HBEC2103 Language and Literacy For Early Childhood Edu

HBEC2103
LANGUAGE AND
LITERACY FOR
EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Abdul Hameed Abdul Majid
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Abdul Hameed Abdul Majid
Moderator: Teh Lai Ling

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, November 2011

Copyright Open University Malaysia, November 2011, HBEC2103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix - xiv
Topic 1 Language Development 1

1.1 Theoretical View of Language Development 2
1.1.1 The Behaviourist View 3
1.1.2 The Nativist View 4
1.1.3 The Cognitivist View 5
1.2 Children Language Development 6
1.2.1 Babies Aged Zero to Six Months 6
1.2.2 Babies Aged Six to 12 Months 6
1.2.3 Toddlers Aged 12 to 18 Months 7
1.2.4 Toddlers Aged 18 Months to Two Years 8
1.2.5 Children at Daycare Aged Two to Three Years 8
1.2.6 Day Care Children Aged Three to Four Years 8
1.2.7 Preschool Children Aged Four to Five Years 9
1.2.8 Preschool Children Aged Five to Six Years 9
1.3 Environment 10
1.3.1 Peer Influence in Language Development 11
1.3.2 Family Influence in Language Ddevelopment 11
1.3.3 Community Influence in Language Development 12
1.3.4 Influence of Culture in Language Development 12
Summary 13
Key Terms 14
Topic 2 Foundations of Language 15

2.1 Language System 15
2.1.1 The English Language Sentence Structures 16
2.1.2 Parts of Speech 17
2.1.2 Tense 18
2.1.3 Aspect 20
2.1.4 Phonetics 21
2.1.5 Syntax 21
2.1.6 Semantics 23
2.1.7 Morphology 23

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2 Development of Language Structure 24

2.2.1 Development of Speech 24
2.2.2 Individual Differences 25
2.2.3 Language and Thought 26
Summary 27
Key Terms 28
Topic 3 Definition of Literacy 29

3.1 Definition of Literacy 29
3.1.1 Personal Literacy 30
3.1.2 Functional Literacy 30
3.1.3 School Literacy 31
3.1.4 Biliteracy 32
Summary 34
Key Terms 34
Topic 4 Language Curriculum and Literacy Development 35

4.1 Language and Preschool Curriculum 36
4.1.1 Language Component 36
4.1.2 Learning Objectives and Outcomes 37
4.1.3 Language Activities 40
4.2 Literacy Development 42
4.2.1 Approaches to Reading Instructions 43
4.2.2 Word Recognition Skills 44
4.2.3 Sight Word Skills 44
4.2.4 Word Attack Skills and Strategies 47
4.2.5 Phonics Approach to Reading 48
4.2.6 The Big Book Approach 49
4.2.7 Development of Writing 50
Summary 52
Key Terms 53
Topic 5 Books and Children 54

5.1 Children Book Genre 54
5.1.1 Traditional Literature 55
5.1.2 Why We Use Traditional Literature with Children? 56
5.2 Choosing Childrens Books 57
5.2.1 Types of Books 57
5.2.2 Evaluating the Contents of a Book 58
5.2.3 Reading Activities 59
Summary 61
Key Terms 62

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
Topic 6 Story Telling 63

6.1 Selecting a Story: Factors to Consider 63
6.2 Building Their Own Stories 65
6.2.1 Talking about Experience 66
6.2.2 Stories of Chilhood: Making Your Own Fairy Tales 66
6.3 Telling Their Own Stories 67
6.3.1 Delivery Techniques 67
6.3.2 Planning a Storytelling Activity 68
Summary 70
Key Terms 70
Topic 7 Puppets 71
7.1 Puppets for Children 71
7.1.1 Types of Puppets 72
7.1.2 Materials and Tools to Make Puppets 77
7.1.3 Puppet Making 77
7.2 Planning Puppet Shows 78
7.2.1 Making Arrangements and Planning a Stage 78
Summary 80
Key Terms 80
Topic 8 Literacy Instruction for Minority Pupils 81

8.1 Literacy Instruction for Minority Pupils 81
8.1.1 Models of Biliteracy Instruction 82
8.1.2 Issues in Literacy Reading and Instruction 84
Summary 87
Key Terms 88
Topic 9 Parent-school Involvement 89

9.1 Parent-centre Partnership 89
9.1.1 Helping Parents Strengthen a Childs Language
Growth 89
9.1.2 Helping Parents Understand How Young Children
Develop Language 94
Summary 95
Key Terms 96

vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10 Family Literacy 97

10.1 Family Literacy and Childhood Literacy Readiness 97
10.1.1 Family Literacy 97
10.2 Childhood Literacy Readiness 98
10.3 Models of Intervention 99
Summary 101
Key Terms 102
References 103

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE W ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2103 Language and Literacy for Early Childhood Education is one of the
courses offered by the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks. This course is intended to give learners a foundation to childhood
language learning and literacy. Upon completing this course, learners will have a
grasp of issues related to language and literacy in early childhood education.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education with Honours programme. This module aims to impart the basis of
language teaching and literacy. It also prepares the learners to execute language
teaching and literacy programmes and also to evaluate the programmes.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Understand the basis of language teaching;

2. Understand the basis of literacy teaching;
3. Explain and plan language and literacy teaching; and
4. Evaluate language and literacy teaching and learning.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with a discussion on language development. A theoretical view of

language development is presented. The language development in a child
through the different stages i.e. babies, toddlers, day care children and pre school
children are discussed. How the environment plays a role in shaping language
development is also discussed.
Topic 2 introduces the foundations of language. This topic discusses the language
system. Introduction to phonetics, syntax, semantics and morphology is
systematically presented. The topic moves on discussing the development of
language structure by highlighting how speech is developed, individual
differences in speech development and concludes with language and thought.

COURSE GUIDE W xi
Topic 3 defines literacy in detail. This topic gives the different views of literacy.
Personal literacy, functional literacy, school literacy and biliteracy are discussed
in detail.
Topic 4 discusses language curriculum and literacy development. Among the

pertinent issues discussed in this topic are language and preschool curriculum
and literacy development. In relation to language curriculum and literacy
development, issues discussed are language component, learning outcomes and
objectives and language activities. As for literacy development, approaches to
reading instructions and development of writing is dealt upon.
Topic 5 examines the issue of books and children. Different book genre is
explained. Children book genre covers both the tradition and modern genres.
Books portraying concepts as well as information will be discussed too. The topic
also deals with how to choose books for children. The different types of books are
presented. A discussion regarding evaluating the books content is also available.
Finally, the topic discusses reading activities for children.
Topic 6 highlights the art of story telling for children. It deals with how to select a
story for children depending on their age. Different story types are also
presented. The need to take into consideration childrens language ability is also
pointed out. This topic moves on explaining how to teach children build their
own stories by talking about their experience. A discussion about coming up with
stories of childhood and creating childrens own fairytale is also examined.
Learners are also introduced to techniques of delivering a story and planning for
a story telling activity.
Topic 7 presents learners to the puppets in the classroom. Puppets are very useful
in language and literacy development in childhood. This topic demonstrates how
a teacher could plan puppet-plays for young children. Prior to that, learners are
introduced to types of puppets, materials and tools to make puppets and the art
of making a puppet. The topic proceeds with planning for puppet shows.
Planning a stage activity and making arrangements for a puppet show is
introduced.
Topic 8 moves on shedding some light on issues of literacy instruction for

minority pupils. The intricacies in dealing with language and literacy with
minority pupils are discussed along with some suggestions for help. This topic
also highlights different models of biliteracy instruction for children. The topic is
concluded with a discussion of issues in literacy reading and instruction.

xii X COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 introduces the need for parent-school involvement as a scaffold for the
development of language and literacy in children. Parent-Centre Partnerships
advantage in supporting language and literacy development is discussed.
Additionally, learners are shown how parents can strengthen a childs language
development. Learners are also taught how to produce materials that can help
parents understand language development.
Topic 10 culminates the course by introducing the topic of family literacy and
childhood literacy readiness. Issues of literacy readiness in the family and the
child are highlighted. Finally, the topic ends with a presentation of some models
for intervention to promote literacy readiness in the family and children.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you had
completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer your reading back to these given learning outcomes. By doing
this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you had gone through one sub-section
or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in a form of a question that
may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across
this component, try to reflect what you had already gone through. When you
attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether
you had understand what you had read clearly, vaguely or worse you might find
out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had
just gone through. Most of the time, the answer to the question can be found
directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear
in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to
conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and
evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should
try to widen what you had gathered from the module and introduce it to real
situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall

and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
assists you to recap the whole topic. By going through summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the
summary that you do not fully understand; it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component so as to remind yourself on important terms or jargons
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end
of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer
to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance you overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
MAIN REFERENCES
Beaty, Janice, J., & Pratt, Linda. (2007). Early literacy in preschool and kindergarten:
A multicultural perspective (2nd ed). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Whitehead, Marian R. (2007). Developing language and literacy with young

children. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

xiv X COURSE GUIDE
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Nelsen, M. R., & Nelsen-Parish, J. (2002). Peal with books: An early childhood
resource for balanced literacy (3rd ed). NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Sawyer, W. E. (2004). Growing up with literature (4th ed). NY: Thomson Delmar
Learning.
Whitehead, M. R. (2002). Developing language & literature for young children.

London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Machado, J. M. (2002). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Emerging

literacy (7th ed). NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. NY: Thomson Delmar

Learning.

Topic X Language
1 Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the theoretical view of language development;
2. Identify different stages of language development in children; and
3. Discuss how environment plays a role in language development in
children.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic begins with a discussion on language development. We will discuss
the theoretical view of language development. Then, we will discuss the language
development a child goes through at the different stages i.e. baby, toddler, child
at day care and preschool child. You will also learn how the the environment
plays a role in shaping language development.

2 X TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss the cartoon strip with your friend. What can you infer about a
childs early language development?
1.1 THEORETICAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT
Listening to your babys first word is a a very exciting experience. Your babys
first word then grows into a sentence and after that, turns into a conversation.
The whole episode is like a miracle the miracle of language development in a
child.
Parents are undoubtedly a childs first teacher. A parent who takes time to listen,
talk, read, sing, tell stories and play games with their children are actually
building important language skills that last a lifetime. Before embarking on the
development of language in a child, we shall have a look at several theories of
language acquisition.

TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT W 3
1.1.1 The Behaviourist View

The behaviourist theory of language learning is rooted in the early 20th century.
The proponents of this theory are psychologists like Watson, Thorndike and
Pavlov. They propose that the way people learn a language can be predicted and
explained by observing the behaviour of animals (Stern, 1983). They also exert
that it is possible to train animals to behave in any desired way by using a
learning model consisting of a stimulus, response and reinforcement. The
behaviourist theory of learning is supported by a classic experiment using a rat
which was placed in a box with a light in it, which is also known as the Skinner
Box (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Skinner box

Source: michaelsydney.edublogs.org/
When the light (stimulus) is switched on, the rat moves onto a bar and presses it
(response). As a result, a piece of food drops at the rats feet (reinforcement). In this
situation, you can observe the bond between the stimulus and the response being
strengthened by a pleasurable reinforcement. This pleasurable reinforcement is
also called the positive reinforcement (food). Repeating the sequence of stimulus,
response and reinforcement several times will make the rat press the bar as soon as
the light is switched on. Repetition is a crucial element to establish habit formation
and learning.
This stimulus-response-reinforcement theory is paralled by Skinner (1957), a

psychologist, to the way human acquire language. Skinner views language as a
form of behaviour just like the rat pressing the bar. According to Skinner, language
learning is a process of habit formation. He cites the example of when a hungry
(stimulus) baby crying (response) is fed with milk (reinforcement). The baby learns

that if he cries, he will be rewarded with milk. Children learn a language very
much the same way.
The behaviourist theory emphasises that the continuity of a childs pre-linguistic

and linguistic development in any language is a set of stimulus-response
associations built over years of trial and error.
The behaviourists claimed that language is behaviour. Thus, just like any other
behaviour, it is learned. This learning occurs through "reinforcement of successive
approximations". When a child randomly makes sounds, such as hi-hi, a-a-a-a and
says "mi, the mother, on hearing this, gets very excited, pays attention to the baby
and says "Oh, you want milk!" and gives him a bottle of milk. After some time, the
excitement of "mi" goes away and the mother insists that the baby say "milk" before
she provides the reinforcement of praise and milk. After a longer while, milk is not
good enough, and the child must say "I want milk" to be rewarded. Thus the
behaviourist view of language development is that children learn language
through repetition and reinforcement.
1.1.2 The Nativist View

Linguists and child psychologists have been debating the manner in which a
child acquires a language. Noam Chomsky, the proponent of the nativist theory
proposes that children have an innate ability to acquire a language. He argues
that children are able to naturally organise the laws of a language.
Chomsky further argues saying that children are born with an innate capacity for
learning human language and are destined to speak. The nativists believe that
children discover the grammar of their language based on their own inborn
grammar. According to the nativists, some aspects of language structure are
preordained by the cognitive structure of the human mind. The basic patterns of
every language is the same. It has nouns and verbs, consonants and vowels. The
nativists believe that every child is preprogrammed to acquire the knowledge of
the basic patterns of language.
Chomsky says that children are born with an innate mechanism for the
acquisition of language. This device is called a Language Acquisition Device
(LAD). LAD is a device wired with language universals and equipped with a
mechanism that allows children to make complex guesses about what they hear
around them. Language learning is not really something that the child does but
something that happens to the child. If a child is placed in an appropriate
environment, just like his/her body, language grows and matures in a
predetermined way if the environment gives the needed stimulation and
exposure to language.

Chomskys theory of LAD stating that children form a mental rule of language
rules is depicted in the utterances below:
Cookies are gooder than bread.

John taked the toy.
We goed to the shops.
Do you think that parents teach their children those forms and structures? How
do they acquire them then? You may want to discuss this with your tutor and
coursemates.
1.1.3 The Cognitivist View

The cognitive language learning theory proponent hypothesises that children
learn a language through a series of stages (Brown 1994). Children learn a
language in the same fashion. However, the cognitivists suggest that childrens
language development rate may differ from one to another. Language
development is placed into different stages such as the sensorimotor stage, the
preoperational stage, the concrete operation stage and formal operation stage.
The sensorimotor stage (from birth to two years) focuses on the elements and
process of the child's environment. The preoperational stage (from two to seven
years) focuses on the child's perception of his/her environment as he/she learns
to express relations symbolically. The concrete operations stage (from seven to
eleven years) focuses on expansion of the child's mental systems to order, classify
and arrange experience. Communication roles develop rapidly as the child
engages in dialogue. Finally, the stage of formal operations (from 11 or 12 years
of age and on) focuses on abstract and hypothetical conditions. As a child
develops and explores new functions and uses for language, his or her linguistic
system continues to expand.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Discuss the differences between the three theories of language

acquisition presented earlier.
2. How do you think that the theories come together in real life?

1.2 CHILDREN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
1.2.1 Babies Aged Zero to Six Months

Newborn babies up to the age of six months cry in different ways to
communicate their feelings and wants. They cry in different ways to say, Im
hurt, Im wet, Im hungry or Im lonely. Babies at this stage also make
noises to show displeasure or satisfaction. Babbling is also significant among
babies. They tend to look for voices and can recognise familiar faces.
During this stage, a childs language skills can be nurtured by responding with
the same sound when they babble, gurgle and coo. Talking to babies as they are
feeding, dressing or playing is very helpful to nurture their language
development. Babies should be sung to and they love to listen to soft music.
1.2.2 Babies Aged Six to 12 Months

At this stage, babies are able to wave goodbye and respond when their name is
called. Most often, babies are able to understand the names of familiar objects
around them. They are also able to show interest in picture books and can pay
attention to conversations. Some babies are able to utter their first words at this
stage while others may be slightly delayed. Babies can be seen to babble
expressively as if they are talking. Saying da-da and ma-ma are common.

