PHYSICS NOTES

CHAPTER 11 DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

INTRODUCTION:

The wave theory of light explained successfully phenomena like interference,

diffraction and polarization, but it failed to explain phenomena like photoelectric effect
and Compton effect. The later Phenomena were successfully explained by Plancks
quantum theory. According to this theory a beam of light of frequency consists of

discrete packets of energy called photons each having an energy h and momentum
where h is Plancks constant and c is the velocity of light in free space. Thus, light or
radiation possesses dual nature. It behaves as wave as well as particle called photon.

In 1924, de Broglie suggested that because radiated energy in the form of waves
exhibited a particle nature, then the material particles (electron, protons, atoms and
molecules ) in motion have properties characteristic of waves.

FREE ELECTRONS IN METALS:

In metals, the electrons in the outermost shells (valence electrons) of the atoms are
loosely bound. They are quite free to move easily within the metal surface but cannot
leave the metal surface. Such loosely bound electrons are called free electrons.

The free electrons can move about freely inside the metal but cannot leave its surface.
The moment the electron comes out of the metal surface, the metal surface acquires
positive charge and pulls it back. Thus, the free electrons are held inside the metal, by
attractive forces of the surface called restraining forces causing potential barrier. It
means that there is a potential barrier on the metal surface which has to be overcome
by the electron to just escape from the metal surface.

In order that an electron may just leave the metal surface, a certain minimum amount
of energy has to be supplied to the electron and is termed as the work function of the
metal.

Work function of a metal is defined as the minimum energy required by an

electron to just escape from the metal surface so as to overcome the restraining
forces at the surface.

Work function denoted as ( ) and is usually measured in eV.

Work function depends upon the properties of the metal and the nature of the
surface.

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One electron volt (eV) is the K.E. gained by an electron when it is accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 volt.

Energy gained by an electron = work done by electric field = qV

1eV = 1.6 x 10 19 C x 1 V

1 eV= 1.6 x 10 19 J

Electron volt is a commonly used unit of energy in atomic and nuclear physics.

WORK FUNCTION OF SOME METALS

METAL WORK FUNCTION METAL WORK FUNCTION

(W0) (eV) (W0) (eV)
Cs 2.14(lowest value) Al 4.28

K 2.30 Hg 4.49

Na 2.75 Cu 4.65

Ca 3.20 Ag 4.70

Mo 4.17 Ni 5.15

Pb 4.25 Pt 5.65 (Highest value)

The work function of metal caesium is low means that Cs can eject electrons with the
light of lower energy and platinum, with higher energy.

ELECTRON EMISSION

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface is called electron

emission.

For the emission of electrons from metal surface, the energy of the electrons must be
higher than the work function of the metal. For their release from the metal surface,
the electron may be supplied by the required amount of energy by any one of the
following methods.

1. THERMIONIC EMISSION: It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons

from the metal surface when heated suitably.
Here when the metal is heated its free electrons get sufficient free energy and
they can overcome surface barrier. The emitted electrons are called thermal
electrons or thermions. The number of thermions emitted depends on the
temperature of the metal surface.

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 2. PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION: It is the phenomenon of emission of
electrons from the surface of metal when light radiations of suitable
frequency fall on it .
Here the energy to the free electrons for their emission is being supplied by light
photon. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons. The number of
photoelectrons emitted depends on the intensity of the incident light.

3. FIELD EMISSION (or) COLD CATHODE EMISSION: It is the phenomenon of

emission of electrons from the surface of metal under the application of a
strong electric field.
When a very strong electric filed ( ~108 1 ) is applied to metal, it emits
electrons. This method of electron emission is dangerous and less efficient.

4. SECONDARY EMISSION: It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons

from the surface of metal when fast moving electrons ( called primary
electrons) strike the metal surface.
The fast moving electrons are high energy electrons. As they fall on metal
surface, they transfer their energy to the free electrons of the metal by which
their energy becomes more than the work function of the metal and so they are
emitted from the metal surface. The electrons so emitted are called secondary
electrons.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metals, whe

radiations of suitable frequency fall on them.

The emitted electrons are called photo electrons and the current so produced is
called photoelectric effect.

