PROJECT REPORT

(6 Week Industrial Training May-June 2010)

NLD SWITCHING & ROUTING

TATA TELE SERVICES LTD

SUBMITTED BY

ANKUR GOYAL

B.TECH (ECE)

ROLL NO: - 07104011

7TH SEMESTER

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

 MR. NIRMALJIT SINGH

DY.MGR, TTSL JALANDHAR

Acknowledgement

Like all the other studies, Industrial training has its own importance. It
is the most important part of the curriculum for an Engineering
student. This work is the result of the interaction of a number of minds
that directly or indirectly have contributed in the making of this
training a success.

It is important to acknowledge all those people who have had a major

influence on the conception and fruition of this report. To the best of
my ability I shall attempt to do so. I would like to thank Mr. Nirmaljit
Singh (Dy. Manager) for their technical and moral support & for their
cooperation, constructive criticism, valuable guidance and constant
encouragement.

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3
 Index
Sr. No. Chapter Page

1 TATA-the name brand & its holding 7-8

structure
2 TATA’s Leadership in diverse fields 9-11

3 Introduction-Tata Teleservices Ltd. 12-13

4 NLD Switching & Routing 14-15

5 Introduction to Wireless 16-18

Communication Systems
6 Cellular System 19-24

7 Cellular Generations 25-29

8 Multiple Access Technologies 30-43

9 System Architecture-CDMA 44-52

10 Supplementary Services 53-54

11 Intelligent Network 55

12 Handoff 56-58

13 Concept of E1 59-60

14 Introduction to Signaling 61-62

15 Introduction to SS7 63-67

16 Call Processing 68-77

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Mr. RATAN TATA:
If there are challenges thrown across
and those challenges are difficult then
some interesting, innovative solutions
will come. If you don't have those
challenges then, I think, the tendency

5
is go on to say that whatever will happen, will take place in small
deltas.

6
 1.TATA-the name brand:

The TATA Group is a multinational conglomerate based in Mumbai, India. In terms of

market capitalization and revenues, Tata Group is the largest private corporate group in India
and has been recognized as one of the most respected companies in the world. It has interests
in steel, automobiles, information technology, communication, power, tea and hospitality.
The Tata Group has operations in more than 85 countries across six continents and its
companies export products and services to 80 nations. The Tata Group comprises 114
companies and subsidiaries in seven business sectors, 27 of which are publicly listed. 65.8%
of the ownership of Tata Group is held in charitable trusts. Companies which form a major
part of the group include Tata Steel, Corus Steel, Tata Motors, Tata Consultancy Services,
Tata Technologies, Tata Tea, Titan Industries, Tata Power, Tata Communications, Tata
Teleservices, Tata AutoComp Systems Limited and the Taj Hotels.
The group takes the name of its founder, Jamshedji Tata, a member of whose family has
almost invariably been the chairman of the group. The current chairman of the Tata group is
Ratan Tata, who took over from J. R. D. Tata in 1991 and is currently one of the major
international business figures in the age of globality. The company is currently in its fifth
generation of family stewardship.
The 2009 annual survey by the Reputation Institute ranked Tata Group as the 11th most
reputable company in the world. The survey included 600 global companies.

The company, which heralded convergence technologies in the Indian telecom sector, is today
the market leader in the fixed wireless telephony market with a customer base of over 1
million.Tata Teleservices bouquet of telephony services includes Mobile services, Smart Wireless
Services, Public Booth Telephony, and Wire line services. Other services include value added
services like voice portal, roaming, post-paid Internet services, 3-way conferencing, CUG, Wi-Fi
Internet services and data services.

Today, the company serves over 2 million customers in over 290 towns. With an ambitious
rollout plan both within existing circles and across new circles, Tata Teleservices will offer
excellent technology and user-friendly services to over 1000 cities in 20 circles. The Tata Group
operates business in seven key industry sectors. The chart below illustrates how, in percentage
terms, Tata companies in each of these sectors contribute to the overall makeup of the group.

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 GROUP HOLDING STRUCTURE

The Tata Group is currently headed by Ratan Tata. The Group Executive Office (GEO)
and the Group Corporate Centre (GCC) are the two decision-making bodies that define and
direct the business endeavours of the Tata Group. Created in 1998, the GEO defines and
reviews the business activities of the Tata Group and is involved in implementing
programmes in corporate governance, human resources, the environment, etc. The chief
objective of the GEO is to make the Tata Group more synergistic and create a shared
understanding of a Tata company’s current activities, its strengths and its weaknesses. The
GEO assesses what unique value a company adds to a particular business sector and,
conversely, what unique value the Group can bring to that company. The mandate of the GCC
is to guide the future strategy and direction of the Tata Group and to work in close
coordination with the GEO.

Fig. 1(a) Group Holding Structure-TATA.

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 2. TATA’s LEADERSHIP IN DIVERSE FIELDS:

ENGINEERING:

 TAL Manufacturing Solutions exports titanium-composite floor

beams that are installed in the Boeing 787 aircraft.
 Tata AutoComp Systems Limited (TACO) and its subsidiaries, auto-
component manufacturing
 Tata Motors (formerly Tata Engineering and Locomotives Company Ltd (TELCO)),
manufacturer of commercial vehicles (largest in India) and passenger cars
 Jaguar and Land Rover
 Tata Projects
 TCE Consulting Engineers Limited
 Telco Construction Equipment Company
 TRF Bulk Material Handling Equipment & Systems and Port & Yard Equipments.
 Voltas, consumer electronics company.

2.2 ENERGY:

 Tata Power is one of the largest private sector power companies. It

supplies power to Mumbai, the commercial capital of India and parts of New Delhi.

2.3 CHEMICALS:

 Rallis India
 Tata Pigments
 Tata Chemicals, headquartered in Mumbai, India, Tata Chemicals has
the largest single soda ash production capacity plant in India. Since 2006 Tata
Chemicals has owned Brunner Mond, a United Kingdom-based chemical company
with operations in Kenya and the Netherlands.
 Advinus Therapeutics, headquartered in Bangalore, India, a Contract research
organization focused on drug discovery and development for Pharmaceutical, Agro
and Biotech industries.

2.4 SERVICES:

 The Indian Hotels Company

 Tata Housing Development Company Ltd. (THDC)

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  Tata-AIG General Insurance, a joint venture with AIG

 Tata-AIG Life Insurance, a joint venture with AIG

 Tata Advanced Systems Limited

 Tata Asset Management

 Tata Financial Services

 Tata Capital

 Tata Investment Corporation

 Tata Quality Management Services

 Tata Share Registry

 Tata Strategic Management Group (TSMG) is one of the largest consulting firms in
South Asia.

 Tata Services

2.5 CONSUMER PRODUCTS:

 Tata Salt, i-Shakti Salt, Tata Salt Lite

 Tata Ceramics

 Infiniti Retail

 Tata Tea Limited is the world's second largest manufacturer of packaged tea and tea
products. It also owns the Tetley brand of tea sold primarily in Europe.

 Titan Industries manufacturers of Titan watches

 Trent (Westside)

 Tata Sky

 Tata International Ltd - Leather Products Division

 Tanishq jewellery

 Star Bazaar

2.6 INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND COMMUNICATIONS:

 Computational Research Laboratories

 INCAT

 Nelco

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 Nelito Systems

 Tata Business Support Services (formerly Serwizsol)

 Tata Consultancy Services Ltd. (TCS) is Asia's largest software company with 2008-
09 revenues being over US$ 6 bn.

 Tata Elxsi is another Software and Industrial design company of the Tata stable. Based
in Bangalore and Trivandrum. One of the leading companies in the animation industry
of India.

 Tata Interactive Systems

 Tata Technologies Limited

 Tata Teleservices

 Tatanet

 Tata Communications, formerly VSNL, the Indian telecom giant, was acquired in
2002. Tata-owned VSNL acquired Teleglobe in 2005.

 CMC Limited

3.TATA TELESERVICES LTD. :

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 Tata Teleservices Limited (TTSL) is a part of the Tata Group of companies, an Indian
conglomerate. It operates under the brand name Tata Indicom in various telecom circles of
India. In Nov 2008, Japanese telecom giant NTT Docomo picked up a 26 per cent equity
stake in Tata Teleservices In Feb 2008, TTSL announced that it would provide CDMA
mobile services targeted towards the youth, in association with the Virgin Group on a
Franchisee model basis.
Tata Teleservices Provides mobile services under 3 Brand names:
• Tata Indicom

• Tata DoCoMo

• Virgin Mobile

3.1 COMPANY BACKGROUND:

The company acquired Hughes Telecom (India) Limited [now renamed Tata
Teleservices (Maharashtra) Limited] in December 2002. Tata Teleservices has created a Pan
India presence spread across 20 circles that includes Andhra Pradesh, Chennai, Gujarat, J &
K, Karnataka, Delhi, Maharashtra, Mumbai, North East, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bihar,
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (E), Uttar Pradesh (W), Kerala,
Kolkata, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
Having pioneered the CDMA 3G1x technology platform in India, Tata Teleservices has
established 3G ready telecom infrastructure. It partnered with Motorola, Ericsson, Lucent and
ECI Telecom for the deployment of its telecom network. The company is the market leader in
the fixed wireless telephony market with a total customer base of over 3.8 million.
Tata Teleservices’ bouquet of telephony services includes Mobile services, Wireless Desktop
Phones, Public Booth Telephony and Wireline services. Other services include value added services
like voice portal, roaming, post-paid Internet services, 3-way conferencing, group calling, Wi-Fi
Internet, USB Modem, data cards, calling card services and enterprise services. Some of the other
products launched by the company include prepaid wireless desktop phones, public phone booths,
new mobile handsets and new voice & data services such as BREW games, Voice Portal, picture
messaging, polyphonic ring tones, interactive applications like news, cricket, astrology, etc.
Tata Indicom "Non Stop Mobile" allows pre-paid cellular customers to receive free
incoming calls. Tata Teleservices Limited along with Tata Teleservices (Maharashtra)
Limited have a subscriber base of 36 million customers (as of April 2009) in more than 5,000
towns. Tata Teleservices has also acquired GSM licenses for specific circles in India.

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 Tata Telelservices is an unlisted entity. Tata Group and group firms own the majority of the
company; NTT docomo holds 26% while investor C. Sivasankaran holds 8%.

3.2 SERVICES OFFERED:

Fig. 3.2(a) TTSL Offering Services

Tata Teleservices Limited spearheads the Tata Group’s presence in the telecom sector. The
Tata Group had revenues of around US $62.5 billion in Financial Year 2007-08, and includes
over 90 companies, over 350,000 employees worldwide and more than 3.2 million
shareholders.
Tata Teleservices Limited now also has a presence in the GSM space, through its joint
venture with NTT DOCOMO of Japan, and offers differentiated products and services under
the TATA DOCOMO brand name. TATA DOCOMO arises out of the Tata Group’s strategic
alliance with Japanese telecom major NTT DOCOMO in November 2008. TATA DOCOMO
has received a pan-India license to operate GSM telecom services—and has also been allotted
spectrum in 18 telecom Circles. Today, Tata Teleservices Ltd, along with Tata Teleservices
(Maharashtra) Ltd, serves around 50 million customers in more than 350,000 towns and
villages across the country, with a bouquet of telephony services encompassing Mobile
Services, Wireless Desktop Phones, Public Booth Telephony and Wireline Services.
In December 2008, Tata Teleservices announced a unique reverse equity swap strategic
agreement between its telecom tower subsidiary, Wireless TT Info-Services Limited, and
Quippo Telecom Infrastructure Limited—with the combined entity kicking off operations
with 18,000 towers, thereby becoming the largest independent entity in this space—and with
the highest tenancy ratios in the industry. TTSL’s bouquet of telephony services includes
mobile services, wireless desktop phones, public booth telephony, wireline services and
enterprise solutions.

4. NLD SWITCHING AND ROUTING

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4.1 NATIONAL LONG DISTANCE (NLD):

NLD service was opened to the private sector w.e.f. 13 August 2000. Indian registered
companies having a net worth of Rs. 2.5 crore and paid up equity of Rs. 2.5 crore are eligible
to apply. The total foreign equity in the applicant company must not exceed 74 per cent at any
time during the entire licence period. Investment in the equity of the applicant company by an
NRI/OCB/International funding agencies is counted towards its foreign equity. The entry fee
of Rs. 2.5 crore is to be submitted before signing the licence agreement. There is no
restriction on number of operators. An NLD operator can carry inter-circle traffic in the
country. The licence for NLDO is issued on non-exclusive basis, for a period of 20 years and
is extendable by 10 years at one time. In addition to BSNL 18 more companies have signed
licence agreement for National Long Distance Service. The competition resulted in lowering
of tariff.

4.2 SWITCHING:

“The establishment, on demand, of an individual connection

from a desired inlet to a desired outlet within a set of
inlets and outlets for as long as is required for the
transfer of information.”
Or in general what goes in, comes out, for as long as desired from within the network until
one party hangs up. A switch routes a call based on a number system.

e.g. 1 302 369 6923

Access code

Area code

Exchange code

Subscriber code

4.3 ROUTING:

Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network
traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network,
electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. The routing
process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of
the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held
in the routers' memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use
only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple
alternative paths.

