ECLIPSES a-- '?;3.

IN INDIAN ASTRONOMY

Dr. S. Balachandra Rao

Hon. Director,
Gandhi Centre of Science And Human Values.
And
Hon. Professor,
National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS)
Bangalore

and
Dr. Padmaja Venugopal
Professor & Head
Dept. of Mathematics, S.J.B Institute of Technology.
Kengeri, Bangalore-560 060

Bhavan's Gandhi Centre of Science and Human Values

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
43/1, Race Course Road,
Bangalore-560 001

-3-
DETERMINATION OF THE DATE OF THE
MAHABHARATA : THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF
By Prof. T.S.Kuppanna Sastry
Hindus generally believe that the story of the
Mahabharata (M.Bh.) is a narrative of events that actually
happened, and that they all took place near the end of the
Dvaparayuga and the beginning of the Kaliyuga. Some hold
that the War ended with the yuga and many, supported by
the Puranas, say that Krsna passed away at the end of the
yuga and so the War took place a few years earlier. About
the question of the time when the Dvapara ended, there is
difference of opinion. The popular view is that Dvapara
ended and Kali began at the time fixed for it by the
astronomical siddhantas, 3179 years before the Saka era of
78 A.D. Most probably, the first siddhantins, like the author
of the 'Old' Suryasiddhanta and Aryabhata, fixed the point of
time as a convenient epoch, when the mean planets,
according to them, coincided with the zero-point of the
zodiac, and the later astronomers accepted it, and adjusted
their own planetary cycles to agree with the epoch exactly,
or nearly there, finding the difference to be small.
But there are other dates fixed for the end of Dvapara by
people like Varahmihira, on the authority of the
astronomical Sariihitas and tradition current in their times.
Varahamihira fixes the dates as c. 2449 B.C., which can be
known from his statement in his Brhatsamhita that the
Saptarsis stood at Magna when Yudhisthira ws ruling and
that the year in his era can be got by adding 2526 to the
years of the Saka era. The authority for this is Vrddha-
Garga's statement:
The reference to M.Bh. given below are to its edition issued by Gopal
Narayan and Co., Bombay, Saka 1823.
Determination of the Date. . . 23
kalidvaparayoh sandhau sthitaste pitrudaivatam /'
Kalhana, in his Rajatarahgim, giving the chronology of the
Kashmir kings in the Saptarsi or Laukika era current in
Kashmir and the Himalayan regions, accepts Varahamihira's
view in toto, saying that people who fixed other dates were
misguided:
bharatam dvaparante'bhudvartayeti vimohitah /
kecidesam mrsa tesam kalasankhya pracakrire f/2
The Jain tradition, giving 2634 B.C. for the Yudhisthira
era is only a variation of Varahamihira's view. The
Saptarsicara of Parasara and the Aryasiddhanta of Aryabhata
II, giving Magna for the sages in the seventh century of
astronomical Kali, and the Matsyapurana, giving Krttika for
the beginning of Kali, support Varahamihira.
But many think that both c. 3100 B.C. and c. 2450 or c.
2600 B.C. for the Bharata events are periods too early,
considering the state of society and the political conditions
depicted in the MBh. They-try to fix the Kaliyuga epoch
coupled with Yudhisthira's rule, by reckoning backwards