Different materials emit photoelectrons when they are exposed to radiations of suitable
frequencies or wavelengths. For example, alkali metals like lithium, sodium,
potassium , caesium etc. are highly sensitive and show photoelectric effect with visible
light, whereas the metals like zinc, cadmium , magnesium etc. are sensitive only to
ultraviolet light. X rays can eject electrons from heavy metals.

HERTZ, HALLWACHS AND LENARDS OBSERVATIONS ON PHOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT

[A) Hertz observations:

The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887,

when he was working with electromagnetic wave experiment. Hertz while studying
experimentally the production of electromagnetic waves by means of spark discharge,
found that the high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the
emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. It was accounted
as follows:

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When suitable radiations fall on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface
absorb enough energy from the incident radiations. Due to it , they are able to
overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface and escape
to the surrounding space.

[B) Hallwachs and Lenards obseravtions:

Hallwach and Lenard made s detailed study of photoelectric effect during 1886 to
1902.

As shown in fig. below Hallwach connected a zinc plate to an electroscope. He allowed

ultraviolet light to fall on the zinc plate. He observed that zinc plate became:

Uncharged if initially negatively charged.

Positively charged if initially uncharged.
and more positively charged if initially positively charged.

From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were
emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light.

A few years later Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall
on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes cathode C
and anode A, a current flows in the circuit. As soon as the ultraviolet radiations are
stopped the current also stops. These observations again indicate that ultraviolet
radiations incident on the emitter plate C eject out some negatively charged particles
from it. These particles are attracted by the collector plate A setting up a current
through the evacuated glass tube. After the discovery of electrons by J. J. Thomson in
1897 it was established that these particles are indeed electrons and were called
photoelectrons.

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 In 1900, Lenard argued that when ultraviolet light falls on the emitter plate, it causes
emission of electrons from its surface. These electrons are attracted by the positive
collector plate so that the circuit is complete and the current flows. This current was
called photoelectric current.

Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the frequency of the incident light was
less than a certain minimum value,called the threshold frequency no photoelectrons
(light generated electrons) were emitted at all.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

An extensive study of photoelectric effect was made by Lenard and R.A. Millikan.

The figure depicts a schematic view of the arrangement used for the experimental
study of the photoelectric effect.
It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C
and another metal plate A.
Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes
through the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter).
A transparent quartz window is sealed on to the glass tube, which permits
ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate the photosensitive plate C.
The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A
(collector), by the electric field created by the battery. The battery maintains the
potential difference between the plates
C and A, that can be varied.
The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator. Thus, the
plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with
respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the
emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons
causes flow of electric current in the circuit.
The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by
a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is
measured by a micro ammeter (A). The photoelectric current can be increased
or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the
emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can be varied,
as can the potential difference V between the emitter C and the collector A.

We can use the experimental arrangement of shown in Fig.above to study the variation
of photocurrent with (a) intensity of radiation, (b) frequency of incident radiation, (c)

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the potential difference between the plates A and C, and (d) the nature of the material
of plate C.

Light of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate coloured filter or

coloured glass in the path of light falling on the emitter C. The intensity of light is
varied by changing the distance of the light source from the emitter.

(a) Effect of Intensity of the incident radiation :

The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to emitter C

so that electrons ejected from C are attracted towards collector A. Keeping
the frequency of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixed,
the intensity of light is varied and the resulting photoelectric current is
measured each time. It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly
with intensity of incident light as shown graphically in Fig. below. The
photocurrent is directly proportional to the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second. This implies that the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.

(b) Effect of potential on photoelectric current

Keep the plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to the plate C
and illuminate the plate C with light of fixed frequency n and fixed intensity I1.
Vary the positive potential of plate A gradually and measure the resulting
photocurrent each time. It is found that the photoelectric current increases
gradually with the increase in accelerating (positive) potential.

At one stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are
collected by the plate A and the photoelectric current becomes maximum or
saturates. If we increase the accelerating potential of plate A further, the
photocurrent does not increase. This maximum value of the photoelectric current
is called saturation current. Saturation current corresponds to the state when all
the photoelectrons emitted by the emitter plate C reach the collector plate A.