You should nurture the babies language skill at this stage by teaching them their
names and the names of familiar objects. Talking to them about what is
happening and what you are doing is definitely helpful. Playing peek-a-boo
makes them very happy. Reading to them while holding out pictures, magazines
or books will greatly infuse language development.
1.2.3 Toddlers Aged 12 to 18 Months

Starting from the age of 12 months, toddlers are able to identify family members
and familiar objects. They are also able to point to some body parts such as the
nose, ears and eyes. Following simple one-step instructions are possible now.
They start to utter two or more words and can imitate familiar noises like the
sound of cars, planes and birds. Additionally, they are able to repeat a few words
and look at a person talking. Saying hi or bye if reminded is usual at this
stage. They point to objects if they want them and are able to identify objects in
pictures.
Teaching children the names of people, body parts and objects are essential now.
They should be taught the sound of different things around them. Read simple
stories to them. Sit with them and make scrapbooks that have bright colourful
familiar objects. Read to them the contents of the scrapbook. Speak to them

clearly using full simple words. Do not use baby talk at this stage as baby
talk confuses the process of learning to talk.
1.2.4 Toddlers Aged 18 Months to Two Years

Language development starts to grow faster at this stage. They are able to utter
about 50 words and can comprehend more. Parrot-like echoing is common. They
tend to imitate single words spoken by others. Toddlers at this age quite
commonly jabber or talk to themselves expressively. More familiar objects are
identified and the names uttered. Telegraphic speech containing two to three
sentences like Daddy bye-bye emerges. Tries to sing simple songs or hum.
Enjoys listening to short stories, points to more parts of the body and able to say
please and thank you if prompted.
Reading at least one book a day to children at this stage is most rewarding.
Encourage them to repeat short sentences. Start giving them short instructions.
Read rhymes with interesting sounds as they enjoy sounds, actions and pictures.
1.2.5 Children at Daycare Aged Two to Three Years

As children approach two to three years of age, they are able to identify up to 10
pictures in a book. Simple sentences and phrases are easily uttered. Children at
this age are able to respond when called by their name and are also able to
respond to simple directions. Their grammar starts to build because they are able
to use plural and past tense forms. They enjoy simple stories, rhymes and also
songs. Their vocabulary will expand to about 500 words.
At this stage, children love to play word games such as This Little Piggy or
High as a House. It is rewarding for you to continue listening, reading and
talking to them everyday. Continue teaching them simple songs and nursery
rhymes.
1.2.6 Day Care Children Aged Three to Four Years

Speech starts to develop at a faster rate now. Children at this age are able to talk
more. About 75% - 80% of their speech is comprehensible already. They are able
to say their own first and last name. Using prepositions to show locations and
directions become prevalent. Awareness of time is also apparent. At this age,
children start asking questions why, who, what, where, when and
how. Speech becomes clearer with the ability to form sentences with three to
five words. Sentences become more complete. Although they stumble over words

sometimes, they do not stammer. Listening to stories with familiar words without
any changes is very much enjoyed. They also like to tell simple stories from
pictures or books. Colours are also recognised at this stage.
As a teacher, parent or caregiver, it is absolutely necessary for you to include

children at this age into everyday conversations. Tell them what you plan to do
and ask them lots of questions and listen to them attentively. Start giving them a
few books and teach them how to care for the books.
1.2.7 Preschool Children Aged Four to Five Years

Letter recognition begins to take shape now if they are taught to do so. Some
children are even able to write letters of the alphabet. They are able to recognise
common signboards such as fast food signboards. Speech starts to become more
complex as they are able to utter long, full sentences. Children at this stage enjoy
singing, saying rhymes and nonsense words. Interestingly, children at this age
are able to adapt language to the level of their listeners understanding. If they
talk to the caregiver, they may say Daddy go bye-bye and if they talk to their
mother, they say Daddy went to the office. Ability to remember telephone
numbers and addresses is quite common at this stage. More colours and shapes
are recognised. Children are also able to follow more than one instruction at this
stage. They also enjoy elaborate conversations and sometimes pick up
forbidden words and tell jokes that are not understood by adults.
It is rewarding to start bringing children of this age to libraries regularly. Always

play games that need colouring and counting. Encourage their language
development by getting them to tell stories and also make their own story books
with magazines, pictures or make scrapbooks. Record their story telling session
or singing activity as it can motivate them.
1.2.8 Preschool Children Aged Five to Six Years

At the age of five to six years, children start to speak with correct grammar and
word form. They are able to pretend play and are more expressive. Writing
ability becomes more profound with the ability to write their own names, some
letters and also numbers. They are also able to read certain simple words.
You should continue reading to them daily. Encourage them to pretend play with
friends using old sheets, cardboard and other household items. Playing doctor
or Fireman Sam is very often indulged in by children at this age. Allow them to
be part of what you are doing especially while doing simple tasks of cutting

newspaper snippets or arranging books. Get them to find grocery items at the
store.
Source: www.123rf.com/photo_1214823_adorable-little-girl-reading-a-big-book.html
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Why do newborn babies cry in different ways?
2. At what age are toddlers able to identify family members and

familiar objects?
1.3 ENVIRONMENT
The role the environment plays in shaping everything a child does and learns is
undisputable. The environment plays a crucial role in influencing language
development as early as infancy. It starts with the use of language at home
through vocabulary, tone, modelled reading, attitudes about reading and a print-
rich environment that leaves language everywhere. In the following section, we
shall explore the factors within the environment that can influence a childs
language development.

1.3.1 Peer Influence in Language Development

Children develop language mostly by listening to speech sounds around them.
Exposing children to as much language as possible in the formative years have
proven to be beneficial. One way to expose them to authentic language is through
interaction with their peers.
Peers act as an important language resource for them especially during the
beginning years such as preschool years. Peers are role models for children.
Children are generally able to capitalise on their peers language skills. Children
are more comfortable to converse with and learn from their peers because unlike
parents, peers are more accommodating.
While being with their peers, especially with those who have better language
skills, children develop both speech and understanding of words faster. A
classroom which has children with better language skills definitely enhances
other childrens language acquisition.
1.3.2 Family Influence in Language Development

The family is viewed as an environment that has a strategic role on childrens
development. The family is the first social group that is at the centre of the childs
identification. Further to that, a family is the first environment to introduce
values in life. Family members are significant people who play a role in
developing childrens personality. The family institution facilitates the basic
needs of a human. In terms of physical, biological, psychological and social
needs, children spend much of their time in the family environment.
The family institution plays a significant role in moulding language. No one can
deny that language is an extremely important tool to interact with the people
around us. Beginning with the language from home, children learn to express
their feelings, their needs and ask questions.
Language in the family is modified to suit the childrens situation. For example,
when we talk to small children, we use a set of different words compared to
when conducting business or a meeting. Even our tone is different. We send a
message with words, gestures or actions, which somebody else receives to
communicate effectively. All these are fundamental building blocks in
developing childrens language.
Through the language spoken by the family, children can connect with others and
make sense of their experiences. A child who does not have a good family

language background will not be exposed to the much needed language input.
The language in the family shapes a childs language development to reflect the
identity, values and experiences of the family and community. Therefore,
creating a warm and comfortable environment in which children can grow to
learn the complexities of language is essential. The communication skills that
children learn early in life will be the foundation for their communication abilities
for the future. Strong language skills gathered from the family are an asset that
will promote a lifetime of effective communication.
1.3.3 Community Influence in Language Development

Apart from their peers and family, another factor contributing to childrens
language development is the community. The community in which children lives
in plays an important role in early language development. Vocabulary acquisition
can be promoted by visiting new places in the community.
A visit to interesting places such as zoos, museums and parks increases and
stimulates new vocabulary and language development. Children enjoy simple
outings such as trips to the local store or to the mall. These visits play an
important role in giving children opportunities to expand their language
experience. By allowing children to get close to language found in the communal
places, parents are actually increasing the positive outcome of language
acquisition among children.
1.3.4 Influence of Culture in Language Development

The development of language is very dependent on culture. Babies who are just a
few days old are able to discern one language from another. Children are pre-
programmed mentally for language development according to stages. This
development is very much inclined towards ones culture. If a culture deems that
children are to be spoken to only at a particular age, then the childs language
skills surely will be delayed and even hampered. On the contrary, if the culture
values speaking to children from the onset of birth, then the child will be able to
communicate with ease within the culture.
Culture is unique because it is very specific and has shared knowledge among its
members. Culture is fascinating to learn because it enables communication
between people of different languages. Apart from being an important tool for
communication, language shapes each culture too. Culture also determines how
one learns. How people learn, how they share knowledge and how they perceive
knowledge may not be the same from one culture to the other.

Our daily routines are also influenced by culture. All our daily endeavours use
language and symbols within certain cultural contexts. Children react to
situations according to the culture they have been brought up in. If they are
brought up in a culture that respects rules, they will then follow rules. On the
contrary, if they are brought up in an environment that does not respect rules,
then they may be rude. The cultural practices surrounding children have great
impact on the learning and language development of children. Thus, a positive
culture with a vibrant communication between its community members naturally
stimulate language growth.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. How could you as a preschool teacher help boost childrens language
acquisition?
2. Discuss the different stages of child language acquisition and suggest

ways how parents could play a role to develop them.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. In your opinion how do peers contribute to a childs language

development?
2. What would be the effect on the language development of a child

belonging to a culture that does not play importance on early
language intervention?
There are several theories of language acquisition: the behaviourist, nativist

and cognitivist.
The behaviourists posit that language is behaviour. Thus, just like any other
behaviour, it is learnt. This learning occurs through "reinforcement of
successive approximations".
On the other hand, the nativist propose that children are born with an innate
capacity for learning human language and are destined to speak. The nativists

believe that children discover the grammar of their language based on their
own inborn grammar.
The cognitivist, language acquisition in children happens through a series of

stages. Children learn a language in the same fashion.
Language development is placed into different stages such as the

sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operation stage and
formal operation stage.
The environmrnt plays a crucial role in influencing language development

from as early as infancy. It starts with the use of language at home through
vocabulary, tone, modelled reading, attitudes about reading and a print-rich
environment that leaves language everywhere. Peers, family, community and
culture play a pivotal role in language development.
Behaviourist Nativist
Cognitivist Peer influence
Community influence Reinforcement
Cultural influence Response
Development stages Stimulus
Family influence

Topic X Foundations
2 of Language
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the many aspects of the language system;
2. Discuss the development of language structure by highlighting how
speech is developed; and
3. Explain the individual differences in speech development and also in
language and thought.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces the foundations of language. It discusses the language
system. You will be introduced to phonetics, syntax, semantics and morphology.
The topic moves on to discussing the development of language structure by
highlighting how speech is developed and what the individual differences are in
speech development. Finally, it concludes with language and thought.
2.1 LANGUAGE SYSTEM

Language system deals with the grammar of the English language, phonetics,
syntax, semantics and morphology. It is not the intention of this topic to discuss
everything that constitutes the English language grammar; rather, it puts forth
the very basics. Knowledge of grammar is an essentiality in literacy development
in any language. Why do you have to learn grammar? Grammar is very
important in the English language because it holds the language together.
Ungrammatical sentences can become meaningless and the intended message
unclear. This makes communication ineffective and confusing in both spoken and
written form.

16 X TOPIC 2 FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE
Grammar is the way in which sentences are structured and the language is
formatted. Although studying grammar can be boring and daunting, it is
however, worthwhile and rewarding as it makes one able to communicate clearly
and effectively in the English language.
In the next subtopics, we will discuss further elements in the English language
system that include sentence structures, parts of speech and also tenses.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Why is learning grammar an important part of literacy development?

Discuss the answer with your tutor and coursemates.
2.1.1 The English Language Sentence Structures

The English language has three sentence structures: the simple sentence, the
complex sentence and the compound sentence.
(a) Simple Sentence

A simple sentence is formed with a subject and a verb. The subject is
explained by adding a few other words. A sentence or a part of a sentence
that expresses a complete thought is called an independent clause. The
following sentence is an example of a simple sentence:
Ali cycles to school.
In the above sentence, the subject is Ali and the verb is cycles. The word
school tells us the place the subject cycles to. This sentence has an
independent clause, thus making it a simple sentence.
(b) Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and a subordinate
clause. Similar to the simple sentence, the independent clause in the simple
sntence can function like a complete sentence. However, the subordinate
clause which also has a subject and verb cannot function as an independent
clause because it does not convey a comple thought. This is an example of a
complex sentence:
The boy went home as he missed his bus.

TOPIC 2 FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE W 17
The boy went home is an independent clause. It conveys a complete

thought. However, as he missed his bus does not convey a complete
thought. Thus, it is a subordinate clause.
(c) Compound Sentence

The characteristic of a compound sentence is that it has two independent
clauses. The independent clauses are connected by a conjunction, comma,
semicolon or colon. The following is an example of a compound sentence:
It has been raining all day, and the flood is becoming worse.
Smoking does not help; it only creates more problems.
Be sincere, work hard, and you will succeed.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Work with a partner and try to come up with simple sentences,

complex sentences and compound sentences.
2. Can you explain what a clause is?
2.1.2 Parts of Speech

Previously, we examined several sentence patterns in the English language. In
this section, let us have a look at the different parts of speech.
Knowing parts of speech is essential in learning any language because this helps
you to analyse sentences and understand them. It also helps you to construct
good sentences. Let us look at Table 2.1 to further understand the eight parts of
speech.

Table 2.1: Parts of Speech
Part of Speech Function or "Job" Example Words Example Sentences

Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, HarryPorterClub.com is a
like, work, sing, web site. I like
can, must HarryPorterClub.com.
Noun thing or person pen, cat, work, This is my cat. It lives in my
music, town, house. We live in Kuala
Kuala Lumpur, Lumpur.
teacher, John
Adjective describes a noun a/an, the, some, My car is big. I like big cars.
good, big, red,
well, interesting
Adverb describes a verb, quickly, silently, My cat eats quickly.When it
adjective or well, badly, very, is very hungry, it eats really
adverb really quickly.
Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, Mei Lam is a Chinese. She is
some beautiful.
Preposition links a noun to to, at, after, on, but We went to school on
another word Monday.
Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I
sentences or like cats and dogs. I like
words dogs but I don't like cats.
Interjection short oh!, ouch!, hi!, Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How
exclamation, well are you?Well, I don't know.
sometimes
inserted into a
sentence
2.1.2 Tense
When speaking in English, we can talk about things that can happen now, in the
future or in the past. The tenses show the time of a verb's action or being. The
verb ending is changed (conjugated) to show roughly what time it is referring to.
Time can be split into three periods:
(a) The Present (what you are doing);

(b) The Past (what you did); and
(c) The Future (what you are going to do).

The tenses we use to show what time we are talking about are split into the
simple, continuous and perfect tenses.
In English, we use two tenses to talk about the present and six tenses to talk about
the past. There are several ways to talk about the future, some of which use
present tenses. Let us look at Table 2.2 to further understand about tenses.
Table 2.2: Tenses in English
Tense Use Example

Simple Present Used to speak about actions 1. Chong lives in Kuala
happening at the moment of Lumpur.
speaking or writing.
2. Muthu cycles to school every
It is also used to express day.
habitual actions and to express
general truths.
Present Used to speak or write about 1. Ahmad is sleeping.

Progressive actions that have started but not
finished yet. 2. I am going for lunch.
This tense may also be used to

speak about future
arrangements.
Simple Past Used to speak about an action 1. My wife and I went for a
that started and finished at a movie yesterday.
specific time in the past.
2. He arrived from Pulau
Pinang yesterday and
checked into the Park Royal
hotel.
Past Progressive Used to talk about an ongoing 1. I was driving when you
action in the past. called me.
2. The phone was ringing when

I came home.
Present Perfect Used to express an action that is 1. The boy has taken his lunch.
Simple completed.
2. My teacher has given our
report card.

Present Perfect Used to emphasise the duration 1. My father has been sleeping
Progressive or continuous course of an all day long.
action.
2. He has not been eating
because he has a diarrhea.
Past Perfect Denotes the idea that 1. I had never read such an
Simple something had taken place interesting book until
before another action in the yesterday.
past.
2. I could not read because I
It also shows an action that had lost my glasses.
happened before a specific time
in the past.
Past Perfect Used to speak or write about a 1. My mother had been

Progressive continuous action that was cooking all day long.
completed at some point of
time in the past. 2. My neighbour had been
repairing his car for a few
It has the had and been days, but finally he gave up.
with the ing participle of the
verb.
Future Tense The future tense is used to 1. They will go to watch the
denote an action that will take movie together.
place in the future.
2. We shall proceed with the
Generally, the future tense is event, by hook or by crook.
formed by using shall or
will in front of the verb.
2.1.3 Aspect
We have discussed earlier that tenses show the time of a verb's action or being.
The verb ending is changed to roughly indicate what time it is referring to either
present, past or future.
On the other hand, aspect refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with
respect to time, rather than to its actual location in time. In other words, aspect in
a verb shows whether the action or state has been completed or not. The four
aspects in the English language are: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect-
progressive.

SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. Discuss the importance of mastering the parts of speech.
2. Tense and aspect are very integral parts of the English language
grammar. Discuss why they are so.
2.1.4 Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of the articulatory and acoustic properties of the sounds of
human language. Thus, the study of phonetics enables the person learning a
language to discern the sound system of the particular language.
In the English language for example, many non-native English speakers find that
the different English vowels sound the same. The sound 'bit' and 'beat, 'bid' and
'bead', and groups like 'bad', 'bud' and 'barred' are very problematic for foreign or
second language learners of English.
The study of phonetics facilitates the ability to understand, hear and reproduce
different vowel qualities. Apart from pronunciation of the speech sounds
themselves, another important aspect of phonetics that is often neglected in
foreign language learning and teaching is intonation. Both learners and teachers
often forget that intonation carries meaning, and expresses speakers emotions
and attitudes.
When learning a foreign language, students tend to transfer the intonation habits
from their native language into the second language; forgetting that when used
inappropriately, intonation can lead to misunderstanding and even complete
communication breakdown between speakers coming from two different
linguistic backgrounds. This is when phonetics comes in handy. Phonetics also
describes intonation and helps students to recognise, understand and practice
intonation patterns.
2.1.5 Syntax
Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences. Syntacticians describe how
words combine into phrases and clauses and how these combine to form
sentences. For example, "I found a coin yesterday" is embedded as a relative
clause in "The coin which I found yesterday is quite valuable." Syntacticians
describe the rules for converting the first sentence into the second.

In linguistics, we can describe the syntax of a sentence in several ways:
(a) Using the Correct Sequence of the Parts of Speech

For example:
John kicked the ball.
Subject John (followed by a verb kicked).
Object the ball (article the followed by a noun ball).
(b) Using Transformational Rules

For example:
John kicked the ball.
Sentence Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase
Verb Phrase Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase
Noun Phrase Article + Noun
Means is transformed into
Verb Phrase = kicked the ball
Noun Phrase = John, the ball
(c) Using Parsing Diagrams

In parsing diagrams, a sentence is depicted graphically to emphasise the
hierarchical relationships between the constituents of a sentence.
For example:
In this sentence, The is the article, boy is the noun, went is the verb
and home is the noun.
The examples above illustrate the basic syntactic structure of English sentences.
By using this method, we can easily observe how different structures relate to
each other. Rules governing the structure of phrases and how phrases can be
joined are called the syntax of the language. However, the syntax of a language

varies in different languages. The syntax of English may not be similar to the
syntax of Bahasa Melayu.
Using the method of parsing, we can study the grammar of any language. Even
computer language can be parsed.
2.1.6 Semantics
The study of meaning in a language is known as semantics. The study of
semantics aims at giving people an understanding of how language is matched
with its intended meaning according to situations. The example below illustrates
a sentence that can semantically mean different things according to different
situations.
We saw the Eiffel tower flying from London to Paris.
This sentence could mean two things. One, that you saw the Eiffel tower flying
from London to Paris and the other, you saw the Eiffel tower while you were
flying in an aeroplane from London to Paris. It really depends on the situation
you are in.
The ambiguities in the sentence above arose because in linguistics, lexical or

semantic ambiguities arise out of the fact that a word may have more than one
meaning. In most cases, the intended meaning is made clear by the context.
Therefore, the study of semantics may not be separated from literacy
development.
2.1.7 Morphology
Now, let us examine what is meant by morphology in English. The morphology
of the English language is a part of English grammar which studies the structure
of the English word, its components and functions and also how the word is
formed.
(a) Root Words

The root is the main part of the English word. It does not have any prefixes,
suffixes, etc., for examples: kind, mix, fix.
(b) Affixes (Prefix and Suffix)

Affixes are added to the root and it changes the meaning. Affixes are
prefixes that are placed in front of the root and suffixes that are placed at
the end of the word.

Look at the following examples:
Root Word Prefix Suffix

tidy un + tidy = untidy
kind kind + ness = kindness
(c) Morpheme
A morpheme is a meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word, such as
man or word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be divided into
smaller meaningful parts.
(d) Phoneme
The phoneme is the smallest unit of the language sound system. Examples
of phonemes are: /b/, /j/, /o/.
2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURE

Human speech and language development take place most intensively during the
first three years of a childs life. This is the time when the brain develops and
matures. Language and speech develop at their best during this stage as children
absorb the rich sounds from the consistent exposure to speech and language from
around them. Like sponge absorbing water, children absorb everything.
In this subtopic, we will discuss the development of speech in children, their

individual differences in language development and also their language and
thought.
2.2.1 Development of Speech

There is much evidence to show that there are critical periods for speech and
language development in infants and young children. This puts forth the notion
that the developing brain is best able to absorb any language during this critical
period. Learning a language will be an arduous task, and perhaps less efficient or
effective if these critical periods are allowed to pass without early exposure to a
language.
The way a child starts to communicate is fascinating. From the onset of birth,
children learn that they will be given food, comfort and companionship when
they cry. Apart from that, they also recognise sounds within their environment.
They grow to distinguish the speech sounds they hear. They are able to make out

words in their language. Infants are able to recognise basic sounds of their
mother tongue by the age of six months.
Infants are able to produce sounds as their speech organs mature. This sound
production begins with cooing a sweetly pitched sound made by infants. The
next step is when the infant starts to babble. Babbling is where infants make
repetitive sounds such as ba, ba, ma, ma and da, da. These babbles usually
become nonsense speech. It has tones of human speech but very often does not
have any real words. Nearing the end of the first year, the baby is often able to
utter a few simple words. These words are not understood by them but as soon as
the infant realises that people respond to those words, he or she capitalises on the
words by repeating them to get attention.
Development of speech continues. By 18 months, most children grasp about 10

words. By the age of two, they develop telegraphic speech where two to three
word sentences are uttered. Daddy go bye-bye is an example of telegraphic
speech. The development of speech in children continues steadily at the ages of
three, four and five. Their vocabulary increases as they grow and they begin to
master the grammar of the language.
2.2.2 Individual Differences

The development of language may not be the same for everyone. Each child is an
individual. Some children meet their developmental milestones earlier than
others. It is common to hear people say She spoke her first word when she was
just seven months. Her brother has not uttered a word and he is two years old.
Child language development is a very individual thing. Each child develops at
his or her own pace.
Nevertheless, there are certain periods of time where children usually learn to
speak. Just like most children learn to walk between the ages of nine to 15
months, there is no need to worry if a 13-month-old child does not already walk.
The child may soon walk as he or she may not be ready yet at 13 months.
However, if the child surpasses the normal range of time to start walking i.e. 15
months, then there is reason for you to be concerned. The child should be taken to
a doctor for further assessment. Similarly, if a child does not show any signs of
language development according to the stages of speech development as
suggested in Topic One, it is warranted to get the child assessed by clinical
specialists who are specifically trained in various areas of development. These
include speech pathologists, occupational and physical therapists, developmental
psychologists and audiologists.

2.2.3 Language and Thought

Language development can be measured both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Vocabulary development in preschool children is very much linked to the
treatment and experience they get from teachers, parents and the environment.
Children from a language background which is deficient whereby language
exposure is restricted, often face the problem of language development. Children
from poor neighborhoods are said to face this problem. On the contrary, children
from homes that place great importance on language; supportive of the language
needs of children, have more superior language development.
Language is a tool to gain more understanding. A child having no language or

whose language development is slow will face a hurdle to develop his or her
thoughts. Thus, as an adult, parent, teacher or caregiver, you have a pivotal role
to help children develop language and thinking. By interacting with adults,
children will use language and understand its role. Conversations with adults
increase ability of thinking and understanding among children. With support of
adults, children will be motivated to acquire and develop communication skills
that will automatically result in the development of language.
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Phonetics is the study of the articulatory and acoustic properties of

the sounds of human language. It enables the person learning a
language to discern the sound system of the particular language.
How does the study of phonetics help minimise ambiguities in
meaning?
2. As a teacher, how could you reduce the anxiety of a parent who is

overly concerned about a childs delayed speech development?
3. Why do children from poor socio-economic backgrounds lack in

language development and thought?

Language system deals with the grammar of the English language, phonetics,
syntax, semantics and morphology.
The English language has three sentence structures: the simple sentence, the
complex sentence and the compound sentence.
Knowing parts of speech is essential in learning any language because this

helps you to analyse sentences and understand them. It also helps you to
construct good sentences.
In English, time can be split into three periods The Present (what you are
doing), The Past (what you did) and The Future (what you are going to do).
Aspect refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with respect to time,

rather than to its actual location in time. Aspect in a verb shows whether the
action or state has been completed or not. The four aspects in the English
language are: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.
Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences. Syntacticians describe how

words combine into phrases and clauses and how these combine to form
sentences.
The study of meaning in a language is known as semantics. Semantics study

aims at giving people an understanding of how language is matched with its
intended meaning according to situations.
The morphology of the English language is a part of English grammar which

studies the structure of the English word, its components and functions and
how the word is formed.
Language and speech develops at its best during the first three years of age.
At this stage, children absorb the rich sounds from the consistent exposure to
speech and language from around them.
The vocabulary development of preschool children is very much linked to the

treatment and experience they get from teachers, parents and environment.

Aspect Parts of Speech

Comples Sentence Phonetics
Compound Sentence Semantics
Grammar Simple Sentence
Language System Syntax
Morphology Tense

Topic X Definition of
3 Literacy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define four types of literacy; and
2. Discuss the four types of literacy.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, literacy is discussed in detail. This topic gives the different views of
literacy. Personal literacy, functional literacy, school literacy and biliteracy are
discussed in detail.
3.1 DEFINITION OF LITERACY
ACTIVITY 3.1
Before we go on to discuss about literacy in this topic, discuss what you

understand by literacy with your coursemates. Present the findings at
the tutorial.
Literacy is defined as the ability to read and use printed materials at an extremely
basic level. It is also the ability to use printed and written information to function
in society, to achieve one's goals and to develop one's knowledge and potential.
You must be able to discern personal literacy, functional literacy, school literacy
and biliteracy. You must also be able to identify how literacy is important in
language development.
In this subtopic, we will look into each type of literacy in detail.

30 X TOPIC 3 DEFINITION OF LITERACY
3.1.1 Personal Literacy

Personal literacy is an individuals ability to read and write. Childrens ability to
read and write may differ from one to another. Some are able to read and write at
an average age while others start later. The development of a childs personal
literacy depends, among others, on several factors such as how early he or she
was exposed to reading and writing. Some children are exposed very early to
reading by their parents through bedtime stories. Parents read to them books
containing large prints and colourful pictures. The reading experience moves to
longer stories and fables. Usually children are read to as they are going to bed.
Some homes have newspapers, magazines, encyclopaedias and many other
reading materials. On the contrary, some homes do not have such a culture.
Naturally, the tendency is greater for children from homes with a reading culture
to develop literacy skills quicker. Additionally, if a child is taken to the library
from a young age to get acquinted with books and get involved with various
literacy activities such as story telling, vocabulary and colouring activities, his
personal literacy level will be boosted.
A childs personal literacy development also has much to do with the learning
experience he or she goes through. A child having a positive and helpful teacher
will surely get enough scaffolding to become more literate. A teacher, caregiver
or parent who indulges children with pleasurable and exciting activities make
room for positive personal literacy development.
A child having positive and pleasurable reading and writing experiences from a
very young age will grow to be a succesful reader and writer. Thus it is crucial for
parents, caregivers and teachers to set a positive literacy development environment
by encouraging reading and writing using pleasurable, motivating and meaningful
materials and activities.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Discuss some of the ways you can promote a positive personal literacy
culture as a parent.
3.1.2 Functional Literacy

Having discussed personal literacy development in the earlier section, we shall
now look at functional literacy. Functional literacy can be defined in many ways.
One of the definitions is that functional literacy is the basic literacy for everyday

TOPIC 3 DEFINITION OF LITERACY W 31
life. In other words, it is the ability of a person to have a basic level of reading and
writing ability to cope and function, either as an adult or child, depending on the
situation.
A person who has functional literacy is said to be able to engage in all the
activities needing literacy for him or her to function well in the community. The
person is also able to read and write and comprehend all necessary materials in
the community. This ability will ensure he is involved in the communitys
development.
As an example, a person who is not functionally literate will not be able to

comprehend reading materials about healthcare issues in a community. The
inability to comprehend such issues and others will lead to a community that is
not able to care for its health and environment. Thus, the impact of not having
functional literacy is far fledged.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
We have discussed the importance of functional literacy in terms of

healthcare issues in society. In what other ways do you think functional
literacy is important in the community?
3.1.3 School Literacy

A literate child is said to be able to communicate by reading, writing, speaking
and also listening. These four skills are very interrelated. The development of one
skill will have an impact on the other.
School literacy development plays an important role on an individuals personal

and functional literacy levels as discussed earlier. Schools must incorporate early
reading strategies as an essential part of school literacy development. Early
reading or beginning reading is comprised of skills and strategies that lay a
foundation for deeper understanding and analysis. Some of these are: awareness
of letters and sounds (phonics), strategies for figuring out words, fluency,
accuracy and comprehension.
Schools should come up with literacy intervention programmes for children who
lack literacy skills. Among the programmes that could be held are special classes
during school hours, personal mentoring, after school sessions as well as

Saturday Classes. These classes will be a rewarding attempt as leaving children to

slack in their literacy development will be an expensive pittfall.
As teachers, we must take pains to develop school literacy. Developing literacy

should not be seen as a task only for the language or reading teacher but for all
teachers. School literacy is the bridge to a childs personal literacy development.
It is increasingly important especially in this information age. Not paying
attention to school literacy development will creates adolescent illiteracy.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. Why do you think school literacy is important for children?
2. Discuss ways the school can help children improve their school
literacy.
3.1.4 Biliteracy
One is said to be bilingual when he or she speaks two languages. A person who
speaks more than two languages is called 'multilingual' (although the term
'bilingualism' can be used for both situations). Multilingualism is not unusual; in
fact, it is the norm for most of the world's societies. It is possible for a person to
know and use three, four, or even more languages fluently.
You may become bilingual either by acquiring two languages at the same time in
childhood or by learning a second language sometime after acquiring your first
language. In our country, it is quite common for a child to acquire two languages
at the same time during childhood.
People who are bilingual are those who can speak two languages. The languages
they speak are usually their mother tongue, which is spoken at home, and
another language. To put it in the Malaysian context, most Malay children speak
Malay at home and English at school because English is the second language in
the country. For those who are Indians and Chinese, they are not only bilingual,
but multilingual as they speak either Tamil or Mandarin as their mother tongue,
Malay as the language of instruction in school, and English as the official second
language of the country.
There are children who are bilingual at home because their parents are of
different race. The father might be a Malay and the mother an Indian. If the father
speaks Malay to the child and the mother speaks Tamil, naturally the child will

TOPIC 3 DEFINITION OF LITERACY W 33
be bilingual. This would be the same for a child who goes to a caregiver of a
different race. Sure enough, the child would be bilingual as he or she would pick
up the caregivers language too.
Children who speak two languages or are bilingual since a young age grow up to
be native speakers of the language rather than speak it as a second language.
However, children who speak a second language after attaining the age of
puberty are rarely able to communicate as native speakers. This is because
language is acquired with more ease before puberty compared to learning it
during adulthood.
Malaysia is an example of a country where its people are not only bilingual but
many are multilingual. This is due to the nations racial diversity. Thus, in a
bilingual society like Malaysia, biliteracy is a common phenomenon. So, what
could you as teachers do to make use of this racial diversity in schools? The
following may give you some ideas on what could be done to promote or
enhance biliteracy:
(a) Promote appropriate activities that can enhance biliteracy by being aware of
the differences in the system of each language. Biliteracy teachers should
select appropriate methods of instruction to enhance second-language
acquisition, literacy development and content-area knowledge.
(b) Structure step-by-step lessons to include presentations of concepts and

vocabulary and ample opportunities for guided and independent practice.
(c) Plan for high levels of student involvement focused on both process and
product of learning.
(d) Provide ample guided and shared reading and writing activities for
students to formulate their thoughts and ideas into stories and narratives.
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. As a teacher, what are the challenges you face teaching a bilingual

class? Share them with your coursemates.
2. What could you do to improve your teaching strategies to a class of

bilingual students? Discuss with your tutor and your coursemates.

