Mechanical Properties and Behavior Explained

Mechanical Properties
and Behavior
J. Ernesto Indacochea
University of Illinois at Chicago
Materials Engineering
CME 470
Basic Concepts
CME 470 J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 2

Introduction
How are mechanical properties measured?
Laboratory tests: must simulate closely the service
conditions
Considerations for testing: type of load, duration of
loading, temperature, environment.
Mechanical properties are universal!
Tests must be consistent. standardized testing
Interpretation of results needs techniques
regulation.
In the U.S.A. the ASTM oversees standards.
Needs constant updates!
Common State of Stresses
Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s = s s
Ao

Tensile Stresses
Important Stress-Strain Concepts
Elastic deformation:
If metal subjected to action
of an external force there
is a change size & shape. X
When the force is removed

W
metal returns to its original
dimension.

Tensile Test
Stress-Strain Concepts
Elastic deformation atomistic model:
No change in atom positions

Tensile Test
Objective: measure the materials resistance to
deformation due to a static or slowly applied (dynamic)
force.
Uniaxial tensile test: the force applied to the metal
coupon is continuously increasing while simultaneous
observations are made of the elongation of the specimen
ASTM E-8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E

Tensile Test
Stress-Strain Diagram
Engineering stress and strain
s
Load
Elongation
F l i l o l
s = = =
Ao lo lo
Ao = r2
Elastic Deformation:
Stress-Strain Relationships
In most metals the tensile stress is proportional
(linear) to the strain at low levels.
s = E
E = Modulus of elasticity or
Youngs Modulus; MPa or psi
When the stress and strain are proportional the

deformation is considered elastic.
E is related to the stiffness of the material or the
material resistance to deformation.
Modulus of Elasticity
Macroscopic elastic strains interatomic space
changes (stretching of interatomic bonds).
The Youngs Modulus (E) is related to the
interatomic bonding forces.

Stress-Strain Behavior
Modulus of Elasticity and Temperature

Compression Tests
Similar to tensile tests.
A compressive force is applied and the test sample
contracts along stress axis.
Compressive
load
The same equations of the tensile test for the

stress and strain apply.
This type of tests applies to brittle materials, e.g.,
concrete, ceramics.
Shear and Torsional Tests
Applied force is parallel to the area of slip.
The units of shear stress and strain are the
same as those of their tensile counterparts.
Torsion is a variation of pure shear:
Structural member is twisted along axis w.r.t. one end.
= f (Torque, T); : related to angle of twist, .
Examples: machine axles, drive shafts, and twist drills.
a
= = tan
h
a
F// F//
= = h
As Ao

Stress-Strain Behavior
Elastic Properties: (isotropic materials)
Poissons ratio ()
x y
= =
z z
E = 2G 1
Elastic Behavior:
Shape Changes & Strain Concepts

Tensile Test
Stress-Strain Diagram:
Engineering Information
Plastic deformation:
Metal does not fully recover permanent deformation.
Atoms undergo a permanent displacement & take new positions.
An important & useful engineering property of metals is
their ability to deform without fracture.

Plastic Deformation
The material is deformed
to a point where s E .
Hookes law, Load = kx,
does not apply
Deformation is permanent
or nonrecoverable
Yield & Tensile Strength:
proportional limit
0.2% offset yield: convention
rule
ultimate tensile strength

Tensile Properties:
Plastic Deformation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure: Lf Lo
%EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Lo
Ao
Af Lf
Engineering tensile strain,
Another ductility measure:

Ao - Af
%RA = x 100
Ao
Uniaxial Testing Test
Important observations:
Strain to fracture
su
Engineering stress-strain curve is based on the original dimensions,

of tensile sample.
Note that these dimensions continually change as the test progresses.
The s-e underestimates the actual capacity of the material OK for
design.
True Stress and Strain
Important in metalworking/manufacturing operations.
After necking, it appears that the metal becomes weaker, but on the
contrary, it increases in strength.
Deformation is localized at necking there is a drastic reduction
in cross sectional area.
The drastic reduction in cross sectional area lessens the load-bearing
capacity of the tensile sample.
F
s = T
A i
li
T = ln
lo
s T = K Tn K : strength coefficient
n : strain hardening
exponent or index
s = 1
T These equations
T = ln 1
are valid up to the
onset of necking
The flow curve of many metals in the region
of uniform deformation can be expressed by
the simple power curve relationship
Strain Hardening Exponent (n)
s
K Strength coefficient
ds dA dL
Relating n to u: = = = d
s A L
ds
=s;

d K n
= K n
P = s x A, @ P = Pmax:
d d
n K n 1 = K n Instability point
dP)P=Pmax = 0 = dsA + dAs
n
n = n 1 = , @ Pmax : = u

n = u
Strengthening of
Metallic Materials
Review Concepts on
Plastic Deformation

Dislocations
Useful for explaining deformation & strengthening of
metals.

Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
Fundamental Concepts:
Plastic deformation motion of a large number of
dislocations.
Dislocation motion repeating breaking of bonds and
shifting by interatomic distances.
As the dislocation passes the top plane shifts one atomic
distance slip; slip plane
slip
Analogy of
dislocation
motion to
caterpillar
locomotion.

Slip Systems
Dislocation mobility: depends on the crystalline
directions or planes.
Dislocations move with greater ease along preferred
planes (slip planes) and preferred directions (slip
directions).

Slip Systems
The combination of slip plane & slip direction is
termed slip system.
Slip system = slip directions/plane
z
For fcc structure:

ao # slip directions in (111) = 3
# of slip planes in fcc = 4
y
(111), (111), (111), (111)
total # of slip systems = 4 planes
x x 3 slip direction/plane = 12

Slip Systems

Slip in Single Crystals
The actual stress operating on a slip system results
from the application of a tensile or compressive
stress. This is referred to as resolved shear stress.

How can metals be strengthened?
Metals plastic deform by the movement of large
numbers of dislocations.
Easiness of the dislocation movement specifies
the ability of a metal to deform plastically.
Implication of a slow dislocation motion:
Larger mechanical forces are needed to move the
dislocations and thus produce plastic deformation.
Increase in hardness and strength.

Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals
Lets consider first single phase metals:
Solid solution strengthening
Grain size strengthening
Dislocation strengthening
Particle dispersion strengthening

Solid-Solution Strengthening
The solute atoms (substitutional or interstitial) will strain the
solvent lattice.
The lattice strain fields interact with the dislocations strain

fields restricts dislocation movement.

Solid-Solution Strengthening
Solute atoms can also attach or decorate the
dislocations.
The resistance to slip is greater since dislocations
are anchored by these solutes and must torn away
from these solute atmospheres to move.
(Propagation of Lders bands)

Solid Solution Strengthening
The effect of SS strengthening is analogous to
the motion of a body experiencing friction effects.
Extra stress needed to overcome friction.
This additional stress is usually proportional to the
solute concentration.
Ferrite strengthening by interstitial and substitutional atoms

Solid-Solution Strengthening (Cu-Ni alloy)
Hardness and strength is
enhanced with increase of
alloy concentration.
Ductility usually decreases.

Solid Solution Strengthening

Grain Size Strengthening
Grain boundaries play an important role in the plastic
deformation of polycrystalline materials.
@ Tlow (T<0.5Tm) they are strong obstacles to
dislocation motion:
Mobile dislocation can pile up against the boundaries
increasing the local stresses.
Such stress can be relaxed by initiating multiple slip.

In high-angle grain boundaries:
Dislocations most likely will not traverse the boundary
during deformation.
Instead, a stress concentration ahead of a slip plane in
one grain will activate a new source in the adjacent
grain.

Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline
Materials
Deformation is complicated due to random grain
orientation.
Deformation in each grain must be accommodated by
its neighbors:
The accommodation is realized by the multiple slip in the
vicinity of the boundaries
Variation in grain orientation is reflected by

the different alignment of the slip lines for
each grain.

Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline
Materials
During deformation:
Grain boundaries do not usually come apart.
They maintain their coherency, i.e., each grain is forced in
the shape dictated from neighbor grains.
Polycrystalline metals are stronger than their single-
crystal equivalents.

At Thigh the grain boundaries become weak:
grain boundary sliding,
This leads to plastic flow or opening up voids along the
boundaries.
Grain boundaries can act as sources or sinks of
vacancies at Thigh.
In polycrystalline materials, frequently the grains
may be preferentially oriented:
e.g. Fe-3%Si, has grains with (110) planes nearly
parallel with their <100> directions along the rolling
direction for their magnetic properties.

Hall-Petch equation:
1
s = s o ky
1

s = s o ky d 2
d
so= frictional stress needed to move dislocations; k= is the slope.
Low-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in
interfering with dislocation motion.



Dislocation Strengthening
Increase in dislocation
density interferes with
their motion Thus s
higher stresses are
needed for further
displacement.
This is the foundation

for strain hardening
or work hardening.

Dislocation Strengthening (Strain
Hardening )
It is the strengthening due to plastic
deformation.
Stress-strain diagram helps explain strain
hardening.

Hardening)
Dislocation concentration is usually reported in
terms of density (cm/cm3).
Annealed materials estimated to have a density
of 106 cm-2.
Cold worked metal: 1012 1013 cm-2.
The yield strength increase due to dislocation
density is expressed as:
s
Hardening)
(a) (b)

Hardening)
Dislocation multiplication mechanism:
Frank-Read source

Hardening)
Cold Work:
Mechanical deformation of a metal at relatively
low temperatures.
% C.W. is defined relative to the reduction in
cross sectional area of the metal.
Ao Ad
%CW = 100
A0
Hardening)
Cold Work:
Effect of %CW on mechanical properties of metals.