We now apply a negative (retarding) potential to the plate A with respect to the
plate C and make it increasingly negative gradually. It is noted that the
photoelectric current decreases. When the polarity is reversed, the electrons are
repelled and only the most energetic electrons are able to reach the collector A. The

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 photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it drops to zero at a certain sharply
defined, critical value of the negative potential V0 , on the plate A.

For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the minimum negative

(retarding) potential V0 given to the plate A for which the photocurrent stops
or becomes zero is called the cut-off or stopping potential.

If e is the charge on the photoelectron, then Kmax = eV0 =

Where m is the mass of photoelectron and is the maximum velocity of
emitted photoelectron.
Conclusions:
All the photoelectrons emitted from the metal do not have the same kinetic
energy.
Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel
even the most energetic photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy
(Kmax).

We can now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but
of higher intensity I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1). We note that the saturation currents are
now found to be at higher values. This shows that more electrons are being emitted
per second, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping
potential remains the same as that for the incident radiation of intensity I1, as shown
graphically in Fig. below Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity.

In other words, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light
source and the emitter plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident
radiation.

(c) Effect of frequency of the incident radiation

Take radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity. For each radiation,
study the variation between the photoelectric current and potential of plate A w.r.to to
plate C. The variation is shown in graph below frequency of the incident radiation
and the stopping potential V0. We suitably adjust the same intensity of light radiation

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at various frequencies and study the variation of photocurrent with collector plate
potential.
We obtain different values of stopping potential but the same value of the saturation
current for incident radiation of different frequencies. The energy of the emitted
electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiations. The stopping potential
is more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation. Note from Fig. below that
the stopping potentials are in the order V03 > V02 > V01 if the frequencies are in the
order 3 > 2 > 1 . This implies that greater the frequency of incident light, greater is
the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. Consequently, we need greater
retarding potential to stop them completely.

From the graph it is noted that

a) the value of stopping potential is different for radiation of different
frequency.
b) the value of stopping potential is more negative for radiation of higher
incident frequency.
c) the value of saturation current depends on the intensity of incident
radiation but is independent of the frequency of the incident radiation.

If we plot a graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding
stopping potential for two different metals A and B we get a straight line, as shown in
Fig. below.

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The graph shows that
a) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident
radiation for a given photosensitive material.
b) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency 0 (called threshold
frequency) for which the stopping potential is zero.
c) the higher is the work function for a photosensitive material, the greater
is the value of threshold frequency.

These observations have two implications:

i. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with
the frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
ii. For a frequency of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency
0, no photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large.
This minimum, cut-off frequency 0, is called the threshold frequency. It
is different for different metals.

Different photosensitive materials respond differently to light. Selenium is more

sensitive than zinc or copper. The same photosensitive substance gives different
response to light of different wavelengths. For example, ultraviolet light gives rise to
photoelectric effect in copper while green or red light does not.
Note that in all the above experiments, it is found that, if frequency of the incident
radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the photoelectric emission starts
instantaneously without any apparent time lag, even if the incident radiation is very
dim. It is now known that emission starts in a time of the order of 109 s or less.

LAWS OF PHOTO-ELECTRIC EMISSION

a. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident

radiation (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current
is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

b. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident

radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.

c. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain

minimum cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the
threshold frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons
takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is. Above the
threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases
linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.

d. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any

apparent time lag (~10 9s or less), even when the incident radiation is
made exceedingly dim.

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FAILURE OF CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT TO EXPLAIN
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

According to the wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric

and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over the region over which
the wave extends. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were
explained in a natural and satisfactory way by the wave picture of light. This wave
picture of light could not explain the basic features of light as explained below.

a) According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface of the
metal (over which the beam of radiation falls) absorb the radiant energy
continuously. The greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are the
amplitude of electric and magnetic fields. Consequently, the greater the
intensity, the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron. In this
picture, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the surface is
then expected to increase with increase in intensity. These expectations of the
wave theory directly contradict the experimental observations that maximum
kinetic energy of the photo electrons does not depend on the intensity of
incident radiation.
b) No matter what the frequency of radiation is, a sufficiently intense beam of
radiation (over sufficient time) should be able to impart enough energy to the
electrons, so that they exceed the minimum energy needed to escape from the
metal surface. A threshold frequency, therefore, should not exist.
c) When the wave of light falls on a metal surface, the energy of the wave of light
will not go to a particular electron in metal but will be distributed to all the
electrons present in the illuminated portion of metal surface. As a result of
which the electrons will take some time in accumulating the energy required for
their emission from metal surface. Explicit calculations estimate that it can
take hours or more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome
the work function and come out of the metal. This conclusion is again in
striking contrast to observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous
and takes place immediately after the light is incident on the metal.

