought to be analysed
carefully.
Energy audits
According to the definition in the ISO 50002 standard, an energy audit is a systematic
analysis of energy use and energy consumption within a defined energy audit scope, in
order to identify, quantify and report on the opportunities for improved energy
performance.
Therefore, an energy audit is an energy assessment. This evaluation analyses energy
flows in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the
system whilst maintaining or improving human comfort, health and safety. The level of
detail of this evaluation determines the type of audit.
Types of energy audit
Basically there are three types of energy audit:

Walk-Through Audit (WTA): as the name suggests, this audit consists of a walk-through
inspection of a facility to identify maintenance, operational or deficient equipment
issues and also to identify areas that need further evaluation.
The results of a Walk-Through Audit include an identification of energy saving

opportunities, a qualitative analysis of the implementation of energy saving measures
and an estimation of its potential energy saving. The final audit report is usually
accompanied by basic comments on a projects feasibility.
Energy Diagnosis: this audit includes performing economic calculations and may
include using some metering devices to identify actual energy consumption and losses.
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The results of an Energy Diagnosis include an energy balance (energy uses breakdown)
and a list of energy efficiency measures derived from performance or building
facility. The results also include financial analysis for each of the identified measures in
order to categorize and prioritize the implementation of these measures.
Investment Grade Audit (IGA): this audit is a detailed account of energy use, including
a quantitative study of the implementation with detailed investments and operational
and maintenance costs and an analysis of the investment model.
The results of an Investment Grade Audit include the real energy demand and an
energy balance. Likewise, the audit suggests a number of energy saving measures,
including the calculation of energy savings and the investment needed to carry them
out.This audit proposes bundled measures, with a financing plan as well as
implementation and savings verification plans.
Selecting the right method
It depends on the purpose of the energy audit. If you want to identify potential savings
in order to prioritize further studies, you need a Walk-Through Audit. If you intend to
invest a large amount of money in energy efficiency measures, you need an Investment
Grade Audit.
An excellent option is the Energy Diagnosis, because you can obtain enough
information about your facility to start working on energy efficiency, with a very good
quality-to-price ratio. So, depending on the funding available for the audit, the cost and
potential of the energy management opportunity and the required accuracy for the
audit information, you can choose the most suitable type of energy audit for your
needs.
Energy Management
What is energy management?

"Energy management" is a term that has a number of meanings, but we're mainly
concerned with the one that relates to saving energy in businesses, public-
sector/government organizations, and homes:
The energy-saving meaning
When it comes to energy saving, energy management is the process of monitoring,
controlling, and conserving energy in a building or organization. Typically this involves
the following steps:
1. Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data.
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2. Finding opportunities to save energy, and estimating how much energy each
opportunity could save. You would typically analyze your meter data to find and
quantify routine energy waste, and you might also investigate the energy savings
that you could make by replacing equipment (e.g. lighting) or by upgrading your
building's insulation.
3. Taking action to target the opportunities to save energy (i.e. tackling the routine
waste and replacing or upgrading the inefficient equipment). Typically you'd start
with the best opportunities first.
4. Tracking your progress by analyzing your meter data to see how well your energy-
saving efforts have worked.
To confuse matters, many people use "energy management" to refer specifically to
those energy-saving efforts that focus on making better use of existing buildings and
equipment. Strictly speaking, this limits things to the behavioural aspects of energy
saving (i.e. encouraging people to use less energy by raising energy awareness),
although the use of cheap control equipment such as timer switches is often included
in the definition as well.
The above four-step process applies either way - it's entirely up to you whether you
consider energy-saving measures that involve buying new equipment or upgrading
building fabric.
Other meanings
It's not just about saving energy in buildings - the term "energy management" is also
used in other fields:
It's something that energy suppliers (or utility companies) do to ensure that their
power stations and renewable energy sources generate enough energy to meet
demand (the amount of energy that their customers need).
It's used to refer to techniques for managing and controlling one's own levels of
personal energy. We're far from qualified to say anything more about this!
It also has relevance in aviation it's a skill that aircraft pilots learn in some shape
or form. We know nothing about aircraft energy management, but we can at least
manage a picture of a man on a plane...
Anyway, from now on we will pay no more attention to these other definitions - all
further references to "energy management" will be to the energy-saving sort described
above.
Home energy management

Whilst energy management has been popular in larger buildings for a long time, it has
only recently started catching on in homes. Most homeowners aren't even aware of
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the term, and take more of a haphazard, flying-blind approach to reducing their energy
consumption...
But the monitoring- and results-driven approach used by professional energy managers
is just as effective in the home as it is in larger buildings.
So, if you're a homeowner looking to save energy, don't be put off by the fact that this
article focuses more on non-residential buildings. Most of the principles that apply to
businesses and other organizations are also applicable to homes. Certainly the four-
step process introduced above and detailed below is entirely applicable to home
energy management.
Why is it important?
Energy management is the key to saving energy in your organization. Much of the
importance of energy saving stems from the global need to save energy - this global
need affects energy prices, emissions targets, and legislation, all of which lead to
several compelling reasons why you should save energy at your organization
specifically.
The global need to save energy

If it wasn't for the global need to save energy, the term "energy management" might
never have even been coined... Globally we need to save energy in order to:
Reduce the damage that we're doing to our planet, Earth. As a human race we
would probably find things rather difficult without the Earth, so it makes good
sense to try to make it last.
Reduce our dependence on the fossil fuels that are becoming increasingly limited
in supply.
Controlling and reducing energy consumption at your organization

Energy management is the means to controlling and reducing your organization's
energy consumption... And controlling and reducing your organization's energy
consumption is important because it enables you to:
Reduce costs this is becoming increasingly important as energy costs rise.

