Transistor Biasing and Thermal Stabilization:

The basic function transistor is to do amplification. The process of raising the strength of a weak
signal without any change in its shape is known as faithful amplification. For faithful
amplification, the following three conditions must be satisfied:

i) The emitter-base junction should be forward biased,

ii) The collector-base junction should be reverse biased.
iii) There should be proper zero signal collector current (fixing of proper operating point). The
value of zero signal collector current should be at least equal to the maximum collector current
due to signal alone

The term biasing means the application of dc voltages establish a set of d.c. voltage VCEQ and
current ICQ to operate the transistor in the active region. These voltages and currents are called
quiescent values which determine the operating point (or) Q-Point for the transistor.

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector-emitter
voltage during the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing. The basic purpose of
transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter junction properly forward biased and collector-base
junction properly reverse biased during the application of signal The circuit which provides
transistor biasing is known as biasing circuit.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 1

Common Emitter Amplifier

One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration of an NPN transistor is called a Class A
Amplifier. A "Class A Amplifier" operation is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased
in such a way that the transistor is always operating halfway between its cut-off and saturation
regions, thereby allowing the transistor amplifier to accurately reproduce the positive and
negative halves of any AC input signal superimposed upon this DC biasing voltage.
The Output Characteristics Curves relates the output collector current, (Ic) to the collector
voltage, (Vce) when different values of Base current, (Ib) are applied to the transistor for
transistors with the same value.
VCC VCE
Collector current IC =
RL

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 2

 VCC 0 VCC
When (VCE = 0) IC = ; IC =
RL RL
VCC VCE
When (IC = 0) 0= ; VCC = VCE
RL

Also, a straight line representing the Load Line of the transistor can be drawn directly onto the
graph of curves above from the point of "Saturation" ( A ) when Vce = 0 to the point of "Cut-off"
( B ) when Ic = 0 thus giving us the "Operating" or Q-point of the transistor. These two points
are joined together by a straight line and any position along this straight line represents the
"Active Region" of the transistor. The slope of this load line is equal to the reciprocal of the load
resistance which is given as 1/RL.

How to choose the operating point on DC load line:

The transistor acts as an amplifier when it is operated in active region. After the d.c. conditions
are established in the circuit, when an a.c. signal is applied to the input, the base current varies
according to the amplitude of the signal and causes IC to vary consequently producing an output
voltage variation. This can be seen from output characterizes.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 3

Consider point which is the midpoint of the DC load line then the output signal will not be
distorted. Thus always the operating point is chosen as the midpoint of the DC load line.
Operating point is near the maximum voltage and power level. If a signal is applied to the circuit,
the device will vary in current and voltage from the operating point. Therefore, this point is the
optimal operating point in terms of linear gain and largest possible voltage and current swing.

Stabilisation

The collector current in a transistor changes rapidly when

(i) The temperature changes,
(ii) The transistor is replaced by another of the same type. This is due to the inherent variations
of transistor parameters.

When the temperature changes or the transistor is replaced, the operating point (i.e. zero signal IC
and VCE) also changes. However, for faithful amplification, it is essential that operating point
remains fixed. This necessitates making the operating point independent of these variations. The
process of making operating point independent of temperature changes or variations in transistor
parameters is known as stabilisation.

Need for stabilisation.

Stabilisation of the operating point is necessary due to the following reasons :
(i) Temperature dependence of IC
(ii) Individual variations
(iii) Thermal runaway

(i) Temperature dependence of IC. The collector current IC for CE circuit is given by:
IC = IB + ICEO = IB + ( + 1) ICBO
i) The ICO doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature.
ii) Increase of with increase of temperature.
iii) The VBE decreases about 2.5mV per oC increase in temperature.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 4

Individual variations:
When a transistor is replaced by another transistor of the same type, the values of and VBE are
not exactly the same. Hence the operating point is changed. So it is necessary to stabilize the
operating point irrespective of individual variations in transistors parameters.