In short, the wave picture is unable to explain the most basic features of photoelectric
emission.

EINSTEINS THEORY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT; ENERGY QUANTUM OF

RADIATIONS

In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the various laws of photoelectric emission on the
basis of Plancks quantum theory. According to this theory, photoelectric emission
does not take place by continuous absorption of energy from radiation. Light
radiations consists of tiny packets of energy called quanta. One quantum of
light radiation is called photon which travels with the speed of light.

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The energy of each photon is given by E = h, where h is Plancks constant and the
frequency of light.

Einstein assumed that one photoelectron is ejected from a metal surface if one photon
of suitable light radiation falls on it.

Consider a photon of light of frequency , incident on a photosensitive metal surface.

The energy of the photon ( = h ) is spent in two ways:
i. A part of energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from a metal
surface which is equal to the work function of the metal.
ii. The rest of energy of the photon is used in imparting the maximum kinetic
energy Kmax to the emitted photo electron.

If vmax is the max. velocity of the emitted photoelectron and m is its mass, then

Max. K.E. of the photo electron , Kmax =

By conservation of energy
Energy of the incident photon = work function + max. K.E. of photoelectron

= +


Kmax = = h .. (1)

If the incident photon is of threshold frequency , then the incident photon of energy
is just sufficient to eject the electron from the metal surface without imparting it
any kinetic energy, hence, must be equal to work function of the metal.

i.e. =

From equation (1) ,
= h

= h ( )

or Kmax = h ( ) .. (2)

Equation (1) and (2) are known as Einsteins photoelectric equations and can be
used to explain the laws of photoelectric emission.

i. Explanation of effect of intensity the increase in intensity means increase

in the number of photons striking the metal surface per unit time. As each
photon ejects only one electron, so the number of ejected photoelectrons
increases with the intensity of incident radiation.

ii. Explanation of thresh hold frequency If < i.e. the frequency of

incident radiation is less than the threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons become negative. This has no physical meaning. So photoelectric
emission does not occur below the threshold frequency.

iii. Explanation of kinetic energy If > , then Kmax = , i.e.
above the threshold frequency, the maximum K.E. of the electrons increases

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 linearly with the frequency of the incident light. Moreover, the increase in
intensity increases only the number of incident photons not their energy. Hence
the max. K.E. of the photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the
incident radiation.

iv. Explanation of time lag Photoelectric emission is the result of an elastic

collision between a photon and an electron. Thus the absorption of energy from
a photon by a free electron inside the metal is a single event which involves
transfer of energy in one lump instead of continuous absorption of energy as in
the wave theory. Hence there is no time lag between the incidence of a photon
and the emission of a photoelectron.

CONSEQUENCES OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION:

The photoelectric emission is possible only if the incident light is in the form of
packets of energy, each having a definite value, more than the work function of the
metal. This shows that light is not of wave nature but of particle nature. It is due to
this reason that photoelectric emission was accounted by quantum theory of light, i.e.,
particle nature of light.

RELATION BETWEEN CUT OFF POTENTIAL , FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT

PHOTON AND THRESHOLD FREQUENCY:

From Einsteins photoelectric equation Kmax = = h (1)

If V0 is the cut off potential or stopping potential and e is charge on the electron, then
Kmax = .. (2)
If , is the threshold frequency, the work function = .. (3)

From (1) , (2) and (3) we have

eV0 = Kmax = h = h ( ) .. (4)

If is the wavelength of the incident light , 0 is the threshold wavelength for the metal
surface, c is the velocity of light

Then = and =

Substituting these values in (4), we get

eV0 = Kmax = = h( ) .. (4)

eV0 = Kmax = = hc( ) .. (5)

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IMPORTANT GRAPHS RELATED TO PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

ALL THE GRAPHS ABOVE ARE IMPORTANT CBSE QUESTIONS ASKED

FREQUENTLY

i. Frequency ( ) and stopping potential (V0) graph

As eV0 = h (or) V0 =

So, V0
Therefore the frequency stopping potential graph is a straight line as shown in fig.1
below.