Reduce carbon emissions and the environmental damage that they cause - as
well as the cost-related implications of carbon taxes and the like, your
organization may be keen to reduce its carbon footprint to promote a green,
sustainable image. Not least because promoting such an image is often good for
the bottom line.
Reduce risk the more energy you consume, the greater the risk that energy
price increases or supply shortages could seriously affect your profitability, or
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even make it impossible for your business/organization to continue. With energy

management you can reduce this risk by reducing your demand for energy and
by controlling it so as to make it more predictable.
Energy Conservation
Energy conservation is the reduction of quantity of energy used. Energy conservation
supports the eco friendly lifestyle by providing energy, which saves your money and at
the same time saves the earth. When you decrease the amount of energy you use you
automatically make efforts to reduce increasing global warming.
Sources of Energy Conservation
Solar Energy : Solar power uses the sun's energy and light to provide heat, light, and
electricity for homes. It is the primary source of all energy forms on the earth. It is one
such energy which helps in maintaining the ecological balance through the process of
photosynthesis and green house effect. We have been using sun to dry clothes and boil
food for generations. But now number of techno powers which have been developed
to make full use of solar energy such as : -
Photovoltaic systems : By these systems the electricity could be produced directly

from the sunlight.
Solar Process Space heating and cooling : It is the commercial and industrial use of
sun's heat.
Solar Hot Water : The process to heat water with the solar energy.
Solar Power plants : Producing electricity bu using the sun's heat.

Passive Solar heating and daylighting : Use solar energy to heat buildings.
Wind energy :
Wind energy is often used to generate the mechanical power or the electricity. In the
country like India, wind energy holds the great importance because of large hilly,
coastal and desert areas. In the rural areas it is used to pump water and grind grain.
The benefit of wind energy is that it is fully pollution free and is eco-friendly too. It
costs low and the generation of power is continuous. It is the most effective way to
conserve the energy and prevent the environment.
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Geothermal Energy : Geothermal energy is used in the form of thermal energy,

electrical energy, nuclear energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy and light energy.
It uses heat energy from beneath the surface of the earth. It was first used to produce
electricity in the Itlay in 1903. Geothermal energy has the major environment benefit
as it prevents air pollution. It is particularly important in the inland nations such as
Indian Oceans and the pacific regions. Energy generation from geothermal sources is
only possible in few places under unique geographic conditions.
Wave energy:
Ocean waves contain large amount of energy, which can be extracted through Ocean
winds, Ocean currents, Ocean Geothermal etc. if the barrage is built across the river,
electricity can be obtained by the flow of water through turbines as the tide rise and
falls.
Hydroelectric energy:
Another renewable source of energy is the hydroelectric energy, which is produced
from fast flowing water. The process is pollution free. The movement of water spins
the turbines which in turn generate electricity.
Biomass energy :
Biomass is the plant and animal waste which is used as the energy. Biomass energy like
manure from livestock, plant waste etc can be used to generate electricity, fuel, light,
and heat. We get biomass energy directly from plants and indirectly from the animal
waste.
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Environmental Concern and Corporation
Environmental Concern and

Corporation
Chapter Structure
1. Environmental risk
2. Industrial Pollution
3. Natural environment and Business
4. Pollution prevention
5. Climate changes and global warming
6. Natural resource management
7. Trade and environment.
Environmental risk
The World Economic Forum Global Risks 2013 report released Tuesday presents a
stunning wake up call to the entire world.
The report begins with an unnerving theory that sluggish and stalled economies
worldwide are a direct distraction from long-term environmental horrors." Global risks
do not respect national borders," says Klaus Schwab, Founder and Executive Chairman
of the World Economic Forum.
"Two storms -- environmental and economic -- are on a collision course," says John
Drzik, Chief Executive Officer of Oliver Wyman Group, one of several companies which
collaborates with the Global Risks report. "If we don't allocate the resources needed to
mitigate the rising risk from severe weather events, global prosperity for future
generations could be threatened."
More than 1,000 experts and industry leaders took part in the survey. Researchers
asked them to rate the biggest global threats in five categories: economic,
environmental, societal, geopolitical, and technological.
The forces of the natural world can cause significant risk to life, property and
economies. The power of extreme weather events and geological movements can alter
the status quo in sudden dramatic actions. Natural risk includes flooding and mudflow,
landslides, avalanches, droughts and fires and coastal realignment.
Industrialization has created additional stresses on the capacity of natural systems to