Literacy is defined as the ability to read and use printed materials at an

extremely basic level.
Personal literacy is the ability of an individual to read and write.
Functional literacy is the basic literacy for everyday life. In other words, it is
the ability of a person to have a basic level of reading and writing ability to
cope and function either as an adult or child depending on the situation.
School literacy is the ability to be able to communicate by reading, writing,

speaking and also listening.
One is said to be bilingual when he or she speaks two languages.
Biliteracy Personal literacy

Functional literacy School literacy

Topic X Language
4 Curriculum
and Literacy
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain language and pre-school curriculum in Malaysia;
2. Identify language component in the curriculum;
3. Identify learning objectives and outcomes in a lesson;
4. Plan language activities;
5. Describe approaches to reading instructions; and
6. Identify ways to develop writing in children.
X INTRODUCTION
Discussion in this topic continues on language curriculum and literacy
development. In relation to that, issues discussed are language component,
learning outcomes and objectives and also language activities. As for literacy
development, approaches to reading instructions and development of writing are
dealt with.

36 X TOPIC 4 LANGUAGE CURRICULUM AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY 4.1
Discuss the importance of literacy development in children during your

tutorial.
4.1 LANGUAGE AND PRESCHOOL

CURRICULUM
Children begin to build the foundations for English fluency through the
development of listening, speaking and early literacy skills. With this in mind,
the Malaysian Preschool English Language curriculum aims at enabling children
to actively communicate with others in their immediate environment as well as
develop an enjoyment of the language through the use of stories, rhymes, poems,
songs and games. Through language play, they will also imagine and recreate
experiences.
In the next subtopics, we will discuss further on the elements of the curriculum
such as the language component, the learning outcomes and objectives and also
the activities.
4.1.1 Language Component

The Malaysian Preschool Curriculum exposes children to reading, writing,
listening and speaking skills by developing language through the use of context
including objects from the real world, pictures, puppets and other props so that
language experiences will be meaningful.
Apart from the skills above, vocabulary development is facilitated through

exposure to and use of language related to familiar experiences and things in the
environment as well as simple selections from childrens literature. English is also
taught through meaningful interactions with others. Listening and speaking will
include verbal and non-verbal communication including the use of body
language, facial expression and eye contact.
The emergent literacy is facilitated by language activities using a variety of

materials. Children will be exposed to written language through materials such
as word cards, books including big books, charts, labels, signs and posters.

TOPIC 4 LANGUAGE CURRICULUM AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT W 37
4.1.2 Learning Objectives and Outcomes

The objectives of the Malaysian Preschool Curriculum are to enable children to:
(a) Listen actively with understanding;

(b) Express themselves orally in simple English;
(c) Read common words and simple sentences independently; and
(d) Write words and simple sentences.
Table 4.1 shows the content and learning outcomes in the curriculum.
Table 4.1: Content and Learning Outcomes of Malaysian Preschool Curriculum
No. Content Learning Outcomes

1 Listening Skills
1.1 Listen to and recognise similarities 1.1.16 Identify words with the same
in the sounds of language beginning sounds
1.1.17 Identify words with the same
ending sounds
1.2 Listen to and recognise differences 1.2.1 Discriminate words with different
in the sounds of language beginning sounds
1.2.2 Discriminate words with different
ending sounds
1.3 Listen to and understand meanings 1.3.1 Listen to words said aloud and
of simple words identify objects named in the
environment
1.3.2 Listen to words said aloud and
match them with pictures
1.4 Listen to and follow simple 1.4.1 Listen and carry out simple
instructions instructions
1.4.2 Listen and perform actions based
on instructions in games
1.5 Listen and respond to simple songs, 1.5.1 Listen to songs and rhymes and
poems, stories and dialogues respond to the rhythm
1.5.2 Listen to songs, rhymes and
stories and perform actions
according to their meaning

2 Speaking Skills
2.1 Communicate with peers, teachers 2.1.10 Use body language such as
and other adults socially gestures, eye contact and facial
expression with appropriate
language responses
2.1.11 Carry out simple functions of
language orally e.g. to greet, to
thank, to ask
2.1.12 To carry out simple conversations
2.2 Use simple words 2.2.13 Name parts of the body
2.2.14 Name members of the family
2.2.15 Name things in the environment
2.2.16 Name things in familiar stories,
poems and songs
2.3 Use simple statements 2.3.7 Talk about familiar experiences,
favourite things and activities
2.3.8 Talk about the weather
2.3.9 Say out repeated sentences in
stories
2.4 Ask simple questions 2.4.4 Ask others about favourite things
and activities
2.4.5 Ask questions based on
observations
2.4.6 Ask questions based on stories
they hear
2.5 Sing songs and recite rhymes and 2.5.1 Sing songs and perform
poems appropriate actions
2.5.2 Recite simple rhymes and poems
2.6 Tell simple stories 2.6.1 Tell stories about familiar things
2.6.2 Retell stories using visual props
2.7 Dramatise familiar situations and 2.7.1 Role play familiar daily situations
stories
2.7.2 Dramatise familiar stories

3 Reading Skills
3.1 Recognise letters of the alphabet 3.1.7 Link sounds to letters
3.1.8 Name and sound the letters of the
alphabet
3.2 Hear and say initial and final 3.2.10 Recognise and say the initial
sounds, and short vowel sounds sound in words and know which
within words letters represent some of the
sounds
3.2.11 Hear and say vowel sounds
3.3 Read simple words 3.3.1 Recognise and sound simple
words
3.3.2 Point to letters, words, labels and
read or name them
3.3.3 Recognise some familiar words
3.4 Read simple sentences 3.4.1 Show interest in illustrations and
print in books and the
environment
3.4.2 Read a range of simple sentences
independently
3.5 Knowledge of print and ethics in 3.5.1 Read print moving from left to
reading right and top to bottom
3.5.2 Identify the features of a book
3.5.3 Handle books carefully
3.6 Develop interest in reading 3.6.1 Talk about books being read
3.6.2 Read different texts
4 Writing Skills
4.1 Pre-writing skills 4.1.1 Engage in activities requiring
hand-eye coordination
4.1.2 Draw lines and circles using gross
motor and fine motor movements
4.1.3 Draw anticlockwise and up-and-
down letter movements
4.2 Writing skills 4.2.1 Form recognisable letters
4.2.2 Write simple words
4.2.3 Write simple sentences
Source: Malaysian Education Ministry (2001)

SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. List down the objectives of the Malaysian Preschool Curriculum.
2. What are the three skills covered in the preschool curriculum?
4.1.3 Language Activities

A developing preschool child needs to be fed with fun language activities.
Language activities stimulate literacy development. One of the ways to stimulate
language development is through language games. Language games can be very
useful to introduce children to rhymes, alliterations, parts of a sentence and
vocabulary. Language games can be a fun way to prepare a preschooler for
kindergarten. It can equip the preschooler with the necessary tools to become
more confident in language skils.
Among the language games or language activities that could be promoted for
preschool literacy development are as follows:
(a) Picture Sentence

Picture sentence is used to talk about the basic structure of a sentence of
who is doing what. It is an excellent way to help children put words
together to create simple sentences as most preschoolers are not able to read
yet. You can draw pictures of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs on cards
and use them to construct sentences that can be stimulating and fun for
children.
Figure 4.1 shows you examples of picture sentence that can be used.

Figure 4.1: Examples of picture sentence

Source: www.spectronicsinoz.com/product/picture-sentence-key
(b) Reading Detectives

Children could be indulged in reading in a fun way. Make them listen to
interesting short stories. After listening, they can be asked to be a
detective whereby they are asked about what the main character in the
story did and how the problem was solved. This activity helps young
children listen attentively.
Figure 4.2 shows the example of reading detectives that can be used.
Figure 4.2: Examples of reading detective

Source: www.criticalthinking.com/series/015/index_p.jsp

(c) Rhyme Time

Rhymes are great for young children to learn to recognise speech patterns.
Rhymes can help preschoolers recognise speech patterns. Teach rhyming
words with a set of flash cards either from a store or make your own with
rhyming pairs. Children will enjoy pairing rhyming words.
Figure 4.3 shows examples of rhyming words.
Figure 4.3: Examples of rhyme cards
4.2 LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Children literacy can be developed using various approaches. These approaches
may be different depending on the aspect or stage of literacy that we want the
children to master. For example, the approach we use to develop reading skills
may vary from the first time we want them to recognise the alphabets to
recognise the words and finally to be able to read.
Thus, in this subtopic, we are going to further discuss the approaches to reading,
word recognition, word attack skills and strategies and also phonics approach.

4.2.1 Approaches to Reading Instructions

Developing reading skills should be done gradually as it cannot be developed all
at once. A teacher has to give special focus on different things at different times.
In developing reading, four stages are involved:
(a) reading readiness;

(b) early reading; (a)-(c) is known as stages of learning to read
(c) developmental reading; and

(d) mature reading. known as stage of reading to learn
Reading readiness is mainly of concern to the preschool teacher. A child who

learns to read has to develop his or her knowledge of the English language in
order to understand what he or she reads. The child must be motivated to read in
English and be able to discriminate the letters of the alphabet. The beginner
reader also has to understand that just like talk, print too has meaning.
Early reading involves motivation. It would be impossible to teach a child who is

not interested to read. A pre-school teacher has to create interest and a positive
attitude towards reading among children. Teachers have to plan interesting
activities to promote reading. Many interesting books with pictures have to be
provided to motivate children to read.
In teaching reading, we have to teach children print conventions of English. In

print convention, children should be taught the following:
(a) Which is the front of a book;

(b) Which is the right way up for a book;
(c) What tells the story: the print or the pictures in the book;
(d) What is the difference between words and pictures;
(e) Where to start reading: whether to start from right to left, left to right or top
to bottom;
(f) Why there are spaces between words; and
(g) When to stop, pause and exclaim.

4.2.2 Word Recognition Skills

To teach word recognition skills, a teacher has to use a well loved and familiar
book. Get the child to name each letter of the word in the line. After that, read the
words to the child while pointing to the words. Allow the child to read with you
if he/she wants. In case there are certain words that the child does not remember,
respell the word. Reread the sentence and ask the child to reread too. Using the
same way, you should progress throughout the book. This method not only
contributes to early reading, but is also a contributing factor for children to
progress on their own to read further.
After finishing the book liked by the child, follow through using another book.
You may find any other interesting books. Always look for books that have
adorable pictures and good storylines to motivate reading. This process of
teaching reading through word recognition skills is a natural way of teaching
children to learn reading and it promotes speaking as well. Word recognition
skills integrate previously learnt skills at the application level in a realistic and
familiar context. What happens is that you weave in word recognition skills to
yield a subtle, yet powerful, process in learning to read. When reading is taught
in an isolated manner, it is artificial and isolated. Children find it problematic and
tend to avoid them.
4.2.3 Sight Word Skills

Sight words are words that do not follow the general rules of phonics and
therefore cannot be "sounded out" because of their irregular spelling. They must
be learnt and remembered by sight and so they are referred to as "sight words".
The term "sight word" is also often used interchangeably with the term "high
frequency word". A high frequency word is a word that is found frequently in
most text. High frequency words do not necessarily have an irregular spelling.
For example, the words "the" and "jump" are both high frequency words, though
"the" has an irregular spelling and "jump" can be sounded out phonetically.
High frequency words are also often referred to as "sight words" because learning
to recognise these words by sight improves reading fluency and comprehension
skills. A reader with well developed sight word recognition skills can read text
without having to sound out many of the words, and will become a better reader
and find reading more enjoyable and rewarding.

Table 4.2 shows an array of simple and practical ideas to teach sight words that
can be used to develop early reading skills. You may check out the URL at the
bottom of this table for more ideas.
Table 4.2: Ideas to Teach Sight Words
Teaching Idea Materials Description

The Head Chair Group size cards Mark one chair in the circle as the "Head Chair".
Play begins when you flash a card to the person
in the "Head Chair".
A child can stay in his chair only until he misses

a word. When he misses a word, he goes to the
end chair and all the children will move up one
chair.
The object of the game is to try to end up in the

"Head Chair".
Around the Word cards All the students sit in a circle. (Or they can
World remain at their desks).
One student stands behind a student who is

sitting. The teacher flashes them a sight word.
Whoever says it first moves on to the next

student. The student that makes it back to his
own desk or starting point is the winner.
This is a pretty popular game, and the little ones

love to try and stop someone from making it
"Around the World"!
Erase Relay Words list on the Write two columns of words on the chalkboard
chalkboard that are approximately equal in difficulty. Write
as many words on the board as there are
children in the relay.
Children are divided into two teams, and stand

in two lines at right angles to the chalkboard.
At the signal, the first child in each line points to

the first word in his respective column of words
and pronounces that word. If his pronounces it
correctly, he is allowed to erase that word.
The game is won by the side that erases all the

words first.

Team sight word A group size of The children are divided into two teams. Each
race set of sight team takes a turn attempting to pronounce a
words word turned up from a pile of sight words.
If one team misses, the opposite team then

receives a chance to pronounce that word in
addition to their regular turn.
Score is kept on the number of words each team

pronounces correctly.
Do not have members sit down when they miss

a word, but have each team member go to the
back of the line after each try, whether successful
or not.
This enables all members to gain equal practice

and does not eliminate those people who need
practice the most.
Which word Newspaper, Sit with your child and look at a newspaper to
wins? highlighter, see just how often sight words pop up in print.
word list
Ask your child to choose a sight word from the
list and an article from the newspaper.
Look for the word together. Highlight and count

the word each time it appears.
Try the same thing with a second sight word.

Which word appears more often?
Jump on it Copy sight words on index cards (one word per

card). Make a second set of the same words.
Scatter one set faceup on the floor, leaving about

a foot between each card. Place the other set in a
stack facedown.
Turn over the first card in the stack. Have your

child read the word (offer help as needed) and
then jump on the corresponding card on the
floor.
Turn over the next card and have your child

read it and jump to that word. Continue until
your child has jumped on all of the words.
Mix up the cards and play again!
Adapted from: jmeacham.com/docs/word.work/sight.words/Activities

4.2.4 Word Attack Skills and Strategies

Word attack skills have to be developed in order to help beginner readers. The
skills are the ability to convert graphic representations into intelligible language.
Some examples of word attack skills are as follows:
(a) Seeing the component parts of words;

(b) Blending these parts into new words;
(c) Recognising syllable patterns;
(d) Recognising symbols for consonant sounds;
(e) Recognising symbols for vowel sounds;
(f) Recognising symbols for tone and other suprasegmental features;
(g) Recognising capital letters (upper case) and knowing when to use them;
(h) Recognising punctuation and how it affects reading for meaning and
expression; and
(i) Recognising the use of space to mark word breaks and paragraphs.
Now, how do you think you as a teacher could develop all those skills in
children? May be you could use any of the word attack strategies below:
(a) Picture Clues

By looking at the picture, we can get clues about meaning of words. There
might be familiar objects or actions that may make sense and aid
understanding.
(b) Letter Chunks

There might be letter chunks consisting of sounds/symbols, prefixes,
suffixes, endings, whole words or base words in the sentence that make
sense. Read each chunk before blending them all together to sound out the
word.
(c) Connecting to a Familiar Word

When faced with an unfamiliar word, the teacher can teach children to
associate the unfamiliar word with a word that is familiar. By doing this,
children may understand the meaning of the unfamiliar word to a certain
extent.