(iii) Thermal runaway.

The collector current for a CE configuration is given by :
IC = IB + ICEO = IB + ( + 1) ICBO

In a semiconductor device, the reverse saturation current changes with the change in
temperature. Moreover, the reverse saturation current doubles for every 10C rise in temperature.
It is because of the fact that if the temperature of the collector-base junction increases, the
leakage current of the transistor also increases and as a result the collector current increases. This
increase in collector current produces an increase in the power dissipation at the collector-base
junction. This in turn further increases the temperature of the collector-base junction causing the
collector current to further increase. The process may be cumulative and it is possible that the
ratings of the transistor may be exceeded. If it happens, the device gets burned out. This process
is described as Thermal Runaway in a Transistor. In actual practice, a thermal runaway is
avoided by using a stabilization circuit or a heat sink with the transistor.

The following two techniques are used for stabilization.

1) Stabilization techniques:
The technique consists in the use of a resistive biasing circuit which permits such a variation of
base current IB as to maintain IC almost constant in spite of ICO, and VBE.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 5

2) Compensation techniques:
In this technique, temperature sensitive devices such as diodes, thermistors and sensistors etc.,
are used. Such devices produce compensating voltages and current in such a way that the
operating points maintained stable.

Stability Factor

It is desirable and necessary to keep IC constant in the face of variations of ICBO (sometimes
represented as ICO). The extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in achieving this goal is
measured by stability factor S.

The rate of change of collector current IC w.r.t. the collector leakage current *ICO at constant
and IB is called stability factor i.e.

= at constant and

The stability factor indicates the change in collector current IC due to the change in collector
leakage current ICO. The ideal value of S is 1 but it is never possible to achieve it in practice.

The general expression of stability factor for a C.E. configuration can be obtained as under:
IC = IB + ICEO
IC = IB + (1+ ) ICBO
IC = IB + (1+ ) ICBO
IB ICBO
1= + (1+ )
IC IC
IB ICBO
1- = (1+ )
IC IC

IB
ICBO 1 IC
=
IC (1 + )
(+ )
= =

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 6

Stability factors:
Since there are three variables which are temperature dependent, we can define three stability
factors as below:

i) S: The stability factor S is defined as the ration of change of collector current IC with respect
to the reverse saturation current ICO, keeping and VBE constant

= , constant; = , constant

ii) : The stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of IC with respect to VBE, keeping
ICO and constant i.e.,

= , constant; = , constant

iii) ": The stability factor " is defined as the rate of change of IC with respect to , keeping ICO
and VBE constant i.e.,

" = , constant " = , constant

Methods of Biasing:
Some of the methods used for providing bias for a transistor are as follows:
1) Fixed bias (or) base resistor method.
2) Collector to base bias (or) biasing with feedback resistor.
3) Voltage divider bias.

Fixed bias (or) base resistor method

The fixed-bias circuit is the simplest transistor dc bias configuration. In this method, a high
resistance RB is connected between positive terminals of supply VCC and base of the transistor.
Here the required zero signal base current flows through RB and is provided by VCC. The base-
emitter junction is forward biased. By a proper selection of RB, the required zero signal base
current (and hence IC=IB) can be made to flow.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 7

Base circuit:
VCC - IBRB VBE = 0
VCC VBE VCC VCC VBE
IB = RB =
RB RB IB

Once RB is selected, IB is fixed. Hence it is called fixed bias circuit.

