EASA Part 66 Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals Part A PDF

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Index
1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE ................................................................. 1-1

1.1 MATTER ................................................................................ 1-1
1.1.1 States of Matter...................................................... 1-1
1.1.2 Chemical classification of matter............................ 1-1
1.1.3 Atomic classification of matter................................ 1-1
1.2 MOLECULES .......................................................................... 1-2
1.3 ATOMS ................................................................................. 1-2
1.3.1 The Structure of an Atom ....................................... 1-3
1.3.2 The Fundamental Particles .................................... 1-3
1.3.3 Particle function ..................................................... 1-4
1.3.4 ions ........................................................................ 1-5
1.4 ELECTRICAL MATERIALS ......................................................... 1-5
1.4.1 Electron distribution ............................................... 1-6
1.4.2 Ionisation................................................................ 1-7
1.4.3 Energy levels ......................................................... 1-7
1.4.4 Conductors............................................................. 1-7
1.4.5 Insulators ............................................................... 1-7
1.4.6 Semi-conductors .................................................... 1-7
2 STATIC ELECTRICITY ................................................................. 2-1
2.1 ATTRACTION & REPULSION ..................................................... 2-3
2.2 UNIT OF CHARGE ................................................................... 2-3
2.3 STATIC ELECTRICITY & AIRCRAFT ............................................ 2-3
3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY .................................................... 3-1

3.1 VOLTAGE .............................................................................. 3-1
3.1.1 Potential ................................................................. 3-1
3.1.2 Potential Difference ................................................ 3-1
3.1.3 Electromotive Force emf ..................................... 3-2
3.2 CURRENT .............................................................................. 3-2
3.2.1 Movement of charge .............................................. 3-2
3.2.2 Conventional flow................................................... 3-3
3.2.3 Electron flow .......................................................... 3-3
3.3 RESISTANCE ......................................................................... 3-3
3.3.1 Factors affecting resistance ................................... 3-4
3.3.2 Units of resistance ................................................. 3-4
3.4 CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY ........................................ 3-4
4 PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY ................................................ 4-1
4.1 BY FRICTION .......................................................................... 4-1
4.2 BY PRESSURE ....................................................................... 4-1
Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
4.3 BY MAGNETISM ...................................................................... 4-2

4.4 BY HEAT ............................................................................... 4-2
4.5 BY LIGHT ............................................................................... 4-3
4.6 BY CHEMICAL ACTION ............................................................. 4-3
5 CELLS & BATTERIES.................................................................. 5-1

5.1 PRINCIPLES ........................................................................... 5-1
5.1.1 Cell & Battery symbols ........................................... 5-1
5.1.2 Construction & chemical action .............................. 5-1
5.1.3 Primary & secondary cells...................................... 5-2
5.1.4 Cell emf .................................................................. 5-2
5.1.5 Cell capacity........................................................... 5-3
5.1.6 Interconnection of cells .......................................... 5-3
5.2 LEAD ACID BATTERIES ............................................................ 5-4
5.2.1 Conventional construction ...................................... 5-4
5.2.2 Solid block type construction.................................. 5-5
5.2.3 Chemical action ..................................................... 5-6
5.2.4 Voltage & Specific Gravity characteristics .............. 5-7
5.2.5 Common lead acid battery faults............................ 5-7
5.3 NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES .................................................. 5-8
5.3.1 Construction ........................................................... 5-8
5.3.2 Chemical action ..................................................... 5-9
5.3.3 Advantages & disadvantages................................. 5-10
5.3.4 Thermal runaway ................................................... 5-11
5.4 SMALL ALKALINE CELLS .......................................................... 5-11
6 OHMS LAW ................................................................................. 6-1

6.1 TRANSPOSITION OF OHMS LAW ............................................... 6-1
6.2 THE OHMS LAW TRIANGLE ...................................................... 6-2
7 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS .............................. 7-1

7.1 CONNECTING METERS TO A CIRCUIT ........................................ 7-1
7.1.1 Voltmeters .............................................................. 7-1
7.1.2 Ammeters............................................................... 7-2
7.1.3 Ohmmeters ............................................................ 7-2
7.2 ANALOGUE MULTIMETERS ....................................................... 7-3
7.2.1 DC voltage measurements..................................... 7-4
7.2.2 DC current measurements ..................................... 7-5
7.2.3 DC high-current measurement ............................... 7-6
7.2.4 AC voltage measurements ..................................... 7-7
7.2.5 Resistance measurements..................................... 7-7
7.2.6 Continuity testing ................................................... 7-9
7.2.7 Battery testing ........................................................ 7-10
7.2.8 DO's & DON'Ts of using an analogue multimeter .. 7-10

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.3 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS ........................................................... 7-12

7.3.1 DC voltage measurements..................................... 7-13
7.3.2 DC current measurements ..................................... 7-13
7.3.3 High current measurements ................................... 7-14
7.3.4 AC voltage measurements ..................................... 7-14
7.3.5 Resistance measurements..................................... 7-15
7.3.6 Capacitor measurements ....................................... 7-15
7.3.7 Continuity testing ................................................... 7-16
7.3.8 DO's & DON'Ts of using a digital multimeter.......... 7-16
8 RESISTANCE & RESISTORS ...................................................... 8-1
8.1 RESISTIVITY .......................................................................... 8-1
8.2 CHANGES OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE ........................ 8-1
8.3 TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE .......................... 8-2
8.4 RESISTORS ........................................................................... 8-3
8.4.1 Fixed resistors........................................................ 8-3
8.4.2 Colour codes .......................................................... 8-4
8.4.3 Preferred values and tolerances ............................ 8-5
8.4.4 Letter & digit codes ................................................ 8-6
8.4.5 Power rating ........................................................... 8-6
8.4.6 Potentiometers ....................................................... 8-7
8.4.7 Rheostats ............................................................... 8-7
8.4.8 Voltage Dependent Resistors ................................ 8-7
8.5 THERMISTORS ....................................................................... 8-7
9 RESISTORS IN DC CIRCUITS ..................................................... 9-1

9.1 RESISTORS IN SERIES ............................................................ 9-1
9.1.1 Kirchoffs Second Law............................................ 9-2
9.1.2 Voltage division ...................................................... 9-3
9.1.3 The Potential Divider .............................................. 9-3
9.1.4 Voltages relative to Earth ....................................... 9-4
9.2 INTERNAL RESISTANCE ........................................................... 9-4
9.3 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL ........................................................ 9-6
9.3.1 Two resistors in parallel ......................................... 9-7
9.3.2 Equal resistors connected in parallel ..................... 9-7
9.3.3 Effective value of resistors in parallel ..................... 9-8
9.3.4 Resistor size and current flow ................................ 9-8
9.3.5 Kirchoffs First Law ................................................. 9-8
9.4 RESISTORS IN SERIES / PARALLEL COMBINATIONS ..................... 9-9
9.4.1 Physical arrangement of resistors .......................... 9-9
9.4.2 Solution of resistor networks using Ohms Law...... 9-9
9.5 THE EFFECTS OF OPEN CIRCUITS............................................. 9-11
9.6 THE EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUITS ........................................... 9-12

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
10 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE ...................................................... 10-1

10.1 CONSTRUCTION ..................................................................... 10-1
10.2 CALCULATING UNKNOWN RESISTANCES ................................... 10-1
10.3 USES ON AIRCRAFT ................................................................ 10-2
11 ENERGY & POWER IN DC CIRCUITS ........................................ 11-1
11.1 ELECTRICAL WORK ................................................................ 11-1
11.2 ELECTRICAL ENERGY ............................................................. 11-1
11.3 ELECTRICAL POWER............................................................... 11-2
11.4 POWER RATINGS ................................................................... 11-2
11.4.1 Power ratings of resistors....................................... 11-3
11.4.2 Size and power rating ............................................ 11-3
11.4.3 The Kilowatt Hour .................................................. 11-3
11.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER .................................................. 11-4
12 CAPACITANCE & CAPACITORS ................................................ 12-1
12.1 CHARGING A BODY ................................................................. 12-1
12.2 THE BASIC CAPACITOR ........................................................... 12-2
12.3 CAPACITANCE ....................................................................... 12-2
12.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE ........................................ 12-3
12.5 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR ........................................... 12-4
12.6 CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION ................................................... 12-4
12.6.1 Fixed capacitors ..................................................... 12-4
12.6.2 Variable capacitors ................................................ 12-4
12.6.3 Electrolytic capacitors ............................................ 12-4
12.6.4 Safe working voltage .............................................. 12-4
12.7 CAPACITOR SYMBOLS............................................................. 12-6
13 CAPACITORS IN DC CIRCUITS .................................................. 13-1
13.1 CAPACITORS IN SERIES .......................................................... 13-1
13.2 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL ...................................................... 13-2
13.3 CAPACITORS IN SERIES / PARALLEL COMBINATIONS ................... 13-3
13.4 CHARGE & DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS ............................... 13-3
13.4.1 Charging a capacitor .............................................. 13-3
13.4.2 Time Constant........................................................ 13-4
13.4.3 Discharging a capacitor.......................................... 13-5
13.4.4 A capacitor in a dc circuit ....................................... 13-6
13.5 THE EFFECTS OF OPEN & SHORT CIRCUITS ............................... 13-6
13.6 SAFETY & TESTING ................................................................ 13-6
13.7 CIRCUITS INVOLVING CAPACITIVE DECAY .................................. 13-7
14 MAGNETISM ................................................................................ 14-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
14.1 MAGNETIC THEORIES ............................................................. 14-1

14.1.1 Molecular Theory ................................................... 14-1
14.1.2 Domain Theory ...................................................... 14-1
14.2 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES.......................................................... 14-2
14.2.1 Magnetic poles ....................................................... 14-2
14.2.2 Magnetic field ......................................................... 14-2
14.2.3 Lines of flux ............................................................ 14-3
14.3 THE EARTHS FIELD ................................................................ 14-4
14.4 MAGNETIC MATERIALS ............................................................ 14-4
14.4.1 Ferromagnetic materials ........................................ 14-4
14.4.2 Paramagnetic materials ......................................... 14-5
14.4.3 Diamagnetic materials............................................ 14-5
14.5 PRODUCTION OF A MAGNET .................................................... 14-5
14.5.1 Stroke method........................................................ 14-5
14.5.2 Induction ................................................................ 14-6
14.5.3 Use of electrical current ......................................... 14-7
15 ELECTROMAGNETISM ............................................................... 15-1
15.1 PRODUCTION OF A BAR MAGNET .............................................. 15-1
15.1.1 End Rule ................................................................ 15-2
15.1.2 Right Hand Gripping Rule ...................................... 15-2
15.2 THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT .......................................................... 15-2
15.2.1 Magnetomotive force (mmf) ................................... 15-2
15.2.2 Magnetising force ................................................... 15-2
15.2.3 Flux & Flux density ................................................. 15-3
15.2.4 Permeability ........................................................... 15-3
15.2.5 Reluctance ............................................................. 15-4
15.2.6 Composite paths and airgaps ................................ 15-4
15.3 BH CURVE ............................................................................. 15-5
15.4 HYSTERESIS LOOP ................................................................. 15-5
15.5 COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL & MAGNETIC CIRCUITS ................ 15-7
15.6 MAGNETIC SCREENING ........................................................... 15-8
16 INDUCTION .................................................................................. 16-1
16.1 ELECTRICITY FROM MAGNETISM .............................................. 16-1
16.1.1 Factors affecting induced emf ................................ 16-1
16.1.2 Faradays Law ........................................................ 16-2
16.1.3 Lenzs Law ............................................................. 16-2
16.1.4 Flemings Right Hand Rule ..................................... 16-3
16.2 SELF INDUCTANCE ................................................................. 16-3
16.3 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE............................................................. 16-4
16.4 COUPLING FACTOR ................................................................ 16-5
16.5 ENERGY STORED IN MAGNETIC FIELD ....................................... 16-5