from the time of the Nanda dynasty, which historians have
fixed at c. 400 B.C. onwards. The Visnupurana and the
Bhagavata state:
mahapadma'bhisekattu yavajjanmapariksitah /
Tor yavatpariksito janma yavannandabhisecanam)
evam varsasahasram tu jneyatn pancasaduttaram //3
Variants : (1) satampanca dafottaram ( W *T35r CWITHH)
(1510), (2) jneyam pancadasottaram QN" M ^ ^ I I T K H )
(1015), (3) jneyam pancasatottaram ftfcf MO-T^IAITKHJ
(1500).
The above would mean that between Parlksit's (grandson
of the Pandavas) birth and Nanda's coronation, the interval
is 1053 years {variants: 1510, 1015, 1500). From this, they
 Eclipses in Indian Astronomy
24
fix ParTksit's time as c. 1500 B.C. (or 2000 B.C.) and thence
the time of the Bharata story.
Besides these four main periods, several other periods
are fixed based on various hypotheses, some plausible, some
grotesque. For e.g., some scholars take the yuga measure of
12000 years as human years instead of divine, and fix a date
accordingly. One interprets the word sama and varsa used in
the Puranas as half-years and brings down the story to c.
1200 B.C. But few scholars make any clear distinction
between the period of the 'events' and the period when they
were written down in the form of the epic Mahabharata,
while the orthodox traditional belief is that Vyasa,
grandfather of the Pandavas and Kauravas, wrote the work,
and his pupil Vaisampayana narrated it to King Janamejaya,
grandson of the Pandavas.
Determining the period thus, each in his own way, these
scholars try to fix the year and exact date of the war from
the calendrical details and various astronomical phenomena
mentioned in the context of the War, like certain planetary
combinations, occurrences of eclipses etc. This is not an easy
matter, because there is a lot of contradiction between
various sets of planetary combinations themselves and
among the other phenomena mentioned. Some of these
passages may be set out here :
1. visakhaya samipasthau bruhaspatisanaiscarau 4
- MBh., Bhisma, 3.27
2. vakra'nuvakram krtva ca sravanam pavakaprabhah /
brahmarasim samavrtya lohitango vyavasthitah j5
- Bhisma, 3.18
3. bhrgusunudharaputrau
sasijena samanvitau /
caramam panduputranam
purastatsarva (kuru) bhubhujam f/6
-Salya, 11.17
Determination of the Dale. . . 25
4. sukrah prostapade purve samaruhya virocate /
uttare tu parikramya sahitah samudiksate / / 7
- Bhisma, 3.15
Another gives:
5. brhaspatissamparivarya rohimm
babhuva candrarkasamo visampate //*
-Kama, 100. 17
6. maghasvangarako vakrah sravane ca brhaspatih /
bhagam naksatramakramya suryaputrena pidyate / /"
- Bhisma, 3.14
7. prajapatyam hi naksatram grahastiksno mahadyutih /
sanaiscarah pidayatipidayan pranino'dhikam //10
krtva cahgarako vakram jyestayam madhusudana /
anuradham prarthayate maitram sahgamayanniva //"
-Udyoga, 143. 8-9
In the first set cited above (i.e. 1-4), we are told that
Jupiter and Saturn are near the asterism Visakha. Mars is
near Uttarasadha, Abhijit (Brahmarasi) and Sravana. In the
second set, (5-7), Jupiter is said to be near Rohinl. Mars is
retrograde in Magha. Jupiter is in Sravana. (This contradicts
two other statements.) Saturn is said to be in Purvaphalgunl.
Saturn afflicts (?) Rohinl. Mars is retrograde in Jyestha and
is about to go to Anuradha. To add to the confusion, many