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 Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its
assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity
within the network. Because structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to
represent the route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense)
outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has become the
dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though bridging is still widely used within
localized environments.

Routing schemes differ in their delivery semantics:

 unicast delivers a message to a single specified node;

 broadcast delivers a message to all nodes in the network;
 multicast delivers a message to a group of nodes that have expressed interest in
receiving the message;
 anycast delivers a message to any one out of a group of nodes, typically the one
nearest to the source.

Unicast is the dominant form of message delivery on the Internet, and this article focuses
on unicast routing algorithms. Routing algorithms often have one or more of the following
design goals:

 Optimality
 Simplicity and low overhead
 Robustness and stability
 Rapid convergence
 Flexibility

5.INTRODUCTION - WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
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The ability to communicate with the people on the move has evolved remarkably since
Gugliemo Marconi first demonstrated radio ability to provide continuous contact with the
ships sailing the English Channel. That was in 1897 and since the new wireless
communication methods and services have been enthusiastically adopted by people
throughout the world particularly during the past 10 years, the mobile communication
industry has grown by orders of magnitude, fueled by digital and RF circuit fabrication
improvements, new large scale circuit integration, and other miniaturization technologies
which make portable radio equipment smaller, cheaper and more reliable. Digital Switching
techniques have facilitated the large scale deployment of affordable, easy to use radio
communication networks.

5.1 WIRELESS:
Morse was the first to demonstrate anything close to “wireless”. He transmitted
telegraph message between castle garden and new york with part of circuit being completed
by conduction in a lake that lies in between.
Dr. Loomis who was a dentist by profession, actually received a patent on wireless but
could not follow it up basically due to lack of fund. That was 1872 , four years before patent
for bell’s telephone was issued ! even Edison had several tryst with wireless , but did not
seriously pursue it. Hughes demonstrated wireless communication , but was put down as
merely a case of induction. J C Bose developed a highly sensitive wireless device but based in
India repot of his work reached England only after marconi who got his patent . even marconi
had problems in explaining his work in italy , his native country and finally succeeded in
England However, he never envisioned wireless for voice communication. He concentrated
on wireless telegraphy. Wireless got a big boost when wireless telegraph was established
between Britain and USA, eliminating the need of costly undersea cabling . wireless also
transformed maritime communication and now ships could keep in touch with the port and
with each other. it’s one such wireless message that warned titanic about floating icebergs.
Voice was carried commercially by radio station of Holland, where public
communication was difficult due to the geography of that area. Nordic countries continued to
pioneer several wireless technologies till today.
While radio frequencies was extensively used for radio broadcast, police communication,
RADAR, etc. in the first half of the 20th century , commercial use for person telephony was
virtually ruled out due to lack of bandwidth. It is only 1947, a new concept of ground level
transmission & frequency reuse got proposed that gave impetus to commercial personalized
radio telephony.
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 Also the electronics of transmitter and receiver were so bulky and power consuming that
you would require a vehicle to carry them around. It took 30 years of invention in the field of
electronics and protracted war in the legal battlefield , to make cellular telephony a
commercial success.
While Motorola got their patent for cellular telephone , the first cellular telephone system
was set up in Bahrain, again because of geography of place.
Since the mid 1990, the cellular communication industry has witnessed explosive
growth. Wireless communication networks have become much more pervasive than anyone
could have imagine when the cellular concept was first developed in 1960s and 1970s. As
shown in figure below, the world wide cellular and personal communication subscriber base
surpassed 600 million users in late 2001, and the no. of individual subscribers is projected to
reach 2 billion by the end of 2006. Indeed, most countries throughout the world continue to
experience cellular subscription increases of 40% or more per year. Wide spread adoption of
wireless communication was accelerated in the mid 1990s when government throughout the
world provided increased competition and new radio spectrum license for the personal
communication services in the 1800-2000MHz frequency band.
The rapid world wide growth in cellular telephone subscriber has demonstrated
conclusively that wireless communication is a robust, viable voice and data transfer
mechanism. The wide spread success of cellular has led to the development of newer wireless
systems and standards for other type of telecommunication traffic beside mobile voice
telephone calls.

Fig. 5.1(a) Growth of cellular telephone subscribers throughout the world.

For e.g. next generation cellular networks are being designed to facilitate high speed data
communication traffic in addition to voice calls. New standards and technologies are being
implemented to allow wireless network to replace fiber optic or copper lines between fixed
point several KM apart. Similarly wireless network have been increasingly used as a
replacement of wires within home, buildings and office through WLAN.

5.2 Wireless System Communication

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 A user of a cellular system communicates with the base station to place a call. The call can
be data or voice, and the base station routes the call to either a terrestrial network to the
termination point or to another user of the same cellular network. Normally, for voice calls, the
base station either directly or indirectly routes the call to a public switched telephony network
(PSTN). Each user of a cellular system is also sometimes called a subscriber. The
communications link from the base station to the subscriber is referred to as the downlink or
forward link, while the link from the subscriber to the base station is referred to as the uplink or
reverse link

Cellular subscribers can be stationary or mobile. If the subscriber is mobile, then the
cellular network must be able to handle the situation whereas mobile subscriber (also known as
a mobile station) moves from one cell to another. This event is known as handoff or handover.
If the mobile station can engage in simultaneous communication with multiple base stations,
then it is said to be in soft handoff.

In order to ensure that a call is not dropped when a handoff occurs, information about the
mobile station is usually known to the base stations involved in the handoff. Due to this and for
other reasons, some comm. exists in the network that connects base stations together in a
cellular system. This network is known as the backbone network or simply the backhaul.

The backbone network consists of several entities between the PSTN and the base station.
The base station usually interfaces with a base station controller (BSC), which networks a
cluster of base stations to ensure that call admission and handover can function in a coordinated
manner among base stations within a geographical region. A cluster is a group of cells that use
the complete set of available telephony channels in a cellular network.

6. CELLULAR SYSTEMS:

The design objective of early mobile radio systems was to achieve a large coverage area
by using a single,high powered transmitter with an anteena mounted on a tall tower. While
this approach achieved very good coverage , it also meant that it was impossible to reuse
those same frequencies throughout the system,since any attempts to achieve frequency reuse

18
would result in interference. For example,the bell mobile system in New York city in the
1970’s could only support a maximum of 12 simultaneous calls over a 1000 sq.miles. Faced
with a fact that government regulatoriy agencies could not make spectrum allocation in
proportion to the increasing demands for the mobile services, it became imperative to
restructure the radio telephone system to achieve high capacity with limited radio spectrum
while at the same time covering large areas.

6.1 INTRODUCTION-CELLULAR CONCEPT:

The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of spectral
congestion and user capacity. It offered a very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation
without any major technological changes. The cellular concept is a system level idea which
calls for replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power
transmitters (small cells), each providing coverage to only a small portion of the service area.
Each base station is allocated a portion of total number of channels available to a entire
systems, and nearby base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that all the
available channels are assigned to a relatively small numbers of neighboring base stations.
Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference
between base stations (and the mobile users under their control) is minimized by
systematically spacing base stations and their channel groups throughout a market, the
available channels are distributed throughout a geographical region and may be reused as
many times as necessary so long as the interference between co-channel station is kept below
acceptable levels.
As the demand for service increases (i:e as more channels are needed with in a particular
market), the number of base station may be increased (along with the corresponding decrease
in transmitter power to avoid added interference), thereby providing additional radio capacity
with no additional increase in radio spectrum. This fundamental principle is the foundation
for all modern wireless communication systems, since it enables a fixed number of channels
to serve an arbitrarily large number of subscribers by reusing the channels throughout the
coverage region. Furthermore the cellular concept allows every piece of subscriber equipment
within a country or continent to be manufactured with the same set of channels so that any
mobile may be used anywhere within the region.

6.2 CELLULAR GROWTH:

The term cellular usually refers to wireless

service that uses the 850 MHz block of frequencies.
The term mobile refers to any wireless telephone. The

19
terms mobile user and cellular user are synonymous.
The cellular telephone industry has enjoyed phenomenal growth since its inception in
1983. In just one more example of the impossibility of projecting the adoption of new
technologies, a widely accepted 1985 prediction held that the total number of cellular
subscribers might reach as many as 900,000 by the year 2000. In fact, by the end of 1994
there were well over 20 million subscribers in the United States alone, and approximately 50
million worldwide. Recent annual subscriber growth rates have been as high as 40%, and it is
believed that this growth rate could continue through the rest of the 1990s. International
wireless communications markets are expanding at an even greater rate.
In order to meet increasing demand for service, new digital cellular telephone systems
have been introduced during the first half of the 1990s. As today's cellular operators move to
adopt these new technologies in their systems, they demand:
 Increased capacity within their existing spectrum allocation and easy deployment of
any technology it takes to get them that capacity increase.

 Higher capacities and lower system design costs (plus lower infrastructure costs)
which will lead to a lower cost per subscriber.

 A lower cost per subscriber, combined with new subscriber features, which will help
the operators to increase their market penetration.

 An increased market penetration, which will lead to an increase in number of

subscribers and a system which offers support for that increased capacity.

 High quality calls must be maintained during the change to or migration to any
new digital technology.
Wireless service providers must squeeze more and more capacity from the frequency
spectrum that is allocated by national communications regulators. The basic analog
technology is Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). The standard for the first
practical FDMA system in this country was the Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS).
With FDMA technology, additional capacity is gained by splitting cells and the use of
various techniques to manage frequency interference. In many cases, the analog air-interface
technology has reached its limit. When the limit is reached, service providers cannot add more
cells for system capacity without sacrificing call quality.
Wireless service providers that use analog air-interface technologies are not alone in the
need to address capacity concerns. Additional spectrum capacity is made available for new
Personal Communications Services (PCS) in the 2 GHz radio spectrum. PCS requires
advanced digital technology to integrate Intelligent Network Services with wireless systems.

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In both cellular and PCS markets, data applications are becoming increasingly important,
which further strain system capacity. New services must implement the most efficient
technology available so that they may gain the maximum return on their investment and not
be limited by capacity.
TDMA systems commonly start with a slice of spectrum, referred to as one "carrier".
Each carrier is then divided into time slots. Only one subscriber at a time is assigned to each
time slot, or channel. No other conversations can access this channel until the subscriber's call
is finished, or until that original call is handed off to a different channel by the system.

6.3 CELLULAR ARCHITECTURE:

Mobile telephony, using the concept of cellular architecture, has been very popular world
wide. Such systems are built based on accepted standards, such as GSM (Global System for
Mobile communication) and IS-95(Intermediate Standard-95). Several standards of present
and future generations of mobile communication systems include CDMA as an important
component which allows a satisfactorily large number of users to communicate
simultaneously over a common radio frequency band.
Cellular CDMA is a promising access technique for supporting multimedia services in a
mobile environment as it helps to reduce the multi-path fading effects and interference. It also
supports universal frequency reuse, which implies large teletraffic capacity to accommodate
new calling subscribers. In a practical system, however, the actual number of users who can
simultaneously use the RF band satisfactorily is limited by the amount of interference
generated in the air interface. A good feature is that the teletraffic capacity is ‘soft’, i.e. there
is no ‘hard’ or fixed value for the maximum capacity. The quality of received signal degrades
gracefully with increase in the number of active users at a given point of time.
It is interesting to note that the quality of a radio link in a cellular system is often indicated
by the Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR), rather than the common metric ‘SNR’. Let us
remember that in a practical system, the spreading codes used by all the simultaneous users in
a cell have some cross-correlation amongst themselves and also due to other propagation
features, the signals received in a handset from all transmitters do not appear orthogonal to
each other. Hence, the signals from all users, other than the desired transmitter, manifest as
interference. In a practical scenario, the total interference power may even momentarily
exceed the power of the desired signal. This happens especially when the received signals
fluctuate randomly (fading) due to mobility of the users. Fading is a major factor degrading
the performance of a CDMA system. While large-scale fading consists of path loss and
shadowing, small-scale fading refers to rapid changes in signal amplitude and phase over a
small spatial separation.
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 The desired signal at a receiver is said to be ‘in outage’ (i.e. momentarily lost) when the
SIR goes below an acceptable threshold level. An ongoing conversation may get affected
adversely if the outage probability is high or if the duration of outage (often called as ‘fade
duration’) is considerable. On the other hand, low outage probability and insignificant
‘average fade duration’ in a CDMA system usually implies that more users could be allowed
in the system ensuring good quality of signal.

6.3.1CELL:

In a cellular radio system, the service area is divided into geographical units that are
represented as hexagonal (which are called cells).Each cell size varies depending upon
landscape. Each cell is served by its own radio and control equipment, which are located at
the cell site. Each cell site provides the radio connection between mobile units in its area and
the rest of the network. The cell sites are connected to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) by
trunks. Other trunks connect the MSC to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).

6.3.2CLUSTERS:

A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster.