recycle and regenerate, leading to a different set of environmental risk. Aspects of this
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Environmental Concern and Corporation Public Administration and Environmental Studies
research area include understanding resilience of natural systems and modelling the
uncertainties associated with risk management strategies.
There are immense impacts of natural hazards and environmental risk on society and
its economies. In addition to major loss of life there are huge economic costs in terms
of destroyed infrastructure, and immediate and long-term relief. The goal of the
research is to understand and assess causes, risks and effects, and then to examine
management and mitigation strategies. Moreover, as climate change and land use
change occurs, it will be important to determine consequential change in natural
hazards risk.
Industrial Pollution
Industries and factories give off various pollutants into the environment including the
land, air, and waters. It is estimated that about 50% of all pollution is as a result of
industrial and manufacturing activities. It only displays how industries and factories are
responsible for giving off toxic and dangerous materials into the environment.
Illnesses, loss of life, and destruction of the ecosystem are some of the pollution
outcomes that take years to manifest. Even so, there are a wide range of industrial
pollution effects along with their serious consequences.
Below are some of the prime effects of industrial pollution.
Global Warming
Global warming is among the most serious outcome of industrial pollution, witnessed
on the account of the steady rise of industrial activities. Industries release into the
atmosphere a variety of greenhouse gases including carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane
(CH4). These gases absorb thermal radiation from the sun thereby increasing the
general temperature of the earth, leading to global warming.
Global warming has several severe effects on human health and the environment. Rise
in water levels, melting of glaciers, extinction of polar species, tsunamis, flooding, and
hurricanes are some of the dire effects of global warming. Furthermore, global
warming has threatened human survival and presented health risks such as the
increased incidences of diseases like cholera, plague, malaria, Lyme disease and so on.
Water Pollution
Pollutants discharged from the industries have widespread implications, and one of the
unpleasant effects is on water bodies. Industries demand lots of water for efficient
production such as cooling, cleaning, and treatment and as such, the water drawn from
the water sources is never the same after use. Inappropriate contamination of used
water and the discharge of different industrial waste water into water sources often
result in water pollution.
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In most cases, the water is contaminated with dangerous chemicals, radioactive

materials, heavy metals or organic sludge. For this reason, dumping of the wastewater
directly into waterways or oceans negatively impacts on marine life, humans, and the
environment on various aspects.
Air Pollution
Based on the increased counts of factories and manufacturing processes, both large
and small scale, gaseous emissions have continued to compound. This makes industrial
pollution one of the main causes of air pollution. The emissions from different
industries contain gaseous contaminants such as sulfur, carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of
nitrogen, methane, and so on.
These gases, when too much in the atmosphere, frequently results in several illnesses
and environmental hazards. Formation of acid rains, the presence of smog, and
heightened incidences of respiratory disorders among humans are some of the
implications of air pollution.
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution occurs when the soil loses its fertility and structure owing to diverse
natural and artificial phenomenon. Disposal of industrial wastes into landfills is among
the artificial aspects contributing towards soil pollution. Industrial wastes have in them
varied amounts of toxic materials and chemicals such that when deposited in landfills,
it accumulates in the top soil thereby depreciating the fertility and biological activity of
the soil due to soil poisoning.
Such implications eventually contribute to ecological imbalances thus creating
problems in crop productivity. Apart from that, the chemicals and toxic materials in
poisoned soils accumulate in plants grown in such areas causing health problems to
those who consume such crops.
Effect on Human Health

The world Health Organization (WHO) revealed that outdoor air pollution accounts for
about 2% of all lung and heart diseases. WHO also underscores, around 5% of all lung
cancers and 1% of all chest infections are implications of outdoor air pollution.
In brief, these statistics indicate just how industrial air pollution depreciates human
health. For instance, one of the worst industrial disasters of all times that took place in
Bhopal, India, in 1984 claimed the lives of more than 8,000 people and the effects were
still being felt more than two decades later. This means, industrial air pollution may not
manifest immediately but takes several years.
Industrial toxic and chemical wastes that are disposed into water bodies or landfills are
also responsible for cancers and human cell poisoning. For instance, exposure to
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inorganic arsenic causes tumors to form. Above all, industrial pollutants are
responsible for thousands of illnesses and premature deaths across the globe.
Wildlife Extinction
The tendency of industrial and manufacturing processes that constantly demands
production resources and repeated exploitation of raw materials has cumulatively led
to the destruction of forests and the natural habitats that support wildlife.
Acts such as mining, deforestation, and utilization of water resources for industrial
production have destroyed natural habitats and forced organisms to move further into
the wild, exposing them to predators and intolerable living conditions. Consequently,
some wildlife species have faced extinction while several others remain highly
endangered. Industrial wastes, chemicals, emissions, or accidental leaks, fires, oil spills
and so on have also been prime contributors to wildlife extinction.
Furthermore, these environmentally damaging materials take several years to clean-up

thereby compounding the effects. For example, the BP oil accidental spill in 2012
claimed thousands of marine life, and some of them were among the rarest species on
earth. Even after some time had passed, marine animals continued to die.
Other Common Implications