Fig (1)

Comparing the above equation with y = mx + C, we note that the slope of frequency

stopping potential graph is . The x intercept is 0 and the y- intercept is -

Fig (2)

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Frequency and stopping potential graphs for different materials will be represented by
parallel straight lines as shown in fig . 2. It is so because, the slope of each straight
line is h/e but the threshold frequency for different materials is different.

The equation V0 = is an important result. It predicts that the V0 versus
curve is a straight line with slope = (h/e), independent of the nature of the material.

During 1906-1916, Millikan performed a series of experiments on photoelectric effect,

aimed at disproving Einsteins photoelectric equation. He measured the slope of the
straight line obtained for sodium, similar to that shown in Fig.2 Using the known
value of e, he determined the value of Plancks constant h . This value was close to the
value of Plancks constant (= 6.626 1034J s) determined in an entirely different
context. In this way, in 1916, Millikan proved the validity of Einsteins photoelectric
equation, instead of disproving it.

The successful explanation of photoelectric effect using the hypothesis of light quanta
and the experimental determination of values of h and 0, in agreement with values
obtained from other experiments, led to the acceptance of Einsteins picture of
photoelectric effect.

Millikan verified photoelectric equation with great precision, for a number of alkali
metals over a wide range of radiation frequencies.

ii. Frequency ( ) and max. K.E. ( Kmax ) graph

As Kmax = h

So, Kmax
Therefore the frequency Kmax graph is a straight line as shown in fig.3 below.

Fig (3)

Comparing the above relation with y = mx + C, we note that the slope of frequency
max.K.E. graph is h . The x intercept is 0 and the y- intercept is -

iii. Frequency ( ) and photoelectric current ( I ) graph

The graph shown in Fig. 4 indicates that the photoelectric current I is
independent of frequency of the incident light, till intensity remains constant.

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 Fig (4)

iv. Intensity and stopping potential (V0) graph

The graph shown in fig. 5 indicates that the magnitude of the stopping potential
is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation, till the frequency of the
incident radiation remains constant.

Fig (5)
v. Time (t) and photoelectric current (I) graph
It is shown in fig. 6 . The graph shows that the photoelectric current attains the
saturation value in 10-9 s from the start of radiation falling on photosensitive
material, irrespective of the intensity of incident light.

Fig (6)

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT ( The photon)

Photoelectric effect established the fact that light in interaction with matter behaves as
if it was made of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy h .
Einstein also arrived at the important result, that the light quantum can also be
associated with momentum (h /c) . A definite value of energy as well as momentum
is a strong sign that the light quantum can be associated with a particle which was
later named as photon.
The particle-like behaviour of light was further confirmed, in 1924, by the experiment
of A.H. Compton on scattering of X-rays from electrons.

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 In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution
to theoretical physics and the photoelectric effect. In 1923, Millikan was
awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the elementary
charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect.

The photon picture of electromagnetic radiations and the characteristic

properties of photons are as follows:

i. In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of

particles called photons.
ii. Each photon has energy E (=h) and momentum p (= h /c), and
speed c, the speed of light.
iii. Irrespective of the intensity of radiation, all photons of light of a particular
frequency , or wavelength , have the same energy E (=h = hc/) and
momentum p (= h/c = h/),

iv. By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is only an increase
in the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with each photon
having the same energy. Thus, photon energy is independent of intensity of
radiation.
v. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
vi. In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the
total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number
of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or
a new photon may be created.
vii. All the photons emitted from a source of radiation travel through space with the
same speed c ( equal to speed of light ).
viii. The frequency of photon gives the radiation, a definite energy ( or colour) which
does not change when photon travels through different media.
ix. The velocity of photon in different media is different which is due to change in
its wavelength.
x. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
According to theory of relativity, the mass m of a particle moving with velocity v,
comparable with the velocity of light c is given by
0 2
= () 0 = 1
2 2
1 2

0 . As a photon moves with the speed of light
i.e. v =c , then from the above equation 0 = 0. Hence a photon has zero rest
mass.