Fig. 6.3.2(a) A cluster

6.4 FREQUENCY REUSE:

Frequency reuse is the use of the same RF frequency repeatedly in the same general area
in one cellular system. Each cell site is allocated a set of frequencies, or channels.
Neighboring cells are assigned different frequencies in order to avoid interference. Cell sites
sufficiently far apart can simultaneously use the same frequencies, which allows reuse of each
frequency (channel) for different calls many times in a given service area.
Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio channel frequency at other cell
sites within a cellular system. In the FDMA and TDMA systems frequency planning is an
important consideration. The frequencies used in different cells need to be planned carefully
in order to ensure that the signals from different cells do not interfere with each other. In a

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CDMA system the same frequency can be used in every cell because channelization is done
using the pseudorandom codes. Reusing the same frequency in every cell eliminates the need
for frequency planning in a CDMA system; however, planning of the different pseudorandom
sequences must be done to ensure that the received signal from one cell does not correlate
with the signal from a nearby cell.
Maximizing the number of times that each channel can be reused in a service area is the
key to efficient cellular system design. The more times a channel can be reused in a given
service area, the more calls the system can handle. Cell sites employ low-power transmitters
for that very reason: cell sites using the same channels can be located closer together with
negligible co-channel (same channel) interference.

6.4.1 CELLULAR TRAFFIC:

This article discusses the mobile cellular network aspect of teletraffic measurements.
Mobile radio networks have traffic issues that do not arise in connection with the fixed line
PSTN. Important aspects of cellular traffic include: quality of service targets, traffic capacity
and cell size, spectral efficiency and sectorization, traffic capacity versus coverage, and
channel holding time analysis.
Teletraffic engineering is a necessary field in telecommunications network planning to
ensure that network costs are minimized without compromising the quality of service
delivered to the user of the network. This field of engineering is based on probability theory
and can be used to analyze mobile radio networks, as well as other telecommunications
networks.
A mobile handset which is moving in a cell will record a signal strength that varies.
Signal strength is subject to slow fading, fast fading and interference from other signals,
resulting in degradation of the carrier-to-interference (C/I) ratio.[1] A high C/I ratio yields
quality communication. A good C/I ratio is achieved in cellular systems by using optimum
power levels through the power control of most links. When carrier power is too high,
excessive interference is created, degrading the C/I ratio for other traffic and reducing the
traffic capacity of the radio subsystem. When carrier power is too low, C/I is too low and QoS
targets are not met.

23
 7.CELLULAR GENERATIONS:

Fig. 7(a) Generations of Cellular System.

7.1 FIRST GENERATION WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (1G):

24
 First Generation mobile phone networks were the earliest cellular systems to develop,
and they relied on a network of distributed transceivers to communicate with the mobile
phones. First Generation phones were also analogue, used for voice calls only, and their
signals were transmitted by the method of frequency modulation. These systems typically
allocated one 25 MHz frequency band for the signals to be sent from the cell base station to
the handset, and a second different 25 MHz band for signals being returned from the handset
to the base station. These bands were then split into a number of communications channels,
each of which would be used by a particular caller.
In the case of AMPS, the first 1G system to start operating in the USA (in July 1978),
each channel was separated from the adjacent channels by a spacing of 30 kHz, which was
not particularly efficient in terms of the available radio spectrum, and this placed a limitation
on the number of calls that could be made at any one time. However, the system was a
multiple access one, because a second caller could use the same channel, once the first caller
had hung up. Such a system is called "frequency division multiple access" (FDMA).
In addition, because the cell transmitter's power output is restricted and designed to
cover a specific area, it is possible to use the same frequencies in other cells that are far
enough away for there to be no interference - this system is called frequency re-use, and
enables the network capacity to be increased. The cellular structure of the network is also
responsible for another feature of cell phone communications, i.e. that it is necessary for some
sort of handover to take place when the mobile phone passes from one cell area to another,
and this requires that the pair of frequencies used by the phone are changed at the time of
handover.
One such standard is NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone), used in Nordic countries,
Switzerland, Netherlands, Eastern Europe and Russia. Others include AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System) used in the United States and Australia, TACS (Total Access
Communications System) in the United Kingdom, C-450 in West Germany, Portugal and
South Africa, Radio com 2000 in France, and RTMI in Italy. In Japan there were multiple
systems. Three standards, TZ-801, TZ-802, and TZ-803 were developed by NTT, while a
competing system operated by DDI used the JTACS (Japan Total Access Communications
System) standard.
Although 1G and 2G systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which
listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself during a call is
encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas 1G is only modulated to higher frequency, typically
150MHz and up.

Core features of 1G techonology:

25
 Basic Mobility
Basic Services
Incompatible

7.2 SECOND GENERATION WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (2G):

In the world of cell phones, 2G signifies second-generation wireless digital technology.

Fully digital 2G networks replaced analog 1G, which originated in the 1980s. Second
generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard
in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991. Three primary benefits of 2G
networks over their predecessors were that phone conversations were digitally encrypted, 2G
systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile
phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text
messages.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were retrospectively
dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, and on 2G networks are digital,
both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to
the rest of the telephone system.
2G technologies can be divided into TDMA-based and CDMA-based standards
depending on the type of multiplexing used. The main 2G standards are:

 GSM (TDMA-based), originally from Europe but used in almost all countries on
all six inhabited continents (Time Division Multiple Access). Today accounts for
over 80% of all subscribers around the world. Over 60 GSM operators are also
using CDMA2000 in the 450 MHZ frequency band (CDMA450).

 IS-95 aka cdma One, (CDMA-based, commonly referred as simply CDMA in the
US), used in the America and parts of Asia. Today accounts for about 17% of all
subscribers globally. Over a dozen CDMA operators have migrated to GSM
including operators in Mexico, India, Australia and South Korea.

 PDC (TDMA-based), used exclusively in Japan

 iDEN (TDMA-based), proprietary network used by Nextel in the United States and
Telus Mobility in Canada

 IS-136 aka D-AMPS, (TDMA-based, commonly referred as simply TDMA in the

US), was once prevalent in the Americas but most have migrated to GSM.

Core features of 2G techonology:

26
 Advanced Mobility (Roaming)
More Services (Data Presence)
More Global solution

2G services are frequently referred as Personal Communications Service, or PCS, in the

United States. 2.5G services enable high-speed data transfer over upgraded existing 2G
networks. Beyond 2G, there's 3G, with higher data speeds, and even evolutions beyond 3G,
such as 4G. Using digital signals between the handsets and the towers increases system
capacity in two key ways:
 Digital voice data can be compressed and multiplexed much more effectively than
analog voice encodings through the use of various codes, allowing more calls to be
packed into the same amount of radio bandwidth.
 The digital systems were designed to emit less radio power from the handsets. This
meant that cells could be smaller, so more cells could be placed in the same amount of
space. This was also made possible by cell towers and related equipment getting less
expensive.

7.2.1ADVANTAGES OF 2G TECHNOLOGY:

Digital systems were embraced by consumers for several reasons.

 The lower powered radio signals require less battery power, so phones last much
longer between charges, and batteries can be smaller.

 The digital voice encoding allowed digital error checking which could increase sound
quality by increasing dynamic range and lowering the noise floor.

 The lower power emissions helped address health concerns.

 Going all-digital allowed for the introduction of digital data services, such as SMS and
email.

 Greatly reduced fraud. With analog systems it was possible to have two or more
"cloned" handsets that had the same phone number.

 Enhanced privacy. A key digital advantage not often mentioned is that digital cellular
calls are much harder to eavesdrop on by use of radio scanners. While the security
algorithms used have proved not to be as secure as initially advertised, 2G phones are
immensely more private than 1G phones, which have no protection against
eavesdropping.

27
7.2.2DISADVANTAGES OF 2G TECHNOLOGY:

The downsides of 2G systems, not often well publicized, are:

• In less populous areas, the weaker digital signal may not be sufficient to reach a cell
tower. This tends to be a particular problem on 2G systems deployed on higher
frequencies, but is mostly not a problem on 2G systems deployed on lower
frequencies. National regulations differ greatly among countries which dictate where
2G can be deployed.

• Analog has a smooth decay curve, digital a jagged steppy one. This can be both an
advantage and a disadvantage. Under good conditions, digital will sound better. Under
slightly worse conditions, analog will experience static, while digital has occasional
dropouts. As conditions worsen, though, digital will start to completely fail, by
dropping calls or being unintelligible, while analog slowly gets worse, generally
holding a call longer and allowing at least a few words to get through.

• While digital calls tend to be free of static and background noise, the lossy
compression used by the codes takes a toll; the range of sound that they convey is
reduced. You'll hear less of the tonality of someone's voice talking on a digital
cellphone, but you will hear it more clearly.

7.3 THIRD GENERATION WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (3G):

3G (Third Generation) is a generic name for a set of mobile technologies set to be

launched by the end of 2001 which use a host of high-tech infrastructure networks, handsets,
base stations, switches and other equipment to allow mobiles to offer high-speed Internet
access, data, video and CD-quality music services. Data speeds in 3G networks should be
show speeds of to up to 2 Megabits per second, an increase on current technology.
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000), better known as 3G or 3rd
Generation, is a family of standards for mobile telecommunications defined by the
International Telecommunication Union, which includes GSM EDGE, UMTS, and
CDMA2000 as well as DECT and WiMAX. Services include wide-area wireless voice

28
telephone, video calls, and wireless data, all in a mobile environment. Compared to 2G and
2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of speech and data services and higher data rates
(up to 14.0 Mbit/s on the downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s on the uplink with HSPA+). Thus, 3G
networks enable network operators to offer users a wider range of more advanced services
while achieving greater network capacity through improved spectral efficiency.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defined the third generation (3G) of
mobile telephony standards – IMT-2000 – to facilitate growth, increase bandwidth, and
support more diverse applications. For example, GSM (the current most popular cellular
phone standard) could deliver not only voice, but also circuit-switched data at download rates
up to 14.4 kbps. But to support mobile multimedia applications, 3G had to deliver packet-
switched data with better spectral efficiency, at far greater bandwidths.

7.4 FUTURE WIRELESS SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

Future wireless systems generally may require higher data rates with better coverage for
a wide variety of users operating with a large variety of different systems. To achieve these
goals, greater power, interference suppression, and multipath mitigation are needed. As users
operate at higher data rates, they need higher power for adequate reliability. For higher
bandwidths, higher carrier frequencies that have higher propagation and circuit losses are
needed. So some way to recover this power must be developed. In addition, interference
suppression is needed for higher capacities. Particularly as higher frequency reuse is used to
increase capacity, there will be more cochannel interference, which requires greater
interference suppression. Finally, multipath mitigation to have more reliable and robust
communications is necessary.

8 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES:

Multiple Access is a “method by which a number of users try to access the available
bandwidth at the same time”.
Cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The goal in the design of cellular systems is to be able to
handle as many calls as possible (this is called capacity in cellular terminology) in a given
bandwidth with some reliability. There are several different ways to allow access to the
channel. These include the following:

29
  Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)

 Time/Frequency multiple-access

 Random access

 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)

 Frequency-hop CDMA

 Direct-sequence CDMA

 Multi-carrier CDMA (FH or DS)

As mentioned earlier, FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular
systems. In this technique a user is assigned a pair of frequencies when placing or receiving a
call. One frequency is used for downlink (base station to mobile) and one pair for uplink
(mobile to base). This is called frequency division duplexing. That frequency pair is not used
in the same cell or adjacent cells during the call. Even though the user may not be talking, the
spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a call is in place. Two second generation cellular
systems (IS-54, GSM) use time/frequency multiple-access whereby the available spectrum is
divided into frequency slots (e.g., 30 kHz bands) but then each frequency slot is divided into
time slots. Each user is then given a pair of frequencies (uplink and downlink) and a time slot
during a frame. Different users can use the same frequency in the same cell except that they
must transmit at different times. This technique is also being used in third generation wireless
systems (e.g., EDGE).
Code division multiple-access techniques allow many users to simultaneously access a
given frequency allocation. User separation at the receiver is possible because each user
spreads the modulated waveform over a wide bandwidth using unique spreading codes. There
are two basic types of CDMA. Direct-sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA) spreads the signal
directly by multiplying the data waveform with a user-unique high bandwidth pseudo-noise
binary sequence. After removing the pseudo-noise signal, a filter with bandwidth proportional
to the data rate is applied to the signal. Because other users do not use completely orthogonal
spreading codes, there is residual multiple-access interference present at the filter output.
This multiple-access interference can present a significant problem if the power level of
the desired signal is significantly lower (due to distance) than the power level of the
interfering user. This is called the near-far problem. Over the last 15 years there has been
considerable theoretical research on solutions to the near-far problem beginning with the
derivation of the optimal multiuser receiver and now with many companies (e.g., Fujitsu,

30
NTT DoCoMo, NEC) building suboptimal reduced complexity multiuser receivers. The
approach being considered by companies is either successive interference cancellation or
parallel interference cancellation. One advantage of these techniques is that they generally do
not require spreading codes with period equal to the bit duration. Another advantage is that
they do not require significant complexity (compared to a minimum mean square error-
MMSE-detector or a decorrelating detector). These interference cancellation detectors can
also easily be improved by cascading several stages together.