(d) Rereading the Sentence

Rereading a sentence several times sometimes aids in understanding.
Children can be told to reread the sentence and try to infer the meaning.
(e) Keep Reading

When faced with an unfamiliar word, children should be taught to go on
reading the next words and not be too disturbed by the unfamiliar ones.
Sometimes, there would be clues in the sentence that can help in aiding the
comprehension of the difficult word.
(f) Using Prior Knowledge

Prior knowledge can assist children in comprehension. Children should be
helped to trigger their prior knowledge. Thinking about the topic and relating
it to their prior knowledge about the topic can facilitate understanding.
(g) Using the Dictionary

Once children have learnt the letters of the alphabet, and mastered enough
words to comprehend, they can be taught to use the dictionary to find
meanings of words.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. What are some of the word attack strategies?
2. Why should we develop word attack skills? Discuss with your

coursemates.
4.2.5 Phonics Approach to Reading

Another method to teach early reading is through the phonics approach. In this
approach, children are taught the sounds of the alphabet. The teacher exposes
children to simple words such as ball, bus, and car at the beginning. The letters in
the words are sounded one by one.
The phonics approach exposes children to a multitude amount of vocabulary

from an early age. Exposing children to reading through this approach enables
children to read widely both at school and outside. Being able to read widely is
most rewarding for children.

The phonics approach come with two general methods:
(a) The Synthetic Method

The synthetic method teaches children the sounds of letters in isolation.
Children are taught that each letter has an individual sound. For example,
the letter b sounds buh. Children are taught to blend the different
sounds that form words.
(b) The Analytic Method

The analytical method teaches children sounds of letters as part of a word.
For example, the sound b in the word bat. Both these methods are
different but they have the same objective; that is to enable children to
become independent readers.
There are disadvantages of the phonics approach though. One of the

disadvantages is that some children have difficulties combining and blending the
sounds to form words. The other disadvantage is that some children tend to focus
too much on the pronounciation and neglect the comprehension of the sentence.
However, children who are beginning to read can reap the benefits of using this
approach as it supports other reading approaches.
4.2.6 The Big Book Approach

The Big Book Approach is a reading approach that can be used with a learner of
any age to engage them in reading comprehension and learning text features. In
this approach, we use a big book to model how to read a book, how to use
picture clues, and it allows the students to follow along while you read. It
consists of three readings: focusing on comprehension, choral reading, and on a
particular text feature. This can be done as a whole class and will work with any
age group, depending on the book that you choose. However, the Big Book
Approach is more engaging for lower level learners.
In using the Big Book Approach, the teacher has to gather all children in the class
and share a copy of the big book (see Figure 4.4). The pages of the book must be
large enough so thet every child can visibly see the pages. In each page, the
number of lines will usually be only between one to three with a large picture.

Figure 4.4: Using Big Book Approach in a classroom

Source: greendaleprimary-english.blogspot.com/2010_02_01_archive.html
Usually, children will sit on a mat with the big book placed on a stand. The
teacher talks about the picture or talks about a story related to the picture. Then,
the teacher or a pupil who is able to read will read the story by pointing to each
word. The teacher needs to slow down the reading and explain the pictures or
use gestures and mimes to facilitate better understanding if necessary.
At the second reading, the teacher reads but the task of pointing to the words is
done by pupils in turn. Pupils who are able to read are asked to volunteer first to
avoid frustration among those who cannot read. The reading may be carried on
as a group or in pairs.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. Explain the term The Big Book Approach.
2. What are the disadvantages of the phonic approach?
4.2.7 Development of Writing

Writing development in children begins by scribbling on paper. This usually
begins once children are able to hold a writing tool such as a pencil or pen.
Children who are not supervised will most often scribble on any available
surface. Children slowly develop their scribbles into handwriting.

The developmental stage of a childs writing is as shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Development Stage of Childrens Writing
Performance Task Age Level

Scribbles on paper 10-12 months
Initiates horizontal, vertical and circular marks on paper two years
Copies a horizontal line, vertical line and circle three years
Copies a cross, right oblique line, square left diagonal line, left
oblique cross, some letters and numbers and maybe able to write four - five years
own name
Copies a triangle, prints own name, copies most upper and lower
five - six years
case letters
A childs handwriting readiness depends very much on a number of sensorimotor

systems. Letter formation requires the integration of the visual, motor, sensory and
perceptual systems. Sufficient fine motor coordination is also needed to form letters
accurately.
There are six prerequisites that children must have before handwriting begins:
(a) Small muscle development;

(b) Hand-eye coordination;
(c) Ability to hold utensils or writing tools;
(d) Capacity to smoothly form basic strokes such as lines and circles;
(e) Letter perception, including the ability to recognise forms, notice likeness
and differences, infer the movements necessary for the production of form
and give accurate verbal descriptions of what is seen; and
(f) Orientation to printed language, which involves the visual analysis of
letters and words along with right/left discrimination.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
1. Why is the visual, motor, sensory and perceptual system important

in the development of early writing?
2. Discuss the writing ability of a five to six year old.

Children begin to build the foundations for fluency in English through the
development of listening, speaking and early literacy skills.
The Malaysian Preschool Curriculum exposes children to reading, writing,

listening and speaking skills by developing language through the use of
context including objects from the real world, pictures, puppets and other
props so that language experiences will be meaningful.
The Objectives of the Malaysian Preschool Curriculum are to enable children

to listen actively with understanding, express themselves orally in simple
English, read common words and simple sentences independently, and write
words and simple sentences.
One of the ways to stimulate language development is through language

games. Language games can be very useful to introduce children to rhymes,
aliterations, parts of a sentence and vocabulary. Language games can be a fun
way to prepare a preschooler for kindergarten.
In developing reading, four stages are involved: reading readiness, early

reading, developmental reading and mature reading. The first three stages are
known as stages of learning to read and the last stage is known as the stage of
reading to learn.
Word attack skills are the ability to convert graphic representations into
intelligible language.
The phonics approach is a method where children are thought the sounds of
the alphabet.
The Big Book Approach is a reading approach that can be used with any
grade of learner to engage students in reading comprehension and learning
text features. In this approach, we use a big book to model how to read a
book, how to use picture clues, and it allows the students to follow along
while you read.
Writing development in children begins by scribbling on paper. This usually

begins once children are able to hold a writing tool such as a pencil or pen.
Children who are not supervised will most often scribble on any available
surface. Children slowly develop their scribbles into handwriting.

Big Book Approach Sight word skills

Language activities Word attack skills
Language curriculum Writing readiness
Phonics approach

Topic X Books and
5 Children
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify different book genres for children;
2. Select books for children based on the critera learnt;
3. Evalute book content for children; and
4. Plan reading activities.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will examine the issue of books and children. Different book
genres are explained. Children book genres cover both traditional and modern
genres. Books portraying concepts as well as information will be discussed too.
The topic also deals with how to choose books for children. The different types of
books are presented. A discussion regarding evaluating a books content is also
available. Finally, the topic discusses reading activities for children.
5.1 CHILDREN BOOK GENRE

Childrens literature can be categorised into traditional literature and modern
literature. Let us look at Table 5.1 to study the difference between traditional
literature and modern literature.

TOPIC 5 BOOKS AND CHILDREN W 55
Table 5.1: The Differences between Traditional and Modern Literature
Traditional Literature Modern Literature

Also known as folklore or folk literature. Rooted in traditional literature.
Made up of customs, beliefs, manners and Includes modern fantasy stories by Hans
superstitions of a certain group. Thus, Christian Andersen, science fiction and
children are able to view and understand fractured fairytales. Fractured fairytales
their forefathers culture. are traditional stories retold by authors with
a new twist.
Often passed down orally or in the written Has and identifiable author.
form from one generation to the other.
Sometimes the tales may differ in versions.
Has no actual author. It is retold by different
people and thus variations may appear.
We will discuss several subgenres of traditional literature in the following

subtopic.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Can you differentiate between traditional literature and modern

literature? What are some examples? Discuss with your tutor and
coursemates.
5.1.1 Traditional Literature

There are many types or genres of traditional literature. Let us look at the
following list:
(a) Trickster Tales

This is the first one that you should know and use as a reading teacher.
These are stories where the character, which is usually an animal, gets
others into trouble. A few examples are Peter Rabbit, Roadrunner and The
Big Bad Wolf.
(b) Animal Stories

Animal stories deal with a form of personification known as
anthropomorphism where human characteristics are given to non-humans,
especially animals or mythological gods. Examples of animal stories
containing anthropomorphism are The Lion and the Mouse, Chicken Little
and The Three Bears.

56 X TOPIC 5 BOOKS AND CHILDREN
(c) Pourquoi Tales

In this type of stories, the reason for something happening is explained.
One example of this type of story is Why Mosquitoes Buzz in Peoples Ears.
(d) Cumulative Tales

These are tales that made up of repeated and additional lines such as The
Little Red Hen.
(e) Fairy Tales

They are usually magical in nature, such as Peter Pan.
(f) Tall Tales

These are a type of story where a lot of exaggeration is involved, such as
Paul Banyan.
(g) Numbskull or Droll Tales

These are tales that depict idiots or fools like The Three Stooges.
(h) Folk Tales

They are culturally rooted tales such as The Little Mermaid (belonging to
Scandinavian culture) and Rob Roy (belonging to Scottish Cculture).
You can read up further at:

www.frankserafini.com/Units/TradLitUnit.htm
5.1.2 Why We Use Traditional Literature with

Children?
Several reasons why we use traditional literature with children include:
(a) It is an excellent tool to inculcate interest in reading among young children

as it provides entertainment and contains the rich heritage of a story;
(b) It tells stories of the human experience that could ignite the imagination of
children;
(c) It serves as building blocks for contemporary literature/framework for
literature;
(d) It provides a window on diverse cultures and also promotes the strong oral
tradition of storytelling; and
(e) It provides moral models for children as the struggle between good and
evil is applied to incidents in their own lives.

SELF-CHECK 5.1
Discuss the benefits of using traditional literature to inculcate a reading

interest among young learners.
5.2 CHOOSING CHILDRENS BOOKS

When selecting books for children, you should note several points. Firstly, the
story should be appropriate to the developmental age of the children. The story
itself must be interesting. As far as possible, make sure that the book narrates the
original storyline. If the books have illustrations, ensure that they are of good
quality and provide assistance in interpreting the plot, characters and theme of
the story.
In the following sections, we will discuss a few aspects in selecting childrens

books such as the types of appropriate books, ways to evaluate the contents of a
book and also a few reading activities that could be carried out.
5.2.1 Types of Books

There are several common types of books for children that include:
(a) Picture Books

The stories in a picture book concentrate more on the illustrations than the
text. The text of the story compliments the artwork rather than the pictures
adding to the story.
(b) Rhythmic Books

These books usually rhyme or have a musical component. Popular
examples of these books are Green Eggs and Ham and The Cat in the Hat
by Dr Seuss. This genre also includes nursery rhymes and lullabies.
(c) Folklore
Tales such as these have been passed down through the generations and
oral traditions for centuries. Tomie de Paola, an author-illustrator,
frequently uses folktales to create stories for children. Myths are often
paired with folklore, and these stories specifically attempt to explain
different aspects of life. The goal of these stories is to pass down knowledge
to younger generations.

(d) Fairytales
Princes fighting for princesses dominate this genre. These stories have a
magical component and are a more detailed way of explaining the world.
(e) Fantasy
Fantasy stories are predominantly magical in nature but also comment
greatly through this lens on contemporary life. Often an intense struggle of
good versus evil occurs.
(f) First Books

Nowadays children are introduced to stories even before they are born.
Public libraries run programmes where caregivers bring their infants to the
library and are taught how to read to them. Books made out of board, cloth
and plastic all make up this category and their stories introduce babies to
the basic outline of our world.
(g) Concept Books

Concepts ranging from getting dressed to sharing are covered in these
stories. Books explaining about seasons and weather are also concept
books.
(h) Issue Books

A new trend in childrens books is the introduction of controversial issues
facing society today. Examples of topics include divorce, abuse, sexuality
and war. However, there is a debate surrounding whether or not children
should be exposed to these at a young age.
5.2.2 Evaluating the Contents of a Book

As a reading teacher, it is important for you to have knowledge on how to
evaluate books. Let us look at some of the common guidelines on how to
evaluate the contents of a childrens book:
(a) Ask yourself whether the book has an interesting storyline;

(b) Gauge whether the story is suited for the intended age;
(c) Consider how well the book is written;
(d) Check whether the title and format of the book portrays the story;
(e) Consider whether the theme is relevant to your readers. Also, consider if
the plot is well structured, believable and original;

(f) Consider the characters in the story too. Selecting stories that depict the
characters growth and changes due to their experience in the story is
helpful in building young learners character;
(g) Also consider the language appropriateness, illustrations, suitability in
terms of culture, sexual and racial issues; and
(h) Make sure that the book delivers factually correct information if you are
chosing books for factual purposes.
5.2.3 Reading Activities

To build a strong reading foundation, reading activities play an important role.
These activities can be carried out at different stages of reading before (pre-
reading), while or after (post-reading) children are done with the reading. For
example, in the pre-reading stage, children could be helped to build their
phonics and comprehension awareness through specific reading activities. These
activities may be tailored to suit individuals or groups as well as to suit different
learner styles.
Comprehension ability may be developed by having reading activities and

discussion sessions in the classroom. After completing a reading task, you may
ask students to answer questions related to the reading materials as a post-
reading activity. Sometimes, you may even ask questions as the children are
reading (while-reading activity). Children could be asked to predict the outcome
of the story or predict what will take place next. Retelling the story is another
excellent way to check for comprehension. Getting children to make comparisons
and contrasts of characters in a story is also fruitful to aid comprehension.
Reading activities may be enhanced with the support of graphic organisers. Since
there are different types of learners, the visually-oriented learners enjoy the help
of visual aids.
Reading could be supported through the use of audio-visual aids. Among the
audio-visual aids that can be used are stories which are filmed, listening to a
story from an audio CD or using the computer multimedia facility. Sometimes, it
would be good to get children tell a story or read a full story or parts of a story
and audio tape them. This type of activity builds fluencey in them.
Some reading activities are catered for the whole class while others are for
individual students. For teaching individual students who may need extra help
on certain specific skills, a teacher should work with them individually. For
example, if a child needs extra help on phonics, you can coach him/her
individually while others are reading silently.

There are many other activities that could be carried out to teach reading. Some
of the activities include:
(a) Predicting Outcome

Children may be taught to predict the outcome of a story. After making the
oral prediction, they can be asked to read what really happpened and make
a comparison. This activity is very motivating.
(b) Reading Aloud

Reading aloud to children builds their imagination. Children get new
knowledge. Their language acquisition is widened and vocabulary increases.
This activity creates interest and promotes reading.
(c) Reading Buddies

Creating reading buddies is an excellent way to promote reading. Children
may be paired with older ones who can check on their reading. This
activity can enhance both reading and listening skills.
(d) Reading Carnival

Having a reading carnival at school is surely a good idea to promote
reading. Children can be given a chance to showcase their reading ability
which they have acquired to their parents and teachers.
(e) Reading Workshop

A reading workshop is also worth holding. Through this workshop,
children are able to share books with friends and talk about the books with
their friends in small groups.
ACTIVITY 5.2
As a teacher, what are the considerations you have to make in selecting

books for your pupils?
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What are the factors you have to take into account when evaluating the
contents of a book?

Childrens literature can be categorised into traditional literature and modern

literature.
Traditional literature is also known as folklore or folk literature.
Traditional literature includes the customs, beliefs, manners and superstitions

of a certain group.
Traditional literature is often passed down orally or in the written form from
one generation to another. Through traditional literature, children are able to
view and understand the culture of their fore-fathers.
Traditional literature is an excellent tool to inculcate interest in reading

among young children.
It provides entertainment and contains the rich heritage of a story.
Traditional literature tells stories of the human experience. It ignites the

imagination of children.
Traditional literature serves as building blocks for contemporary literature/

framework for literature.
The difference between modern literature and traditional literature is that the
former has an identifiable author where else the latter has no identifiable
original author.
When selecting books for children, make sure the story is appropriate to the
developmental age of the children. The story itself must be interesting. As far
as possible, make sure that the book narrates the original story line. If the
books have illustrations, ensure that they are of good quality and provide
assistance in interpretting the plot, characters and theme of the story.
Reading activities play an important role in building a strong foundation in

reading.

Fables Post-reading activities

Fairytales Pre-reading activities
Fantasy Traditional literature
Folklore While-reading activities
Modern literature

Topic X Story Telling
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify factors affecting story selection for children;
2. Identify different story types;
3. Teach children to build their own stories;
4. Teach story delivering techniques; and
5. Plan for a storytelling activity.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic highlights the art of storytelling for children. It deals with how to select
a story for children depending on their age. Different story types are also
presented. The need to take into consideration childrens language ability is also
pointed out. This topic moves on to explain how to teach children to build their
own stories by talking about their experiences. A discussion about coming up
with childhood stories and creating childrens own fairy tales are also examined.
on top of that, you are also introduced to the techniques of delivering a story and
planning for a storytelling activity.
6.1 SELECTING A STORY: FACTORS TO

CONSIDER
Storytelling is an old art. People told stories to get rid of boredom when in the
company of others. By telling stories, we can share knowledge and experiences.
With that being a great advantage, storytelling is an important element in
childrens literacy development.