Hardening)

Particle Dispersion Strengthening
Most engineering materials:
Are multiphase or have dispersed particles in their
microstructures.
They can be considered as composite materials.
The properties of the aggregate or composite can be
determined by the rule of mixtures
n P: property of i-th component.
Pagg = Pi f i f: vol. fraction of i-th component
property
1 containing n phases

1
s


Impediment for free movement of
dislocations. Coherent Particles
Al-Li alloy
1
s

Schematic representation of the obstruction of a moving (edge)
dislocation caused by precipitate particles.
Coherent and Noncoherent Particles
Besides the particle/dislocation interaction, there is also an

elastic strain mismatch of the particle and the matrix.
This effect is more significant in coherent particles.
s f : elastic strain
f : vol. fraction of dispersed particles

Second Phase Strengthening
Medium-carbon steel 1045

Second Phase Strengthening:
Microstructure/processing control

Factor of Safety/Allowable Design Stress:
Variability of Material Properties
Measured properties are not exact quantities.
Despite precise apparatus and tightly controlled
test procedures, there is always scattering in data
collected for same material.
Ultimately, there is variability in Modulus of
elasticity, yield and tensile strengths values.
Possible factors that lead to uncertainties:
Test method.
Variation in specimen fabrication procedures.
Apparatus calibration
Inhomogeneities within same product lot.
Compositional changes from lot to lot
Variability of Material Properties
Scattering also exists when measuring:
density,
electrical conductivity,
thermal expansion coefficient.
It is imperative for the design engineer to be
aware of the variability in materials properties
and must be dealt with appropriately.
Occasionally, data must be submitted to
statistical treatment and probabilities need to
be determined.

Calculation of Average & Standard Deviation
Often, it is desirable to specify a typical value
and degree of dispersion (scatter).
Commonly the average is and the standard
deviation calculated
1
n
xi
n

xi x

2 2

s = i =1
x= i =1
n 1
n

Strength Properties in Design
In ductile metals and plastics under static or
steady tensile loads, the failure criteria is the
yield strength.
However, common for engineers to use the factor
of safety to ensure against uncertainties related
to the properties of the material.
sy s UTS
ss = ss =
2 4

Strength Properties in Design
This method oversizes the material sy YS is used for
ss =
ductile materials,
higher costs and weights of 2
e.g. structural
steels
material:
Not significant problem for static s UTS UTS is used for
ss = brittle materials;
e.g. cast iron
structures: buildings, storage tanks, 4
bridges.
Issue in transport structures: airplanes,
freight trucks. Weight and energy use
are closely related.
In the case brittle materials
(ceramics, concrete), probability
design is used Weibull statistics
Hardness
Materials resistance to localized plastic deformation.
Resistance of material to indentation.
Test:
A hard indenter is pressed into the specimen.
Standard load applied.
Magnitude of indentation is measured:
Area of indentation, or
Depth of indentation

Hardness
Most popular
mechanical test:
simple & inexpensive.
semi nondestructive.
hardness is correlated
primarily with tensile
strength:
For steels:
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x BHN
TS (psi) = 500 x BHN

Hardness
Types of Hardness Tests:
Rockwell
Brinell.
Knoop & Vickers microhardness.

Hardness
Rockwell Hardness Test:
Most common and simplest to perform.
Hardness number determined by depth of penetration.
Several scales: indenter/load combination.

Hardness
Rockwell Hardness Test -- (REMARKS):
Magnitude of loads dictate the type of test/material.
As hardness values rise >100 or drop <20 on any scale,
better to switch scales.
Sample thickness at least ~ 10X penetration depth.
Indentations should be separated by at least 3 indentation
diameters.
Indentations should me made on smooth flat surfaces.

Hardness
(3.18 mm)

Hardness
Rockwell Hardness Test-- Superficial:
1.59 mm
3.18 mm

Microhardness

Hardness
Hardness Conversion:
A comprehensive
conversion method does
not exist, due to test
dissimilarities.
Hardness conversion data
has been determined
experimentally.
It has been found to
depend on material type
and characteristics.

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Mechanical Properties

CME 470 J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 2

area (when unloaded)

CME 470 J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 4

When the force is removed

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CME 470 J. Ernesto Indacochea UIC 7

When the stress and strain are proportional the

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The same equations of the tensile test for the

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Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

Engineering stress-strain curve is based on the original dimensions,

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For fcc structure:

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The lattice strain fields interact with the dislocations strain

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(Propagation of Lders bands)

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Ferrite strengthening by interstitial and substitutional atoms

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Variation in grain orientation is reflected by

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Besides the particle/dislocation interaction, there is also an

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Medium-carbon steel 1045

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