people interpret the comets of different colours mentioned in
Bhismaparva, chapter 3, as planets and, that too, each one
differently.
Among the contradictory phenomena we can give the
eclipses mentioned:
72
8. candrasuryavubhau grastau ekamaslm trayodasim
- Bhisma, 3.33
26 Eclipses in Indian Astronomy
Here a lunar eclipse, and next a solar eclipse are
mentioned as having occurred before the war. Then, at the
time of Duryodhana's death the statement occurs:
rahuragrasadadityam aparvani visampa te13
-Saiya,27.l0
Mentioning another solar eclipse so near, when a lunar
eclipse had occurred before the first solar eclipse.
Again, several impossible and some very rare
phenomena, mentioned merely to indicate that these
phenomena presage evil, are taken by many as actually
occurred, adding to the difficulty:
9. trayodasyamamavasyam tan drstvapra'bravididam /
caturdasipahcadasikruteyam rah una punah / /18/1'4
prapte vai bharate yuddhe prapta
cadyaksayayanah //19//15
candrasuryavubhau grastau ekahna hi trayodasim /
aparvani grahenaitau prajasahksayam icchatah //28//16
imam tu na'bhijane'ham amavasyam trayodasim //32//17
-Mausala, Ch. 2
candrasuryavubhau grastau
ekahna hi (ekamaslm) trayodasim f/18 -Bhisma, 3. 3
somasya laksma vyavrttam rahurarkamupaiti ca19
-Udyoga, 143.11
hatekarne somasya putro'bhyudiyaya tiryak / f20
-Karna, 94. 51
alashyah prabhaya hinah
paurnamasim ca kartikim /
candro 'bhudagnivarnasca
sama(padma) varne nabhassthale //21
-Bhisma, 2. 2
Determination of the Date. . 27
caturdasim pahcadasim
bhutapurvam tu sodasim /
imam tu nabhijane'ham
amavasyam trayodasim // 22 -Bhisma, 3. 32
rahuragrasad adityam aparvani visampate
- Salya, 27. 10
trisu sarvesu 'naksatranaksatresu visampate /
grudhrah sampatate sirsam
janayan bhayamuttamam f/24 - Bhisma, 3.31
Scholars trying to establish their conclusions interpret
these verses differently, some neglecting one set and some
another, some giving acceptable meaning and some far-
fetched and extremely strained ones. A few examples will
show to what extent these people go.
Passage 2, cited above, is interpreted thus: The planet
Mars moved retrograde again and again, towards the
constellation Sravana and occupied the constellation of
Brahma, i.e. Jupiter. The interpreter is unaware that
Brahmarasi must mean 'the group presided over by Brahma',
viz., Abhijit. He is unaware that anuvakra is a technical term
used in astronomy and not 'again and again'. Passage 3 is
interpreted thus : The planets Mars, Venus and Mercury
were in front or to the east of the eldest of the sons of Pandu
who were the master of the whole land. To the interpreter,
caramam Panduputanam means Yudhisthira, being the last
counted from the last of the sons of Pandu, while it means,
simply, 'behind the sons of Pandu and in front of the Kuru
kings.' Line 9 of passage 9 is interpreted : The planet
Mercury arose concealed, (invisibly). The meaning 'invisibly'
is given to tiras, not realizing that 372c with tiras means, only
'across or obliquely'. Passage 5 is interpreted: 'Jupiter,
having made Rohini to conceal herself (i.e. set), became like
the sun or moon. The passage means only that, Jupiter by
his lustre hid Rohini. Passage 6 is interpreted: Mars is
28 Eclipses in Indian Astronomy Determination of the Date. . . 29