64 X TOPIC 6 STORY TELLING
Storytelling has great value in terms of fostering a relaxed and intimate atmosphere
in the classroom. Among the benefits of storytelling in the classroom are as follows:
(a) Introduce children to a range of story experiences;
(b) Provide young students with models of story patterns, themes, characters,
and incidents to help them in their own writing, oral language, and
thinking;
(c) Nurture and encourage a sense of humour in children;
(d) Help put children's own words in perspective;
(e) Increase knowledge and understanding of other places, races and beliefs;
(f) Introduce new ideas and be used to question established concepts without
threat to the individual;
(g) Lead to discussions that are far ranging and often more satisfying than
those arising from formal lessons; and
(h) Serve as the most painless way of teaching children to listen, to concentrate,
and to follow the thread and logic of an argument.
Before selecting a story, a teacher has to bear in mind several things. There are
several important aspects to consider, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Considerations before selecting a story for children
Stories should be selected appropriate to the occasion. This will create interest to
listen. The second factor to consider is interest. A good storyteller can gauge what
would interest children. Thus, as a teacher, we must always try to keep abreast
with what children might be interested in at a particular moment. Additionally, a

TOPIC 6 STORY TELLING W 65
classroom teacher who wishes to use storytelling should choose a simple story to
start with. The number of characters in the story should be limited and the plot
should be simple so as not to complicate young children. Elements of action
should be present and the plot should be comprehensible to the listeners. The
events in the story should unfold to a definite climax and lead to a conclusion.
The story should not be left hanging. Fairy tales and folklore are very suitable for
beginning storytelling. Always keep in mind the age of the children. Stories that
are too long and are written in complicated language and plot are not suitable for
young children. On top of that, enjoyment must be the most important
consideration in storytelling.
A storyteller need not be a performer but should have a good memory and be
able to listen well. A good storyteller has to sincerely like the story chosen and be
able to recreate the story without panicking. Too much acting is not good as well
because the story may be compromised.
Children should be allowed to explore language through storytelling. Through

storytelling, children are able to construct meaning. Getting children to retell
stories may bring a new flavour to the story and add to language experience
among children.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Discuss some of the benefits of storytelling in the classroom.
2. What are the factors that should be considered before selecting a

story?
6.2 BUILDING THEIR OWN STORIES

As a teacher, we should know that children are able to build their own stories. In
a preschool setting, this must be encouraged as stories promote language
development. Although the stories told by children are not crafted as well as a
proffesional storytellers, the stories often allow their voices to be heard. Children
try to make sense of their world through the stories they create.
In the next section, we will discuss how children build their stories by talking
about their experiences and childhood stories.

6.2.1 Talking about Experience

One of the ways to get children to talk is by getting them to talk about their
experiences. Children love to talk about their experiences what they did, what
they saw and what they heard. Parents and teachers should invite children to tell
stories in an authentic way. For example, upon returning home from work, a
parent could ask, What have you been doing all day today? By doing this, the
child is being invited to tell a story. In most cases, children enjoy telling their
parents what they have been doing all day long.
Similarly, children who have been encouraged to tell stories at home will
continue to do so at school. It is upon the teacher to continue fostering this
activity. A child might go to class and announce Did you know what?, You
know, yesterday my cat , Did you watch Star Wars?, Sorry Im late but do
you know what happened ?. As a preschool teacher, you can promote
language development by getting young children to talk about their experiences.
6.2.2 Stories of Chilhood: Making Your Own Fairy

Tales
Young children enjoy living in fantasy. They especially love make believe stories.
Teachers can harness childrens creativity by tapping into their interest in make
believe by getting children to create their own fairy tales.
To encourage children to come up with their own fairy tales based on their
creativity, the first step is for the teacher to come up with a basic storyline. A
simple storyline could be like the following:
There was a king who got robbed at his castle. A knight investigates and they
find the culprit. The culprit turns out to be the princess. The princess actually
wanted to buy food for for a poor family. The princess stole from the king
because she thought her parents would disaprove of her helping the poor
family...
The simple storyline above can be the main plot outline to guide the rest of the
story.
The next step is the teacher has to teach children to name the characters in the
story. The names can be anything that the children like. Then, children could be
asked to begin their story with a common fairy tale line such as Once upon a
time,...... The ending of the story should resolve all the problems and leave all

the characters feel happy and at peace. A moral lesson could also be included in
the story.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What are the two ways we could get children to tell stories?
2. What should you do to encorage children to come up with their

own fairy tale?
6.3 TELLING THEIR OWN STORIES

Storytelling is an enjoyable activity well liked by children. It develops imagination
and the ability to describe. A good storyteller can hold the attention of the
audience. Storytelling makes the person who tells the story and the listeners laugh.
Young children can be taught the proper techniques of storytelling. By doing this,
they can develop their skills and become good storytellers.
In this subtopic, we are going to discuss how to teach children the techniques to
deliver a story and also how to plan a storytelling activity. Let us read further.
6.3.1 Delivery Techniques

Children should be taught the skills of delivering a story. These skills cant be
learnt overnight; rather, they have to be polished over time. Some of the skills
have to be mastered by the teacher himself/herself in order to train the children.
The following are good storytelling skills:
(a) Before beginning a storytelling session, get the child to either sit on a
comfortable chair or stand in front of the audience. Teach the child to look
at the audience with cheerful eyes and give a welcoming smile;
(b) Children have to be taught to create the atmosphere by setting the scene
vividly. Stories should begin by mentioning the time, place and weather of
the story. In other words, the setting must be made clear first;
(c) Facial expressions must be used to show the emotions of the characters. The
nature of the characters, whether thay are sad, angry, happy or shy can be
portrayed through facial expressions;

(d) Teach children to project their voice according to the situation of the story.
Sometimes they might need to speak slowly and sometimes louder. The
speed, volume and pace must be adjusted accordingly. Also try to
accomodate people who are hard of hearing. The voice should be
modulated and have melody according to the character depicted;
(e) Use body language to the maximum. Miming and making gestures can
paint a thousand words and make the story colourful;
(f) The art of role-play is essential in storytelling. Children should be taught

this art. This will make the storytelling more interesting as good role play
helps the audience to have sympathy for the characters and their situations;
(g) Incorporate sounds of animal, rain, wind and other sounds that may help
make the situation more real;
(h) Teach children to be silent between certain words to create a dramatic effect;
and
(i) Look into the eyes of the audience. Create surprises occasionally by making
loud noises but be careful not to frighten the audience.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Why is it necessary to teach children good story delivering

techniques?
2. Why is it important for you as a teacher to be a good storyteller

yourself?
6.3.2 Planning a Storytelling Activity

In this section, we will briefly examine how to organise a storytelling activity.
Organising a storytelling activity can be as simple as having a barbeque session at

the backyard of your house. Or, it can be as arduous as holding a public event for
your community. It really depends on the scale you are planning to hold the
event. Whatever the scale is, you will need to put in some planning time to
ensure a successful storytelling activity.
The first thing that must come to mind is the setting of the storytelling activity.
Where is the place? This can make a lot of difference to the listeners.

Some of the considerations for holding a storytelling activity are as follows:
(a) Where will you hold your event? At a home, a library, at school or outside?
(b) What time will you hold your event? Ghost stories could be told at night
with dim lights or candle/fire light. But we rarely have the oportunity to
hold night activities with schoolchildren. Most of the time, it is a day event.
(c) What will your "stage" look like? It could be a simple, informal gathering, or
your group could plan to make scenes for each story, combining an arts-
based curriculum to your storytelling experience.
(d) How will you announce your event? Students can make a programme,
invitations or posters. If you are planning to invite participants from
outside, then you should consider allocating enough time for inviting
participants, adjudicators and other logistics.
Putting in some effort prior to carrying out a storytelling activity will be useful.
Spend some time planning with other teachers in your team. A well planned
storytelling event will attract children to be interested to participate in future
events. Give out gifts and certificates to participants. Gifts need not be expensive
as children value the thought more.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. Delivering the story well is essential in any storytelling. List the

delivery techniques you should teach children.
2. What are the factors to be considered before organising a story

telling event?

Storytelling has great value in terms of fostering a relaxed and intimate

atmosphere in the classroom. Among the benefits are to help put children's
own words in perspective and lead to discussions more satisfying than those
arising from formal lessons.
There are four aspects to consider before selecting a story for children:
appropriateness, interest, simplicity and also elements in the plot.
Children are able to build their own stories. In a preschool setting, this must
be encouraged as stories promote language development.
One of the ways to get children to talk is by getting them to talk about their
experiences.
Young children enjoy living in fantasy. They especially love make believe
stories. Teachers can harness childrens creativity by tapping into their
interest in make believe by getting children to create their own fairy tales.
Experience Storyline
Fairy tales Storytelling
Own stories

Topic X Puppets
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify types of puppets;
2. Identify materials and tools to make puppets;
3. Explain the art of making a puppet; and
4. Elaborate on the process of planning puppet shows.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, learners will be introduced to puppets in the classroom. Puppets are
very useful in language and literacy development in childhood. This topic
demonstrates how a teacher could plan puppet-plays for young children. Prior to
that, learners are introduced to types of puppets, materials and tools to make
puppets and the art of making a puppet. The topic proceeds with planning for
puppet shows. Planning a stage activity and making arrangements for a puppet
show are introduced.
7.1 PUPPETS FOR CHILDREN

Children love puppets. Kids enjoy interacting with puppets during puppet shows
and story time. Crafting a puppet can be very enjoyable, especially during boring
moments. There are numerous types of puppets in the world. Some are easy to
make while others may be more difficult. Some puppets may be made using
items that can be readily found around the house, for example, a sock puppet
made of socks. Let us look at some of the types of puppets available.

72 X TOPIC 7 PUPPETS
7.1.1 Types of Puppets

Can you think of any kind of puppets? Table 7.1 illustrates some of the different
types of puppets.
Table 7.1: Types of Puppets
Type of Puppet Example Description
(a) Animatronics Robotic puppet Animatronics is one of the most

or Robotic fascinating types of puppets.
Puppets However, it is one of the most
complex. Animatronics puppets are
basically robots. They are
mechanically operated from a
distance.
Source: walyou.com/robotic-
puppet-is-no-pinocchio/
(b) Blacklight or Blacklight puppet Blacklight puppetry requires

puppets using blackening out the entire
UV or neon performance venue, and using
lighting fluorescent puppets under UV
lighting. As the fluorescent objects
react to the UV lights, they appear
to glow and give out a delightful
and amazing visual effect.
Source: www.nj.com/
entertainment/arts/index.ssf/
2010/09/jersey_puppeteers_
animate_the.html

TOPIC 7 PUPPETS W 73
(c) Bunraku or Bunraku Bunraku (boon-rah-koo) is an

Japanese rod ancient art of puppetry developed
puppets in Japan. Bunraku puppets are also
known as ningyo joruri in Japanese.
They are used in bunraku
performances. Bunrakus are
beautifully hand-carved wooden
rod puppets.
Source: web.lyon. edu/users/

mpeek/JapanWebpages/
LectureSeries0809.htm
(d) Caricature Caricature puppet Caricature puppets are usually

(portrait) muppet-type puppets, glove
puppets or puppets or marionettes. They are
any puppet designed and made to look like a
that looks like real person.
a real person
Source: www.flickr.com/photos/
19715719@N03/6116056414/

(e) Costume Costume puppet Costume puppets are costumes that

(body) you wear. Most people think of this
puppets or as a fur suit or mascot, to be worn
puppets that by a human actor.
can be worn
Source: www.schoolof
puppetry.com.au/tutorials.php/
what-are-costume-puppets
(f) Finger Finger puppet Finger puppets are small tubes of

puppets or material, which fit over ones finger.
things you can These tubes are often decorated to
put on your look like animal or human
finger characters, and can be quite
detailed. These puppets are sold in
childrens toy stores because they
are simple for children, and also
parents, to use.
Source: www.tigerlily
weddings.co.uk/blog/?p=850
(g) Found Found puppet Found puppets are puppets created

puppets by manipulating objects found
manipulating around the house. This is also why
objects they are also known as found
puppets. An example would be a
pair of tongs turned into the jaws of
a crocodile.
Source: www.kidspot.com.au/
School-Play-Box-hand-
puppet+1660+37+article.htm

(h) Glove Glove/Hand puppet A glove puppet is a specially made

puppets and glove which fits over ones hand.
hand puppets Glove puppets are also known as
hand puppets.
Source: www.techviva.com/
childrens-glove-puppets-9622.html
(i) Karagozis or Karagozis Karagozi is traditional Greek

Greek shadow shadow puppetry. Karagozi is the
puppets name of a particular popular
character in this genre. Karagozis
are made using animal hide, which
is then tanned to translucency and
painted.
Source: www.athensguide.com/
art/karagiozis/
(j) Marionettes or Marionettes/String puppet Perhaps marionettes are the most

string puppets easily recognised of all puppets.
Pinocchio is an example of a
marionette. Marionettes are
puppets which are controlled by
strings.
Source: www.discoverczech.com/
cesky-krumlov/museums.php4

(k) Sock puppets Sock puppet Sock puppets are made by

removing part of the toes of a sock,
and inserting and attaching a mouth
piece (usually made out of a stiff
cardboard) to the inside of the toe
area. Then the outside of the sock is
decorated with facial features, hair,
and so on. These puppets are best
used in small theatres.
Source: atrueconfederate.
blogspot.com/2011/08/no-
sock-puppets-please.html
(l) Wayang kulit Wayang kulit Wayang kulit is the name given to
Indonesian/ Indonesian/Kelantanese shadow
Kelantanese puppetry (Wayang means
shadow showand kulit means leather
puppetry and flat). Wayang kulit is
therefore, flat leather puppet shows.
Wayang kulit is distinctive due to
its particular character designs that
have angular shoulders; long,
skinny arms and legs; and also
intricate carvings.
Source: www.moreindonesia.
com/wayang-traditional-art-since-
prehistoric-times/
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. After reading about the various types of puppets, try to come up

with your own definition of what a puppet is. Compare your
definition with your coursemates.
2. Animatronics or robotic puppets are not usually used in classrooms.

Why is it so?
3. Why are stick puppets touted to be the simplest to make?

7.1.2 Materials and Tools to Make Puppets

It is not quite possible to list down all the tools and materials needed to make the
various types of puppets in this topic. Each type of puppet may require different
tools and materials. Puppets can be made out of different kinds of materials,
depending upon the type of puppet you desire. In order to make a sock puppet
for example, a pair of socks, brightly coloured wool, colourful markers, scissors,
glue and items to form small circles for the eyes and nose are needed.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Now, do a research on the Internet on the materials used to make

puppets in Table 7.1. Present it in the next tutorial.
7.1.3 Puppet Making

Children enjoy making and playing with puppets. It is also an educational
experience for them. It may not be possible to exhaustively write about how to
make all the types of puppets but a few common ones will be explained. In the
ensuing paragraphs, a few, easy steps to make puppets that would tease the
creativity of children will be presented.
(a) Puppet Crafting

The box used to store recyclable items at home is perfect to source for
puppet-making materials. You can use your imagination and creativity
together with together with the children, source materials from recycled
and reusable materials.
(b) Making Sack and Sock Puppets

Preschool and older children enjoy puppets made from paperbags or old
socks. As the teacher, you must decide on the amount of time and artistic
effort you want to put into the puppet project. You may draw facial features
with crayons and markers on the socks and decorate them with objects
found from the recycle box. Objects such as buttons, faux jewels, pipe
cleaners, yarn and fabrics scraps are just some examples of objects you can
use to decorate the sack or sock puppet.
(c) Nylon Stocking Puppet

Get an old wire hanger. The hanger can be bent into a diamond or even a
circle shape. Then stretch a leg from a pantyhose over the shaped hanger.
Knot the stocking leg at the bottom hook of the hanger. Children can see

through the nylon like a mask and pretend they are the puppet. You can
decorate the puppet mask with all kinds of glued on materials. Glitter
paints will make this puppet mask attractive.
(d) Stick Puppets

Stick puppets, as the name suggests, are puppets built and manipulated on
a stick. Making a stick puppet takes very little time. Materials to be used for
sticks can range from dowels, yardsticks, tongue depressors, wooden
spoons or even popsicle sticks. The simplest stick puppet is a head shape
cut from construction paper. The shape can then be painted or drawn with
magic pens or markers. Attach the stick with some tape at the back of the
paper and the puppet is ready. You can make a few different ones showing
different facial emotions and get children to talk about their emotions
through puppet play. Similarly, you can act out stories by drawing
characters from story books. Cut and attach the pictures on the sticks and
the favourite tale could be told through puppeteering.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Assuming you want to teach about an angry character in a story, which

puppet is more practical to be used? A sock puppet or stick puppet?
Why?
7.2 PLANNING PUPPET SHOWS

We have discussed the types of puppets and how to make them previously. Now
it is time to stage the puppet show. How do you think it can be done? What
considerations would you need to think of in order to make it a success? Let us
read further to know more.
7.2.1 Making Arrangements and Planning a Stage

Before planning any performance or stage activity, two pertinent questions must
be asked:
(a) What is the purpose of the activity? In this case, what is the purpose of the
puppet show? What do you want to do and what are your aims? This is
important as it will enable you to keep your objectives on track.