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
16.5.1 Spark suppression ................................................. 16-5

17 INDUCTORS ................................................................................. 17-1
17.1 CONSTRUCTION ..................................................................... 17-1
17.2 INDUCTOR SYMBOLS .............................................................. 17-2
18 INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS .................................................... 18-1
18.1 INDUCTORS IN SERIES ............................................................ 18-1
18.2 INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL ........................................................ 18-1
18.3 INDUCTORS IN A DC CIRCUIT ................................................... 18-2
18.3.1 When dc current is applied..................................... 18-2
18.3.2 Time constant ........................................................ 18-3
18.3.3 The Effects of back emf on circuit current .............. 18-4
18.3.4 When dc current is removed .................................. 18-5
18.3.5 Safety ..................................................................... 18-6
19 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS ..................................................................... 19-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1.1 MATTER
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and may be classified in a
number of ways.
1.1.1 STATES OF MATTER
There are three normal states of matter:

Solid. A solid has definite mass, volume and shape.
Liquid. A liquid has definite mass and volume but takes the shape of its
container.
Gas. A gas has definite mass but takes the volume and shape of its
container.
1.1.2 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
From a chemical view we again have three divisions:

Elements. An element is a substance which cannot by any known chemical
process be split into two or more chemically simpler substances.
Eg: Hydrogen; Oxygen; Copper; Iron; Aluminium; carbon.
Compounds. A compound is a substance which contains two or more
elements chemically joined together.
Eg: Water (Hydrogen and Oxygen); Salt (Sodium and Chlorine);
Sulphuric Acid (Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur).
Mixtures. A mixture consists of elements or compounds which are brought
together by a physical process.
Eg: Salt and Sand; Earth and Sawdust; Carbon and Iron Filings.
1.1.3 ATOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Material may also be classified according to the particles it contains, this is the
atomic view of matter. This view gives us a better understanding of electrical and
electronic phenomena and is the view we shall concentrate upon.
Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
1.2 MOLECULES
Let us take a piece of matter, for example, a drop of water and see what
happens when it is sub-divided into smaller and smaller portions.
The drop is first cut in half, each half drop-let halved and so on indefinitely. The
resulting smaller and smaller droplets will soon become invisible to the naked
eye, but it is known what happens if the process could be carried far enough; a
point would eventually be reached where the particles of water are of such a size
that further sub-division would split them into the hydrogen and oxygen of which
they are composed. These last minute particles of water are known as molecules
and are the smallest particles of water which can exist alone and still behave
chemically as water.
Every material is built-up from molecules and there are as many different
molecules as there are different substances in existence.
Molecules. The molecule of an element or compound is the smallest particle of it
which can normally exist separately. It consists of one or more atoms, of the
same or different types joined together. The term molecular structure is used
when compounds are discussed.
1.3 ATOMS
If a water molecule could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of
three smaller particles closely bound together. These three particles are ATOMS,
two of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The water is a compound, the oxygen and hydrogen are elements. Every
element has atoms of its own type. There are 92 naturally occurring elements
and therefore 92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of elements contain atoms of the
same types, for example the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of
hydrogen joined together, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen
joined together, but the molecules of compound contain different atoms joined
together.
Most molecules contain more than one atom but some elements can exist as
single atoms. In such a case the atom is also the molecule. For example the
Helium atom is also the Helium molecule.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical change. The term atomic structure is use when talking about
elements.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
1.3.1 THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
The Nucleus and Electrons. Atoms themselves are also composed of even
smaller particles. Let us take an atom of hydrogen as an example. A hydrogen
atom is very small indeed (about 10 10 in diameter), but if it could be magnified
sufficiently it would be seen to consist of a core or nucleus with a particle called
an electron travelling around it in an elliptical orbit.
The nucleus has a positive charge of electricity
and the electron an equal negative charge; thus
the whole atom is electrically neutral and the
electrical attraction keeps the electron circling
the nucleus. Atoms of other elements have
more than one electron travelling around the
nucleus, the nucleus containing sufficient
positive charges to balance the number of
electrons.
Protons and Neutrons. The particles in the nucleus carrying a positive charge
are called protons. In addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains
electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons have the same mass as
1
protons, whereas electrons are very much smaller only 1836 of the mass of a
proton
1.3.2 THE FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Although other atomic particles are known, the three fundamental ones are:
Protons. The proton has unit mass and carries a unit positive charge.
Neutron. The neutron has unit mass but no electrical charge.
1
Electron. The electron has only 1836 unit of mass but it carries a unit
negative charge.
Thus, although we have 92 types of naturally occurring atoms, they are all built-
up from different numbers of these three fundamental particles.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Thus our picture of the structure of matter is as shown below.
Material
Molecules
Hundreds of different kinds
Atoms
92 Natural types
Protons Neutrons Electrons
1.3.3 PARTICLE FUNCTION
1.3.3.1 Protons
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material:

Eg. Hydrogen 1 proton
Helium 2 protons
Lithium 3 protons
Beryllium 4 protons
etc
Copper 29 protons
etc
Uranium 92 protons
The number of protons is referred to a the atomic number, thus the atomic
number of copper is 29.
1.3.3.2 Neutrons
The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There
is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In fact
atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of neutrons. For example
chlorine may contain 18 20 neutrons in its nucleus.
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The weight
of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of the protons and the
neutrons.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
1.3.3.3 Electrons
The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The
electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and
hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical properties
of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical
attraction to the nucleus.
1.3.4 IONS
A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive charges (protons) and

negative charges (electrons). It is possible for an atom to gain or loose an
electron.
An atom (or possibly a group of atoms) which loses an electron has lost one of its
negative charges and is therefore left with an excess of one positive charge; it is
called a positive ion. An atom that gains an electron has an excess of negative
charge and is called a negative ion.
1.4 ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

Materials which allow an electric current to flow easily are known as conductors
and those which prevent the flow of an appreciable current are known as
insulators. Conductors and insulators are used in electrical circuits to provide
paths for and to control the flow of, electric current. Practically all normal
materials are either good conductors or good insulators. There are, however, a
few materials which fall between these two categories and these are called
semiconductors. Semiconductors will be studied in detail when we begin the
electronics phase of the course.
The best electrical conductor is silver, but for most purposes its high cost is
prohibitive so copper is the standard conductor material. Aluminium is an
alternative, but it is not such a good conductor. Brass, which is harder than
copper, is commonly used for terminals, switches etc. Tungsten and nickel are
used in the construction of lamps and thermionic valves.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
1.4.1 ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION
The atoms of a solid have electrons rotating in orbits around the positive nucleus.
This is true of gases and liquids as well. These orbiting electrons exist in energy
shells or levels.
The potential energy (energy of position) increases with distance out from the
nucleus. The outermost occupied energy level is called the valence shell. This is
a higher energy level than the energy levels of electrons in the other shells since
the electrons are rotating further from the nucleus.
The electrons in the valence shell can most easily pass from one atom to another
and thus constitute an electric current. Furthermore, the valence electrons are
the ones that go into chemical reactions, or combinations, with other atoms.
When an outside influence such as an electric field or heat is applied, a valence
electron may acquire sufficient energy to jump through a forbidden (energy) gap
and on into the conductor band where it is free of any influence of the positive
nucleus and becomes a carrier of electricity, ready to take the place of another
electron that has just left its own atom, in the same manner.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
1.4.2 IONISATION
If the amount of external energy is large enough the valence electron can gain
sufficient kinetic energy (energy of movement) to be removed completely from its
atomic orbit and may not be replaced by another accelerated electron. This
process is known as ionisation, since an atom which now contains one more
proton than can be neutralised by the remaining electrons is a positive ion. Gas-
filled devices such as Neon tubes make use of this process. In a solid where
atoms are close together, simple ionisation does not occur as with individual
items.
1.4.3 ENERGY LEVELS
The energy levels, measured in electron volts (e.v.) in which orbiting electrons
exist comply with a law of physics which states that energy can be given to
electrons only in discrete amounts (quanta) which means that there are energy
values that an electron cannot acquire. From this it can be deducted that there is
a forbidden energy gap between each of the allowed energy bands K to O.
The width of the forbidden energy gap between the top of the valence band and
the bottom of the conduction band determine the electrical conducting properties
of materials.
1.4.4 CONDUCTORS
Elements with 1 or 2 electrons in their outer orbits readily transfer them from atom
to atom, because there is an overlap between the valence and conduction bands.
Silver and copper elements are good conductors.
1.4.5 INSULATORS
Elements with 6 to 8 valence electrons cannot have electrons-in the conduction

bands because the forbidden gap is to large. Sulphur and rubber elements are
insulators.
1.4.6 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
The elements Germanium and Silicon have four electrons in their valence shells.
In conductivity they lie between good conductors and good insulators, ie; they are
semi-conductors.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Blank Page