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION

The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarisation. On the other hand, in photoelectric effect and Compton effect which
involve energy and momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of a
bunch of particles the photons.

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It means that radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and sometimes as a particle i.e.
light has dual nature.
The various phenomena related to radiation can be divided into three categories.
i. These are the phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarization etc.,
which can be explained on the basis of electromagnetic wave nature of radiation
only.
ii. These are the phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect etc., which
can be explained on the basis of quantum nature of radiation .
iii. These are the phenomena like rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction etc.,
which can be explained on the basis of either the wave nature or of the particle
nature of radiation.

DE BROGLIE DUALISTIC HYPOTHESIS

Dual nature of matter Since radiation has dual nature , i.e. it possesses properties of
both wave and particle and universe is composed of radiation and matter, therefore de
Broglie concluded that the moving material particle must also possess dual nature,
since nature loves symmetry.

De Broglie hypothesis:
According to de Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave
and some times as a particle or a wave associated with moving material particle
which controls the particle in every respect. The wave associated with moving
particle is called matter wave or de Broglie wave whose wavelength called de

Broglie wavelength, is given by =

Where m and v are the mass and velocity of the particle and h is Plancks constant.

DERIVATION OF DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH :

According to Plancks quantum theory, the energy of a photon of a radiation of

frequency and wavelength is = ()

If photon is considered to be a particle of mass m, the energy associated with it ,

according to Einstein mass energy relation , is given by = ()

From (1) and (2) , we get = () = ()

Since each photon moves with the same velocity c, therefore, momentum of photon,

p = mass x velocity

p= = = = ( since = / )
/

or = . (4)

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De Broglie assumed that equation (4) be equally applicable to both the photons of
radiation and other material particles.

If a material particle of mass m, is moving with velocity v, then momentum of the

particle p = mv.

According to de Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength of wave associated with the

moving material particle is = = ()

This is de Broglie wave equation for material particle.

From de Broglie hypothesis we conclude that

i. If v = 0 , from eqn (5) = and if v = , then = 0

It means that the waves are associated with the material particles only if they
are in motion. The material particle may be charged or uncharged but when it
is in motion, the waves are associated , which are independent of charge. It
means de- Broglie waves cannot be electromagnetic in nature because
electromagnetic waves are produced by motion of charged particles .
ii. Since the position of a wave cannot be located exactly, therefore, the wave
nature of material particle introduces the problem of particle location. It means
the wavelength of a wave associated with moving particle defines a region of
uncertainty, within which the whereabouts of particle are unknown.

The schematic diagram for a de Broglie wave is shown below.

Relation for de Broglie wavelength and temperature

From kinetic theory of matter, the average kinetic energy of particle at a given
3
temperature T kelvin is K = 2 where k is the Boltzmann constant

1
If particle of mass m , moving with velocity v , then its kinetic energy is, K = 2
2

3
Momentum of particle , p = mv = 2 = 2 2
= 3

18

De Broglie wavelength = =
3

DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH FOR AN ELECTRON

Consider an electron of mass m and charge e. Let v be the velocity acquired by

electron when accelerated fro rest through a potential difference of V volt.Then
1
Gain in kinetic energy of electron = 2
2

Work done on the electron = eV

1
= 2 = () =
2

If is the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron, then

= = =




Substituting the standard values in above equation we get

. .
= = =
.

.
=

DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT ( Refer to N.C.E.R.T
text book page 403 )

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PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS:

1. If wavelength of electromagnetic waves are doubled what will happen to energy of

photon?

Ans : E = h = h c/
E 1/ energy of proton reduces to half.

2. Alkali metals are most suitable for photoelectric emission. Why?

Ans: Alkali metals have too low work functions. Even visible light can eject
electrons from them.

3. Out of microwaves, UV, IR which radiation will be most effecting for emission of
electrons from a metallic surface?

Ans: UV are most effective since they have highest frequency hence more
energetic.

4. Can X-rays cause photoelectric effect?

Ans: Yes. X-rays cause photoelectric effect in sodium, zinc & copper.

5. If the intensity of incident radiation on a metal is doubled what happens to the

K.E of electrons emitted?

Ans: K.E of photons remains unaffected .