Collector circuit:
VCC IC Rc VCE = 0
VCC VCE VCC VCE
IC = RC=
RC IC

IC = IB + ICEO
IC = IB + (1+ ) ICBO

Stability factor S for Common Emitter Configuration

(1+ )
= = IB
1
IC

VCC IB
Since IB ; = 0;
RB IC
(1+ )
= = ; = (1 + )
10

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 8

Since the value of is very large, the stability factor is very large and hence it is a poor bias
stable circuit. Practically, stability factor should have the value as minimum as possible for
better thermal stability

Stability factor
IC = IB + (1+ ) ICBO
VCC VBE
IC = + (1+ ) ICBO
RB
VCC VBE
IC = - + (1+ ) ICBO
RB RB
IC
S = =0- +0
VBE RB

= -
RB

Stability factor "

IC = IB + (1+ ) ICBO IC

" = = IB + ICBO

IC
" = IB =

Advantages of fixed bias circuit:

(i) This biasing circuit is very simple as only one resistance RB is required.
(ii) Biasing conditions can easily be set and the calculations are simple.
(iii) There is no loading of the source by the biasing circuit since no resistor is employed across
base-emitter junction.
.
Disadvantages of fixed bias circuit:
1. This method provides poor stabilisation. It is because there is no means to stop a self increase
in collector current due to temperature rise (IC = IB + ICEO).

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 9

2. When the transistor is replaced by another with different value of , the operating point will
shift i.e., the stabilization of operating point is very poor in fixed bias circuit. (IC = IB). The
value of will vary from one unit to another unit.

3. The stability factor is very high. Therefore, there are strong chances of thermal runaway.

Collector to base bias (or) biasing with feedback resistor

In this method, the biasing resistor is connected between the collector and the base of the
transistor. IB flows through RB and (IB + IC) flows through Rc

Here, the required zero signal base current is determined not by VCC but by the collector base
voltage VCB. If there is a change in due to piece variation or if there is a change in and ICO
due to change in temperature, the collector current Ic tends to increase (IC = IB + ICEO). The
voltage drop across RC increases. Since the voltage VCC is constant, due to increase in ICRC, VCE
decreases. Finally IB reduces. The collector current IC decreases and tends to maintain a stable
value of collector current, keeping the operating point Q fixed.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 10

Base circuit:

VCC (IB + IC) RC IB RB - VBE = 0

VCC = IC RC + IB RB + VBE (since IB<<IC)
VCC VBE Ic Rc VCC VBE IB Rc
RB = ; RB =
IB IB

vCE = vBE + vCB or vCB = vCE vBE

VCE VBE VCCVCE
RB = ; RC =
IB IC
VCE + IB RC VBE
IB =
(RB + RC )

Stability factor S

VCC (IB + IC) RC IB RB - VBE = 0

VCC = (RB + RC) IB + IC RC + VBE = 0
(VCC Ic RC ) VBE Ic RC VBE
IB = ; IB = - -
(RB + RC ) (RB + RC ) (RB + RC ) (RB + RC )
IB RC
=0- -0
IC (RB + RC )
(1+ )
= = IB ;
1
IC

(1+ )
= = RC ;
1
(RB + RC )

Collector to base bias circuit is having lesser stability factor than for fixed bias circuit. Hence
this circuit provides better stability than fixed bias circuit.

Stability factor

(VCC Ic RC VBE )
IC =
(RB + RC )

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 11

 VCC Ic RC VBE
IC = - -
(RB + RC ) (RB + RC ) (RB + RC )

Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. IC,

RC VBE
1= 0 - -
(RB + RC ) (RB + RC )IC
RC VBE
1+ =-
(RB + RC ) (RB + RC )IC
RB + RC +RC VBE
=-
(RB + RC ) (RB + RC )IC
IC
S = =
VBE RB + RC +RC

Voltage divider bias

In this method, the biasing is provided by three resistors R1, R2 and RE. The emitter resistance RE
provides stabilisation. The resistors R1and R2 acts as a potential divider giving a fixed voltage to
the base. If collector current increases due to change in temperature (or) change in , the emitter
current IE also increases and the voltage drop across RE increases, reducing the voltage difference
between base and emitter (VBE). Due to reduction in VBE, base current IB and hence collector
current IC is also reduces. Therefore, we can say that negative feedback exists in the emitter bias
circuit. This reduction in collector current IC compensates for the original change in IC.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 12

Circuit analysis.
Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base current IB is very small,
therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing through R2 is also I1.
Collector current Ic
VCC
I1 = ; Hence voltage across R2 is V2= [ ] R2
1 +2 R1 +R2

V2 = VBE + VE; V2 = VBE + IERE

V2 VBE V2 VBE
IE = ; Since IE = IC; IC =
Re Re

It is clear that IC does not at all depend upon . Though IC depends upon VBE but in practice V2
>> VBE so that IC is practically independent of VBE. Thus IC in this circuit is almost independent
of transistor parameters and hence good stabilisation is ensured. It is due to this reason that
potential divider bias has become universal method for providing transistor biasing.