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
2 STATIC ELECTRICITY
If electrons are removed from one material and placed on another, or if they are
moved from one region of a piece of material to another, we have a separation of
charge. The material, or area, that receives the electrons becomes negatively
charged and the material or region that loses electrons becomes positively
charged. If these accumulations of charge remain stationary after their transfer,
they are referred to as static electricity.
Common examples of static electricity are the small shock you get when you
touch a door handle having walked across a carpet, or the crackling you hear
when you remove certain items of clothing. In both cases electrons have moved
from one material to the other. This type of static charging between two or more
dissimilar materials is known as triboelectric charging and is a very important
factor in the design of aircraft and aircraft furnishings and equipment.
The nature and size of the charge produced depends on the materials, some
loose or gain electrons more easily than others. The Triboelectric series on the
next page list materials in the order in which they gain or loose electrons. The list
is arranged such that, if any two materials are selected and rubbed together the
one higher up the list will obtain a positive charge and the one lower down the list,
a negative charge. So if a glass rod is rubbed with fur, the rod will become
negatively charged, but if it is rubbed with nylon it will become positively charged.
When an insulating material is charged by rubbing it with another material, the
electrons are not free to move through the material. The charge therefore
remains at the point of friction. If a conductor is charged through rubbing, the
electrons are free to move and the charge will dissipate unless the conducting
material is insulated from its surroundings.
If two statically charged items are brought into contact with one another, electrons
will transfer from the more negative to the more positive one. This movement of
electrons constitutes a current flow, which will cease once the charges are equal.
The region around the charged body may be detected and is called an electric
field, the electric field is analogous to a magnetic field, which will be studied later
in the course. The electric field is represented in magnitude and direction by
electric lines of force. The density or magnitude of the force may be represented
by the number of lines, and the direction is indicated by arrows that point from
positive to negative.
Isolated positive and

negative charges

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Triboelectric Series
Air
Human Skin
Asbestos
Rabbit Fur
Glass
Mica
Human Hair
Increasingly Positive
Nylon
Wool
Fur
Lead
Silk
Aluminium
Paper
Cotton
Steel
Wood
Amber
Sealing Wax
Hard Rubber
Nickel, Copper
Brass, Silver
Gold, Platinum
Sulphur
Acetate Rayon
Increasingly Negative
Polyester
Celluloid
Orion
Saran
Polyurethane
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
PVC (vinyl)
Kelf (ctfe)
Silicon
Teflon

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
2.1 ATTRACTION & REPULSION

It can be observed, that if two negatively charged bodies are brought together,
there is a force of repulsion between them. Similarly if two positively charged
bodies are brought together there is a force of repulsion. However, if a positively
charged body is brought close to a negatively charged body, they attract each
other. Hence:
Like Charges Repel, Unlike Charges Attract.
The force of attraction or repulsion is governed by an inverse square law
2.2 UNIT OF CHARGE

The charge on an electron is very small, therefore a more practical unit of charge
called a Coulomb, has been chosen:
One Coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons
2.3 STATIC ELECTRICITY & AIRCRAFT

As mentioned earlier, the effects of static electricity are of considerable
importance in the design of aircraft and aircraft equipment. An aircraft in flight
picks up static charges as it flies through rain, cloud, snow, dust and other
particles in the atmosphere. This build-up of statics is referred to as
precipitation static.
The amount of charge that builds up in any particular part of the aircraft depends
on the atmospheric conditions to which it is subjected, and the material of which it
is made. If two adjacent pieces of material are able to build up charges at
different rates, a potential difference will exist between them. Eventually the
potential difference will be sufficient to break down the insulation and current will
jump as a spark between the 2 materials. This spark creates numerous
problems; it damages the materials, it causes corrosion, it radiates radio
frequencies that interfere with radio and navigation equipment and it could ignite
fuel or oil vapour. In order to prevent this happening, it is essential that all of the
aircraft structure and equipment is interconnected or bonded. Bonding allows
small currents to continuously flow between materials and equipment, thereby
preventing the build up of large static charges.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
An aircraft often accumulates very high electric charges, not only from
precipitation but also from the high velocity gases exiting the engine exhausts.
When the charge is sufficiently large, it will start to dissipate into the surrounding
atmosphere from any sharp or pointed parts of the aircraft, such as the trailing
edges of aerofoil sections. The point at which this occurs is called the corona
threshold. The corona discharge produces severe radio interference and needs
to be controlled. This is achieved using special devices called wicks, that allow
the charge to dissipate in a controlled manner from specific points on the aircraft
so that it causes minimum interference.
The subject of static electricity can be considered amusing or annoying when one
suffers from its effects. However, it must be taken very seriously by aircraft
maintenance engineers. The following are a few points to consider.
It essential to maintain the integrity of bonding when carrying out any
maintenance work on aircraft.
You can build up a charge on yourself as you move and work around the
aircraft. Much of the equipment in modern aircraft is electronic, and can
easily be destroyed by you discharging static through it.
When an aircraft is refuelled, is the refuel vehicle at the same potential as the
aircraft. If it isnt, then it could be possible for a spark to ignite fuel vapour as
the fuel nozzle comes into close proximity with the aircraft. It is essential that
the two vehicles are interconnected electrically before any hoses or fillers are
opened.
An aircraft in flight can have a potential several thousand volts higher than the
ground. This charge is dissipated through the tyres or special straps on the
undercarriage when the aircraft lands.
When an aircraft is inside a hangar for maintenance it should be correctly
grounded.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
3.1 VOLTAGE
Voltage is the electrical equivalent of mechanical potential. If a person drops a
rock from the first storey of a building, the velocity it will reach when dropped will
be fairly small. However, if the rock is dropped from the twentieth floor, it will
have reached a much greater velocity on reaching the ground. On the twentieth
floor the rock had much more potential energy.
The potential energy of an electrical supply is given by its voltage. The greater
the voltage of a supply source, the greater its potential to produce a current flow.
Thus, a 115 volt supply has 115 times the potential to produce a current flow than
a 1 volt supply.
3.1.1 POTENTIAL
If one coulomb of electrons is added to a body and one joule of work has been
done, then the body will acquire of potential of 1 volt. If the electrons had been
removed, then the body would have acquired a potential of +1 volt. The unit of
potential is the volt.
3.1.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
When charges move from one point to another, it is not the actual values of
potential at those points which are Important, but the potential different (pd)
through which the charge has travelled. Just as lifting weight in the gymnasium,
the height above sea level is not important, but the distance between the gym
floor and the height of ones body. In cases where an actual level of potential is
required, the zero of potential is taken as Earth and whenever the potential at a
point is given, it means the difference in potential between the point and the
earths surface.
If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of work to move it between two
points, then there is a potential difference of 1 volt between them. It is sometimes
helpful to think of potential difference as a difference of electrical pressure
forcing a current through a load.
If a current flows round a circuit, then a potential difference must exist between
any two points in that circuit and each point in the circuit must be at a different
potential. However because there is very little opposition to current flow in
conducting wires, very little potential difference is required to push the current
along the wires and it is normally assumed to be zero. Whenever the opposition
to current flow is not negligible, then a potential different exists across that
component to push the electrons through the device.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The converse is also true, if no current is flowing, then no potential difference

exists. The larger the potential difference the larger the current.
3.1.3 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE EMF
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the potential

different must be maintained. That is, the positive and negative charge must be
continuously replenished. A cell (or battery) uses chemical energy to maintain
the potential difference.
Another device used for this purpose is the generator, which uses electro-
mechanical energy to maintain the potential difference. The potential difference
across the terminals of the source (cell, battery or generator) when it is not
supplying current, is called Electromotive Force (emf), since this is a measure of
the force available to push electrons around the circuit. In a circuit with a current
flowing, the potential difference across the terminals of the source is always less
than the emf and is referred to as the terminal voltage.
3.2 CURRENT
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). Although it is known that electric current
is a flow of electrons, this flow cannot be measured directly.
3.2.1 MOVEMENT OF CHARGE
Although electric current is referred to as the flow of electrons through a

conductor, it should be noted that more exactly, any movement of electric charge
constitutes an electric current. Thus, passage of electricity may occur through a:
conductor such as metal, due to the movement of the loosely held outer
electrons of the atoms.
vacuum or gas, due to the movement of electrons.
gas, due to the movement of the ionised gas molecules.
liquid, due to the ionisation of certain molecules, particularly those of acids
and salts in solution (e.g. Electrolytes).
The ampere may be defined in terms of the mechanical units of force and length,
a more helpful picture is that of moving electrons. When a current of one ampere
is flowing in a conductor, one coulomb of charge passes any point in the
conductor every second.
The ampere is thus a measure if the rate of flow of electrons.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The Coulomb and the Ampere

Since one coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons, one ampere equals a flow rate of
6.29 x 1018 electrons per second,
Coulomb Q
Ampere = or I =
Seconds T
3.2.2 CONVENTIONAL FLOW
An applied emf causes directional flow. Using conventional flow the charge
carriers are considered to be positive, that is they leave the positive terminal of a
supply and return to the negative terminal.
This form of flow was decided upon before anybody knew exactly what current
flow was, however it is still widely used in Britain and will be assumed throughout
the course, unless stated otherwise.
3.2.3 ELECTRON FLOW
It is now known that current flow is a movement of negatively charged particles.

I.e., electrons. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
This form of flow is referred to as electron flow and is used extensively in the
United States.
3.3 RESISTANCE
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a conductor. The size of
current flowing through a conductor for a given applied voltage depends on:
The number of free electrons.
The opposition to free movement of the electrons caused by the structure of
the material.
These two factors taken together give an effective opposition to current flow
which is called resistance. To simplify matters it is usual to ignore the second
factor and equate good conductors to a large number of free electrons and poor
conductors to fewer free electrons. Hence, a good conductor is a material which
has low resistance, i.e. a large number of free electrons, and allows a large
current to flow. Conversely a poor conductor has a high resistance, i.e. few free
electrons and allows only a small current to flow for the same applied voltage.
Because the value of the current flowing is determined by the resistance in the
circuit, current flow can be controlled by varying the resistance.
Even the best conductors have resistance.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
3.3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
The four factors that affect the resistance of a wire conductor are:
Material. Some materials conduct better than others.
Length (). Resistance is directly proportional to length, thus if the length is
doubled (other factors remaining constant), resistance is doubled.
Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely proportional to A. Thus if
the cross sectional area is doubled, resistance is halved.
Temperature. Temperature affects the number of free electrons and hence
resistance.
3.3.2 UNITS OF RESISTANCE
Resistance is measured in ohms, symbol (omega). The resistance of a piece

of material is one ohm if a potential difference of one volt applied across it causes
a current of one ampere to flow.
3.4 CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY

The conductance, G of a material is the reciprocal of its resistance and is;
1 1 a
G = = =
R /a
The conductivity of a material is the reciprocal of its resistivity. It is given the