retrograde in Magna, and Jupiter in Sravana. Saturn is But most of the scholars do not seem to have gone to the
afflicting Purvaphalgunl. In the next verse (not quoted here) heart of the matter, placing before themselves clearly the
there is the word sahita which this interpreter takes to mean two things that have got to be investigatd viz. : (1) How
'waiting', and cites as an example the Raghuvamsa verse, much of the Bharata story is true history, and when could it
dvi'trany ahany arhasi sodhum arhan. In 9, line 8 is said to have happened. (2) When was it actually written down.
mean : 'The lunar eclipse has already happened (in Kanaka Scholars who have studied the problem critically are of
Purnima) and a solar eclipse is going to happen in the next opinion that there is a historical core in the story, but much
Amavasya." Actually, the first part means that the dark patch fictitious matter has been added to it in course of time.
on the moon is inverted {vyavrttam, not nivrttam). In line 16 The Bharata war must be true history, and the personages
of passage 9, grdhra is interpreted as "an evil planet", taking part in it, together with the line of the Bharatas and
instead of 'eagle' which itself indicates an evil omen. Yadus, whose names occur frequently in Vedic literature,
even as early as the Rgveda, not to speak of the Brahmanas
Thus, different years are fixed by different persons as like the Satapatha. The state of society and the political
follows: conditions point to a time earlier than the Chandogya, one
of the earliest of the upanisads, as can be seen from two
N. Jagannatha Rao 3139 B.C. statements in the work:
T.S.Narayana Sastri c. 3126 B.C.
K.V.Abhayankar c. 3101 B.C. "krsnaya devakiputrayoktvovaca - yadyapyenacchuskaya
C.V.Vaidya Do sthanave bruyatjayerannasya sakhah
P.C.Sengupta 2449 B.C. praroheyuh palasanl iti //"
Karandikar 1931 B.C. svetaketurha aruneyah
P.V.Kane c. 1900 B.C. kurupahcalanam samitimiyaya /\...n2S
S.B.Dikshit c. 1500 B.C. The latter of the above statements shows that, at the
K.G.Sankara Aiyar 1198 B.C. time of the Upanisad, the Kuru and the Paiicala country had
K.L.Daftari 1191 B.C. coalesced, while at the time of the Bharata war they were
V.Gopala Aiyar 1194 B.C. different, the Pancalas being the allies of the Pandavas. It is
quite natural for stories to gather accretions when they are
Within the year, the dates are fixed for the different repeated generation after generation. Most of the
occurrences by day's naksatra or tithi, and the interval in superhuman and obviously exaggerated portions must have
days between one occurrence and another, given. Here, too, been added later. The core is generally placed between the
there are discrepancies and misinterpretations, leading to eleventh and the ninth centuries B.C. Other story matter
different dates. Though many have concluded that the war could have been added during a few subsequent centuries,
began on Kanaka New Moon day, some say that it began on when Krsna came to be deified. The lot of Dharmasastra
Margasirsa Sukla Ekadasi day. The day of Bhlsma's death is
matter with illustrative stories must have been added last, in
stated at places as Magna Sukla AstamI, while at others as
the course of several generations. Anyhow, by the first or
EkadasT.
second century B.C. or A.D., the Mahabharata must have
 Eclipses in Indian Astronomy
30
arrived at its present form, with a few bits of interpolations
here and there, made later.
As for its writing, the language is that of the early
classical period, for it is clearly later than that of the genuine
upanisads. The addition of the later matter and the
development of the classical language must have, naturally
enough, gone on together. By the first or second century
A.D. most of the whole MaAabAarata must have attained the
present form.
It is natural for story writers to incorporate into their
stories ideas current in their own time. A lot of the
astronomical facts found in the work, especially in the
context of the war, must have been cooked up by these
later writers in the light of their own knowledge, and
added by different people at different times. That explains
the contradictions. It must be clearly noted that the
astrological ideas mentioned in the Samhitas which
developed from the 2 nd century B.C. could not have been
current as early as the l l t h to 9 th century B.C. and, even if
current, are not likely to be remembered after so many
generations. By the first century A.D. or B.C., the
astronomical Samhitas had mostly been written, and
naturally the ideas in them find a place in the work. The
calendric system of the Vedahga Jyotisa continued to be
current in this Sarhhita period, as can be seen from Garga
SamAita, and ideas showing Sravistha as being the first star
(beginning the winter solstice) are in evidence, together
with its shifting to Sravana, (c. third century B.C.) as can be
gathered from the Visvamitra episode. The MBA. In its
Virataparva ch. 52 contains the Vedahga calendric system.
Again, in the context of the war, it is natural for writers,
especially of epics, to describe portents as happening to
presage evil. The Samhitas devote chapters to describe these
portents. The Ketucara, on the appearance of comets, is full
Determination of the Date. . . 31
of portents, as also separate chapters devoted to portents
like rare or unnatural, impossible or terrible phenomena.
These have been included in the work. But most
investigators have not interpreted these portions properly,
for which a detailed study of the chapters on Ketucara and
Utpatas in the BrAatsamAita of Varahamihira would be
advantageous. For example, the mention of the new moon
together with solar eclipse occurring on Trayodasi, the sun
and the moon being eclipsed on the same day (the same
month), and that on Trayodasi, Mercury moving across the
sky (i.e. north-south), the dark patch on the moon being
inverted, the lunar eclipse at Karttika fullmoon, and again
the solar eclipse at the time of the mace-fight, are all
intended by the writer to be impossible things occurring. The
mention of the red moon indistinguishable from the red sky
{digdaAa), eagles falling on the flag, appearances of comets
of different colours and in groups are all portents. Ignorance
of the fact that the "graAas" of different colours mentioned in
Bhismaparva, chapter 3, are not planets but comets, has
added to the confusion, because these scholars do not realize
that, in the Samhitas, the word 'grahd means primarily
comets, (vide the chapter on Ketucara in the BrAatsamAita).
It would be clear from the above, that all the skill shown
in distorting the meanings of words and trying to show when
these impossible or rare phenomena and contradictory
planetary combinations would actually occur, has been
wasted. Excepting the time of the year when the war might
have happened, there is nothing in the MaAabAarata to fix
the year definitely. We do not have adequate data to fix
either the happening or when the work, even part by part,
was written.