8.1 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS:

FDMA assigns individual channels to individual users. Here each user is allocated a
unique frequency band or channel. These channels are assigned on demand to users who
request service. During the period of the call, no other user can share the same channel.

Fig. 8.1(a) Concept of FDMA.

Each user occupies a private frequency, protected from interference through physical
separation from other users on the same frequency. FDMA is a first generation wireless
system. FDMA separate same frequency users into cells physically far apart to achieve
required C/I values. Ratio of carrier to interface is approximately 14 to 17db. FDMA is used
for standard analog cellular. Each user is assigned a discrete slice of the RF spectrum. FDMA
permits only one user per channel since it allows the user to use the channel 100% of the time.
Every user gets a certain frequency band assigned and can use this part of the spectrum to
perform its communication. If only a small number of users is active, not the whole resource
(frequency-spectrum) is used.

31
 Fig. 8.1(b) Waveform-Concept of FDMA.

8.1.1CORE FEATURES OF FDMA:

 FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware, in contrast to TDMA

and CDMA.

 FDMA is not vulnerable to the timing problems that TDMA has. Since a
predetermined frequency band is available for the entire period of communication,
stream data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used
with FDMA.

 Due to the frequency filtering, FDMA is not sensitive to near-far problem which is
pronounced for CDMA.

 Each user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a unique
frequency slot.

8.1.2ADVANTAGES OF FDMA:

 If channel is not in use, it sits idle

 Channel bandwidth is relatively narrow (30kHz)

 Simple algorithmically, and from a hardware standpoint

 Fairly efficient when the number of stations is small and the traffic is uniformly
constant

 Capacity increase can be obtained by reducing the information bit rate and using
efficient digital code.

 No need for network timing

 No restriction regarding the type of baseband or type of modulation.

8.1.3DISADVANTAGES OF FDMA:

• The presence of guard bands.

• Requires right RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.
• Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed.
• Small inhibiting flexibility in bit rate capability.
• Does not differ significantly from analog system.

8.2 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS:

32
 TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots, and in each slot only one user
is allowed to either transmit or receive. TDMA system transmit data in a buffer-and-burst
method, thus the transmission for any user is non continuous. In TDMA, half of the time slots
in the frame used for the forward link channels and half would be used for the reverse link
channels.

Fig. 8.2(a) Concept of FDMA.

In TDMA an identical structure would be used for either forward or reverse
transmission, but the carrier frequencies would be different for the forward and reverse links.
In TDMA frame, the preamble contains the address and synchronization information that
both the base station and then the subscribers use to identify each other.

Fig. 8.2(b) Signaling Concept of TDMA.

8.2.1CORE FEATURES OF TDMA:

 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user
makes use of non overlapping time slots. The number of time slots per frame
depends on several factors, such as modulation technique, available bandwidth,
etc.

 Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in
bursts. This results in low power consumption, since the subscriber transmitter
can be turned off when not in use.

 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers
are not required.
8.2.2ADVANTAGES OF TDMA:

33
 Maximum use of the available sat. power (no back-off is needed).
Uplink power control is not required.
Easy transmission plans. Capacity management is simple and flexible.
Advantages of digital techniques (e.g. source and channel coding) are easily
incorporated.
8.2.3DISADVANTAGES OF TDMA:

Requires network-wide timing synchronization.

Analog signals must be converted to digital.
Interface with analog terrestrial plants is expensive.

8.3 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS:

"Code Division Multiple Access", is a digital wireless transmission technology that

allows for a large amount of users to share access to a single radio channel.

Fig 8.3(a) Concept of CDMA.

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various
radio communication technologies. It should not be confused with the mobile phone standards
called cdmaOne and CDMA2000 (which are often referred to as simply "CDMA"), which use
CDMA as an underlying channel access method. One of the basic concepts in data
communication is the idea of allowing several transmitters to send information
simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a
bandwidth of different frequencies. This concept is called multiplexing. CDMA employs
spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned
a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast,
time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division
multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form of "spread-spectrum"
signaling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data
being communicated.

34
 Fig. 8.3(b) Signaling Concept of CDMA

Each user occupies a signal on a particular frequency simultaneously with many other
users, but is uniquely distinguishable by correlation with a special code used only by this
user. CDMA users occupy the same frequency at the same time. CDMA systems allow all
users in all cells/sectors to use the same frequency. Thus, each nearby user is a source of
interfering energy against all other users, and a user’s raw C/I is actually negative C/I ratio is
approx. -10 to -17 db. CDMA is a scheme by which multiple users are assigned radio
resources using DS-SS techniques. Although all users are transmitting in the same RF band,
individual users are separated from each other via the use of orthogonal codes.
The CDMA standard allows up to 61 simultaneous users in one 1.2288 MHz channel. By
processing each voice packet with two PN codes. It is virtually impossible to monitor a
CDMA conversation or fraudulently access ESNs, PINs or credit card numbers.
Though there are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate call and theoretical limits are
around 40 calls. The operational limitations and quality issues will reduce the maximum
number of calls somewhat below this value.
8.3.1 CHANNELIZATION METHODS:

The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz separation)
Frequency channel is divided into code channels
1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.
8.3.2 CORE FEATURES OF CDMA:

Spread spectrum technique

Multiple users share the same frequency in one cell
Same frequency in all the cells
Takes advantage of Multipath
Capacity is soft
Operates under presence of interference

35
8.3.3 CHANNELS USED IN CDMA:
A channel is a stream of data designated for a specific use or person. This channel may
be voice data or overhead control data.

Fig. 8.3.3(a) CDMA Forward and Reverse Channels.

8.3.3.1 FORWARD LINK CHANNELS (FROM BTS TO SUBSCRIBER):

A channel is a stream of data designated for a specific use or person. This channel may
be voice data or overhead control data. Channels are separated by codes. The forward link
uses four types of channels to transmit voice and control data to the mobile.
The types of forward link channels are:

 Pilot
 Sync
 Paging
 Traffic

Fig. 8.3.4(a) Forward link channels.

Forward link channels include one pilot channel, one synchronization channel, up to seven
paging channels and number of forward traffic channels.

8.3.3.1(a) PILOT CHANNEL:

Pilot CDMA signal is transmitted by a base station provides a reference for all mobile
stations. The BTS constantly transmits the pilot channel. The mobile uses the pilot signal to
acquire the system. It then uses the pilot signal to monitor and adjust the power needed in
36
order to transmit back to the BTS. Pilot signals contain no messages. CDMA provides soft
handoff. The call is handled by both base stations on a make before break basis.

Fig. Pilot Channel.

8.3.3.1(b) SYNC CHANNEL:

The BTS constantly transmits over the sync channel so the mobile can synchronize with
the BTS. It provides the mobile with the system time and the identification number of the cell
site. The mobile ignores the sync channel after it is synchronized.

Fig. Sync Channel.

8.3.3.1(c) PAGING CHANNEL:

CDMA uses up to seven paging channels. The paging channel transmits overhead
information such as commands and pages to the mobile. The paging channel also sends
commands and traffic channel assignment during call set-up. The mobile ignores the paging
channel after a traffic channel is established. Paging channel operates at a speed of 9600 or
4800 bps.

Fig. Paging Channel.

8.3.3.2 REVERSE LINK CHANNELS (FROM SUBSCRIBER TO BTS):

37
Reverse link channel includes:

 Access channel

 Traffic channel

8.3.3.2(a) ACCESS CHANNEL:

The mobile uses the access channel when not assigned to a traffic channel. The mobile
uses the access channel to:

 Register with the network

 Originate calls Respond to pages and commands from the base station

8.3.3.2(b) TRAFFIC CHANNEL

The reverse traffic channel is used to transmit user data and voice; signaling messages
are also sent over the traffic channel. The structure of the reverse traffic channel is similar to
that of the access channel.

.
Fig. Traffic Channel

8.3.4 CDMA ADVANTAGES:

• Many users of CDMA use the same frequency, TDD or FDD may be used

• No absolute limit on the number of users

• Easy addition of more users

• Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent

• Better signal quality

• No sense of handoff when changing cells

8.3.5 CDMA DISADVANTAGES:
• As the number of users increases, the overall quality of service decreases
• Self-jamming
• Near- Far- problem arises
8.3.6 CDMA CAPACITY:

38
 The factors deciding capacity are:
Processing Gain
Signal to Noise Ratio
Voice Activity Factor
Frequency Reuse Efficiency

Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are
separated by code. This means CDMA operates in the presence of noise and interference. On
top of this the neighbor cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So CDMA
capacity calculations should be very simple. No of code channels in a cell, multiplied by no of
cells. But it is not that simple. Though the no of code channels available are 64, it may not be
possible to use all at one time, since CDMA the frequency is same. Soft capacity means is
that all code channels can be sued at one time, but at the cost of quality.
CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of same frequency in surrounding cells causes some
additional interference.
In CDMA frequency reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73dB

8.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FDMA, TDMA & CDMA:

FDMA(Frequency
TDMA(Time Division CDMA(Code Division
Category Division Multiple
Multiple Access) Multiple Access)
Access)
Principle Simple Complex Abstruse
Available in various
High SN Ratio Limited Bandwidth Limited Bandwidth
methods
Influence by
disturbance Large Little Very Little
Noise
MODEM
Simple/Small Size Complex/Large Size Simple/Small Size
Circuit
Practical Transmission Packet of Terrestrial Digital Cell-phone GPS(Used for
Application Internet Broadcasting Car Navigation System)

39
8.6 GSM VS CDMA COMPARISON:

8.6-1 CALL QUALITY:

This is an area where CDMA scores substantially over GSM. Statistics are hugely in
favor of CDMA. Various factors such as echoes, call dropping, or voice distortion are almost
non-existent in CDMA, whereas in GSM, there is a high probability of errors. To give you an
analogy, the bus on the street will continue to ply even when it's full, but if the honeycomb
has reached full capacity, the honey cannot be deposited.
In Call Quality: CDMA scores.

8.6-2 CARRIERS:

GSM is one up on CDMA as far as carriers are concerned. The law requires CDMA
carriers to provide handsets to users, for which the users can not change their carriers.
Whereas, GSM users can change their carriers whenever they want.
In Carriers: GSM scores.

8.6-3 NETWORK:

It's an on-going battle between the two. Both the technologies are continuously
improving the qualities of their network and adding various aspects to it as well.
In Network: Both score.

8.6-4 WORLDWIDE:

There is a special number that every GSM compatible device in the world can call in
case of an emergency. That number is 112. But in CDMA, this cannot b implemented because
of certain technological limitations.
In Worldwide Service: GSM scores.

8.6-5 BATTERY LIFE:

GSM, being a relatively simpler technology, uses less amount of cell phone battery than
CDMA.
In Battery Life: GSM scores.

8.6-6 COVERAGE:

GSM and CDMA, both have similar network coverage areas. They are present almost
everywhere. The service providers of both technologies are striving hard to cover whatever

40
inches that are left.
In Coverage: Both score.

8.6-7 SPEED:

Both GSM and CDMA are rapidly improving their capabilities in this regard. Both
have introduced 3G mobile phones in their fold. Both are competing to gain space in this
area.
In Speed: Both score.

8.6-8 BUILDING PENETRATION:

Again, in initial days, both technologies couldn't find building penetration, but after
research in signaling systems, and through experience, service providers of both
technologies have been able to give decent service to the mobile phones in buildings.
In Penetration: Both score.

8.7 GSM VS CDMA: WHICH IS BETTER?

Both have their good qualities and bad qualities. GSM has some limitations where call
quality is concerned, but GSM can be easily implemented and easily integrated into existing
technology. Whereas, CDMA is little difficult to implement. CDMA currently has 82 million
users vs. the 456 million of GSM.

9. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE-CDMA:

41
 Fig 9(a) CDMA Architecture

The best way to create a manageable communications system is to divide it into various
subgroups that are interconnected using standardized interfaces. A CDMA network can be
divided into three:

 The mobile station (MS)

 The base station subsystem (BSS)
 The network subsystem.

They are characterized as follows:

9.1 THE MOBILE STATION(MS):

A mobile station may be referred to as a handset, a mobile, a portable terminal or mobile
equipment ME). It also includes a subscriber identity module (SIM) that is normally
removable and comes in two sizes. Each SIM card has a unique identification number called
IMSI (international mobile subscriber identity). In addition, each MS is assigned a unique
hardware identification called IMEI (international mobile equipment identity).

Fig 9.1(a) Components Mobile station

42
 In some of the newer applications (data communications in particular), an MS can also
be a terminal that acts as a CDMA interface, e.g. for a laptop computer. In this new
application the MS does not look like a normal CDMA telephone. The seemingly low price of
a mobile phone can give the (false) impression that the product is not of high quality. Besides
providing a transceiver (TRX) for transmission and reception of voice and data, the mobile
also performs a number of very demanding tasks such as authentication, handover, encoding
and channel encoding.
The SIM contains several pieces of information:

INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY (IMSI):

This number identifies the MS subscriber. It is only transmitted over the air during
initialization.

TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY (TMSI):

This number identifies the subscriber; it is periodically changed by the system

management to protect the subscriber from being identified by someone attempting to
monitor the radio interface.

LOCATION AREA IDENTITY (LAI):

Identify the current location of the subscriber.

SUBSCRIBER AUTHENTICATION KEY (SAU):

This is used to authenticate the SIM card.

MOBILE STATION INTERNATIONAL SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK

(MSISDN):

This is the phone number of the mobile subscriber. It is comprised of a country code, a
network code and a subscriber number.

9.2 THE BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM (BSS):

The base station subsystem (BSS) is made up of the base station controller (BSC) and
the base transceiver station (BTS).

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9.2.1 THE BASE STATION CONTROLLER (BSC):

A group of BTSs are connected to a particular BSC which manages the radio resources
for them. Today's new and intelligent BTSs have taken over many tasks that were previously
handled by the BSCs. The primary function of the BSC is call maintenance. The mobile
stations normally send a report of their received signal strength to the BSC every 480 ms.
With this information the BSC decides to initiate handovers to other cells, change the BTS
transmitter power, etc.

9.2.2 THE BASE TRANSCEIVER STATION (BTS):

GSM uses a series of radio transmitters called BTSs to connect the mobiles to a cellular
network. Their tasks include channel coding/decoding and encryption/decryption. A cell site
may be omnidirectional or split into typically three directional cells. The BTS contains the RF
components that provide the air interface for a particular cell. This is the part of the GSM
network which communicates with the MS. The antenna is included as part of the BTS. The
BTS provides the air interface connection with the MS. It also has a limited amount of control
functionality which reduces the amount of traffic passing between the BTS and BSC. Each
BTS will support 1 or more cells. Where the BSC and BTS are both shown to control a
function, the control is divided between the two, or may be located wholly at one. A BSC
may control several BTSs, the maximum number of BTSs to be controlled by one BSC is not
specified by GSM. The BTSs and BSC may either be located at the same cell site “co-
located”, or located at different sites “remote”. In reality most, BTSs will be remote, as there
are many more BTSs than BSCs in a network.
Another BSS configuration is the daisy chain. A BTS need not communicate directly
with the BSC which controls it, it can be connected to the BSC via a chain of BTSs. Daisy
chaining reduces the amount of cabling required to set up a network as a BTS can be
connected to its nearest BTS rather than all the way to the BSC.

9.3 THE NETWORK SUBSYSTEM:

The Network Switching System includes the main switching functions of the GSM
network. It also contains the databases required for subscriber data and mobility management.
Its main function is to manage communications between the GSM network and other
telecommunications networks.

44
 Fig 9.3(a) Network subsystem

The components of the Network Switching System are listed below:

 Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC)

 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Centre (AUC)
 Inter Working Function (IWF)
 Echo Canceller (EC)

9.3.1THE MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER (MSC):

Acts like a standard exchange in a fixed network and additionally provides all the
functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber. The main functions are registration,
authentication, location updating, handovers and call routing to a roaming subscriber. The
signaling between functional entities (registers) in the network subsystem uses Signaling
System 7 (SS7). If the MSC also has a gateway function for communicating with other
networks, it is called Gateway MSC (GMSC).

9.3.2GATEWAY MSC (GMSC):

If a network delivering a call to the PLMN cannot interrogate the HLR, the call is routed
to an MSC. This MSC will interrogate the appropriate HLR and then route the call to the
MSC where the mobile station is located. The MSC which performs the routing function to
the actual location of the MS is called the Gateway MSC (GMSC).

45
 It also performs call forwarding and may send announcements towards the Asubscriber.
The GMSC Server therefore needs to manipulate the user plan in the Media Gateway. The
GMSC may also perform charging for roaming subscribers.

9.3.3MEDIA GATEWAY:

The Media Gateway operates on the user plan and converts media provided in one type
of network to the format required in another type of network. The Media Gateway contains
the bearer control protocols and hardware devices for access termination and media stream
manipulation devices. The media Gateway is remote controlled by a server.

9.3.4THE HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR):

A database used for management of mobile subscribers. It stores the international mobile
subscriber identity (IMSI), mobile station ISDN number (MSISDN) and current visitor
location register (VLR) address. The main information stored there concerns the location of
each mobile station in order to be able to route calls to the mobile subscribers managed by
each HLR. The HLR also maintains the services associated with each MS. One HLR can
serve several MSCs.

9.3.5THE VISITOR LOCATION REGISTERS (VLR):

Contains the current location of the MS and selected administrative information from the
HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each mobile
currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR. A VLR is connected to one
MSC and is normally integrated into the MSC's hardware.

9.3.6THE AUTHENTICATION CENTER (AUC):

A protected database that holds a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM
card, which is used for authentication and encryption over the radio channel. The AuC
provides additional security against fraud. It is normally located close to each HLR within a
GSM network.

9.3.7THE EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTERS (EIR):

The EIR is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile station equipment within the
network, where each mobile station is identified by its international mobile equipment
identity (IMEI). The EIR has three databases:

 White list: for all known, good IMEIs

 Black list: for bad or stolen handsets
 Grey list: for handsets/IMEIs that are uncertain

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9.3.8 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CENTER (OMC):

The OMC is a management system that oversees the GSM functional blocks. The OMC
assists the network operator in maintaining satisfactory operation of the GSM network.
Hardware redundancy and intelligent error detection mechanisms help prevent network down-
time. The OMC is responsible for controlling and maintaining the MSC, BSC and BTS. It can
be in charge of an entire public land mobile network (PLMN) or just some parts of the
PLMN.

9.4 FUNCTIONS OF MSC:

The basic functions of the MSC are explained below in detail.

9.4.1 FUNCTION OF MSC IN REGISTRATION:

After a mobile station is switched on, it scans the whole GSM network frequency band
with a certain scanning algorithm in order to detect the presence of a network in the least
amount of time. When the network is detected, the mobile station is able to determine its
current position within the network. If the current location is not the same as it was when the
mobile was last switched off, a registration procedure takes place. First, the mobile station
requests a channel from the network, which will be assigned by the base station. Before the
channel is actually assigned, the BSC has to activate the channel on the BTS, which has to
acknowledge the activation to the BSC in return.

9.4.2 FUNCTION OF MSC IN LOCATION UPDATE:

The process of informing MSC about new Location Area is Location Update as MSC
should know the Location of the Mobile for paging. The MSC/VLR performs a location
update to load the mobile subscriber data in the VLR database and to adapt the location
information. The procedure is initiated after the mobile subscriber has moved in the area
controlled by the MSC/VLR.

FUNCTION OF MSC IN SUBSCRIBER AUTHENTICATION:

The authentication function determines the authorization of a mobile subscriber to access

the PLMN and protects the latter against unauthorized use. In other words, this is the process
to verify the Authenticity of the SIM.

9.4.3 FUNCTION OF MSC IN EQUIPMENT CONTROL (IMEI CHECK):

The equipment control function checks the equipment status, whether the mobile

47
equipment is allowed, to be observed or not allowed within the PLMN. When an IMEI check
is required, the MSC/VLR requests the IMEI from the mobile station which sends it to the
MSC/VLR. Upon receiving the IMEI, the MSC/VLR forwards it to the EIR which determines
the status of the IMEI. Depending on the result the EIR returns, the following actions are
taken.

 When the IMEI is white-listed, access is granted.

 When the IMEI is grey-listed, access is granted, but the PLMN operator is
informed about the detection of grey listed mobile equipment. An observed mobile
equipment
 Record is generated linking the subscriber identity that is currently using the
suspicious mobile equipment, to the equipment itself.
 When the IMEI is black-listed or unknown, access is denied. The PLMN operator
is informed about the detection of black listed mobile equipment. A mobile
equipment record is generated linking the subscriber identity that is currently using
the black listed or unknown equipment, to the equipment itself. Emergency calls
made on black listed or unknown mobile equipment are not terminated unless
project specific settings (MML administrable) indicate that they should be
terminated.

9.4.4 FUNCTION OF MSC IN INTERROGATION:

Since the mobile subscriber's location is not contained in the dialed number (MSISDN)
but only in the HLR database, this information first has to be interrogated for each MTC in
order for the connection to be set up to the mobile subscriber. The HLR itself must request a
number (MSRN) from the VLR which allows a user signal channel connection to be set up to
the mobile subscriber's location MSC employing standard routing principles. This number is
forwarded as the interrogation result to the MSC which initiated the interrogation. The whole
procedure for ascertaining the routing data for an MTC is referred to as Interrogation. The
Interrogation is always initiated by an MSC.

10 SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES:

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10.1 CLIP (CALLING LINE IDENTIFICATION PRESENTATION):

The CLIP service gives a mobile subscriber authorization to receive the directory
number of the calling subscriber. If this supplementary service is activated and the calling
subscriber does not have authorization to suppress the display of his number, the MSC sends
the number of the calling subscriber, in the case of mobile terminated, to the mobile station,
where it can be displayed. This service can only be used if the signaling network supports the
transport of the calling subscriber’s number to the called mobile subscriber.

10.2 CLIR (CALLING LINE IDENTIFICATION RESTRICTION):

The supplementary service CLIR gives the mobile subscriber authorization to suppress
the display of his directory number for the called subscriber. In the case of a mobile
originating call, the information on this restriction is sent to the called subscriber MSC or
PSTN exchange. The supplementary service CLIR can be assigned as a permanent or
temporary service. The permanent service suppresses presentation of the number for every
call except the called subscriber has an authorization like CLIP override. With the temporary
service it is possible to decide for each individual call whether or not the presentation is to be
suppressed.

10.3 CALL WAITING (CW):

The supplementary service “call waiting” enables a mobile subscriber to be informed of

another incoming call request during an existing connection. The existing connection must be
for the service “Telephone”, while the call request may be for any service. The service is
carried out irrespective of whether the existing call is mobile originating or mobile
terminating.

10.4 CALL HOLD (CH):

The supplementary service “call hold” enables a mobile subscriber to interrupt and later
continue an existing speech connection. During this interruption , the radio channel is still
assigned to the mobile subscriber and can be used for another connection.

10.5 MULTIPARTY SERVICE (MPTY):

The supplementary service “multiparty service” enables a mobile subscriber to set up

and control voice connection to as many as five subscribers simultaneously. The
supplementary service only relates to the teleservice telephone. During a multiparty call both
the “connecting” mobile subscriber and each of the “remote “subscribers can converse with

49
all other parties involved in the multiparty connection. The prerequisite for the
supplementary service “multiparty service” is that the mobile subscriber also has the
supplementary facility “call hold”

10.6 ADVICE OF CHARGE:

If this supplementary service is activated, then with each mobile originating call and
each mobile terminating call data are sent from the MSC to the MS which enables it to
calculate independently the charge units accruing in the course of the call.

10.7 CALL BARRING:

The supplementary service barring enables a mobile subscriber to block a certain category
of outgoing or incoming calls or to have them barred by the operator in the HLR. The
supplementary service for call barring. The following type of calls can be barred by the
supplementary service for traffic restrictions:-

 all outgoing calls

 all outgoing international calls
 all outgoing international calls except those directed to the mobile subscriber’s
home PLMN country.
 all incoming calls
 all incoming calls while the subscriber is roaming outside the home PLMN

Password can be set for the supplementary service call barring. This is the combination
of four digits and used to check the current user’s authorization to activate or deactivate such
a restriction.

10.8 CALL FORWARDING:

The call forwarding services enables a called mobile subscriber to forward incoming
calls to another directory number. The subscriber to whom calls are rerouted can be another
mobile subscriber or a subscriber in the PSTN.

The groups of call forwarding services:

call forwarding unconditional

call forwarding on busy
call forwarding on no reply
call forwarding on mobile subscriber not reachable

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 11 INTELLIGENT NETWORKS:

The concept of “communications to people not places” only becomes a reality with the
use of wireless communications. The ability to contact and be contacted anytime and
anywhere also requires that a communications network has an intelligence that can keep track
of subscribers. This works to a limited extent today with cellular phone networks. But what
about the case when the subscriber does not have access to a compatible cellular network?
There is no way in which the home network can route calls to the subscriber. GSM can do this
within the GSM network, but still cannot know anything about other networks. What is
needed is a method of keeping track of a subscriber, routing calls, storing calls when
unavailable and alerting the subscriber when messages are waiting. The way in which a
network can do this is by providing a virtual identity for a subscriber known as an alter-ego.
The subscriber s alter-ego handles all communication with the subscriber and will keep
track of the physical location, the network, and the device which is available for
communication. Anyone trying to contact the subscriber will be routed via the alter-ego which
will then manage the communications. There may be more than one method of contacting a
subscriber, and the alter-ego can ensure that an appropriate path is used. For example, if the
alter-ego has been informed that the subscriber is in the office, then it may be more
appropriate and less costly to route calls to the office phone rather than a mobile phone. In
addition to the alter-ego, a second entity can reside in the network. This is known as an agent.
The purpose of the agent is to be aware of the subscribers preferences and deliver
information and communications in a way that meets the subscribers requirements. For
example, an agent can be instructed to only accept calls from specific destinations, or to
translate E-mail message to speech and deliver them by means of a mobile phone If people
are able to be contacted at anytime and anywhere, then the use of an agent in the network is
essential to avoid unnecessary or nuisance calls. When a subscriber is roaming away from the
home network, the cost of a call may involve additional charges that the initiator did not
expect. For this reason, it is expected that the subscriber will be asked to pay for the
additional cost to route the call to another network. If this is the case, then the subscriber must
have a method of filtering unwanted calls. This will apply to data calls as well as voice calls.
When people are traveling, it may not be necessary for them to receive the same quantity
of information as they would when they were at their home location.. An intelligent network
could deliver this kind of information from an information provider according to the profile
set up in the subscribers agent. Many elements of the intelligent network are in place already.
Wireless connectivity will ensure that the full potential is realized.