Greek symbol (sigma) and has the units siemens per metre (s/m).
Thus at 0C copper has a conductivity of;
1 1
= = = 64 52 10 6 s/m
1 55 10 -8
Conductance and conductivity are rarely used in the course, but a mention is
required.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
4 PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
Very large amounts of electrical energy lie dormant in the atoms of every speck of
material in the universe. Whilst the atoms remain electrically balanced however,
this electricity cannot be put to any practical use. What is needed is some form of
external energy that will separate the electrons from their nuclei. In this way, the
external energy that is applied will give rise to electrical energy.
There are six sources of external energy that are capable of separating the
electrons from their nuclei, these are friction, pressure, magnetism, heat, light and
chemical action.
4.1 BY FRICTION
Static electricity, that is the separation and build-up of charge is an everyday
phenomenon that is often caused by friction the physical stripping of electrons
from one body and depositing on another. Early examples in science were the
rubbing of a glass rod (which loses electrons and gains a positive charge) with a
silk stocking! (gains electrons, receives negative charge) and the rubbing of an
ebonite rod (receives negative charge) with cats fur (becomes positively
charged). Everyday examples are:
Combing the hair (dry). The comb attracts the individual hairs and the hairs
repel each other and stand on end.
Removing a shirt (especially nylon). The shirt crackles and sparks may be
seen, the shirt is also attracted to the body.
The receiving of electric shock from cars (also aircraft) when touching them
on the outside. Here the charge has been produced by the friction of air
passing around the vehicle.
The rapid collection of dust by records. The dust is attracted by the charge
built up on the record produced by friction of handling and playing.
Lightning flash is a result of the build up of static electricity in clouds.
Although not used to produce electricity for any aircraft systems, static
electricity is generated by friction as the aircraft moves through the air and
will therefore be considered at various points throughout the course.
4.2 BY PRESSURE
Certain crystals and semiconductors produce an emf between two opposite faces
when the mechanical pressure on them is either increased or decreased (the
polarity of the emf is reversed when the pressure changes from an increase to a
decrease). This emf is known as the piezoelectric emf.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
This effect is used in a number of devices including semi-conductor strain gauges

and vibration sensors. As the mechanical pressure on the crystal is altered, a
varying voltage which is related to the pressure is produced by the crystal. The
voltage can be as small as a fraction of a volt or as large as several thousand
volts depending on the crystal material and the pressure. Aircraft systems
employing the piezoelectric effect generally only produce very small emfs, the
very high voltages produced by materials such as lead zirconate titanate are used
in ignition systems for gas ovens and gas fires.
4.3 BY MAGNETISM
Magnetism itself is not used as the direct source of external energy. In a manner
which will be studied in great detail later in the course, large amounts of electrical
energy are produced by machines called generators. Energy is used to drive the
generator, which when it turns, makes use of the properties of magnetism to
produce the external energy necessary to break the electrons away from their
nuclei and so make it possible for electric current to flow.
4.4 BY HEAT
The Seebeck effect the thermocouple. When two different metals are
brought into contact with one another, it is found that electrons can leave one of
the metals more easily than they can leave the other metal. This is because of
the difference in what is known as the work function of the two metals. Since
electrons leave one metal and are gained by the other, a potential difference
exists between the two metals; thus the emf is known as the contact potential or
contact emf.
If two metals, say copper and iron, are joined at two points as shown in the
diagram above, and both junctions are at the same temperature, the contact
potentials cancel each other out and no current flows in the loop of wire.
However, Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770 1831) discovered that if the two
junctions are kept at different temperatures, there is a drift of electrons around the
circuit, that is to say, current flows.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The magnitude of the voltage produced by this method is small only a few
millivolts per degree centigrade but it is sufficient to be measured. The current
flow is a measure of the difference in temperature between the hot junction and
the cold junction.
Each junction is known as a thermocouple and if a number of thermocouples are
connected in series so that alternate junctions are hot and the other junctions
are cold, the total emf is increased; this arrangement is known as a thermopile.
On aircraft, thermocouples are used for temperature measurement and will be
examined in more detail at a later date.
4.5 BY LIGHT
The Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell. A photovoltaic cell generates an emf when
light falls onto it. Several forms of photovoltaic cell exist, one of the earliest types
being the selenium photovoltaic cell in which a layer of selenium is deposited on
iron and any light falling on the selenium produces an emf between the selenium
and the iron.
Modern theory shows that the junction at the interface between the two forms,
what is known as a semi-conductor p-n junction in which one of the materials is p-
type and the other is n-type. The most efficient photovoltaic cells incorporate
semi-conductor p-n junctions in which one of the regions is a very thin layer
(about 1m thick) through which light can pass without significant loss of energy.
When the light reaches the junction of the two regions it causes electrons and
holes to be released, to give the electrovoltaic potential between the two regions.
A better understanding of this action will be obtained later in the course when
semi-conductor materials and devices are studied.
4.6 BY CHEMICAL ACTION

The final method of producing electricity is by chemical action. It is the particular
kind of chemical action that takes place in electric cells and batteries which is
put to practical use in the production of electricity.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Blank Page

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
5 CELLS & BATTERIES

To study electrical principles further we require a source of emf. Although an emf
can be produced by any of the six methods discussed above, large amounts of
useable power can only be produced chemically or by generation. Generation
requires a more in depth study of magnetism and therefore cells and batteries will
be studied first.
On an aircraft, the battery may be used for engine starting, but far more
importantly, the battery is the source of emergency power when the generator
fails. Although aircraft battery systems and servicing will be studied at a later
date, battery principles and battery construction will be studied now and will not
be repeated.
5.1 PRINCIPLES
A Cell is a portable device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
A group of interconnected cells is known as a battery. Cells operate on a
principle of the exchange of charges between dissimilar metals.
5.1.1 CELL & BATTERY SYMBOLS
The circuit symbols for cells and batteries are shown below. To identify the
polarity of the terminals, a long thin line is used to represent the positive terminal
and a short thick line the negative terminal. Sometimes the terminal voltage is
indicated.
5.1.2 CONSTRUCTION & CHEMICAL ACTION
In cells, an electrolyte separates two charge collecting materials called

electrodes, to which external connections are made. The electrolyte pushes
electrons onto one of the plates and takes them off the other. This action results
in an excess of electrons, or a negative charge, on one plate and a loss of
electrons, or a positive charge, on the other plate.
Electrolytes are chemical solutions manufactured to allow the generation and free
movement of both types of ions, and are normally acid or alkaline pastes or
liquids.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The action of the electrolyte in carrying electrons from

one plate to the other is actually a chemical reaction
between the electrolyte and the two plates. This action
changes chemical energy into electrical charges on
the cell plates and terminals.
With nothing connected to the cell terminals, the

electrons would be pushed onto the negative plate
until there was no more room. At the same time the
electrolyte would take electrons from the positive plate
to make up for those it had pushed onto the negative
plate. Both plates would then be fully charged and the
movement of electrons would cease.
If a wire were connected between the negative and positive terminals of the cell,
electrons on the negative terminal would leave the terminal and travel through the
wire to the positive terminal. The electrolyte would carry more electrons across
from the positive plate to the negative plate. Whilst the electrolyte is carrying
electrons you would see the negative plate being used up and you would see
bubbles of gas at the positive plate.
5.1.3 PRIMARY & SECONDARY CELLS
In a primary cell, current will continue to flow until chemical action had dissolved
the negative plate into the electrolyte, at which point the cell would be exhausted
and of no further use.
In a secondary cell, the chemical action that takes place whilst the cell is
producing a current flow is reversible, enabling the cell to be re-used. The
process of reversing the chemical action is referred to as charging and entails
passing a current through the cell in the opposite direction to the discharge
current.
5.1.4 CELL EMF
The size of a cell has no bearing on the emf that it will produce, the generated
emf being determined solely by the materials used in its construction. Another
point to note is that the potential difference, or voltage measured across the
terminals of a cell, is not the same as the emf generated by the cell. The terminal
voltage of a cell depends on the:
internal resistance of the cell.
size of the discharge current.
charge state of the cell.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The size of the discharge current. As a general rule, whenever a cell is

providing current, the terminal voltage will be less than the cell emf. The
larger the discharge current, the greater the difference between the cell emf
and its terminal voltage.
The internal voltage of the cell. All sources of electricity have internal
resistance which affects the terminal voltage, this will be examined in more
detail later in the notes.
5.1.5 CELL CAPACITY
The amount of electrical energy that a cell can provide from new to the end of its
useful voltage on load is called the cell capacity and is quoted in Ampere-hours
(A-h).
Capacity varies with the amount of current drawn from the cell, the greater the
current the lower the capacity, therefore capacity is normally quoted at a standard
rate. The 1hr rate is the internationally accepted standard for Nickel Cadmium
cells, with 10 hr or 20 hr rates being used for Lead Acid cells.
A cell quoted at 40A-h at the 10 hr rate will provide 4 Amps continuously for 10
hours.
A battery quoted at 40A-h at the 1 hr rate will provide 40 Amps continuously for 1
hour.
A 40 A-h cell will only be able to provide a discharge current of 80 amps for
approximately 20 minutes, not 30 minutes as may be expected by calculation.
Similarly, it will be able to supply a discharge current of 20 amps for longer than
the expected 2 hrs.
The capacity of a cell is also affected by its age, the older a cell, the lower its
capacity, therefore the only way of determining actual capacity is to measure it.
5.1.6 INTERCONNECTION OF CELLS
Cells may be connected in series, parallel or any combination of the two in order
to form a battery. When cells are connected to form a battery they should be of
similar construction, and have the same terminal voltage, internal resistance and
capacity.
Series connection. When connected in series:
The battery voltage is the total of the individual cell voltages.
The battery resistance is equal to the total of the individual cell resistances.
The battery capacity is the same as the capacity of a single cell.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Parallel connection. When connected in parallel:

The battery voltage is the same as the voltage of a single cell.
The battery resistance is equal to the parallel total of the cell resistances.
The battery capacity is equal to the total of the individual cell capacities.
These rules can also be applied when connecting batteries together in series,
parallel or any combination of the two.
5.2 LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Lead acid cells have a nominal voltage of 2 Volts, therefore a typical 24V aircraft
battery would consist of 12 cells connected in series. The active material in the
positive plates is Lead Peroxide (Pb02) the negative plates, Spongy Lead (Pb).
The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid (2H2SO4).
5.2.1 CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION
There are two forms of Lead Acid battery construction, conventional and solid
block, often referred to as a Varley type battery.
In the conventional battery the plates consist of lead grids into which the active
materials are pressed. The positive and negative plates are then interleaved and
connected to a lug that forms both a mechanical support and the terminal.
Cells are generally constructed with an additional negative plate, making both
outside plates negative. This ensures that chemical action takes place on both
sides of each positive plate. When chemical action only takes place on one side
of a positive plate it tends to buckle.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The plate arrangement is then inserted into a composite material container which
is fitted with a lid. The inside of the container is ribbed to provide additional
support for the plates, which are raised clear of the bottom of the container to
prevent shorting by any sediment that forms.
To provide further support for the plates and to ensure they cannot touch,
separators are fitted, these were originally cedar wood but modern batteries use
micro-porous plastic materials.
Each cell is fitted with a special non spill valve that allows gasses to escape, but
prevents the spillage of electrolyte, this valve can be removed for checking and
adjusting the electrolyte level.
The electrolyte used is sulphuric acid diluted with pure distilled water, the specific
gravity of the electrolyte used is determined by the manufacturer, however, it is
generally lower than 1300.
5.2.2 SOLID BLOCK TYPE CONSTRUCTION
In the solid block type battery the electrolyte is completely absorbed into a
compressed block consisting of porous plates and separators.
The plates are completely supported and therefore a more porous active material
paste can be used, this gives better absorption and an enhanced electrochemical
activity.
The support given to the plates means practically no distortion and no shedding,
therefore no sludge gap is required, all the space inside the cells being used for
the plates.
All of these advantage result in a battery that is stronger, less susceptible to
vibration damage and has a higher capacity to weight ratio than its conventional
counterpart.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
5.2.3 CHEMICAL ACTION
When the lead acid battery is delivering current, the sulphuric acid breaks up into
Hydrogen ions (H2) carrying a positive charge and Sulphate ions (SO4) carrying a
negative charge. The SO4 ions combine with the lead plate (Pb) and form lead
sulphate (PbSO4). At the same time they give up their negative charge, thus
creating an excess of electrons on the negative plate.
The H2 ions go to the positive plate and combine with the oxygen of the lead
peroxide (PbO2) forming water (H2O), during the process they take electrons from
the positive plate. The lead of the lead peroxide combines with some of the SO4
ions to form lead sulphate on the positive plate.
The result of this action is a deficiency of electrons on the positive plate and an
excess of electrons on the negative plate.
When a circuit is connected to the battery, electrons flow from the negative plate
to the positive plate. This process will continue until both plates are coated with
lead sulphate. The lead sulphate is highly resistive, and it is mainly the formation
of the lead sulphate which gradually lowers the battery capacity until it is
discharged.
During charging, current is passed through the battery in a reverse direction. The
SO4 ions are driven back into solution in the electrolyte, where they combine with
the H2 ions of the water, thus forming sulphuric acid. The plates are thus returned
to their original compositions.
The sulphuric acid is effectively used up as the battery is discharged, and
returned to the electrolyte as it is charged, a test of the specific gravity of the
electrolyte will give a good indication of the state of charge of the battery.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
5.2.3.1 A simple overview of the charge and discharge characteristics
During discharge the plates are converted into lead sulphate, the water content of
the electrolyte increases, the internal resistance of the cell increases and the
terminal voltage decreases.
By passing a current through the battery in the opposite direction these effects
are reversed. The plates are converted back to their original form, the water
content of the electrolyte decreases, the internal resistance decreases and the
terminal voltage increases. The process of recharging takes approximately 8 to
10 hours.
During most of the charge and discharge cycle the battery terminal voltage
remains constant at 1.95V, it therefore gives no indication as to the batterys state
of charge.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte however changes at a regular rate as the
battery is charged, or discharged and can therefore be used to determine the
batterys state of charge.
5.2.4 VOLTAGE & SPECIFIC GRAVITY CHARACTERISTICS
The voltage and specific gravity figures for a lead acid battery are:
Fully charged and still connected to the charging board charge:
2.5 to 2.7 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG
Fully charged and off charge:
2.2 to 2.5 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG
Fully Discharged:
1.8 Volts 1150 SG
The battery will be damaged if allowed to go below the above discharged values.
5.2.5 COMMON LEAD ACID BATTERY FAULTS
Careful treatment of lead acid batteries prevents damage and early failure,
however, some common faults associated with lead acid batteries are:
Sulphation is the formation of hard, permanent lead sulphate on the plates and
appears as random greyish white patches. Sulphation causes an increase in the
internal resistance of the battery, leading to possible overheating and buckling of
the plates.
Sulphation is caused by continually undercharging the battery or by discharging
below 1.8 Volts or 1150 SG and is severe there is no cure, however if mild it can
sometimes be cured by giving the battery a long low charge.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Buckling is twisting and bending of the plates. Because the active material is
squeezed out of the plates the capacity of the battery may be reduced, if severe it
can lead to internal shorting of the battery.
Buckling is caused by excessive charge and discharge currents being imposed
on the battery and by the effects of sulphation.
There is no cure for buckling only prevention.
Sedimentation is the collection of discarded active material from the plates at the
bottom of the cell.
Sedimentation may result in shorting of the plates and complete loss of capacity,
slight shedding is normal in a well maintained battery.
5.3 NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES
5.3.1 CONSTRUCTION
The plates of a nickel cadmium battery are made by sintering a nickel plated steel
screen with nickel carbonyl powder. The resultant plaques are then impregnated
with the active materials, Nickel salts on the positive, cadmium salts on the
negative. The plaques are then placed in electrolyte and subjected to a small
current to convert them to their final form.
After washing and drying the plaques are cut into plates, each one having a
nickel tab welded to it. The plates are then stacked alternately to produce a cell.
Whilst producing the stack a continuous separator is wound between the plates to
prevent them shorting.
Terminals are then welded to the plates and the stack-up is inserted into its
container, which is sealed and pressure tested.
The separator used is normally a triple layer type, one layer of cellophane, two of
woven nylon cloth. Cellophane is used because it has a low resistance and is a
good barrier material, it prevents metal particles from shorting the plates whilst
allowing current to flow. The cellophane also acts as a gas barrier, preventing
oxygen given off by the positive plate during overcharge, from passing to the
negative plates. At the negative plates the oxygen combines with the cadmium,
reducing the cell voltage and producing heat.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The electrolyte, a solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled water, with a SG

of between 1240 and 1300, is then injected into the cell under a vacuum. Fitted to
the top of each cell is a special vent that allows the escape of gas but prevents
electrolyte spillage.
In a typical Ni-Cad battery the cells are mounted in a metal case that incorporates
2 venting outlets, carrying handles, a quick release connector and a lid. Each cell
is separated from its neighbour by its moulded plastic case and electrically
connected by nickel plated steel links between the terminals.
5.3.2 CHEMICAL ACTION
As the battery discharges, hydroxide ions (OH) from the electrolyte combine with
the cadmium in the negative plates and release electrons to the plate. The
cadmium is converted to cadmium hydroxide during the process. At the same
time, hydroxide ions from the nickel hydroxide positive plates go into the
electrolyte carrying extra electrons with them. Thus electrons are removed from
the positive plate and delivered to the negative plate during discharge.
The composition of the electrolyte remains a solution of potassium hydroxide
because hydroxide ions are added to the electrolyte as quickly as they are
removed. For this reason the specific gravity of the electrolyte remains essentially
constant at any state of charge. It is therefore impossible to use the specific
gravity as an indication of the charge state of the battery.
When the battery is charged, the hydroxide ions are caused to leave the negative
plate and enter the electrolyte. Thus the cadmium hydroxide of the negative plate
is converted back to metallic cadmium. Hydroxide ions from the electrolyte
recombine with the nickel hydroxide of the positive plates, and the active material
is brought to a higher state of oxidation. This process continues until all the active
material of the plates have been converted. If charging is continued, the battery
will be in overcharge, and the water in the electrolyte will be decomposed by
electrolysis. Hydrogen will be released at the negative plates and oxygen at the
positive plates. This combination of gases is highly explosive.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
5.3.2.1 A simple overview of the charge and discharge characteristics
During charging and discharging the electrolyte acts only as an ionised

conductor, transporting electrons from one plate to the other, its specific gravity
remaining constant.
On discharge the terminal voltage initially falls rapidly and then remains constant
for most of the discharge cycle, dropping rapidly again when the battery is nearly
fully discharged.
When charged, the terminal voltage initially rises rapidly and then settles to a
gradual increase. A second rapid rise takes place as the battery reaches the fully
charged condition, at this time gassing takes place, hydrogen being released at
the negative plates, oxygen at the positive plates, this combination of gases is
explosive. Prolonged gassing should be avoided as it reduces the water content
of the electrolyte and causes overheating of the battery, a slight amount of
gassing, however, is necessary to ensure charging is complete.
The terminal voltage remains constant for most of the batteries life and the
specific gravity of the electrolyte remains unchanged, the only way of determining
the state of charge of the battery therefore, is to carry out a full charge followed
by a capacity test.
During discharge the plates absorb electrolyte to such an extent that the level
may disappear from view. As the battery is charged, the electrolyte is forced back
out of the plates, a point to note when topping up the cells.
5.3.3 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
A Nickel Cadmium battery has the following advantages over a Lead Acid battery:
They have a longer life
The terminal voltage remains almost constant during the discharge cycle
They can be charged and discharged at much higher currents without
causing cell damage
They can be discharged to a very low voltage without causing cell damage
But have the following disadvantages:
They are far more expensive to buy and maintain
Each cell has a lower voltage, therefore more cell are required to produce a
battery.
They are more susceptible to thermal runaway.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
5.3.4 THERMAL RUNAWAY
The battery looses heat by conduction and radiation. Provided the rate of heat
loss is greater than the rate at which heat is generated there is no problem.
Should the battery not be able to loose heat so quickly it will start to get hot. As its
temperature goes up the internal resistance decreases and the current increases.
This increase in current leads to an increase in chemical activity within the
battery, this generates more heat and the cycle repeats.
Nickel Cadmium batteries are very susceptible to thermal runaway which can
result in the battery boiling, or even being totally destroyed.
5.4 SMALL ALKALINE CELLS

Hermetically sealed Ni-Cad cells are produced in the same size and shape as
their primary counterparts. They are small, portable and maintenance free, but
have the added advantage of being rechargeable.
The plates are constructed in a similar manner to the larger Ni-Cad cells, the
separator being a thin porous material. The electrolyte is fully absorbed by the
plates and separator in a similar manner to the Varley type cell. With steel or
plastic being used for the case.
Special vents are fitted to each cell, these allow the escape of gas but prevent the
entry of oxygen and electrolyte leakage.
The nominal voltage of a fully charged cell is 125 volts and these can then be
interconnected to form batteries.
A 10 hour rate capacity is generally used with an end of life voltage of 1.1 volts, it
is possible to discharge the cells further but damage will occur if allowed to go
below 1 volt.
Charging should be carried out using a constant current at the 10 hour rate, total
charge taking approximately 14 hrs, the end of charge on charge voltage being
145 volts. Overcharging should be avoided, it produces heat and shortens the
long term life of the cell.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Blank Page

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
6 OHMS LAW
So far you have been introduced to the concepts of electric current (as a
movement of free electrons through a conducting material), voltage (or potential)
and potential difference and to the resistance to current flow by any conducting
material. The relationship which exists between these quantities was discovered
by a physicist called Ohm and is now referred to as Ohms Law. This is the most
fundamental law in all electrics and electronics.
Ohms law states: For a fixed metal conductor, with temperature and other
conditions remaining constant, the current through it is proportional to the
potential difference between its ends.
Mathematically this is expressed as:
IV
V
Thus the ratio = Constant
I
and this ratio is called the resistance of the conductor.

Hence we may write V = R where V is in volts
I I is in amperes
R is in ohms
6.1 TRANSPOSITION OF OHMS LAW

By transposition it is seen that Ohms law may be written in three forms:
R=V
I thus resistance may be calculated if V and I are known.
I=V thus current may be calculated if V and R are known.