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6. What is the value of stopping potential between the cathode and anode of
photocell? If the max K.E of electrons emitted is 5eV?

Ans: Stopping potential V0 = Kmax/e = 5eV/e =5 V

7. It is easier to remove an electron from sodium than from copper, which has a
higher value of threshold wavelength?

Ans: W0 = h0 = hc/0
0 1 / W0
Since sodium has lower work functions than copper it is easier for electron
ejection. As it is lower work function, higher wavelength.

8. What is the role of photocell in cinematography?

Ans: Photocells are used for reproduction of sound.

9. An electron and photon possessing same K.E. Which one will have greater
wavelength?

Ans: 1/2 mv2 = (m2 v2 )/2m = p2 /2m

According to De Broglie wave length = h/p

e/ p = pp/pe = (mp /me )

me < mp
e >p
electrons have greater De broglie wavelength than proton .

10. In Davisson Germer experiment if the angle of diffraction is 520 find Glancing
angle?

Ans: = 90 - /2
= 90 52/2 =64

11. What is the energy associated with a photon of wavelength 6000 A 0 ?

Ans: = hc /
= 3.310-19 J

12. What is the effect on the velocity photo electrons, if the wavelength of incident
light is decreased?

Ans: KE of photoelectrons is given by Einsteins photoelectric equation.

Ek =1/2 mv2 = h - W0
V 1 / As wavelength decreases velocity increases.

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13. Show graphically how the stopping potential for a given metal varies with a
frequency of the incident radiation.

Refer notes above

14. Two work functions 2ev and 5ev for two metals X and Y respectively. Which metal
will emit electrons, when it is irradiated with light and wave length 400nm and
why?

Ans: E= h c/ = ( 6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x 108)/ (4 x 10-7) = 4.98 x 10-19 J

E= (4.98 x 10-19)/ (1.6 x 10-19) =3eV
Hence, metal X will emit electrons.

15. A photon and an electron have same de-Broglie wavelength. Which has greater
total energy. Explain?

Ans: For a photon E1=h c /

For an electron =h/mv or m=h/ v

E2 = mv2 = hv/
E2/E1 = c/v >1
Therefore,E2>E1. Thus, electron has total energy greater than that of

photon.

16. The de-Broglie wave length of a photon is same as the wave length of electron.
Show that K.E. of a photon is 2mc /h times K.E. of electron. Where m is mass
of electron, c is velocity of light.

Ans: . ph= e= =h/mv

For a photon Eph=h c /

K.E. of electrons Ee= mv2 = =

Eph = Ee (2mc /h)

17. Derive the expression of de-Broglie wave length in terms of energy of energy and
temperature?

Ans: E=1/2 mv2=m2v2/2m=p2/2m p=2Em

=h/p = h/2Em
From Kinetic theory of gases average K.E.=3/2 KT
=h/(2m(3/2 KT)=h/(3m KT)

18. Light from bulb falls on a wooden table but no photon electrons are emitted
why ?

22
 Ans: The energy of light obtained from the bulb is much less than work
function of the wooden block. Hence no photon electrons are emitted.

19. Following table gives values of work function for a few photosensitive metal.

If each metal is exposed to radiation of wavelength 300nm which of them will not
emit photo electron.

Ans: Mo will not emit photo electron , because its work function is more
than 4 eV.

20. An electron and alpha particle and proton have same kinetic energy , which have
shortest de-Broglie wavelength?

Ans: Alpha particles due to its largest mass.

21. The de-Broglie wave length associated with proton and neutron are equal.
Which has greater kinetic energy?

Ans: R 1/q

22. A stream of electron travelling with a speed at right angle to a uniform electric
field E, is deflected in a circular path of radius r. Prove that e/m = v2/rE.

Ans: Ee = Mv2/r

23. If the potential difference used to accelerate electron is doubled, by what factor
the de - Broglie wave length of the electron beam changed?

Ans: = /2

24. The de-Broglie wave length associated with an electron accelerated through the
potential difference V is . What will be its wave length, when accelerating
potential is increased to 4V?

Ans: / 2

25. Visible light cannot eject photo electrons from copper surface, whose work
function is 4.4 ev , why? Prove mathematically.

Ans: = hc/ = 2823 A0

23