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DESIGN COOLING LOAD

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No More
Survival of the Fittest Occupant?
So far as [Darwins] biological theory of the
relationship of form to environment is concerned,
the relevance of Darwinism to architecture has
tended to decrease. Improvements in air-
conditioning equipment are making architectural
form increasingly independent of climatic
considerations.
Peter Collins: Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture

does Collins suggest that buildings are on mechanical/electrical life support?


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Building Cooling Load

Relevant to summer or, more generally, to


the overheated period of the year
Occurs when there is a net flow of heat
from outside to inside
Requires a passive or active system to
maintain interior conditions (usually both
temperature and humidity are of concern)

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Design Cooling Load


Describes a specific cooling load that is
calculated under generally-agreed-upon
conditions
This is the cooling load that is used to size
climate control systems (passive or active)
It is one of many, many cooling loads that
may occur over time (as weather and
interior loads change)

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Critical Assumptions
At the time of design cooling load:
There is design solar radiation
There are occupants in the building (their
number equaling design capacity)
There is equipment operating in the building
as per design expectations
The lights (as designed) are on in the building
Dynamic conditions are important and must
be considered
Calculations will use design climate data

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Implications of these Assumptions


There is solar radiation
All above-ground assemblies can NOT be generally
treated alike
Transparent must be considered separately from opaque
Solar properties of opaque materials must be considered
Orientation/tilt of assemblies must be considered
A specific time (solar condition) for analysis must be established
Occupants in & equipment and lights on
Internal loads must be dealt with along with envelope
heat flows (external loads)
Dynamic conditions are important
Mass is an important aspect, must be considered

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Design Temperatures (DB & WB)
Each year has a highest temperature as part of regular
weather patterns
Weather is whats happening now versus climate
which describes whats happened historically
The highest temperature of the year will vary from year
to year, raising the question: which high temperature
value should be used for the design of cooling systems?
Data have been assembled using statistical analysis and
made available to designers (by ASHRAE et al.)
Wet bulb temperature is also important as it affects
indoor relative humidity (comfort) and is typically
controlled by an active cooling system
So two design values are of interest: dry bulb
temperature (sensible) and wet bulb temperature (latent)

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Design Temperature Data

ASHRAE Handbook 2001 Fundamentals


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Design Temperature Data

ASHRAE Handbook 2001 Fundamentals

so, ASHRAE gives 4 possible design temperatures for


Rome, GA: 91, 94, 96, and 98 deg F
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Design Temperature Data


2% statistically, an average summer will see
temperatures higher than this for 2% of the hours of the
year (2% = 175 hrs)
1% same idea, but for 1% of the hours of the year (=
88 hrs)
0.4% likewise, but for 35 hrs
extreme no hours with higher temperature (that year)

Codes or green rating systems may specify which data


set to use for design; if not, then designer judgment rules

some designers are starting to ask about projected climate data, to address climate
change (a building designed for a 50-year life will encounter future climates)

energy-efficient design will avoid the extremes of temperature


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Cooling Load Calculations
There are several readily available cooling load
calculation methods. They range
from the simple (equivalent temperature
difference), to the more complex (cooling
load temperature difference/cooling load
factor), to the complex (radiant time series),
to the rather complex (finite
difference analysis).

The CLTD/CLF method will be presented here,


as it best reveals what is happening
from a designers perspective.

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Above-Ground Cooling Loads


Opaque assemblies:
It would be nice to use q = (U)(A)(t)
Its a friendly, comfortable, familiar equation
But it does not address solar radiation or heat storage
(thermal mass) effects
This was OK when dealing with heat loss, but is not OK for
cooling loads

So that basic equation was modified as follows


q = (U)(A)(CLTD) sensible gain

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CLTD
CLTD = cooling load temperature difference
expressed in deg F (I-P units) [deg C in SI units]
CLTD includes the effects of:
Air-to-air temperature difference (t)
Heat storage within the mass of the construction
assembly (bringing into play time lag and decrement)
Solar radiation (bringing into play sol-air temperature)
CLTD considers:
Time of year
Time of day
Surface orientation
Surface tilt
Surface absorption