R
V = IR thus voltage may be calculated if I and R are known.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
6.2 THE OHMS LAW TRIANGLE

One simple way of memorising Ohms law is the Ohms law triangle see below.
I R
By covering up the unknown quantity, the relationship between the remaining two
is directly observed. You may check this against the equations in the above sub-
chapter. This is not necessary if you are able to remember one form of the
equation and derive the other two directly by transposition.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Quantities of electrical current, voltage and resistance are measured using
instruments called meters. Until the advent of electronic displays and
semiconductor components, meters comprised a movement, working on the
motor principle, driving a needle across a scale. These types of meters were
called 'moving coil meters' or 'analogue meters'. Moving coil meters will be
studied in some depth later in the course, because the principle behind their
operation is the same as the principle employed in many aircraft instruments.
Modern meters are referred to as a 'digital meters' or 'digital voltmeters', more
commonly abbreviated to DVM's, although they measure far more than just
voltage. Digital meters are cheaper, more reliable, more robust and generally
considered more accurate than their analogue counterparts, although some
would argue that, used correctly, an analogue instrument is just as accurate.
It is essential that you are confident in the use of both types of meter. There are
instances where a digital meter cannot be used, leaving no choice but to revert to
an analogue meter.
7.1 CONNECTING METERS TO A CIRCUIT

Irrespective of whether the meter is digital or analogue, the way that it is
connected to the circuit under test is the same.
7.1.1 VOLTMETERS
Voltmeters are used to measure emf's and more commonly potential differences.
The two probes of the meter are therefore connected to the two points between
which the potential difference is required.
If the potential at A with respect to B is required, the red lead is connected to

point A, the black lead point B.
If the potential at B with respect to A is required, the red lead is connected to
point B, the black lead point A.
If the potential between a point and Earth or ground is required. The red lead is
connected to the point and the black lead is connected to ground or Earth.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.1.2 AMMETERS
Ammeters are used to measure current flow, as such they need to be inserted in
series with the circuit under test so that the current to be measured flows through
the meter. This means the circuit must be broken.
To connect an ammeter, the power must be switched off. The circuit is

broken at the point where the current is to be measured. The meter is then
inserted into the circuit in such a way that, 'conventional current' flows into the red
lead and out of the black lead. Once the meter is connected, circuit power is
restored and the measurement taken.
To disconnect the meter, the circuit power must again be switched off.
Once the meter is removed from the circuit, the circuit must be reconnected.
7.1.3 OHMMETERS
The use of ohmmeters is somewhat more involved. Most importantly when

measuring resistance the circuit power must be switched off, power is
derived from within the instrument. Secondly, great care must be taken to ensure
there are no parallel paths that would affect the measurement. This is generally
best confirmed by removing the component or device, or by disconnecting one
end of it from the circuit concerned. Thirdly, it is essential that an analogue
meter is zeroed before it is used.
To measure resistance, the meter is simply connected across the component or
device to be measured. The polarity of the leads is not important unless
semiconductor type devices are present. (this will be discussed in a later
module).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
When making resistance measurement, care must be taken to ensure the correct
range is used. It is easy to mistake a low resistance value for a zero reading or
short circuit.
7.2 ANALOGUE MULTIMETERS

Even the most basic analogue multimeter can prove to be invaluable when in the
hands of an experienced user. Simple measurements of voltage, current and
resistance can provide useful information on the state of almost any circuit. What
matters, of course, is the interpretation put on the readings obtained. To get the
best from such a simple instruments it is not only necessary to select an
appropriate measurement function and range, but also to be aware of the
limitation of the instrument and the effect that it might, or might not, have on the
circuit under investigation.
The diagram below shows the controls and display provided by a simple
analogue multimeter.
The range selector allows you to select from a total of twenty ranges and six
measurement functions. These functions are:
DC voltage (DC, V) DC current (DC, mA)
AC voltage (AC, V) Resistance (OHM)
Continuity test (BUZZ) Battery check (BAT)

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.2.1 DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Examples of how to make DC voltage measurements are show in the two

diagrams below. In both cases, the red and black test leads are connected to the
'+' and '-' sockets respectively.
In the first diagram, the range selector is set to DC, V, 50V. The pointer is
reading just less than 45 on the range that has 50 as its full-scale indication (note
that there are three calibrated voltage scales with maximum indications of 10V,
50V and 250V respectively). The reading indicated is thus 45V, approximately.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In the second diagram, the range selector is set to DC, V, 250V. The pointer is
positioned midway between the 50 and 100 scale markings and this indicates a
voltage reading of 75V.
7.2.2 DC CURRENT MEASUREMENTS
An example of how to make a DC current measurement is shown in the diagram

below. Once again, the red and black test leads connected to the '+' and '-'
sockets respectively. The range selector is set to DC, 50mA. The pointer is
reading just less than midway between 45 and 50 on the range that has 50 as its
full-scale indication. The actual reading indicated is thus slightly less than
47.5mA, or approximately 47mA.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.2.3 DC HIGH-CURRENT MEASUREMENT
In common with many simple multimeters, both analogue and digital, the high
current range (e.g. 10A) is not only selected using the range selector switch but a
separate input connection must also be made. The reason for this is simply that
the range switch and associated wiring is not designed to carry a high current.
Instead, the high-current shunt is terminated separately at its own '10A' socket.
The connections and range selector settings to permit high-current DC
measurement are shown below. The range selector is set to DC, 10A and the
red and black test leads are connected to '10A' and '-' respectively. The pointer is
reading midway between 8 and 10 on the range that has 10 as its full-scale
indication. The actual reading indicated is thus 9A.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.2.4 AC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
An example of how to make AC voltage measurements is shown in the diagram

below. Once again, the red and black test leads are connected to the '+' and '-'
sockets respectively. The range selector is set to AC, 10V. The pointer is
reading midway between 0 and 2 and the indicated reading is 1V, approximately.
7.2.5 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
Examples of how to make resistance measurements are shown in the diagrams

below. In all three cases, the red and black test leads are connected to the '+'
and '-' sockets respectively. Before making any measurements it is absolutely
essential to zero the meter. This is achieved by shorting the test leads together
and adjusting the 'zero adj' control until the meters reads full-scale (i.e., zero on
the ohms scale).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In the first diagram, the range selector is set to OHM, 1. The pointer is reading
midway between 0 and 10 and the resistance indicated is approximately 5.
In the second diagram, the range is set to OHM, 10. The pointer is reading
exactly 30 and the resistance indicated is 30 10 or 300.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In the third diagram, the range selector is set to OHM, 1k. The pointer is
reading exactly 5k and the resistance indicated is 5k 1k or 5M.
7.2.6 CONTINUITY TESTING
An example of how to make continuity tests is shown below. The red and black
test leads are connected to the '+' and '-' terminals respectively. The range
selector is set to BUZZ. When there is a low-resistance path between the two
test probes, an audible buzz will be produced. No meter indication is produced
on the continuity range.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.2.7 BATTERY TESTING
Several analogue multimeters provide a battery testing facility. The diagram

below shows how to carry out a battery test on a 9V battery (e.g., PP3, PP9, etc).
It is important to note that a battery test should not merely be a measurement of
the battery terminal voltage and ideally such a measurement should be carried
out with the battery on-load (i.e. supplying current to a load resistance within the
meter). The range selector is set to BAT, 9V. The indication on the meter shows
that the battery is 'good' (but will need replacing in the near future).
7.2.8 DO'S & DON'TS OF USING AN ANALOGUE MULTIMETER
Do ensure that you have selected the correct range and measuring function
before attempting to connect the meter into a circuit.
Do ensure that the correct polarity of the probes, where appropriate , is
observed before connecting the meter into the circuit.
Do select a higher range than expected and then progressively increase the
sensitivity as necessary to obtain a meaningful indication.
Do remember to zero on the ohms range before measuring resistance.
Do switch the meter to the 'off' position (if one is available) before attempting
to transport the meter.
Do check and, if necessary, replace the internal batteries regularly.
Do use properly insulated test leads and prods.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Don't attempt to measure resistance in a circuit that has the power applied to
it.
Don't rely on voltage readings made on high-impedance circuits (the meter's
own internal resistance may have a significant effect on the voltages).
Don't rely on voltage and current readings made on circuits where high
frequency signals may be present (an analogue meter may produce readings
that are wildly inaccurate or misleading in such circumstances.
Don't subject the instrument to excessive mechanical shock or vibration (this
can damage the sensitive meter movement).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.3 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS

Digital multimeters offer a number of significant advantages when compared with
their more humble analogue counterparts. The display fitted to a digital
multimeter usually consists of a 3 digit seven-segment display - the '' simply
indicates that the first digit is either blank (zero) or 1. Consequently, the
maximum indication on the 2V range will be 1.999V and this shows that the
instrument is capable of offering a resolution of 1mV on the 2V range. The
resolution obtained from a comparable analogue meter would be of the order of
50mV, or so, and thus the digital instrument provides a resolution which is many
times greater than its analogue counterpart.
The controls and display provided by a simple digital multimeter are shown in the
diagram below. The mode switch and range selector allows you to select from
a total of twenty ranges and eight measurement functions. These functions are:
DC voltage (DC, V) DC current (DC, A)
AC voltage (AC, V) AC current (AC, A)
Resistance (OHM) Capacitance (CAP)
Continuity test (buzzer) Transistor current gain (hFE)

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.3.1 DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
An example of how to
make DC voltage
measurements is
shown to the left.
The red and black
test leads are
connected to the 'V-
' and 'COM' sockets
respectively. The
mode switch and
range selector is set
to DC, 200V and the
display indicates a
reading of 124.5V.
7.3.2 DC CURRENT
MEASUREMENTS
make a DC current
measurement is
shown to the right.
Here, the red and
black test leads are
connected to the 'mA'
and 'COM' sockets
respectively. The
mode switch and
range selectors are set
to DC, 200mA, and the
display indicates a
reading of 85.9mA.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.3.3 HIGH CURRENT MEASUREMENTS
In common with simple

analogue multimeters, the
meter used a shunt which is
directly connected to a
separate 10A terminal. The
diagram shows the
connections, mode switch
and range selector settings to
permit high-current DC
measurements. The mode
switch and range selectors
are set to DC, 2000mA (2A),
and the red and black test
leads are connected to '10A'
and 'COM' respectively. The
display indicates a reading of
2.99A.
7.3.4 AC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
make a AC voltage
measurement is
shown to the left.
Once again, the red
and black test leads
are connected to the
'V-' and 'COM'
sockets respectively.
The mode switch and
range selectors are
set to AC, 2V, and the
display indicates a
reading of 1.736V.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.3.5 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
The diagram shows an

example of how to make
resistance measurements.
As before, the red and black
test leads are connected to
the 'V-' and 'COM' sockets
respectively. The mode
switch and range selectors
are set to OHM,200, and
the meter indicated a reading
of 55.8. Note that it is not
necessary to 'zero' the meter
by shorting the test probes
together before taking any
measurements (as would be
the case with an analogue
instrument).
7.3.6 CAPACITOR MEASUREMENTS
Many modern digital

multimeters incorporate a
capacitance measuring facility
although this may be limited to
just one or two ranges. The
diagram below shows how to
carry out a capacitance
measurement. The capacitor
on test is inserted into the two-
way connector marked 'CAP'
whilst the mode switch and
range selector controls are set
to DC, 200pF. The display
indication shown corresponds
to a capacitance of 329pF.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.3.7 CONTINUITY TESTING
An example of how to make continuity (buzzer) tests is shown in the diagram

below. The mode switch and range selectors are set to DC, buzzer (note that this
is indicated by means of an icon on the front panel of the instrument) and the red
and black test leads are connected to the 'V-' and 'COM' sockets as usual.
When there is a low-resistance path between the two test probes, an audible
buzz will be produced. No meter indication is produced (instead, the meter
displays an 'over-range' indication with the leading digit illuminated).
7.3.8 DO'S & DON'TS OF USING A DIGITAL MULTIMETER
Do ensure that you have selected the correct range and measuring function
before attempting to connect the meter into a circuit.
Do ensure that the correct polarity of the probes, where appropriate, is
observed before connecting the meter into the circuit.
Do select a higher range than expected and then progressively increase the
sensitivity as necessary to obtain a meaningful indication.
Do switch the meter to the 'off' position in order to conserve battery life when
the instrument is not being used.
Do check and, if necessary, replace the internal battery (often a PP3)
regularly.
Do use properly insulated test leads and probes.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Do check that a suitably rated fuse is used in conjunction with the current
ranges.
Don't attempt to measure resistance in a circuit that has the power applied to
it.
Don't rely on voltage and current readings made on circuits where high
frequency signals may be present (as with analogue instruments, digital
meters may produce readings that are wildly inaccurate or misleading in such
circumstances).
Don't rely on measurements made when voltage/current is changing or when
a significant amount of AC may be present superimposed on a DC level.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Blank Page