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 12 HANDOFF:

In a mobile communications environment, as a user moves from the coverage area of

one base station to the coverage area of another base station, a handoff must occur to
transition the communication link from one base station to the next. The CDMA system as
defined by IS-95 supports different handoff processes.

12.1 Types of Handoff:

 Soft Handoff
 Hard Handoff

12.1.1 SOFT HANDOFF:

CDMA uses soft handoff where, during handoff, a mobile simultaneously maintains
connection with two or three base stations. The mobile uses the rake receiver to demodulate
two separate signals from two different base stations. The two signals are combined to yield a
composite signal of better quality. On the reverse link (see Figure 4.16(b)), the mobile’s
transmit signal is received by both base stations. The two cells demodulate the signal
separately and send the demodulated frames back to the mobile switching center (MSC). The
MSC contains a selector that selects the best frame out of the two that are sent back.

Fig 12.1(a) Soft Handoff.

This type of handoff occurs when a mobile transitions between two different sectors of
the same cell. On the forward link, the mobile performs the same kind of combining process
as that of soft handoff. In this case, the mobile uses its rake receiver to combine signals
received from two different sectors. On the reverse link, however, two sectors of the same cell
simultaneously receive two signals from the mobile. The signals are demodulated and
combined inside the cell, and only one frame is sent back to the MSC.

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12.1.2 HARD HANDOFF:

The CDMA system uses two types of hard handoffs. CDMA-to-CDMA handoff occurs
when the mobile is transitioning between two CDMA carriers (i.e., two spread-spectrum
channels that are centered at different frequencies). This hard handoff can also occur when the
mobile is transitioning between two different operators’ systems. CDMA-to- CDMA handoff
is sometimes called D-to-D handoff. On the other hand,CDMA-to-analog handoff occurs
when a CDMA call is handed down to an analog network. This can occur when the mobile is
traveling into an area where there is analog service but no CDMA service. CDMA-to-analog
handoff is sometimes called D-to-A handoff.

Fig 12.2(a) Hard Handoff.

Handover sequence is explained below:-

The MS is in the conversation state and is continuously compiling measurements both of

the current transmission and the broadcast control channels of upto 32 surrounding
cells the measurements from the six best cells are reported back to the BSS, every 480
ms.
When the HO is required, due to low Receive Signal Strength Indication (RSSI) or poor
signal quality the existing "originating BSS (OBSS)" notifies the MSC that "HO
required".
The target or new BSS (NBSS)is alerted with the message "HO Request" tagged with
TMSI.
The NBSS allocates a HO Reference number which it uses to determine whether the
correct mobile gains access to the air interface channel which it allocates, and
acknowledges the MSC's request with "HO Request Ack". This is tagged with the "HO
Reference No.". The new BSS assigns a traffic channel.
The MSC via BSS orders the MS to change to the new channel with the message "HO
Command" on FACCH.

53
 There is an information interchange between new BSS AND OLD BSS .This uses the
FACCH channel but an access burst is used. The message and information carried
depend upon the type of HO being performed.
Once all necessary information has been transferred the message "HO Complete" is sent
to the MSC.
The MSC now sends a "Clear Command" to the BSS, this frees radio resources for
another MS. The channel until this point in cases the new BSS cannot accommodate
the MS being HO.
The MS still in the conversation mode, then continue to prepare periodic measurement
reports and send them to the new BSS.

12.2 TYPES OF HANDOVER:

 Intra-Cell Handover:

It is a handover between channels or timeslots of same cell.

 Inter-Cell Handover:

It is a handover between cells of the same BTS

 Intra-BSC Handover:

It takes place if the cell to which handover is to be done belongs to the same BSC. In
this the BSC handles everything without involving MSC. The MSC will be informed
by the BSC after the handover.

 Inter-BSC Handover:

In this type of handover, the mobile is handed over to cell which belongs to another
BSC. The MSC is completely involved in this handover.

 Inter-MSC Handover:

If the cell belongs to another MSC, then it is Inter MSC handover. In this case the
handover takes place through the interconnecting element (PSTN) between the MSC's.

The first two type of handover are called internal handover, involve only one Base
Station Controller (BSC). To save signaling bandwidth, they are managed by the BSC without
involving the MSC, except to notify it at the completion of the handover the last

13 CONCEPT OF E1:

54
 In digital telecommunications, where a single physical wire pair can be used to carry
many simultaneous voice conversations, worldwide standards have been created and
deployed. The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
(CEPT) originally standardized the E-carrier system, which revised and improved the earlier
American T-carrier technology, and this has now been adopted by the International
Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T). This is now
widely used in almost all countries outside the USA, Canada and Japan.
The E-carrier standards form part of the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) where
groups of E1 circuits may be bundled onto higher capacity E3 links between telephone
exchanges or countries. This allows a network operator to provide a private end-to-end E1
circuit between customers in different countries that share single high capacity links in
between.
In practice, only E1 (30 circuit) and E3 (480 circuit) versions are used. Physically E1 is
transmitted as 32 timeslots and E3 512 timeslots, but one is used for framing and typically
one allocated for signalling call setup and tear down. Unlike Internet data services, E-carrier
systems permanently allocate capacity for a voice call for its entire duration. This ensures
high call quality because the transmission arrives with the same short delay (Latency) and
capacity at all times.E1 circuits are very common in most telephone exchanges and are used
to connect to medium and large companies, to remote exchanges and in many cases between
exchanges. E3 lines are used between exchanges, operators and/or countries, and have a
transmission speed of 34.368 Mbit/s. One timeslot (TS0) is reserved for framing purposes,
and alternately transmits a fixed pattern. This allows the receiver to lock onto the start of each
frame and match up each channel in turn. The standards allow for a full Cyclic Redundancy
Check to be performed across all bits transmitted in each frame, to detect if the circuit is
losing bits (information), but this is not always used.
`One timeslot (TS16) is often reserved for signalling purposes, to control call setup and
teardown according to one of several standard telecommunications protocols. This includes
Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) where a set of bits is used to replicate opening and
closing the circuit (as if picking up the telephone receiver and pulsing digits on a rotary
phone), or using tone signalling which is passed through on the voice circuits themselves.
More recent systems used Common Channel Signaling (CCS) such as ISDN or Signalling
System 7 (SS7) which send short encoded messages with more information about the call
including caller ID, type of transmission required etc. ISDN is often used between the local
telephone exchange and business premises, whilst SS7 is almost exclusively used between
exchanges and operators. SS7 can handle up to 4096 circuits per signalling channel, thus

55
allowing slightly more efficient use of the overall transmission bandwidth (for example: uses
31 voice channels on an E1).
Unlike the earlier T-carrier systems developed in North America, all 8 bits of each
sample are available for each call. This allows the E1 systems to be used equally well for
circuit switch data calls, without risking the loss of any information.While the original CEPT
standard G.703 specifies several options for the physical transmission, almost exclusively
HDB3 format is used.

13.1 The Frame Structure

As a consequence of the TDM methodology, each of the E1’s channels is practically carried
in one time slot of the 32 time slots the E1’s bandwidth is divided to. The concatenation of 32
consecutive time slots is named an E1 frame. The E1 frame length is 256 bits (32 TS * 8 bit
each TS). The Frame rate is 8 kHz. The time slots in each frame are numbered 0 to 31:

1. TS0 is dedicated for synchronization, alarms and messages (future use), unless configured
differently.

2. TS16 is usually used for signaling, but can carry data as well.

3. TS1-TS15 and TS17-TS31 are used for carrying user data.

The structure of an E1 frame is demonstrated below:

Fig. 13.1 E1 Frame Structure

14. INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALLING:

56
 Signaling refers to the exchange of information between call components required to
provide and maintain service.As users of the public switched telephone network, we exchange
signaling with network elements all the time. Examples of signaling between a telephone user
and the telephone network include: dialing digits, providing dial tone, accessing a voice
mailbox, sending a call-waiting tone.
Signaling System 7 is a means by which elements of the telephone network exchange
information. Information is conveyed in the form of messages. SS7 is characterized by high-
speed packet data, and out-of-band signaling.

Type of signaling:

 Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

 Common Channel Signaling ( CCS)

14.1 CHANNEL ASSOCIATED SIGNALING:

Older signaling systems always use the speech path or some other type of path that is
close to the speech path. As an example, the line signals for a call are sent in time slot 16 of
the PCM system containing the time slots to be used for the traffic. That is why this type of
signalling system is referred to as channel associated.
The most common way of transmitting information is by means of tones or combination
of tones. More modern signalling systems use a combination of tones (e.g. MFC, Multi
Frequency Compelled), which creates a more reliable system since single disturbances are
detected by the receiver. If not all tones are detected, the signal is ignored by the receiver and
must be repeated.The amount of information that can be transmitted by means of tones is
limited. The MFC system can transmit – at the most – values between 0and 15. By dividing
the signals into two or three groups, more informationcan be transferred. CAS is a relatively
slow signaling system and has limited possibilities regarding the transfer of information.

14.2 COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALING (CCS):

Common channel signaling can be compared to a modern data communication system, i.e.
a system intended for computer–to–computer communication. A common data channel is
used to convey signals for a large number of traffic circuits. The signaling network is
separated from the traffic network. The signaling information is put into packets which are
completed with error detection functions, error correction functions, address and, in some
cases, circuit identification (information about the call circuit). Because signaling is
performed over separate channels, there is a dedicated signaling network that exists beside the

57
ordinary trunk network. The signaling network can be planned separated from the trunk
network. Today, two signaling systems from this family exists. One of them, ITU-T No. 6, is
rather old (specified in 1968) and was designed for international analog circuits. However, the
number of installations is rather limited. The other system, specified in 1979–80, is referred to
as ITU-T No. 7 (abbreviated C7 from now on). This signaling system is intended for national
and international digital circuits. It is used in many different networks around the world.

The main features of C7 signaling are:

Speed
The complete call setup between two exchanges is done in a fraction of a second.
High capacity
One signaling link can handle several thousand trunk lines.
Better economy
Limited need of hardware compared to older signaling systems.
Reliability
Alternative routing is possible in the signaling network.
Flexibility

Signaling system C7 can be used for data communication, mobile telephony and
maintenance as well as for traditional telephony. The C7 signaling system was designed as an
open system. This means that it can be extended and used for other purposes besides
telephony alone.

15. INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL SYSTEM NO.7 (SS7):

58
 There are two essential components to all telephone calls. The first, and most obvious, is
the actual content—our voices, faxes, modem data, etc. The second is the information that
instructs telephone exchanges to establish connections and route the “content” to an
appropriate destination. Telephony signaling is concerned with the creation of standards for
the latter to achieve the former. These standards are known as protocols. SS7 or Signaling
System Number 7 is simply another set of protocols that describe a means of communication
between telephone switches in public telephone networks. They have been created and
controlled by various bodies around the world, which leads to some specific local variations,
but the principal organization with responsibility for their administration is the International
Telecommunications Union or ITU-T.
Originally designed for the purpose of conveying information relating to call
establishment and teardown from exchange to exchange, the protocol architecture has been
extended to cover a variety of tasks associated with collecting and reporting information
necessary for the transmission of telephone calls. The SS7 standards now include
specifications for a wide diversity of telephony management tasks and have proven to be
extremely successful and resilient. As we have moved towards convergence between the
public circuit-switched telephone network and the packet-switched IP world, SS7 has become
the subject of significant attention as developers seek to integrate the two worlds and leverage
the best of both. An understanding of SS7 is thus a vital component of an understanding of
the current and next generation of public networks.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a clear explanation of the role of SS7 in the
telephone network today, to explore its origins and architecture and to examine its future in
this rapidly changing environment.