Other common implications of industrial pollution encompass damage to structures
and buildings and increased risks of different occupational hazards like exposure to
asbestos, chemical dust, among other mineral or metallic particles.
Pollution prevention
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for
the prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring of
wholesomeness of water in the country. The Act was amended in 1988. The Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the
levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on
certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the
resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of
water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.
The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by
industrial, agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water
sources. Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes,
wells as well as the sea are serious health hazards.
Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different pollutants is one way
to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do several things to
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reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals for household use,
reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting sources at work
places and in industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy
metals are used.
Excessive organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can
also pollute our water. Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities
to appropriate actions against different types of water pollution. However, preventing
pollution is better than trying to cure the problems it has created, or punishing
offenders.
The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and
abatement of water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the
wholesomeness of water. It is designed to assess pollution levels and punish polluters.
The Central Government and State Government have set up PCBs to monitor water
pollution.
The Water Act, 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with
more than sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among
other things, the Act provides for constitution of central and State Boards for
preventing water pollution, power to take water samples and their analysis, discharge
of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision, minimum and maximum penalties,
publication of names of offenders, offences by companies and Government
departments, cognizance of offences, water laboratories, analysis etc.
Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or consent

administration procedure. Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent
of the State Water Board, subject to any condition they specify. Any person who fails to
comply with a directive of the State cannot, however, entertain in suit under this Act
unless the suit is brought by, or with the sanction of the State Board.
Climate Changes & Global Warming

Climate change and global warming are often used interchangeably but have
distinct meanings. Similarly, the terms "weather" and "climate" are sometimes
confused, though they refer to events with broadly different spatial- and timescales.
Weather refers to atmospheric conditions that occur locally over short periods of
timefrom minutes to hours or days. Familiar examples include rain, snow, clouds,
winds, floods or thunderstorms. Remember, weather is local and short-term.
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Climate, on the other hand, refers to the long-term regional or even global average of
temperature, humidity and rainfall patterns over seasons, years or decades.
Remember, climate is global and long-term.
Global warming
Global warming refers to the upward temperature trend across the entire Earth since
the early 20th century, and most notably since the late 1970s, due to the increase in
fossil fuel emissions since the industrial revolution. Worldwide since 1880, the average
surface temperature has gone up by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), relative to the mid-20th-
century baseline (of 1951-1980).
Climate change
Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena created predominantly by
burning fossil fuels, which add heat-trapping gases to Earths atmosphere. These
phenomena include the increased temperature trends described by global warming,
but also encompass changes such as sea level rise; ice mass loss in Greenland,
Antarctica, the Arctic and mountain glaciers worldwide; shifts in flower/plant
blooming; and extreme weather events.
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
The term greenhouse is used in conjunction with the phenomenon known as

the greenhouse effect.
Energy from the sun drives the earths weather and climate, and heats the
earths surface;
In turn, the earth radiates energy back into space;
Some atmospheric gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap
some of the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of
a greenhouse;
These gases are therefore known as greenhouse gases;
The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature on Earth as certain gases in
the atmosphere trap energy.
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The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) (which is 20 times
as potent a greenhouse gas as carbon dioxide) and nitrous oxide (N2O), plus three
fluorinated industrial gases: hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Water vapor is also considered a greenhouse gas.
Many of these greenhouse gases are actually life-enabling, for without them, heat
would escape back into space and the Earths average temperature would be a lot
colder.
However, if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, then more heat gets trapped
than needed, and the Earth might become less habitable for humans, plants and
animals.
Carbon dioxide, though not the most potent of greenhouse gases, is the most
significant one. Human activity has caused an imbalance in the natural cycle of the
greenhouse effect and related processes.
Natural resource management

What is a natural resource?
A natural resource is any asset that we can obtain from our environment: water, soil,
plants, wind, animals, minerals, the energy of the sun and many others. Natural
resources are often seen in terms of economic value, because so many of them are
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crucial for peoples livelihoods. People are also an integral part unbreakably linked to
our environment. Without water, air, soil, and minerals we would not be alive.
A distinction is often made between renewable and nonrenewable natural resources.
A renewable natural resource is one that can regrow, or whose supplies can be
replenished through natural processes. Some examples of renewable resource include
plants, animals, insects, or wind. But being renewable does not mean that these
resources automatically last forever. If the renewable resources in a particular area are
overexploited for a long period of time, it is entirely possible that they may become
endangered or even disappear altogether.
A non-renewable natural resource is one that can be used up, one that will not
replenish itself. Examples of these include oil, coal, minerals, or rocks. The use of these
resources should be carefully monitored and managed according to their availability.
The effects that their exploitation has on all the other resources and the environment
as a whole should be carefully followed. Managing natural resources We need to be
very aware of how we use the natural resources in our environment. We should use
resources in a way that does not dangerously reduce their supply and we should
preserve the balance between the different resources and organism in the
environment.
Maintaining healthy ecosystems

All living and non-living things interact with each other and co-exist in a balance.
Disturbing this balance by overexploiting natural resources usually has broad effects on
everything in the entire ecosystem. We are not immune to these effects. To live long
and healthy lives we must work hard to maintain this balance.
Building sustainable livelihoods

Farmers rely on the entire ecosystem (water, soil, nutrients, plants, animals and
everything else in it) for their livelihood. How successful they are in providing for their
families largely depends on how well they manage these resources. Sustainable
livelihoods are good management practices that help farmers safeguard the
environments while securing sufficient food and income for the entire family.
Trade & Environment