(b) What am I going to do? Am I going to create a puppet performance to tell a

story or a joke? To introduce a puppet character? Or to show an action,
scene or some other purpose?
Having asked the questions above, you then have to consider how you would
want to affect the audience. Are you going to entertain, to inform, to frighten, to
make the audience laugh, think or elicit some other responses?
Next, you have to bear in mind the audience. Who will be the audience? Will the
audience be children or adults? This is important because the language that you
may use will be different for children as opposed to older people.
The next consideration is the title and the idea for the puppet show itself. Having
decided this, you need to plan the production team. Consider the things to be
done and who will do what. Think about the puppeteers. Do you have enough
puppeteers? Who plays which character? Who can do voices? Who is good at
staging?
Lastly, you also have to plan a timetable for your show. Take into account time
needed to write the script, collecting materials, props, special effects and
rehearsals. You have to plan how to advertise and invite people to attend your
show as well.
In short, all the considerations above can be summarised in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Points to consider before staging a puppet play

SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What are the two important questions you must ask before
planning a puppet show?
2. Why do you need to consider the age of the audience for a puppet
show?
Puppets can be defined as a type of doll, whether in human or animal form,

that is moved by hands or strings by a puppeteer.
Some of the different types of puppets discussed are animatronics or robotic

puppet, blacklight puppet, bunraku, caricature puppet, costume puppet,
found puppet, finger puppet, glove/hand puppet, karagozis, marionette, sock
puppet and also wayang kulit.
A few, easy steps on how to make sack/sock puppets, nylon stocking puppets
and stick puppets are also discussed.
Two pertinent questions that need to be asked when planning/staging a

puppet show are: the purpose of the show and also its details.
Besides that, other points that need to be considered include the audience, the
title and the idea as well as the timetable.
Animatronics Found puppets

Bunraku puppets Glove/Hand puppets
Caricature puppets Karagozis
Finger puppets Puppeteer

Topic X Literacy
8 Instruction
for Minority
Pupils
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain literacy instruction for minority pupils,
2. Describe models of biliteracy instruction; and
3. Outline ways to enhance literacy development in children.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic sheds some light on issues of literacy instruction for minority pupils.
The intricacies in dealing with language and literacy with minority pupils are
discussed along with some suggestions for help. This topic also highlights
different models of biliteracy instruction for children. The topic is concluded with
a discussion of issues in literacy reading and instruction.
8.1 LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR MINORITY

PUPILS
In many English speaking countries, children from immigrant families grow in
numbers rapidly. They form the minority pupils in such settings. They bring with
them cultural baggage that is unique and try to adapt to their new culture. These
children face many challenges as many of them live in poverty. Their parents are

82 X TOPIC 8 LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR MINORITY PUPILS
less educated. They often face intimidation, racial discrimination and also
language barriers.
Whether in English-speaking countries or in places where English is spoken as a

second language, there will always be a segment of pupils who face difficulties in
learning English due to socio-cultural and language differences. These children
must be given the necessary extra help.
Children in minority groups must be given help beyond academic support. They
must be given social and cultural support too beyond the mainstream classroom.
8.1.1 Models of Biliteracy Instruction

There are several models of biliteracy instruction. Understanding the different
models is essential so that effective programmes can be planned for minority
pupils. Although most bilingual programmes value bilingualism, biliteracy,
multiculturalism and childrens academic achievement, they differ in the
functions and needs of students. Each biliteracy instruction model has a separate
structure with regards to the population, language used in the classroom, societal
and educational aims and also the language outcome.
The following are a few of the most common biliteracy instruction models. These
models may not be appropriate to be applied wholly in the Malaysian context,
but understanding them may allow teachers to adapt them in certain ways.
(a) The Immersion Bilingual Programme

In the immersion programme, the teaching of the second language is carried
out wholly using the target language. Everyone in the class learns using the
target language. The target language is used as a tool to surround students.
They are immersed in the second language. Not only is the second language
used in the classroom, but learners are to speak in the target language
outside the classroom as well. In all their activities such as during play,
leisure and other everyday tasks, the target language must be used. In fact,
the target language is used across all learning subjects. An example to
illustrate would be as follows:

TOPIC 8 LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR MINORITY PUPILS W 83
Imagine that one day thousands of immigrants come to Malaysia to

make a living. They have school-going children. These children do not
know Bahasa Malaysia. We prepare an immersion programme for them
by placing all those in the same age group into a class. We teach them
Bahasa Malaysia as a subject and across all other subjects. The children
are also compelled to speak in Bahasa Malaysia in all their daily
activities in and outside the classroom. No one is permitted to speak in
their native language. This is an example of an immersion programme.
(b) The Language Submersion Programme

The difference between an immersion programme and a submersion
programme is that in the former, everyone in the class learns the target
language. However, in the submersion programme, only a few students are
placed in a class where the others are learning it as their first language. In
other words, we take a few foreign children and place them in a class where
all the other children are Malaysians learning Bahasa Malaysia. In this
situation, the foreign children have to be on their own without the support
of others. They have to grasp all that they can on their own.
(c) The Dual Language Immersion Programme

In this type of immersion programme, both majority and minority language
speakers are put together in the same classroom. Both the majority and
minority languages are used as mediums of instruction.
(d) The Bilingual Programme

This programme is very much like the one we are practising in Malaysia
where two languages are used as a medium of instruction for all students.
English is taught as a language subject and Bahasa Malaysia is used as
medium of instruction for all the other subjects. In fact, for a number of
years, English was used as the language for instruction for mathematics and
the sciences. In vernacular schools, Bahasa Malaysia is taught as a language
subject and either Mandarin or Tamil is used as the medium of instruction
for all other subjects.
(e) The English as a Second Language Programme

English as a second language or commonly known as ESL is a widely used
approach to teach English to people whose native language is not English.
In Malaysia, due to the fact that English is our second language, all schools
teach English adopting this approach. All students learn English for several
periods in a week. They are taught all the language skills such as listening,
speaking, reading and writing as well as grammar and literature.

SELF-CHECK 8.1
Explain how the immersion programme is different from the submersion

programme.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. In your opinion, can the immersion model discussed earlier be

adopted in the Malaysian setting? Why?
2. What is the model adopted in Malaysian classrooms?
8.1.2 Issues in Literacy Reading and Instruction

One of the main objectives of any literacy programme is the literacy development
of all participants. To achieve this objective, effective instruction is the key.
In this section, we shall highlight several suggestions that could lead to the
successful literacy development of pupils in a reading programme.
(a) The Teacher Must Be a Good Role Model to Inculcate the Reading Behaviour
As a teacher, you must show children that reading and writing are essential
in life. Teachers must be enthusiastic about reading. Teachers must show
children that reading and writing are fun and rewarding. As teachers, we
must ourselves read a lot and show children that we indulge in reading. By
doing this, children will also be interested in reading and writing.
(b) Read to Children

One of the ways to make reading interesting is to read to children every
day. Reading has many positive effects on children. Comprehension and
vocabulary skills are better in children who are read to everyday. Children
who are read to also are better and more fluent readers.
In inculcating the reading habit in children, make sure you read good and
enjoyable reading materials. Look out for great books in the market to get
children engrossed in reading. Get the help of your school librarian to
source for good books.
Read to children with fluency and accuracy. Reading fluently and correctly
is important because you need to model correct reading. Therefore, prior to
reading, read the book first yourself. Make children sit comfortably as they

are listening and talk to them about what you have read. Ask them
questions about what they like or dislike in the story. A teacher must be a
good storyteller.
(c) Provide Authentic Reading Materials

We should provide real reading materials such as books, magazines, articles
and reading materials fitting its real purpose and not only materials that are
tailored for teaching language. Authentic materials or real reading materials
serve as great language support to building literacy. Materials in textbooks
or worksheets could sometimes not be applicable and boring. For example,
if you were to teach letter writing, why not show children a real letter as a
sample and get them to really write a letter to someone. Get them to post it.
Wait for the reply and get them to read it to the class.
(d) Allocate Enough Time for Reading

Children have to read a lot. They have to understand the value of reading a
lot. Reading a lot makes them better readers. Therefore, teachers must
allocate enough reading time for children. In school, try to allocate a certain
amount of time to read every day. Teachers also must work closely with
parents to ensure parents encourage their children to read for a specific time
at home each day.
(e) Provide Children with a Literacy Rich Environment

Environmental effect on the growth of children is undisputable. Similarly,
children who are in an environment that promotes reading tend to be better
readers. Schools, classrooms and homes should have plenty of books. If
children come from homes that may not be able to afford books, they
should be encouraged to frequent the school library and the public library.
(f) Have High Expectations of Children

When we show children that we have high expectations of them, they
become motivated and work harder to achieve success. We must tell them
that we expect them to be successful and give them all the encouragement
needed. Teachers and parents should praises children when they read
successfully. This will motivate them to go on reading more.
(g) Provide Interesting Language Background Before Reading

Background knowledge is essential in any literacy development. The more
background knowledge one has about a subject matter, the more
understanding the person will have. Teachers have to talk to children and
build up their background knowledge regarding the reading material. For
example, if we were to get children to read about a certain celebration that
they are not familiar with, it is commendable then to talk a lot about the

celebration to build their prior knowledge. This will facilitate understanding

when they are reading the real text later.
(h) Connect Reading to Writing

One of the ways to make children become good readers and writers is by
getting them to connect reading with writing. By doing this, both skills will
be polished. For example, after reading a book, we can encourage children
to write their thoughts or feelings about the story in a simple journal. By
doing this, writing and spelling may be improved. Apart from writing a
journal, activities such as writers workshops and re-writing a story in
another language can serve as excellent tools to connect reading with
writing.
(i) Provide Children with Books that Interest Them

Another way to inculcate the reading habit among children is to provide
books that interest them. To do this, teachers and parents have to keep up
with the times. Try to talk to other children about what things are of interest
at that particular time. Sometimes, what interests children may be seasonal.
The World Cup season, for example, might get them hooked on reading
materials related to football.
Gauging what children like to read is a task that should be explored. Talk to
librarians and other fellow teachers or parents. They might be able to shed
some light. Try to get the books according to what children like to read. By
providing enjoyable reading materials, reading proficiency could be
developed.
(j) Create Routines to Read

A successful reading programme also depends very much on routines.
Routines are practices carried out at specific times on a continuous basis.
One positive routine is to have a read aloud session at a specific time daily.
By doing this, children will be able to listen and read with pleasure. They
will also be able to encounter new ideas, characters, situations, and places
through the literature read to them.
Another positive routine to inculcate the reading habit is through the

sustained silent reading. In this method, teachers make sure children are
involved in silent reading for a certain amount of time. They are made to
read a book of their choice. The time allocated should not be too long that it
eats into other learning time but just between five to 10 minutes. After the
silent reading time, children may be asked to share about what they had
read.

The suggestions presented could lead to successful literacy development of

pupils in a reading programme. Carefully planned literacy instruction
ensures children get good support to build their literacy levels. Spending
time on planning for literacy development is always a fruitful endeavour.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
What are the instructional routines for a successful reading literacy

development?
ACTIVITY 8.2
As an early childhood literacy teacher, explain in detail how you would

promote effective literacy instruction.
Children in minority groups must be given help beyond academic support.

They must also be given social and cultural support beyond the mainstream
classroom.
There are several models of biliteracy instruction. They are: the Immersion
Bilingual Programme, the Language Submersion Programme, the Dual
Language Immersion Programme, the Bilingual Programme and the English
as a Second Language Programme.
One of the main objectives of any literacy programme is the literacy

development of all participants. To achieve this objective, effective instruction
is the key.
A well planned literacy instruction ensures children get good support to build
their literacy level.
Spending time on planning for literacy development is always a fruitful

endeavour.

Bilingual programs Immersion bilingual education

Dual language immersion Language submersion
English as a Second Language (ESL)

Topic X Parent-school
9 Involvement
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how parents can strengthen a childs language growth; and
2. Describe how parents can understand the way young children develop
language skills.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, the need for parent-school involvement as a scaffold for the
development of language and literacy in children is discussed. Parent-Centre
Partnerships advantage in supporting language and literacy development is
discussed too. Additionally, learners are shown how to help parents understand
language development in young children.
9.1 PARENT-CENTRE PARTNERSHIP
9.1.1 Helping Parents Strengthen a Childs Language

Growth
Nurturing language growth is not something that is to be left to care-takers or
teachers only. Parents can play a pivotal role in ensuring a childs language
growth develops positively. Parents can help develop language growth in several
ways.
The first step that parents could do to help develop a childs language growth is
by recognising the child as an individual. Never compare a childs language

90 X TOPIC 9 PARENT-SCHOOL INVOLVEMENT
ability with that of another child. Parents can also talk to the child about a variety
of things around them and also about anything that happens. The children
should also be encouraged to talk with their parents. This would enable them to
share ideas and ask questions that will make them think and be critical. On top of
that, it would also build curiosity and awareness in the child about how things
work in real life.
Let us look at several other ways how parents can help develop a childs
language growth:
(a) Listening and Listen to Your Child

Make your child understand that it is necessary to listen attentively to
people who are talking. You must first show your child that you are
listening attentively to him/her when he/she is talking to you. If you are
talking to your child and he or she is not paying attention, stop the
conversation. Get the childs attention and then proceed.
Once you get your child to listen to you, it is also important for you to listen
to your child. As you listen to him/her, teach him/her how to find
relationships between ideas. Expose him/her to similarities, differences,
opposites, sequences, causes and effects and examples. Getting children to
recognise such things in the real world will facilitate their ability to identify
similar things in books and use them in their written work later.
Besides that, children should be taught to say something in different words.