15.1. BACKGROUND AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES:

To understand SS7 we must first understand something of the basic inefficiency of

previous signaling methods utilized in the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Until
relatively recently, all telephone connections were managed by a variety of techniques
centered on “in band” signaling. All telephone conversations require a bearer trunk to
transport them from origin to destination. In the early days of telephony, this was simply a
single wire dedicated to a customer. Switching meant connecting customers together via
intermediary pieces of wire. In addition to carrying the conversation or bearer “content,” all
telephone bearer trunks also carried the signaling information necessary to control the
telephone call concerned. This is known as “Channel Associated Signaling,” sometimes
abbreviated to CAS. As one might imagine, this is fundamentally inefficient, as it means that
even if the destination phone is unable to accept an incoming call, a complete bearer channel
59
is fully occupied, from the point of origin to the point of destination, in the attempt to connect
to it. Far better would be a way to signal to the destination phone without using the valuable
bearer circuit until absolutely necessary. Although this wouldn’t eliminate the need for every
customer to connect directly to the phone exchange, it would enable lines between phone
exchanges, a valuable resource, to be used more effectively and indeed not to be used at all if
the far end was found to be busy. This mode of signaling, where the information is carried
separately from the bearer channels is known as “Common Channel Signaling,” or CCS. CCS
can also result in the allocation of a single, dedicated resource to signaling and allow it to be
responsible for the control of large numbers of individual voice circuits.

FIG 15.1(a) IN Band Signaling

FIG 15.1(b) Out Of Band Signaling

SS7 is simply a highly sophisticated and powerful form of CCS. Another important
benefit of CCS systems to consider is that they are essentially independent of switch and
transmission technology. This means that evolution of SS7 standards is independent of the
evolution of the underlying equipment. Standards can develop that are constant and can be
used across different networks, and new functionality can be added without reference to the
transmission equipment. Since its inception, SS7 has assumed a role of growing importance,
as most PSTNs have migrated from less efficient signaling methodologies towards a full
implementation of SS7, and the majority of international networks have followed suit. Today,
SS7 is responsible for routing calls across countries, between countries, and has a central role
in mobile networks.

15.2 PRINCIPLES OF SS7 SIGNALING- THE PROTOCOL STACK:

60
 SS7 is really a suite of protocols that use a common transport mechanism for the
distribution of messages between functional entities. The common transport layer is, as we
saw earlier, the Message Transfer Part or MTP Layers. (NB, this is of course separate from
the underlying transmission infrastructure, which is usually a 64 or 56 Kb/s channel in a multi
channel E1 or T1, or a dedicated single channel link such as V.35). Above this layer, there are
a number of alternative functional blocks (ISUP, SCCP, MAP, INAP, etc) that perform
functions like call control management (for the establishment and tear down of conventional
telephone calls), or search for and retrieve information relating to subscribers and the users of
the call control services.

Fig 15.3.4 Signaling Connection Control Part

15.3 SS7 ARCHITECTURE:

A telecommunications network consists of a number of switches and application

processors interconnected by transmission circuits. The SS7 network exists within the
telecommunications network and controls it. An SS7 network has three distinct components:
Service Switching Points, Signal Transfer Points, and Service Control Points. These
components may be generically referred to as “nodes” or “signaling points” and are connected
to each other via “data links.

61
 Fig 15.3(a) SS7 architecture.

15.3.1 SIGNALING TRANSFER POINT (STP):

The STP is to the SS7 Network what the switch is to the Public Switched Telephone
Network. While a switch routes calls by making actual voice connections, the STP simply
directs the digital traffic by selecting links on which to place the outgoing traffic. STPs are
paired for redundancy with consideration being given that both members of the pair are not
subject to the same hazards. For example both members of the same pair would not be placed
on the same earthquake fault.
15.3.2 SIGNALING TRANSFER POINT (STP) — (LOCAL):

The STPs indicated here are at the lowest level of the SS7 network hierarchy. What
makes them local STPs is the fact that the sphere which represents a network location (or
node) providing and/or using network services is directly connected to these STPs. Just as a
local telephone office is the direct connection point for the phone lines of telephone users, the
local STP pair provides the direct connection for users of the SS7 network.

Fig. 15.3.2 STP-local.

15.3.3 SIGNALING TRANSFER POINT (STP) — (REGIONAL):

The STP pair indicated here is at a higher level of the SS7 network hierarchy. The
drawing indicates this by showing no direct node connections, and also by placing this STP at
a higher position on the page. The two pairs of STPs shown at the center of the network are,
therefore, local pairs whose job is to provide network access to the services nodes. The higher
level pair is the regional pair used to connect local STP pairs from different areas together.

62
 Fig.15.3.3 STP-regional.

16. CALL PROCESSING:

Call processing refers to all the necessary functions that the system needs to carry out in
order to set up, maintain, and tear down a call between a mobile and another party. Two types

63
of connections are possible: a mobile-to-land call and a mobile-to-mobile call. In the case of
mobile to land, the call is set up between a mobile and a landline phone, in which case the call
is routed through the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The IS-95 CDMA system
adopts a state description of call processing. Since the mobile is the common element in the
two types of connections (i.e., mobile to land and mobile to mobile), the IS-95 standard
specifies the call states from the perspective of the CDMA mobile station.
It is important to note that the standard does not specify call states for the base station.
Obviously, whatever functions that the base station performs must work with the specified
mobile call states; the infrastructure vendors are free to implement their own base station
functions to satisfy call processing requirements.

During normal operation, the mobile can occupy any one of the following states :

Mobile station initialization state;

Mobile station idle state;
System access state;
Mobile station control on the traffic channel state.

Figure 16.1 graphically depicts these states and the associated transitions. After power-
up, the mobile first enters the mobile station initialization state (or initialization state for
short), where the mobile selects and acquires a system. Upon exiting the initialization state,
the mobile has fully acquired the system and its timing. Then the mobile enters the mobile
station idle state (or idle state for short), where the mobile monitors messages on the paging
channel. Any one of the following three events will cause the mobile to transition from the
idle state to the system access state (or access state or short):

 The mobile receives a paging channel message requiring an

acknowledgment or response.
 The mobile originates a call.
 The mobile performs a registration.

In the access state, the mobile sends messages to the base station on the access channel.
When the mobile is directed to a traffic channel, it enters the mobile station control on the
traffic channel state (or traffic channel state for short), where the mobile communicates with
the base station using the forward and reverse traffic channels. When the call is terminated,
the mobile returns to the initialization state.

16.1 AN EXAMPLE CALL SETUP:

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 The following example describes a call from a fixed network subscriber to a mobile
subscriber in a CDMA.

Fig. 16.1(a) Call setup in CDMA

The incoming call is passed from the fixed network to the gateway MSC (GMSC) (1).
Then, based on the IMSI numbers of the called party, its HLR is determined (2). The HLR
checks for the existence of the called number. Then the relevant VLR is requested to provide
a mobile station roaming number (MSRN) (3). This is transmitted back to the MSC (4).
Then the connection is switched through to the responsible MSC (5). Now the VLR is queried
for the location range and reach ability status of the mobile subscriber (6). If the MS is
marked reachable, a radio call is enabled (7) and executed in all radio zones assigned to the
VLR (8). When the mobile subscriber telephone responds to the page request from the current
radio cell (9), all necessary security procedures are executed (10). If this is successful, the
VLR indicates to the MSC (11) that the call can be completed (12).

16.2 CALL PROCESSING STATES:

65
 Fig. 16.1(a) Call processing states for a MS.

16.2.1 POWER UP STATE:

Initial state in a call setup is powering up the MS.

16.2.2 INITIALIZATION STATE:

After power-up, the mobile enters the initialization state. This state contains four
substates, which the mobile sequentially goes through:

 System determination substate;

 Pilot channel acquisition substate;
 Sync channel acquisition substate;
 Timing change substate.

16.2.2.1 SYSTEM DETERMINATION SUBSTATE:

The system determination substate is the first substate that the mobile enters within the
initialization state. In this substate, the mobile selects which system to use (i.e., system A or
system B in the cellular band). Because all CDMA cellular phones have dual-mode capability,
the mobile also decides whether it would be in CDMA mode or analog mode. If CDMA mode
is selected, the mobile proceeds to select which CDMA carrier to use. Then the mobile enters
the next substate.

16.2.2.2 PILOT CHANNEL ACQUISITION SUBSTATE:

66
 In the pilot channel acquisition substate, the mobile demodulates and acquires the pilot
channel of the selected CDMA system. The mobile has to acquire the pilot within a certain
time limit; if the mobile acquires the pilot within the time limit, then it enters the sync channel
acquisition substate. If the mobile does not acquire the pilot within the time limit, then it
returns to the system determination substate.

16.2.2.3 SYNC CHANNEL ACQUISITION SUBSTATE:

In the sync channel acquisition substate, the mobile proceeds to acquire the sync channel
of the CDMA system. In effect, the mobile obtains system configuration and timing
information by acquiring the sync channel and reading the sync channel message. See Section
5.2.2 for details on sync channel synchronization. Note that the mobile also needs to acquire
the sync channel and read the message within a certain time limit. If the mobile does not
receive the sync channel message within the time limit, then it returns to the system
determination substate. If the mobile receives the sync channel message within the time
allowed, and if the mobile’s own protocol revision level (MOB_P_REV) is greater than or
equal to the minimum protocol revision level supported by the base station (MIN_P_REV),
then the mobile proceeds to enter the next substate.

16.2.2.4 TIMING CHANGE SUBSTATE:

In the timing change substate, the mobile synchronizes its timing to that of the CDMA
system time and its long-code phase to that of the CDMA system. At this point, the mobile
has already demodulated the sync channel message and possesses all the parameters from the
message; three parameters in the message (i.e., PILOT_PN, LC_STATE, and SYS_TIME)
are used to synchronize the mobile’s long-code phase and system timing to those of the
CDMA system. After the mobile has fully acquired the CDMA system, it then enters the
mobile station idle state.

16.2.3 IDLE STATE:

16.2.3.1 PAGING CHANNEL MONITORING:

In the idle state, the mobile monitors the paging channel on the forward link. In order to
receive messages and receive an incoming call, the mobile needs to monitor the paging
channel for messages. The paging channel transmission is divided into slots that are 80 ms in
length. There are two ways that the mobile can monitor the paging channel: monitoring in
nonslotted mode or in slotted mode. In nonslotted mode, the mobile monitors the paging
channel at all times. In slotted mode, the mobile monitors the paging channel only during

67
assigned paging channel slots. Because the mobile doesn’t have to monitor all the slots all the
time, the mobile operating in the slotted mode can conserve battery power.

16.2.3.2 IDLE HANDOFF:

When the mobile is in the idle state and it has moved from the coverage area of one base
station to the coverage area of another base station, an idle handoff occurs. If the mobile
detects that the pilot strength from another base station is sufficiently stronger than that of the
current base station, then the mobile proceeds to perform an idle handoff. In doing so, the
mobile maintains three sets of base station (or sector) pilot PN offsets:

Active Set:
This set contains the pilot offset of the sector whose paging channel is currently
monitored by the mobile.
Neighbor Set:
This set contains the pilot offsets of those sectors that are likely candidates for idle
handoff. The neighbor list message specifies the pilots in the neighbor set.
Remaining Set:
This set contains all possible pilot offsets in the system, excluding the pilots in the
active set and the neighbor set .

The mobile also uses three search windows—SRCH_WIN_A, SRCH_WIN_N, and

SRCH_WIN_R—to search for those pilots contained in the respective sets. If the mobile
determines that one of the neighbors set or remaining set pilot signals is sufficiently stronger
than the pilot of the active set, the mobile performs an idle handoff. The idle handoff is
nothing more than beginning to monitor the paging channel of a new sector whose pilot
strength is sufficiently stronger than that of the current sector. It is important to recognize that
the mobile monitors the paging channel of only one base station (i.e., the active set contains
only one pilot). Therefore, soft handoff is not applicable in the idle state.

15.2.3.3 PAGING CHANNEL MESSAGES:

There are a total of six overhead messages that are sent to the mobile on the paging channel:

•System parameters message;

•Neighbor list message;
•CDMA channel list message;
•Extended system parameters message;
•Global service redirection message;

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 •Access parameter message.

The first five messages are referred to as the configuration messages. The mobile is
constantly receiving these various messages on the paging channel, and within these messages
there are many fields that need to be updated and loaded into the mobile’s memory. So, how
does the mobile keep track of which messages are current and which messages are not? It
turns out that the base station assigns a configuration message sequence
number (CONFIG_MSG_SEQ) to a current set of configuration messages. When the contents
(fields) of one or more of the configuration messages changes, the configuration message
sequence number is incremented .For each of the configuration messages, the mobile keeps or
stores locally a message sequence number pertaining to that particular message:

 SYS_PAR_MSG_SEQS, or stored system parameters message sequence number;

 NGHBR_LIST_MSG_SEQS, or stored neighbor list message sequence number;
 CHAN_LIST_MSG_SEQS, or stored CDMA channel list message sequence
number;
 EXT_SYS_PAR_MSG_SEQS, or stored extended system parameters message
sequence number;
 GLOB_SERV_REDIR_MSG_SEQS, or stored global service redirection message
sequence number.