The interaction between the international trade and climate change regimes has
potentially major implications for developing countries. While there are positive
reasons for exploring synergies between the two regimes and for aligning policies that
could stimulate production, trade, and investment in cleaner technology options,
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instead much focus has been on using trade measures as sanctions in the global
climate negotiations.
This focus on sanctions stems mainly from competitiveness concerns in countries that
are now racing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet Kyoto 2012 targets and
beyond. These concerns have led to proposals for tariff or border tax adjustments to
offset any adverse impact of capping carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. There is also a
concern about leakage of carbon-intensive industries into countries that are not
implementing the Kyoto Protocol.
A general developing-country perception is that any discussion of climate change

issues (and, more broadly, environmental issues) in trade negotiations could eventually
lead to green protectionism by high-income countries, which would be detrimental
to their growth prospects. There is a significant knowledge gap to be filled regarding
scientific studies of the structure of carbon emissions throughout international supply
chains that include low-income countries. The small number of existing studies
suggests that emissions patterns are highly complex, and an important finding is that
geographic location alone is a poor proxy for emissions, because favorable production
conditions may more than offset a disadvantage in transport. For example, Kenyan-
produced roses airfreighted to and sold in Europe are associated with considerably
lower carbon emissions than roses produced in the Netherlands.
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Eco Friendly Business Practices Public Administration and Environmental Studies
Eco-Friendly Business
Practices
Chapter Structure
1. Concept of green business
2. Social Entrepreneurships
3. Environmental management system (EMS) and ISO 14000.
Concept of green business
Green Management approach is perceived as a new management strategy, which aims

to achieve a fully sustainable business, of which results will be visible in the financial,
social and environmental areas. This concept plays an important role in the
development of more sustainable forms of business, leading to reduce their negative
impact on the environment, during conducting activities. It would seem that the
concept of Green Management is nothing new, but another term for the Sustainable
Development concept, which also is based on three pillars: environment, society and
economy.
However, while the Sustainable Development concept (often referred as a triple
bottom line) in its definition: Sustainable development is development that meeting
the needs of the present generation, while providing for future generations to satisfy
their needs , emphasizes its wide application dimension and Green Management
usually refers to a single organization only. Another distinction between these two
concepts, is the fact that while the Sustainable Development concept is addressed to
everyone meaning organizations and individual units (it includes guidelines or
principles, that companies and households can meet), the concept of Green
Management is directed to the organizations companies, enterprises or consortiums
(all types of business units).
It should also be borne in mind, that the Sustainable Development concept was first
formulated in 1910, while the Green Management concept appeared in the second half
of the twentieth century, as a response to growing consumer awareness in the field of
environmental protection. The basic definition of Green Management emphasizes
three dimensions: ecological, social and financial, as is being shown in the following
definition: Green Management is a business functioning in a capacity where no
negative impact is made on the local or global environment, the community, or the
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Public Administration and Environmental Studies Eco Friendly Business Practices
economy. A green business will also engage in forward-thinking policies for

environmental concerns and policies affecting human rights. However, in large
organizations, Green Management is a concept, which mainly refers to the
environmental aspects. It is about creating the right policy environment that will
increase the level of care for the environment or reduce organizations negative impact
on the environment, through the use of appropriate technology, sometime called
"Green", which will benefit organization itself and its recipient or customers as well. In
organizations, next to the Green Management term, a Corporate Social Responsibility
term is being often met: Social and environmental concerns in their business
operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis.
Being socially responsible mean not only fulfilling legal expectations, but also going
beyond compliance and investing more into human capital, the environment and the
relations with stakeholders . Unlike the Green Management, CSR often omits financial
dimension, and focuses only on the social and environmental aspects. In the form of
CSR lie companys actions, aimed to meet the additional needs of their employees,
customers, or those close to the company. It is worth to add, that very often, CSR
reports presented by company, contain a section devoted especially to Green
Management.
Green Management from the companies point of view

With regard to the organization, Green Management is simply a new way of thinking,
associated with the acquisition of greater awareness how the organization works, and
how, through their actions affects the environment. The Green Management is not
about the human factor in the organization, but the individual components of
organization, that are managed in a way, that takes into account environmental
aspects. Depending on the organizations size and type of business, the concept of
Green Management may involve different components and takes different forms.
Mostly, however, the concept of Green Management in organizations, refers to areas
in which the organization operates. Thus, depending on the organization, different
approaches to Green Management are being used.
Green Management in industrial company.
With regard to the process approach, four phases can be distinguished, in which
actions are taken in accordance with GM concept. These phases are divided into:
conceptual phase, preparation phase, production phase and the final process. Also in
the conceptual phase, Green management can be divided into four parts. First, the
analysis about the impact on the environment is carried out, then a selection of
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appropriate systems is being made, taking into account the evaluation of their impact
on the environment.
The next phase is to clarify the objectives and criteria of Green Management, which
will be in some ways more efficient than the previous one. At the end, the organization
should develop new methods for applying Green Management, which will take account
the organization as a whole unit, the division of tasks and responsibilities, procedures
for monitoring and developing a appropriate motivating system. In the preparation
phase, the person taking the decision, should have a complete picture of how eg. the
projected process would affect the environment. In this phase, a special attention
should be paid to two aspects: the creation of a fully qualified project team, as well as
an invitation to participate in this phase, sent to the people with relevant experience,
and take their suggestions into consideration, in order to achieve the optimal green
goal on the whole life cycle.
1. The greening of management here a crucial factor in the management of the