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
8 RESISTANCE & RESISTORS
8.1 RESISTIVITY
The factors affecting the resistance of a conductor of a given material at constant
temperature are related by the expression:
(length)
R
A (cross sectional area)

R = Constant
A

R= Ohms
A
The constant depends on whether the material itself is a good or a poor
conductor; this constant is called resistivity of the material. Resistivity has the
A
symbol (Rho) and is measured in ohm meters (check this from = R ) and

is defined as the resistance between the ends of a piece of material one metre
long which has a cross sectional area of one square metres (i.e. between the
faces of a one metre cube).
Typical values of at 0C are:
Silver 1.5 x 10-8 - m
Copper 1.6 x 10-8 - m
Manganin 41 x 10-8 - m
Carbon 7000 x 10-8 - m
8.2 CHANGES OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE

The resistance of all materials changes with changes in temperature. The
resistance of all pure metal increases with temperature. The resistance of
electrolytes, insulators, carbon and semi-conductors decreases with increasing
temperatures.
If it is assumed that the resistance change is in proportion to the temperature
change, then the ratio provides an indication of the material behaviour. It is
necessary however, to relate the change of resistance to its initial value. A large
value resistor will change its value more than a small value resistor for the same
temperature change.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Suppose the resistance of a material at 0C (to) is Ro

and at some other temperature (t) the resistance is Rt
the change of resistance is Rt - Ro.
But the change of resistance is per unit value of the original resistance is given
by;
Rt - Ro
R = Ro
this resistance change has been brought about by a temperature change t equal
to t -to (to being 0).
Hence the change in resistance, caused by a 1C change in temperature is;
R Rt - Ro Rt - Ro
T = Ro (t - to) = Rot because t = 1 and to = 0
This ratio is called the temperature co-efficient of resistance.
8.3 TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

The temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as;
The Fractional change in resistance from 0C, per degree temperature
change.
and may be represented graphically as shown below.
The graph is reasonably linear for many

materials over a moderate temperature
range (0 - 200C).
The units are C because the ohms cancel
out in the calculation.
Materials whose resistance increases with
increasing temperature have a positive
temperature co-efficient of resistance.
Materials whose resistance decreases with
increasing temperature have a negative
temperature co-efficient of resistance.
Some materials have very small temperature co-efficients of resistance and are
used where it is important that the resistance does not change with temperature.
Examples are Manganin and Eureka.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
8.4 RESISTORS
The electrical component used to introduce resistance into a circuit is called a
resistor. Resistors can be fixed or variable. Symbols used in circuit diagrams are
shown below:
Resistor Type Old Symbol New Symbol

Fixed resistor
Fixed resistor
with fixed
tapping point
Variable resistor
Resistor with
pre-set
adjustment
Voltage divider
(potentiometer)
Pre-set
potentiometer
The physical size of a resistor does not give any clue to the resistance value of
the component. This value must be marked on individual components. Two
codes are currently used to indicate resistor values: a Colour Code and a Letter
and Digit Code.
8.4.1 FIXED RESISTORS
Fixed resistors may be:

Wire wound. Special resistance wire is wound onto a former. The wire
wound resistor can dissipate heat easily and is therefore used when larger
currents are expected (the larger the current the greater the heat produced).
These resistors are usually larger than other types. The student should
note that size does not indicate resistance value, but depends upon the heat
to be dissipated.
Carbon Composition, Metal Oxide and Metal Film. Resistors made from
carbon composition or from metal films and oxides are usually small. They
are therefore used where the currents are kept small.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
8.4.2 COLOUR CODES
The current method of colour code marking of resistors is the Band System.
Close to one end of the resistor are four

coloured bands (there may appear to be only
three, in this case the forth band is no colour
see diagram below). They are known as
bands 1 4. Bands 1 and 2 give the first two
numbers of the resistor value, band 3 gives
the multiplication factor, i.e. the number of
zeros, the fourth band gives the tolerance,
which indicates how close the actual value
may be to the stated value.
Colour First band Second Third band Fourth

(or body) band (or spot) band
First figure (or tip) Multiply by Tolerance
Second
figure
Black 0 0 1 -
Brown 1 1 10 +1%
Red 2 2 100 + 2%
Orange 3 3 1000 -
Yellow 4 4 10,000 -
Green 5 5 100,000 + 0.5%
Blue 6 6 1,000,000 + 0.25%
Violet 7 7 10,000,000 + 0.1%
Grey 8 8 - -
White 9 9 - -
Gold - - 0.1 + 5%
Silver - - 0.01 + 10%
No colour - - - + 20%
Certain resistors remain very close to their stated value, despite temperature
changes. These are called high stability resistors and this is shown by a fifth
band coloured pink.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
High value resistors. High value resistors may have three significant figures. If
the colour code is used here, the first three bands represent figures, the fourth
band is the multiplier and the fifth band is the tolerance. For example, a resistor
of value 249,000 + 1% would be coded as shown below:
First band Red is 2
Second band Yellow is 4
Third band White is 9
Fourth band Orange is 3 zeros
Fifth band Brown Tolerance + 1%
Note: To avoid possible confusion, the fifth band is 1.5 times to 2 times wider
than the other bands.
8.4.3 PREFERRED VALUES AND TOLERANCES
In practical electrical circuits the precise value for a resistor is not usually critical.
It is more economic to produce large tolerance resistors than low tolerance ones.
The number of resistor values required to cover a given range of resistance
depends on the tolerance of the resistors being used. An example of resistor
Preferred Values for 10% is given in the table below.
1 10 100
1.2 12 120
1.5 15 150
1.8 18 180
2.2 22 220
2.7 27 270
3.3 33 330
3.9 39 390
4.7 47 470
5.6 56 560
6.8 68 680
8.2 82 820
Note that the upper and lower tolerance resistance limits of each preferred value
cover the complete range;
eg. 2.2K + 10% = 1.98K to 2.42K
2.7K + 10% = 2.43K to 2.97K
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
8.4.4 LETTER & DIGIT CODES
In this code the numbers are printed on the body of the resistor to indicate its
value. In addition, letters are used to indicate the multiplying factor (eg, M) and
the tolerance as shown below.
Multiplying Factor Tolerance %
X1 R 0.1 B 5 J
(resistor)
X103 K K 0.25 C 10 K
X106 M M 0.5 D 20 M
X109 G G 1.0 F 30 N
X101 T T 2 G
2
The position of the multiplying letter is also used to indicate the decimal point
position.
eg. 470R is 470
4K7 is 47K
R47 is 047
4R7 is 47
The tolerance letter is added on the end.
eg. 1M5 B is 15M + 0.1%
2K2 N is 22K + 30%
Other markings may also be used in the code to represent date of manufacture.
They are placed after the value and tolerance markings.
8.4.5 POWER RATING
Resistors are rated according to their resistance value and also to the rate at
which they can dissipate heat. Rate of heat dissipation is measured in watts.
(The watt will be discussed later in the course). The higher the wattage rating the
more current it can carry.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
8.4.6 POTENTIOMETERS
A variable resistor arranged so as to control voltage in

a circuit is called a Potentiometer and controls the
potential difference between two points in a circuit. It is
used to tap off part of the supply or signal voltage for
connection to a load. See diagram.
8.4.7 RHEOSTATS
Variable resistors can be made to vary either current

or voltage. A variable resistor arranged to control
current is called a Rheostat and controls the current
by varying the resistance in the circuit. See diagram.
8.4.8 VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS
Some components do not obey Ohms law, that is the current flow through them
does not vary linearly as the applied voltage is varied. These elements are
known as non-linear resistors or non-linear conductors. Transistors, diodes and
voltage dependent resistors all fall into this group.
The current through a voltage dependent resistor increases at a progressively
rapid rate as the voltage across it increases, such a device is used for protecting
circuits against voltage surges or as a voltage stabiliser.
8.5 THERMISTORS
Insulators and semi-conductors behave in a different way when the temperature
increases, because their resistivity decreases. That is: the resistance of an
insulator and of a semi-conductor decreases with temperature increase, (their
resistance-temperature coefficient is negative!). This feature can be used to
advantage as the following example shows.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
One example of this effect occurs in a thermistor, which is a thermally sensitive

resistor whose resistance alters with temperature; a negative temperature
coefficient (n.t.c.) thermistor is one whose resistance reduces with increase in
temperature. A thermistor is used in the cooling-water temperature-measuring
circuit of a car or lorry; it is inserted in the cooling water and connected in series
with the battery and temperature gauge. As the water temperature rises, the
resistance of the n.t.c. thermistor falls and allows more current to flow through the
temperature gauge; this causes the gauge to indicate variations in water
temperature.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9 RESISTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
9.1 RESISTORS IN SERIES

Components are said to be in series when they are connected end-to-end
providing only one path for the current. Thus the same current passes through all
the components (including the power supply). See diagram below.
When a current flows through a resistor (or a component having resistance) there
is a potential difference between its ends. Thus where two or more resistors are
connected in series the potential difference between the extreme ends is the sum
of the individual potential differences.
Hence E = V1 + V2 + V3
But from Ohms Law V = IR
Therefore E = IRTOTAL
So V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3
Thus IRTOTAL = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
= I (R1 + R2 + R3)
So RTOTAL = R1 + R2 + R3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9.1.1 KIRCHOFFS SECOND LAW
This law states that in any closed circuit the sum of all the potential differences
(voltage drops) is equal to the total applied voltage in that circuit.
Thus the potential difference across R2 is given by: VR2 = 9 7 = 2V
9.1.1.1 Example of kirchoffs second law
There are four possible routes around the

circuit shown and whichever one is taken,
Kirchoffs law is true:
Note that Q is at a higher potential than R.
Also a potential drop is positive and a potential
rise is negative.
Route MPQSNM 3 + 7 10 = 0
Route MPRSNM 4 + 6 10 = 0
Route MPQRSNM 3 + 1 + 6 10 = 0
Route MPRQSNM 4 1 + 7 10 = 0
It should also be noted that within the resistor network;