They should be taught how to paraphrase and simplify. Get them to convey
the same idea using different words occasionally.
To make it more effective, get everyone in the family involved in your

childs vocabulary study. Identify the words your child is learning. Then,
try to use the words in conversations. Sharing sentences or phrases with the
new words with children is beneficial. Perhaps targeting a word a day
would be helpful to build the childs vocabulary.
(b) Read to Your Child

Reading to children can be very fruitful. As parents, we should read to them
every day. It does not matter whether the child is too young or old enough
to read independently. The child must be exposed to reading in order to
face more difficult reading materials and concepts in future.
Sometimes, there are children who enjoy being read to but do not like to
read. This situation calls for concern. Bring the child to the doctor to have
the eyes examined. Perhaps the child needs eyeglasses to correct blurred

TOPIC 9 PARENT-SCHOOL INVOLVEMENT W 91
vision. What if the child simply does not like to read? This is where parents
need to pay a bigger role. Perhaps you need to spend more time with the
child and expose him/her to a lot more suitable reading materials.
Children sometimes tend to browse through a book by just looking at

pictures and graphics. They read little. As parents, you need not worry as
they are simply developing good previewing techniques. Not every word
needs to be read sometimes.
While reading to your child, it is good to pause once in a while to ask

questions about what is being read. Ask about the character(s), what will
happen next or anything that would promote thinking. Do not just ask
questions that have a right or wrong answer as it would not promote
thinking and creativity.
Helping children connect what they are reading with real life is often
helpful. For example, if you are reading about pets, relate the story with
your own pet or the pet of someone you know. Try looking for differences
or similarities between what you read and that of the real life.
On top of that, children should also be taught to see the value of reading.
They must realise that reading gives entertainment, pleasure as well as
information. When children are reading for information, for example,
encourage them to ask questions. This can make the reading more
purposeful.
Sometimes, children pronounce a word wrongly while reading. As long as

the meaning is not wrong, let the error pass by. Do not make corrections.
Most of lifes reading is for the purpose of comprehension and is done
silently. Most reading is neither done orally nor for perfection. However, if
the error is too obvious that the meaning is changed, correction may be
done. At the end of the sentence, ask the child Did that make sense?
As a parent, it is good for you to read the books that your child is reading.
This will allow you to have an insight of what your child is reading. By
doing this, you will be able to discuss the story with your child.
Forcing your child to read books that you think he or she should read will
not help. In fact, that will do more harm. Try finding out what interests the
child. Read about topics that the child enjoys. Once the child is hooked on a
particular book or author, the child will want to read more. Getting the first
ideal book is the difficult part sometimes. Subsequent reading materials
should not be too difficult to find. Do not force your child to finish reading a

book that he or she finds uninteresting. Just put aside the book and get
another one. Forcing him/her will not do any good.
The cheapest way to further encourage the reading habit in your child is by
taking him/her to the community library. Not only that, libraries usually
have many literacy building activities that children can participate in. All
these can hopefully instill the love for reading in them.
(c) Expose Speaking Skills to Your Child

Children need to be exposed to oral presentations too. If they are to make an
oral presentation, get them to practice in front of family members.
Encourage them to be expressive by allowing them to express their opinions
and describe things. Teach them how to talk about events and things. By
doing this, the child is helped to be fluent and learns how to organise his or
her thoughts.
In an oral presentation, if the child rambles without focus, occasionally stop

the child. Have the child think about the main point he or she is trying to
put forth. Then, ask the child to redeliver it in one or two sentences. Some of
the ways to help develop oral fluency are role plays and puppet shows.
(d) Expose Writing Skills to Your Child

Children should be exposed to the many types of written language. They
must know that we write for different purposes and we use different forms
of writing.
When you want your child to write a composition, ask questions or give
suggestions to help him or her narrow down the topic. Asking open-ended
questions about the topic will allow the child to generate ideas for writing.
In encouraging children to write, always comment on the content first and

the mechanics later. Mechanics of writing, such as punctuations and
capitalisations can be commented upon later. Offer compliments first before
making any comments.
One simple and practical way to encourage children to write is by

encouraging them to write letters to friends and thank you notes. If the task
of writing a letter is too lengthy, then you can just ask your child to write a
short note at the end of the letter (or e-mail for that matter) you are writing
to a friend or relative.
Writing is a process. As such, children should not be expected to write

perfect pieces at the onset. They should be encouraged to keep on writing

although they make mistakes. Provide children with ample tools for
writing. Give them different kinds of paper. Provide them with a variety of
writing tools such as a pencil, pen, magic pens, crayons or colour pencils.
Also provide them with a dictionary and thesaurus appropriate to their age.
Basically, what we have discussed above revolves around the four language skills
listening, reading, speaking and writing. Apart from the ways discussed, parents
can promote language growth at home through the following ways:
Speak to the child in a clear, correct and simple manner. Never use baby talk;
Make two-way conversations with your child. Take time to listen and then
talk;
Make a habit of looking into the eye of your child as you listen and talk to
him/her. Pause and do not be hasty;
Encourage the child to be orally expressive and not to use gestures only when
expressing ideas and feelings;
Ask questions that require the child to express a choice;
Enrich the childs vocabulary;
Engage the child in activities that develop conversations and following

directions;
Read stories and sing nursery rhymes; and
Discuss what you have read with him/her.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Why do you think that the task of nurturing language development
should not be left only to caretakers or teachers?
2. What are the ways a parent can help in a childs language growth?

9.1.2 Helping Parents Understand How Young

Children Develop Language
Parents can be helped to understand how young children develop language in
several ways. The following points are worthy of note:
(a) Exposure
Exposing parents to the work of child development experts is beneficial.
Give parents books on child development or suggest reputable child-rearing
sites to read up would help. However, do not patronise. Capitalise on any
opportunity to help only when the parents are receptive and open to advice.
(b) Appropriate Activities

Choose an activity that matches the child's needs. For example, to
demonstrate developmental opportunities during tummy time for an infant,
find a comfortable, open space on the floor and introduce a colorful
storyboard or rattle. Parents are usually open to activities that engage
children in activities that release pent-up energy. Physical development is a
natural outcome of play. Children learn intellectually, socially and
emotionally through play that engages their senses.
(c) Interact with Children

Parents should be encouraged to play and interact with their young
children. Hands-on experience is the best learning platform for children.
While engaging in play with children, parents can observe and participate
in their child's learning and progress. By doing this, parents will better
understand the connections between movement, communication and
healthy development.
(d) Provide Children with Appropriate Developmental Tools

Providing children with developmentally-appropriate games, books and toys
promotes language development. Parents like to see their children engage in
safe, educational activities. When children have the appropriate materials,
they will be focused on their current developmental level. Children can be
taught about feelings, movement or nature using storybooks. These books not
only teach the children, but also make parents aware of the topics, ideas and
concepts that are important to children.
(e) Support from Other Parents

Parents should be introduced to families with children at or near the same
age. By observing interactions between other parents and children, they will
gain new insights on their own child's developmental progress. Parents can

learn from others how to deal with developmental issues and increase
awareness and sensitivity in coping with children's ever-changing needs.
(f) Have a Developmental Checklist

As a child literacy teacher, you can prepare a developmental milestone
checklist for parents and laminate it. This will help them better recognise
the needs of their children at different developmental stages. Knowing what
to expect from their children at different ages allows parents to foster a
healthy wholesome development through appropriate materials, activities
and communications.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Discuss with your partner several activities that you can promote
to parents to help them understand language development.
2. How would parents benefit if they understand how their children

develop language?
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Explain ways for parents to understand how young children develop

language.
Parents play an important part in childrens language development.
Several ways parents can help strengthen their childrens language

development are by exposing them to the four language skills, enriching the
childs vocabulary, engaging them in meaningful activities that develop
conversations, etc.
Several ways to help parents understand their childs language growth are by
interacting with the child, exposing them to the work of child development
experts and having a developmental checklist.

Developmental checklist Parental support

Developmental tools Parent-centre partnership

Topic X Family
10 Literacy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain family literacy and childhood literacy readiness; and
2. Describe models of literacy intervention.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic culminates the course by introducing the topic of family literacy and
childhood literacy readiness. Issues of literacy readiness in the family and the
child are highlighted. Finally, the topic ends with a presentation of some models
for intervention to promote literacy readiness in the family and children.
10.1 FAMILY LITERACY AND CHILDHOOD

LITERACY READINESS
Literacy is the ability of a person to write, read and think. The main key of
literacy is reading development. Generally, it is agreed that family literacy
supports and makes a difference in the school life of a child. Focusing on family
literacy will increase the involvement of the family and will be most rewarding.
Let us discuss further on family literacy and childhood literacy readiness.
10.1.1 Family Literacy

Family literacy can be defined as literary activities indulged in by parents,
children and family members both at home and within the community. Reading
and writing are skills that children acquire and learn as they grow. Thus, parents

98 X TOPIC 10 FAMILY LITERACY
and the surroundings are naturally childrens first teachers. Children who are
regularly read to and often participate in conversations definitely have an edge in
literacy skills when they enter school compared to those who are not exposed to
literary activities.
Therefore, children should be immersed in language. They should be exposed to

books. They should be brought to public libraries to get acquainted with
storybooks. They should also be exposed to other cultures and made to realise
that reading is a window to the world.
Children from homes that pay attention to family literacy and parents who have a
higher level of education usually tend to be more literate and productive
individuals. Very often, their children are known to be successful in school.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Why do children who are regularly read to and often participate in

conversations have an edge in literacy skills when they enter school
compared to those who are not exposed to literary activities? Discuss
with your tutor and your coursemates.
10.2 CHILDHOOD LITERACY READINESS

Literacy is obviously important for children. Words can be seen all over the place
in books, manuals, signs, vehicles and buildings. Children and adults who are
unable to read are usually isolated from society. Being illiterate makes finding
jobs difficult and finally affects ones survival as well as the economic and social
status.
For the reasons above, it is pertinent to get children reading when they are
young. Literacy building may not be prolonged until they become adults.
Surviving physically for children may not really depend on reading ability but
children do learn living and coping skills for life when they are able to read.
Children who delay starting school would most of the time remain behind in
school. They risk substantial academic difficulty. Children who delay in literacy
are actually embroiled in this situation before schooling age itself. There is a lot of
difference in children who have early exposure to literacy activities. Their
experience with books plays an important role. Children who enter school with

TOPIC 10 FAMILY LITERACY W 99
plenty of hours of experience with books most often augur well in literacy.
Homes with an array of hundreds of picture books mould and motivate reading.
Children who observe family members reading for pleasure often cherish the
experience and are more literate themselves compared to children from homes
that do not have a literacy culture.
Although literacy development is crucial from an early age, nevertheless, young

children should not be forced to read. They should not be forced to pick up
pencils or memorise the letters of the alphabet. However, from birth to preschool,
they must indulge in many play activities. These play activities promote language
and literacy development and will be helpful in formal schooling. Not only are
food and shelter vital aspects of development, but books, too, are important
nourishment for children to develop literacy.
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. How does family literacy affect a childs literacy readiness?
2. Why do children who delay in early literacy skills not perform well
in school? Discuss.
10.3 MODELS OF INTERVENTION

Children who lack literacy skills should be helped. There are several models of
intervention which we will discuss below:
(a) Student-centred Intervention Model

The student-centred intervention model makes use of multiple copies of
books in the childrens mother tongue as well as books in the second
language. These books are prepared for use in the classroom reading corner
and also in the school library. The school should also actively get teachers
and students to label things around the school in both the mother tongue
and the second language. Word walls and charts should be made available
all around the school.
The school should also set up writing centres and reading corners equipped
with writing tools such as pencils, colour pencils, papers and books for
children to indulge in reading and writing.

Children who come from poor socio-economic homes will greatly benefit
from an environment that is rich in books and other reading materials.
These children lack exposure to printed materials at home. Thus, their
experience with books may not be enough to motivate them to read.
Therefore, they must be exposed to more books and other print materials at
school so that they can build their literacy skills.
(b) Teacher-mediated Intervention Model

We can conclude from the above that a print-rich environment is essential to
literacy development. However, whether the rich print environment is of
help in building literacy skills is very much dependent on the teacher.
Children are exposed to reading materials and reading strategies either by
exploring on their own or most often by observing and interacting with
their parents and others.
Teachers have an important role to model literary behaviours in children.

The teacher should find ways to get children involved in meaningful and
fun-filled literacy activities. The teacher also has to create a strong link
between the school and home to make sure children are involved in literacy
building at home as well. From time to time, teachers have to stress to
parents that they should participate in the literacy development of their
children at home.
One method that can be used in teacher-mediated intervention is the Big

Book Approach. Using the Big Book, teachers are able to share reading
activities with children. Teachers can get children who are better readers to
help less proficient readers. By doing this, teachers become mediators and
help children polish their reading and comprehension skills.
ACTIVITY 10.3
We have discussed two literacy intervention models. Are there other

intervention models that could be used to promote literacy development
in children? Discuss with your tutor and coursemates.

TOPIC 10 FAMILY LITERACY W 101
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Explain literacy intervention models discussed in this topic.
2. How do they differ from each other?
Family literacy supports and makes a difference in the school life of a child.
Focusing on family literacy will increase the involvement of the family and
will be most rewarding.
Family literacy can be defined as literary activities indulged in by parents,

children and family members both at home and within the community.
Children from homes that pay attention to family literacy and parents who
have a higher level of education usually tend to be more literate and
productive individuals.
It is pertinent to get children reading when they are young. Literacy building
should not be prolonged until they become adults.
Children who delay in starting school most of the time remain behind in
school. They risk substantial academic difficulty.
Although literacy development is crucial from an early age, nevertheless,

young children should not be forced to read. They should not be forced to
pick up pencils or memorise the letters of the alphabet.
Children who lack literacy skills should be helped by using available models
of intervention.

Childhood literacy readiness Student-centred intervention model

Family literacy Teacher-mediated intervention model

REFERENCES W 103
References
Baker, C. (2006). Education for bilingualism and biliteracy. Foundations of
bilingual education and Bilingualism, 11, 228-258.
Beaty, Janice, J. & Pratt, Linda. (2007). Early literacy in preschool and
kindergarten: A multicultural perspective. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Bowman, B. T. (1989). Educating language minority children: Challenges and

opportunities. Phi Delta Kappan, 71(2), 118-221.
Britto, P. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). The role of family literacy environments in
promoting young children's emerging literacy skills. Concluding
comments. New directions for child and adolescent development, 92, 9199.
Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1990). Literacy for empowerment: The role of parents in

children's education. New York: Falmer.
Deterding, D. & Poedjosoedarmo, G. (2001). The grammar of english: Morphology

and syntax for english teachers in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Hooper, J. S. (1983). A quick english reference. London: Oxford University Press.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2001). Kurikulum Pra-Sekolah Kebangsaan.
Larsen-Freeman, D. & M. H. Long. (1991). An Introduction to Second Language

Acquisition Research. London: Longman.
Machado, J. M. (2002). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Emerging

literacy (7th ed.). NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Nelsen, M. R. & Nelsen-Parish, J. (2002). Peal with Books: An early childhood

resource for balanced literacy, (3rd ed.). NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Ovando, C. J. & Collier, V. P. (1998). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in

multicultural contexts. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Piaget, J. (2002). The language and thought of the child. Translated by Marjorie
and Ruth Gabain. Reprint. New York: Routledge.

104 X REFERENCES
Ramey, Mel. (1986). Mastering the art of storytelling takes training and
experience, Highway one, 9 (4), pp. 47-51.
Sawyer, W. E. (2004). Growing up with literature, (4th ed.) NY: Thomson Delmar
Learning.
Schwartz, Marni. (1987). Connecting to language through story, Language arts,

64 (6), pp. 603-610.
Skinner B. F. (1957). Verbal behaviour. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. NY: Thomson Delmar

Learning.
Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.
Wason-Ellam, Linda. (1986). Storytelling extends literary language, Highway

one, 9 (2), pp. 33-39.
Whitehead, M. R. (2007). Developing language and literacy with young children.

London: SAGE.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myVLE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi)
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702

HBEC2103 Language and Literacy For Early Childhood Edu

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

HBEC2103 Language and Literacy For Early Childhood Edu

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HBEC2103

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Abdul Hameed Abdul Majid

Moderator: Teh Lai Ling

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, November 2011

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Language Development 1

Topic 2 Foundations of Language 15

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.2 Development of Language Structure 24

Topic 3 Definition of Literacy 29

Topic 4 Language Curriculum and Literacy Development 35

Topic 5 Books and Children 54

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 Story Telling 63

Topic 8 Literacy Instruction for Minority Pupils 81

Topic 9 Parent-school Involvement 89

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 10 Family Literacy 97

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Understand the basis of language teaching;

Topic 1 begins with a discussion on language development. A theoretical view of

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 discusses language curriculum and literacy development. Among the

Topic 8 moves on shedding some light on issues of literacy instruction for

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall

References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

Whitehead, Marian R. (2007). Developing language and literacy with young

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Whitehead, M. R. (2002). Developing language & literature for young children.

Machado, J. M. (2002). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Emerging

Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. NY: Thomson Delmar

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 THEORETICAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1.1 The Behaviourist View

Figure 1.1: Skinner box

This stimulus-response-reinforcement theory is paralled by Skinner (1957), a

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The behaviourist theory emphasises that the continuity of a childs pre-linguistic

1.1.2 The Nativist View

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Cookies are gooder than bread.

1.1.3 The Cognitivist View

1. Discuss the differences between the three theories of language

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.2 CHILDREN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

1.2.1 Babies Aged Zero to Six Months

1.2.2 Babies Aged Six to 12 Months

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)