Collector circuit
VCC = IC RC + VCE + IE RE
VCC = IC (RC + RE ) + VCE
VCE = VCE - IC (RC + RE )

Stability Factor for Self Bias or Voltage Divider Bias

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 13

 R1 R2 VCC R2
RBB = ; VBB =
R1 +R2 R1 +R2

VBB IBRB - VBE - IERE = 0

VBB = IBRB + VBE + IERE = 0
VBB = IBRB + VBE + ( + ) RE = 0
Differentiating w.r.t IC, we get
IB IB
0 =R B + 0 + RE + RE
IC IC
IB
0 =R B (R B +R E ) + R E
IC
IB
=
IC (RB +RE )
(1+ )
= = IB ;
1
IC

IB
Substituting the value of we get
IC
(1+ ) (1+ )
= = I = RE
1 B 1
(RB +RE )
IC

(1+ ) (1+ )
= = RE = RE
1 1+
(RB +RE ) (RB +RE )

(1+ ) (1+ )(RB +RE )

= RE = (RB +RE )+RE
1+
(RB +RE )

R
(1+ )(RB +RE ) (1+ )(1+ B )
RE
= (1+ )RE +RB
= RB
(1+ )+
RE

For greater thermal stability, the value of S should be small. This can be achieved by making
RB /RE small. If RB /RE is made very small, then it can be neglected as compared to 1.
(1+ )
(1+ )
1

This is the ideal value of S and leads to the maximum thermal stability. The ratio RB /RE can be
made very small by decreasing RB and increasing RE.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 14

Bias Compensation Techniques:

The operating collector current Ic in a transistor amplifier can be stabilized w r t the variations
in Ico, VBE and by using any of the biasing circuits.
Using compensation techniques drift of the operating point can be reduced
Stabilization techniques refer to the use of resistive biasing circuits which permit IB to vary so
as to keep IC relatively constant
Compensation techniques use temperature sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors,
thermistors, sensistors etc., to compensate for the variation in currents.

The following are some Bias compensation techniques:

1) Diode compensation for instability due to VBE variation.
2) Diode compensation for instability due to ICO variation.
3) Thermistor compensation.
4) Sensistor compensation.

1) Diode compensation for instability due to VBE variation.

For germanium transistor, changes in ICO with temperature contribute more serious problem than
for silicon transistor. On the other hand, in a silicon transistor, the changes of VBE with
temperature possesses significantly to the changes in IC. A diode may be used as compensation
element for variation in VBE (or) ICO.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 15

The diode D used here is of the same material and type as the transistor. Hence the voltage VD
across the diode has same temperature coefficient (-2.5mV/oC) as VBE of the transistor. The
diode D is forward biased by the source VDD and resistor RD. Since variation in VBE with
temperature is the same as the variation in VD with temperature, hence the quantity (VBE-VD)
remains constant. So the current IC remains constant in spite of the variation in VBE.

2) Diode compensation for instability due to ICO variation:

Consider the transistor amplifier circuit with diode D used for compensation of variation in
ICO. The diode D and the transistor are of the same type and same material

In this circuit diode is kept in reverse biased condition. The reverse saturation current IO of the
diode will increase with temperature at the same as the transistor collector saturation current ICO.