organization for sustainable development, is environment health and safety. Under this
pillar, a sophisticated system of safety is being created, and a strategy, taking into
account the methods used to produce greener products, work processes and the
impact on the social surroundings, is also being developed. The organization's
activities, undertaken under this pillar, also apply to: - The development of Green
Management program to promote the concept of sustainable development, -
Supporting the implementation of the adopted program, and carry out a systematic
inspection, with the participation of a representative of the crew and managers of
individual departments, - Promotion of production in order to obtain products more
environmentally friendly, - The promotion of such products, - Carrying out inspection
of undertaken activities, - Analysis and follow the existing trends in the field of
environmental protection, - Sharing knowledge and cooperation of the various
departments within a single organization, - Identifying issues relating to the
environment, In this pillar, a big pressure is put on the implementation of activities in
order o fulfill the rules of Sustainable Development concept.
2. The greening of products in this pillar, organization seeks to reduce its negative
impact on the natural environment, caused by its conducted activities. The indirect
actions are the steps taken to produce more environmentally friendly products,
starting from designing the product, its production process and the point where they
become waste. In this case, organizations often use the analysis of the Life Cycle
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Assessment and Eco-design software. Moreover, the company work to develop a

environment supply chain management and regulations, concerned on proceedings
with hazardous substances.
3. The greening of processes in this aspect, the company focuses on the processes
and equipment, works on the green technology development, assumes the use of
alternative raw materials, waste reduce and improving energy efficiency. Reducing the
amount of toxic waste, will increase the amount of waste, that can be reused, and
thanks to the accumulation of waste heat, the organization will increase its energy
efficiency and better management of each energy unit. The main aim is to improve the
efficiency of utilization of resources, through the development of clean technologies,
materials reduction and recycling, reduction of emissions to water, land and air.
Currently, it is crucial to reduce the direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions, in
response to the current climate challenges.
4. The greening of workplaces they are taken to create a workplace, that will not be
exposed to pollution, caused illnesses and the risk of accidents at work will be
eliminated. In this pillar a variety of activities are being undertaken:
- Changing the used fuel into LNG fuel, that causes less pollution,
- Implementation of automatic environment measurement network,
- Reducing the amount of process water and waste water, through the introduction of
tools for re-utilization
- Recycling of organic waste, which are separated from other waste by tubular
separation In addition, a labor inspection is carried out, in order to check whether the
workplace has spontaneous environment and conducts safety activity.
5. The greening of communities these are activities directed outward and focusing
on the closest social environment. There are efforts in the field of periodic
environmental monitoring, conducting ecological campaigns or networking with the
local community, trying to arouse their interest in environmental issues. In addition,
the company can take actions such as:
- Periodic monitoring of changes in the environment,
- Monitoring of groundwater quality, in order to verify the extent to which the waste
generated by the company, affect its state,
- Taken concrete actions aimed at improving the environment in the immediate
environment, for example planting trees or cleaning water tanks,
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- Involvement of other subjects to implement environmental policy, they may be other

companies, but also schools and for example Fire brigades, In addition to these pillars,
organizations often adopt a set of rules on Green Management, which contribute to
the excitation of respect for nature, but also affect the well-being of people and the
environment.
Through its own rules, the company can play an important role in creating a
sustainable society by identifying and implementing appropriate measures, relating to
environmental protection and safety at work, and identifying them as key factors, that
are taken into account in all its actions. These rules may also include activities such as:
- Regular publication of reports and statements on the effects of measures, taken in
the field of Green Management,
- The company is trying to faithfully comply with the relevant laws and signed
international agreements, - Fulfilling the obligations, associated with the use of
environmentally friendly materials and recycling products, that have been
decommissioned,
- The desire to reduce the use of natural resources and energy, through the use of
clean technologies.
Conducting ongoing work on the development of new, advanced technologies, that will
enable to reduce the amount of used materials and raw materials, as well as reduce
the level of emissions,
- Taking action to reduce the number of accidents at work, supporting atmosphere
among employees, in order to improve the health of employees and improve their
quality of life,
- Networking with suppliers in the implementation of the adopted policy.
Social Entrepreneurships
What is a Social Entrepreneur?

Social entrepreneurs drive social innovation and transformation in various fields
including education, health, environment and enterprise development. They pursue
poverty alleviation goals with entrepreneurial zeal, business methods and the courage
to innovate and overcome traditional practices. A social entrepreneur, similar to a
business entrepreneur, builds strong and sustainable organizations, which are either
set up as not-for-profits or companies.
BIBS 112
A social entrepreneur is a leader or pragmatic visionary who:

Achieves large scale, systemic and sustainable social change through a new invention, a
different approach, a more rigorous application of known technologies or strategies, or
a combination of these.
Focuses first and foremost on the social and/or ecological value creation and tries to
optimize the financial value creation.
Innovates by finding a new product, a new service, or a new approach to a social
problem.
Continuously refines and adapts approach in response to feedback.
Combines the characteristics represented by Richard Branson and Mother Teresa.
The Schwab Foundation employs the following criteria when looking for leading social
entrepreneurs: Innovation, Sustainability, Reach and social impact.
Social entrepreneurs share some come common traits including:
An unwavering belief in the innate capacity of all people to contribute meaningfully to
economic and social development
A driving passion to make that happen.
A practical but innovative stance to a social problem, often using market principles and
forces, coupled with dogged determination, that allows them to break away from
constraints imposed by ideology or field of discipline, and pushes them to take risks
that others wouldn't dare.
A zeal to measure and monitor their impact. Entrepreneurs have high standards,
particularly in relation to their own organizations efforts and in response to the
communities with which they engage. Data, both quantitative and qualitative, are their
key tools, guiding continuous feedback and improvement.
A healthy impatience. Social Entrepreneurs cannot sit back and wait for change to
happen they are the change drivers.
What is Social Entrepreneurship?
Social entrepreneurship is
About applying practical, innovative and sustainable approaches to benefit society in
general, with an emphasis on those who are marginalized and poor.
A term that captures a unique approach to economic and social problems, an approach
that cuts across sectors and disciplines grounded in certain values and processes that
are common to each social entrepreneur, independent of whether his/ her area of
focus has been education, health, welfare reform, human rights, workers' rights,
environment, economic development, agriculture, etc., or whether the organizations
they set up are non-profit or for-profit entities.
It is this approach that sets the social entrepreneur apart from the rest of the crowd of
well-meaning people and organizations who dedicate their lives to social improvement.
BIBS 113
About organizational models
Leveraged non-profit ventures

The entrepreneur sets up a non-profit organization to drive the adoption of an
innovation that addresses a market or government failure. In doing so, the
entrepreneur engages a cross section of society, including private and public
organizations, to drive forward the innovation through a multiplier effect. Leveraged
non-profit ventures continuously depend on outside philanthropic funding, but their
longer term sustainability is often enhanced given that the partners have a vested
interest in the continuation of the venture.
Hybrid non-profit ventures

The entrepreneur sets up a non-profit organization but the model includes some
degree of cost-recovery through the sale of goods and services to a cross section of
institutions, public and private, as well as to target population groups. Often, the
entrepreneur sets up several legal entities to accommodate the earning of an income
and the charitable expenditures in an optimal structure. To be able to sustain the
transformation activities in full and address the needs of clients, who are often poor or
marginalized from society, the entrepreneur must mobilize other sources of funding
from the public and/or philanthropic sectors. Such funds can be in the form of grants
or loans, and even quasi-equity.
Social business ventures

The entrepreneur sets up a for-profit entity or business to provide a social or ecological
product or service. While profits are ideally generated, the main aim is not to maximize
financial returns for shareholders but to grow the social venture and reach more
people in need. Wealth accumulation is not a priority and profits are reinvested in the
enterprise to fund expansion. The entrepreneur of a social business venture seeks
investors who are interested in combining financial and social returns on their
investments.
Environmental management system (EMS) and ISO 14000
An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a set of processes and practices that

enable an organization to reduce its environmental impacts and increase its operating
efficiency. This site provides information and resources related to EMS for small
businesses and private industry, as well as local, state and federal agencies. The EPA
continues with its progress in developing and maintaining an environmental
management system at each of its offices, labs, and other facility operations, focusing
on the reduction of the agency's environmental footprint.
The three primary processes of a management system include:
BIBS 114
Core processes, their outputs, and the identification of significant environmental

aspects and impacts
Key supporting processes, such as those for maintaining awareness of legal
requirements, ensuring competency of employees, providing infrastructure,
communicating EMS information, and monitoring and evaluating environmental
performance
Management system supporting processes, such as document control, record
control, and internal auditing
Like many management systems, environmental management systems reinforce a
need to align processes into integrated systems of processes, all focused on providing
the highest value to the customer. In this sense, the primary customer of the EMS is
the local, regional, and global environment. Secondary customers may include the
organizations owners or shareholders, customers, government agencies, and
employees.
Overall, the advantages of using an environmental management system include:
Ensuring a holistic approach to environmental impacts
Focusing on only critical aspects and processes
Making use of time-tested, mature approaches recognized worldwide
Establishing positive relationships with regulators
In addition to the obvious quantifiable benefits in reductions in pollutant emissions

and waste, there are three approaches to measuring improvements within an
organization:
Management system improvementqualitative and quantitative improvements to
management support processes, such as employee training and awareness,
compliance assurance processes or corrective/preventative action programs
Organizational reputationunquantifiable improvements in an organizations
reputation or improved relations with regulatory bodies, community organizations,
or other interested parties
Financial benefitsquantitative cost savings or cost avoidance associated with any
of the improvements
Since the ISO 14001 standard is non-prescriptive, it is important to understand that an
environmental management system is what any organization makes it. If one
organization does not realize the expected benefits from its management system, an
improvement team should identify the organizations level of maturity and take the
steps needed to proceed to the next level in order to reach the full potential of the
EMS.
Quality approaches have traditionally maintained a fairly strict focus on business and
customer issues, such as reducing defects and waste and improving efficiency,
profitability, and customer satisfaction.
Environmental and sustainability goals for quality initiatives are relatively recent.
Because the business world is accustomed to treating environmental practices as
BIBS 115
sources of added costs, the challenge for quality practitioners is to identify where
environmental and sustainability quality issues, such as reduction of waste and use of
renewable energy, also serve business and customer interests.
Chris Spire of the ANAB Accreditation Council explains the characteristics of each stage
in the evolution of compliance management to sustainability:
1990 to 1994: Compliance management (CM) meant focusing on regulation and
relying on environmental departments to react to issues.
1994 to current: Environmental management systems (EMS) brought a more
systematic, organization-wide focus on environmental issues.
1998 to current: Environmental information management systems (EIMS) involve
using web-based systems and integrating multiple systems.
2002 to current: Environmental process management systems (EPMS) make use of
quality tools, using a project focus to drive improvements.
2006 to current: Sustainability requires integrating environmental, social, and
economic goals and using best practices to address risk and uncertainty.
ISO 14001
ISO 14001 is an internationally accepted standard that outlines how to put an effective
environmental management system in place in your organization. It is designed to help
businesses remain commercially successful without overlooking environmental
responsibilities and impacts. It can also help you to grow sustainably while reducing the
environmental impact of this growth.
ISO 14001 belongs to the ISO 14000 family of environmental management standards
(including ISO 14004), and provides the framework to allow you to meet increasingly
high customer expectations of corporate responsibility, as well as legal or regulatory
requirements.
What are the benefits of ISO 14001?