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The CLTD Calculation Method


Is a correlational approach:
First, find the best match for an intended construction
assembly (wall, roof, floor) from the design tables
Then, obtain a CLTD value from published tables
Finally (as required), adjust the basic CLTD value for
a design indoor air temperature, outdoor daily
temperature range, or exterior surface solar
reflectance that may vary from the values assumed in
the tables

A designer can either use the data tables to rationally


select an appropriate assembly or to find the load that
results from an arbitrarily selected assemblyin other
words, proactive versus reactive use
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construction
correlations Example: CLTD Values: Roofs
n
ptio
solar time s s um
a

assumptions corrections

ASHRAE Handbook 1997 Fundamentals


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Example: CLTD Values: Walls


orientation assembly construction

solar time
ASHRAE Handbook 1997 Fundamentals
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CLTD Correlations:
Newer Advice

ASHRAE Handbook 1997 Fundamentals


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CLTD Correlations:
Older (and more logical?) Advice

ASHRAE Handbook 1985 Fundamentals


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Above-Ground Cooling Loads
Transparent assemblies:
It would be nice to use q = (U)(A)(t)
Its a friendly, comfortable, familiar equation
But it does not adequately address solar radiation effects
(especially important with transparent elements)

So this equation either needs to be modified or put


aside with respect to radiation (radiation can
reasonably be bundled into CLTD for opaque
elements, but must be explicit for glazing) leading to
the approach shown on the next slide

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Non-Opaque Cooling Load


Transparent/translucent elements

q = (A)(SHGC*)(SCL**) [for solar radiation gains]

and

q = (U)(A)(CLTD) [for non-solar gains]

* or SC
**SCL = solar cooling load

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Solar Cooling Load (SCL) Values

ASHRAE Handbook values are not purely symmetrical, suggesting


1997 Fundamentals more than solar position is involved

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A Recap of Building Envelope


Cooling Loads Sensible
Using the CLTD calculation method
Opaque elements (walls, roofs,
overhanging floors)
q = (U)(A)(CLTD)
Non-opaque elements
(transparent/translucent)
q = (A)(SHGC)(SCL) and
q = (U)(A)(CLTD)

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Building Envelope Cooling Loads
Sensible (continued)
Slab-on-grade floors
Assumed to have no heat gain (q 0)

Below-ground walls and floors


Assumed to have no heat gain (q 0)

Infiltration
Same calculation as for design heat loss (since
thermal mass and solar radiation have no direct effect
on air leakage)
q = (cfm)(1.1)(t)

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The Big Picture of Summer Heat Flow

q = (A) (SHGC) (SCL)

magnitude of the
size of the external force
separating element impacting building

q = (A) (U) (CLTD)


cts s
rc hite bilitie
a si
pon quality of the
res architectural mitigator

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Envelope Cooling Loads Latent
Above-ground walls and roofs
q = (M)(A)(p) where p is vapor pressure
difference
Slab-on-grade floors
Assumed to have no latent gain (q 0)
Below-ground walls and floors
Assumed to have no latent gain (q 0)
Infiltration
q = (cfm)(4840)(W) where W is the difference in
absolute humidity (internal to external)
these calculations are identical to those used for design heat loss, since solar
radiation and thermal mass (which radically change the game for sensible
loads) are presumed to have no effect on latent loads
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Mid-Stream Recap
External cooling loads (discussed above)
Result from building interactions with climate as
mitigated by the building envelope
Include both sensible and latent loads
Design decisions have a major effect on these loads

Internal cooling loads (not yet discussed)


Result from heat sources (people, lighting,
equipment/appliances) within a building
Include both sensible and latent loads
User decisions have a major effect on these loads

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The Impact of Building Design Loads

energy end-use in a typical Florida school building; www.fsec.ucf.edu/


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The Impact of Building Design Loads

energy end-use in a typical US school building


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