VCC VBE VCC

I= = constant
R R
The diode D is reverse biased by VBE. So the current through D is the reverse saturation current
IO. Now base current IB = I- IO

But IC = IB + (1+ ) ICO

IC = (I- IO) + (1+ ) ICO
IC I- IO + ICO
In the above expression, I is almost constant and if IO of diode D and ICO of transistor track each
other over the operating temperature range, then IC remains constant.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 16

3) Thermistor Compensation:
This method of transistor compensation uses temperature sensitive resistive elements, thermistor
rather than diodes (or) transistors. It has a negative temperature coefficient, its resistance
decreases exponentially with increasing temperature.

Slope of this curve =

RT
is the temperature coefficient for thermistor, and the slope is negative. With increase in
T

temperature, RT decreases. Hence voltage drop across it also decreases. Hence, VBE decreases
which reduces IB. This behavior will tend to offset the increase in collector current with
temperature.
We know that IC = IB + (1+ ) ICBO
In this equation, there is increase in ICBO and decreases in IB which keeps IC almost constant.

4) Sensistor Compensation:

This method of transistor compensation uses sensistor, which is temperature sensitive resistive
element. Sensistor has a positive temperature coefficient, i.e., its resistance across RS increases
exponentially with increasing temperature.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 17


Slope of this curve =

RT
is the temperature coefficient for sensistor, and the slope is positive. As voltage drop across
T

R decreases, IB decreases. It means, when ICBO increases with increase in temperature, IB reduces
due to variation in VBE, maintaining IC fairly constant.

JFET Fixed Bias/ Gate Bias/ DC Bias

VDD = VDS + ID (RD + RS)

Source terminal is grounded, gate is biaswed via resiastor R G to negative supply ( VGS = -VG)
thus providing high input impedance, Drain terminal is connected to +VDD via RD. The gate to
source voltage remains constant. RG oes not effect the bias but VGS serts the value of ID in JFET.
The value of ID depends upon the transfer characterisitcs of JFET.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 18

Self Bias

The voltage across RS = Vs = ID R S

Since gate current is zero,
VG = VGS + VS;
VGS = VG - VS;
VGS = 0 - VS; VGS = - ID R S
VGS becomes negative,
VDD VDS
VDD - VDS = ID (RD + RS); RD =
ID

VDS = VD - VS = (VDD - ID RD) (IDRS);

VDS = VDD - ID (RD + RS);

JFET Voltage Divider Bias

The amplifier circuit consists of an N-channel JFET, The JFET gate voltage Vg is biased through
the potential divider network set up by resistors R1 and R2 and is biased to operate within its
saturation region which is equivalent to the active region of the bipolar junction transistor. The
junction FET takes virtually no input gate current allowing the gate to be treated as an open
circuit. This negative voltage is provided by biasing from a separate power supply voltage or by
a self biasing arrangement as long as a steady current flows through the JFET even when there is
no input signal present and Vg maintains a reverse bias of the gate-source pn junction.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 19

The efficiency of the common source JFET amplifier can be improved by the addition of a
resistor, Rs included in the source lead with the same drain current flowing through this resistor.
When the JFET is switched fully ON a voltage drop equal to (RsxId) is developed across this
resistor raising the potential of the source terminal above 0v or ground level. This voltage drop

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 20

across Rs due to the drain current provides the necessary reverse biasing condition across the
gate resistor, R2 effectively generating negative feedback. In order to keep the gate-source
junction reverse biased, the source voltage, Vs needs to be higher than the gate voltage, Vg. This
source voltage is therefore given as:
VDD R2
VG = ;
R1 +R2

Vs = ID R S
VG = VGS + VS;
VG = VGS + ID R S ;
VGS = VG - ID R S ;
The circuit is designed such that Vs = ID R S is always greater than VG, such that VGS is always
negative. Both the resistor Rs and the source by-pass capacitor Cs serve basically the same
function as the emitter resistor and capacitor in the common emitter bipolar transistor amplifier
circuit, namely to provide good stability and prevent a reduction in the loss of the voltage gain.

Prepared by I Krishna Rao (Associate Professor ECE Dept) Page 21