Better environmental management reduces waste and energy use
Improve efficiency to cut the cost of running your business
Demonstrate compliance to expand your business opportunities
Meet legal obligations to win greater stakeholder and customer trust
Prepare for the changing business landscape confidently
BIBS 116
Within the standard there are 17 elements of ISO 14001 that are required to be met by
organisations seeking formal recognition for their EMS. ISO 14001 requirements are as
follows:
1. An environmental policy supported by senior management;

2. The identification of environmental aspects and impacts, and the identification
of significant environmental impacts that the organisation may cause;
3. Identification of environmental compliance requirements;
4. The development of objectives and targets, and their environmental
management programs;
5. Defined resources, roles, responsibilities and authorities for environmental
management;
6. The development of competence, training and awareness procedures;
7. A communication process of the EMS to all stakeholders and interested
parties;
8. The development of EMS documentation as required by the standard;
9. The development of document control procedures;
10. The development of operational control procedures;
11. The development of emergency preparedness and response procedures;
12. The development of procedures to monitor and measure operations that can
have significant impact to the environment;
13. An evaluation of compliance procedure;
14. Procedures developed for the management of non-conformance, corrective
and preventative actions;>
15. The development of a records management procedure;
16. A program for completing internal EMS audits and corrective actions; and
17. The development of procedures for management review by senior
management.
BIBS 117

Public Administration

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BIBS 1

Contents Public Administration and Environmental Studies

Chapter 2: Administrative Behavior 20

Chapter 3: Accountability and Control 51

Chapter 4: Financial Administration 65

Chapter 5: Environmental Management 76

Chapter 6: Environmental Economics 91

Chapter 7: Environmental Concern and Corporation 99

Public Administration as independent Subject of a social science has recent origin.

Meaning, scope and significance of public administration

Various definitions of Public Administration are as follows-

According to L. D. White, Public Administration consists of all those operations having

According to Simon - By Public Administration is meant the activities of the executive

According to Willough - Public Administration in broadest sense denotes the work

According to Gullick - Public Administration is that part of the science of

According to Waldo -Public Administration is the art and science of management as

Marshall E. Dimock -Administration is concerned with what and How of the

Important characteristics of Public Administration:-

1. It is part of executive branch of government.

Scope of Public Administration:-

1. P stands for Planning -

2. O stands for organization -

3. S stands for staffing -

4. D stands for Directing -

5. Co stands for Co-ordination -

6. R stands for Reporting -

7. B stands for Budgeting -

Broad perspective or subject - oriented perspective:-

c) Public Personal Administration -

It includes the following aspects :-

1) Defense - Functions relating to military administration.

2) Educational function - It includes functions relating to educational administration.

3) Social welfare administration -It includes the activities of the departments

4) Economic Administration -It is concerned with the production and encouragement

5) Foreign administration -It includes the conduct of foreign affairs, diplomacy,

Role and Importance of Public Administration

1. It is the basis of government.

1. It is the basis of Government

2. It is the instrument of change in the society -

3. It plays vital role in the life of the people -

4. It is a stabilizing force in the society as it provides continuity

5. It is instrument of national integration in the developing countries which are facing

The success of government is dependent on the ability of public administration. The

Comparative Public Administration

Comparative Public Administration (CPA) attained its greatest intellectual influence

nomothetic generalization; and claim universal applicability in different parts of the

Difference between Development Administration with other traditional Administration

Traditional Public Administration

4. Its objectives are simple and limited.

Public Administration v. Private Administration

The Washington consensus represented a standard programme laid down by the

The New Public Management

This process has affected:

New Public Management principles

In spite of the above-mentioned observations, which aim to mitigate assumptions

2. Re-formulation of the macro-structure of the public sector by delegating state

Decision Making Theories

Some of the categories of decision have been identified by Wasby:

For example, the government is forced, (because of political consideration) to give

inextricably associated with rationality, empiricism, application of other scientific

is decision-making plays so important a role in any business organisation and

Decision-making differs from society to society. A decision suitable for a developed,

Belief System Model:

Generally there is a belief system which can be termed as ideology or deep-rooted