For each received configuration message, the mobile stores the configuration message
sequence number (contained in the configuration message) in the respective message
sequence number. For example, if the CONFIG_MSG_SEQ field of a received neighbor list
message is 11, then the mobile should update its locally stored NGHBR_LIST_MSG_SEQS
to 11. The mobile considers its stored configuration parameters to be current only if all the
stored message sequence numbers; that is, SYS_PAR_MSG_SEQS,
NGHBR_LIST_MSG_SEQS, CHAN_LIST_MSG_ SEQS, EXT_SYS_PAR_MSG_SEQS,
and GLOB_SERV_REDIR_MSG_SEQS, are equal to the stored CONFIG_MSG_SEQS. The
stored CONFIG_MSG_SEQS is simply the most recently received configuration message
sequence number of all the configuration messages. The access parameters message is
sequence-numbered by its ACC_MSG_SEQ field, and to keep track of the most current
message, the mobile stores the most recently received access parameters message sequence
number ACC_MSG_SEQS. Refer to Section 5.2.3 for the contents of those messages that
relate to RF system engineering.

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16.2.4 ACCESS STATE:

In the access state, the mobile transmits messages to the base station using the access
channel. In addition, the mobile also receives messages from the base station on the paging
channel. There are six substates that the mobile can occupy within the access state [2]:

Update overhead information substate;

Page response substate;
Mobile station origination attempt substate;
Registration access substate;
Mobile station order/message response substate;
Mobile station message transmission substate.

16.2.4.1 UPDATE OVERHEAD INFORMATION SUBSTATE:

After the mobile receives the current configuration messages on the paging channel, the
mobile compares the sequence numbers to determine whether or not all the configuration
messages are up to date [2]. Update procedures (described in Section 6.3.3) are used to update
all the locally stored sequence numbers. The mobile also checks whether or not it has the
latest access parameters by checking its locally stored access parameters message sequence
number ACC_MSG_SEQS. In addition to receiving configuration messages and access
parameter messages, the mobile can also receive the following page messages:

Page message;
Slotted page message;
General page message.

Whenever the mobile receives a page message, the mobile station searches each message
to determine whether the message contains the mobile’s international mobile station identity
(IMSI). If the message contains the mobile’s IMSI, then the mobile transitions to the page
response substate and transmits a page response message on the access channel.

16.2.4.2 PAGE RESPONSE SUBSTATE:

In this substate, the mobile sends a page response message in response to the page
messages sent by the base station [2]. The mobile sends the page response message using the
access procedures described in Section 17.4.7.After receiving the page response message, the
base station may send the mobile a channel assignment message on the paging channel in
order to start setting up the call. The channel assignment message contains parameters such as

70
CDMA_FREQ (frequency assignment) and CODE_CHAN (code channel), and these
parameters are used by the mobile to tune to the assigned RF frequency and CDMA code
channel in order to start receiving the forward traffic channel.

16.2.4.3 MOBILE STATION ORIGINATION ATTEMPT SUBSTATE:

In this substate, the mobile sends an origination message to the base station in order to
originate a call [2]. The mobile sends the origination message using the access procedures
described in Section 17.4.7. After receiving the origination message, the base station may
send the mobile a channel assignment message on the paging channel in order to start setting
up the call. The channel assignment message contains parameters such as CDMA_FREQ
(frequency assignment) and CODE_CHAN (code channel), and these parameters are used by
the mobile to tune to the assigned RF frequency and CDMA code channel in order to start
receiving the forward traffic channel.

16.2.4.4 REGISTRATION ACCESS SUBSTATE:

In this substate, the mobile sends a registration message to the base station [2]. The
mobile sends the registration message using the access procedures described in Section
17.4.7. Registration is the process where the mobile informs the base station about the
mobile’s identification, status, location, and other pertinent information. For example, the
mobile may inform the base station of the mobile’s location so that the system can efficiently
page the mobile when there is an incoming call [2].

16.2.4.5 MOBILE STATION ORDER/MESSAGE RESPONSE SUBSTATE:

In this substate, the mobile sends a response to any other message sent by the base
station [2]. For example, the mobile may send an authentication challenge response message
in response to an authentication challenge message sent by the base station. The mobile sends
the pertinent message using the access procedures described in Section 17.4.7.

16.2.4.6 MOBILE STATION MESSAGE TRANSMISSION SUBSTATE:

A mobile phone does not have to support this particular substate. In other words, the
mobile’s support of this substate is optional. In this substate, the mobile sends a data burst
message to the base station. The mobile sends the data burst message using the access
procedures described in Section 17.4.7.

16.2.5 TRAFFIC CHANNEL STATE:

The mobile may enter the traffic channel state from two substates within the access state:
the page response substate or the mobile station origination attempt substate. In other words,

71
after the mobile has successfully responded to a base station page or after the mobile has
successfully originated, the mobile may enter the traffic channel state. In the traffic channel
state, the mobile communicates with the base station using the forward and reverse traffic
channels [2]. This state consists of five substates:

Traffic channel initialization substate;

Waiting for order substate;
Waiting for mobile station answer substate;
Conversation substate;
Release substate.

16.2.5.1 TRAFFIC CHANNEL INITIALIZATION SUBSTATE:

In the traffic channel initialization substate, the mobile checks to see if it can indeed
receive information on the forward traffic channel. In doing so, the mobile verifies that it can
receive two (i.e., N5m constant defined in IS-95A) consecutive good frames on the forward
traffic channel within 200 ms (i.e., T 50m constant defined in IS-95A). If it can, then the
mobile begins to transmit on the reverse traffic channel (i.e., the mobile starts to transmit the
traffic channel preamble on the reverse traffic channel). If the mobile receives a base station
acknowledgment order from the base station within two seconds (i.e., T51m constant defined
in IS-95A) after entering this substate, then the following will occur:
If the call is mobile terminated, then the mobile would enter the wait for order substate.
If the call is mobile originated, then the mobile would enter the conversation substate.
Of course, things may go wrong while the mobile is in this substate. If the mobile does
not receive two consecutive good frames within 200 ms, or if the mobile does not receive a
base station acknowledgment order within two seconds after entering this substate, then the
mobile would return to the system determination substate of the initialization state.

16.2.5.2 WAITING FOR ORDER SUBSTATE:

If the call is mobile terminated, the mobile enters this substate from the traffic channel
initialization substate. In this substate, the mobile waits for an alert with information message
(sent on the forward traffic channel) from the base station. This message basically conveys an
alert, or ring, to the mobile. If the mobile receives the alert message, then the mobile would
enter the waiting for mobile station answer substate. If the mobile does not receive the alert
message within five seconds after entering this substate, then the mobile would return to the
system determination substate of the initialization state.

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16.2.5.3 WAITING FOR MOBILE STATION ANSWER SUBSTATE:

Normally, the mobile enters this substate from the waiting for order substate. In this
substate, the mobile waits for the user to answer the call. Note that the mobile can only enter
this substate if the call is mobile terminated. If the user answers the call, then the mobile stops
ringing and sends a connect order back to the base station on the reverse traffic channel; then,
the mobile enters the conversation substate.

16.2.5.4 CONVERSATION SUBSTATE:

If the call is mobile originated, then the mobile enters the conversation substate from the
traffic channel initialization substate. If the call is mobile terminated, then the mobile enters
this substate from the waiting for mobile station answer substate. In this substate, the mobile
and the base station exchange primary traffic bits on forward and reverse traffic channels.

15.2.5.5 RELEASE SUBSTATE:

In the release substate, the mobile releases or disconnects the call. If the mobile initiates
the release, then the mobile first sends a release order to the base station on the reverse traffic
channel. If the base station initiates the release, then the base station sends a release order to
the mobile on the forward traffic channel.

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 17. ROUTINE MAINTENANCE & CURATIVE JOBS OF AN SWITCH
ENGINEER

Now I move towards the daily work that I did during my internship.

 Alarm Monitoring

 Daily Health Checkup.

 Preparing information database in the form of daily, monthly and weekly reports.

 Debugging of various call related problems.

 Augmentation and De-augmentation with E1’s.

 Creation of new C7 links.
 Shifting of various POI’s when required.

17.1 ALARM MONITORING:

In the MSC and BSC various alarms are occurred when the site undergoes some faults
like due to CCITT7 signaling link failure fault or due to some breakage fault in the connecting
cables or due to some software error. These alarms are analyzed by analyzing the alarm log
file, in which alarms are defined according to their class and category.

For example,

A1/APT "TAJAL1MB0503/00" 449 091218 1257

CCITT7 SIGNALLING LINK FAILURE

LS SPID SLC ST

2-5403 BHOPM2 1 C7ST2C-128

SDL

BHOPM2-1,UPDESD1-37488

FCODE INFO REASON

206 H'0 NOT ALIGNED TIME-OUT (T2 EXPIRED)

A1/APT "TAJAL1MB0503/00" 653 100107 1912

CCITT7 SIGNALLING LINK FAILURE

LS SPID SLC ST

74
 2-5609 VODAJAL 11 C7ST2C-184

SDL

VODAFONE-11,UPDESD1-37968

In the above example the alarm is came on DELHISTP1 at 0027(i.e.12:27a.m.) in the

class is A2 and the category is APT due to signaling link failure fault, and which is ceased at
0027a.m. Like this, we have total three classes and five categories, which are shown below in
an ALARM DISPLAY BOARD:

Fig 17.1(a) Alarm display board

17.2 DAILY HEALTH CHECKUP:

This is a very important job for a switch engineer to perform on daily basis. A Heath
Checkup must include the following:

 Check the status of C7 links.

 Ensure no link found to be restoring, if any then co-ordinate with

Transmission team to make it active.

 Check the status of Switch ports or E1’s.

 Ensure no port found to be ABL (automatically blocked), LIBL (line blocked),

and MBL (manually blocked) at our end.

 Check the processor load.

 Ensure it shouldn’t above 75%.

 Check the status of various circuits.

 Ensure no circuit found to be blocked, if found, restore the same as soon as

possible(sometimes it needs liasoning with far end).
 Taking action on blocked devices of the existing POIS.

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  Coordinating with BSNL authorities for deblocking blocked devices.
 Coordination with NOC for receiving POI fault details.
 Analyze and solve the issue of Low ASR.

17.3 DEBUGGING WITH COMPLAINTS:

TTSL is provided services under three segments:

 Postpaid

Pre-paid

Virgin

Complaints that have encountered are of different issues:

 I/C problem

 O/G problem

 Problem while Roaming

 Wrong complaint

17.3.1 I/C PROBLEM:

When customer is not able to receive calls either from specific number or from all other
numbers. Different Issues like:

 IMSI (INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY) MISMATCH:

When IMSI defined in HLR (Home Location Register) is different from the original
IMSI.

 ESN (ELECTRONIC SERIAL NUMBER) MISMATCH:

When ESN defined in HLR is different from the original ESN of a Del.

 BARRING I/C CALLS:

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 When customer has manually barred the I/C calls from the specific number or from all
other numbers. Then customer has to face this kind of problem.

17.3.2 O/G PROBLEM:

When customer is not able to make specific calls. Different Issues like:
 Level not defined in MSC
For e.g. a customer is having an O/G problem on 9078656688. Prompt comes to the
customer as “number not in service”. It means the level (9078) has not been defined in
the MSC. To resolve this issue there is need to open the level in the MSC as per
routing definition.
 Wrong routing
When level has been routed in accordance to the routing definition. To resolve it, right
routing has been done as soon as possible.
 Barring O/G calls
When customer itself manually barred the O/G calls to the specific number then he
will face with this kind of problem.
 PROBLEM WHILE ROAMING:
While customer is Roaming, sometime he will face the problem regarding I/C, O/G
and Internet connectivity issues. To resolve the same we need to force latch the
customer where he roams or in simple sense we update the customer location with
respect to the existing location in HLR.

17.4AUGMENTATION AND DE-AUGMENTATION OF E1’S:

It means addition and subtraction of E1’s. It depends upon the utilization. When
utilization of the specific route has been increased or decreased then there is need to augment
or de-augment some E1’s to deal with the issue.

17.4 CREATION OF C7 LINKS:

New C7 link have also been created by me as and when required. C7 link have been
created when new POI added with our MSC.

17.5 SHIFTING OF VARIOUS POI’S:

Shifting of various POI’s has also been done by me as and when required. This task
includes deletion of C7 link, deletion of all the circuits that incurred in the specific POI.

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18. Refernces:

1)‘A Review of Mobile Commerce Technologies’: Amit Vyas, Peter O’Grady,

2) Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Iowa, May 2001
3)‘NTT DoCoMo’s I-Mode’: Digital 4Sight Corporation, 2001
4)‘www.wysdom.com’: Wysdom Company web site, May 2003
5)‘www.mobilepaymentsworld.com’: VendorZone, May 2003
6)‘Reverse Charge SMS’: Mobtastic.com, May 2003
7)‘Bluetooth and 802.11: co-existence or conflict’: Trinity College Dublin, April 2002
8)Tan, Telecom Media Networks, September 2002
9)‘www.gsmworld.com’: GSM World Technology Website, June 2003.
10) ‘Overview of the Global System for Mobile Communication’: John Scourias,

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