Route PRQP 4 1 3 = 0 Route PQRP 3 + 1 4 = 0
Route RSQR 6 7 + 1 =0 Route RQSR -1 + 7 6 = 0

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9.1.2 VOLTAGE DIVISION
In a series circuit Ohms law applies for each component. However, since the
current is common to all components we have:
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
Therefore V1 R1, V2 R2, V3 R3
i.e. Vn Rn
Hence the voltage drops across each resistor can be calculated from the ratio of
the resistance values.
It should also be noted, that for any given applied

voltage we may derive any smaller voltages we wish by
inserting resistors of the appropriate values in series.
The following example shows how voltages of 8V, 4V
and 24V can be derived from a 36V supply.
RTOTAL = 12 + 6 + 36 = 54
54 36V and 1 36/54V
12 = 36/54 12 = 8V across AB
and 6 = 36/54 6 = 4V across BC
and 36 = 36/54 36 = 24V across CD
9.1.3 THE POTENTIAL DIVIDER
A device which employs voltage division and which is

commonly used in electrical and electronic circuits is
the potential divider. Here two or more resistors are
used to divide a given input voltage to achieve a
specified output voltage. See diagram.
The potential divider is also known as a voltage divider
or scaling circuit.
Note that if current is drawn from the output then the effective resistance of the
circuit changes and the output voltage vOUT changes.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9.1.4 VOLTAGES RELATIVE TO EARTH
It is very common in electrical circuits to have an earth connection. This earth

connection has no effect on potential differences across components, however it
does affect the values of the potentials or voltages at points in the circuit.
The earth is a reference point and considered to be at zero volts. Potential

differences between earth and the negative terminal of the supply result in
negative voltages and potential differences between earth and the positive
terminal result in positive voltages. It should be noted that due to static build up
on the airframe, the earth connection (airframe) of an airborne aircraft is unlikely
to be at zero potential with respect to the ground
You should also note that earth connections, for example to the chassis of an
equipment or the airframe of an aircraft, are often used as the current return lead
in an electrical circuit.
9.2 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

As mentioned earlier in the section on batteries, every source of electricity, such
as a cell or generator has resistance to current flow called internal resistance.
Cells (and batteries): The internal resistance is mainly due to the
resistance of the electrolyte. This varies considerably with temperature and
concentration of the electrolyte.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Generators. Internal resistance is mainly the resistance of the wires which

form the internal windings.
Electronic Power Supplies. Here the internal resistance is due to the
resistance of components within the power supply.
When the source forces electrons around a closed circuit they must pass
through the internal resistance of the source, thus causing a drop in voltage
within the source itself, i.e. the source has to do work to push current
through itself. This loss of potential or voltage drop may be referred to as
lost volts, since they are not available in the external circuit, thus the
terminal voltage is less than the emf by the value of the lost volts when
current is drawn from the supply.
CLOSED CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF LOST VOLTS
Loss of potential only occurs when current flows from the source. If therefore the
external circuit is open, no current flows and the terminal voltage is equal to the
emf.
OPEN CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF
The Size of the lost voltage is determined by the internal resistance and the
current flowing (Ir). For a given emf the larger the external resistance, the smaller
the current and the smaller the lost volts. Thus if the internal resistance is much
smaller than the external resistance the lost volts is very small and the terminal
voltage is almost equal to the source emf.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9.3 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Components are said to be in parallel when they are

connected in such a way as to provide alternative
paths for current flow.
The characteristics of such a parallel combination
are:
The voltage across each component is the same.

The current through each component is determined by the resistance of that
component
Ohms law applies to each component connected in parallel.
In the diagram below. V1 = V2 = V3 = V

and I = I1 + I2 + I3 (by Kirchoffs first law)
V
From Ohms law I=
R
V V1 V 2 V 3 V V V
Therefore = + + = + +
R TOTAL R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
and 1 1 1 1
= + +
R TOTAL R1 R2 R3
Hence the three resistors shown above may be replaced by a single resistor of
value RTOTAL which may be computed using the above equation. Note that the
most usual error which occurs when using this equation is to forget that the
calculation on the right hand side of the equation gives the reciprocal of the
equivalent resistance 1 and therefore needs inverting to find RTOTAL.
RTOTAL

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
To avoid this possible error the equation may be remembered in the form:
1
R TOTAL =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ......
R1 R2 R3 Rn
Having found RTOTAL it is now possible to use Ohms law to calculate either V or I,
providing one of the two is known. Knowing V (= V1 = V2 = V3 etc) it is now
possible to find the current values through the branches I1, I2, I3 etc (provided of
course that R1, R2, R3 etc are known).
As a check, the total resistance of any parallel combination of resistors
should always be less than the value of the lowest resistor in the network.
9.3.1 TWO RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
When we have only two resistors in parallel then the general equation may still be
used. However a simpler formula can be derived.
Using the general equation we obtain:
1 1 1 R2 + R1
= + =
R TOTAL R1 R2 R1 R2
R1 R2 Product
Therefore R TOTAL = =
R1 + R2 Sum
9.3.2 EQUAL RESISTORS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
Where we have two or more resistors of equal value connected in parallel then :
1 1 1 1 1 4
= + + + =
R TOTAL R R R R R
R
Therefore RTOTAL = 4
Generally, when any number of equal value resistors are connected in parallel,
the effective resistance (RTOTAL) is equal to the value of one resistor divided by
the number of resistors.
R
R TOTAL =
The total number of resistors connected in parallel

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9.3.3 EFFECTIVE VALUE OF RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
If a second resistor is connected in parallel with a first, the voltage across the
second is equal to the voltage across the first. The first resistor still draws the
same current and the second now also draws current. Thus the total current
drawn from the supply has increased and therefore the effective resistance
(RTOTAL) has decreased. Since the supply of current is now greater than either
individually would draw, the effective resistance of the two is less than the
resistance of either individually. This is generally true and for any number of
parallel resistors the effective resistor (RTOTAL) is less than the value of any single
resistor in the parallel combination. An important point to note here is that the
supply current has increased and unless the supply wiring can cope with it, it may
be damaged (e.g. begin to melt).
9.3.4 RESISTOR SIZE AND CURRENT FLOW
Ohms law states that the current flowing is inversely proportional to resistance
provided that the voltage remains constant. In a parallel network the voltage
across each component is the same, therefore the current through each
component is inversely proportional to its resistance. Simply stated, this means
that the largest current always flows through the smallest resistor and vice-versa.
This is a simple check that may often be useful in numerical calculation.
9.3.5 KIRCHOFFS FIRST LAW
Kirchoffs first law states that at any circuit junction, the sum of the currents
flowing towards the junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from
it.
10A 2A
9A
7A
8A
Current flowing towards junction = 2 + 7 + 9 = 18A

Current flowing away from junction = 10 + 8 = 18A

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
9.4 RESISTORS IN SERIES / PARALLEL COMBINATIONS

In the previous units we have used Ohms law to solve combinations of resistors
in series or in parallel. It is possible to solve combinations of resistors in both
serial and parallel by Ohms law provided sufficient information is given. However
in some cases solution is not possible without the use of Kirchoffs laws.
9.4.1 PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS
Before we look at some problems it is necessary to warn you that physical

appearances can be deceptive. When components are mounted they are usually
done so in a manner as to reduce the space they occupy to a minimum. Care
must be taken to decide whether they are mounted in series or parallel or in a
combination of both.
Thus on the Tag Board above, the resistors may appear to be in parallel,
however, only R3 and R4 are in parallel.
9.4.2 SOLUTION OF RESISTOR NETWORKS USING OHMS LAW
Many problems may be solved by combining series and parallel groups of

resistors and applying Ohms law. Remember that Ohms law involves three
quantities I, V and R, thus to find any one quantity the other two must be known
or be capable of determination. Where resistors appear in both series and
parallel they may be reduced to a single effective resistance using a step-by-step
sequence as follows.
Combine any simple series groupings within branches ( R = R1 + R2 + --- ).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Replace any simple parallel groups by single equivalent resistors

1 1 1
= + +----
R R1 R 2
Combine any simple series groupings ( R = R1 + R2 + --- ).
Replace any simple parallel groups.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Determine the single equivalent resistance.
At this point the total circuit current (Is) may be found if Vs is given, or Vs found if Is
is given. Having determined Vs or Is, as appropriate, the current in any branch
and the voltage drop across any resistor can be found by working backwards
through the sequence in the first paragraph of this section, applying Ohms law at
each stage.
9.5 THE EFFECTS OF OPEN CIRCUITS

An open circuit is essentially a break in the circuit. An open circuit in a series
circuit will prevent the flow of current through the circuit. With no current flowing in
the circuit there can be no voltage drop across any resistors, and therefore the
supply potential will be measured at all points between the positive terminal and
the break.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In a circuit with parallel paths, an open circuit path will cause an increase in the
circuit resistance and a reduction in the circuit current. The change in current flow
will cause the voltages measured around the circuit to change.
9.6 THE EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUITS

A short circuit is a path for current where a path should not exist, the path is
generally considered to have a low resistance. If a short circuit is placed across a
resistor, the current will flow through the short circuit rather than through the
resistor.
Short circuits across series or parallel connected resistors will result in a
decrease in the circuit resistance and an increase in the current drawn from the
supply. Short circuits may result in the fuse blowing, the circuit breaker tripping or
the circuit burning out if no protection devices are fitted.
If the definition of a short circuit is taken to be 'an unwanted current path', then
high resistance short circuits are also possible.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
10 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

You have already solved resistor networks using Ohms law and Kirchoffs laws.
In this unit we are going to look at a special arrangement of series and parallel
resistors called a Wheatstone Bridge.
10.1 CONSTRUCTION
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit and other similar variants were widely used in test
equipment to determine the value of an unknown resistor by comparison with
other resistors whose values are accurately known.
The normal arrangement in a Wheatstone bridge used for resistance

measurement is for two resistors, usually R1 and R2, to be fixed and of known
value and R4 to be an accurate variable resistor adjusted by means of a
calibrated dial. The resistor R3 is then the unknown whose value is to be
measured.
10.2 CALCULATING UNKNOWN RESISTANCES

The current through the galvanometer (G) a very sensitive ammeter, is reduced
to zero by adjusting R4. The bridge is then said to be balanced. When the bridge
is balanced, the voltage at A is equal to the voltage at B and no current flows
between A and B.
Hence VR1 = VR2
therefore I1 R1 = I2 R2 ------------- (1) (by Ohms law)
Also VR3 = VR4
therefore I1 R3 = I2 R4 ------------- (2)

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
R1 R 4
Dividing (1) by (2) R2 =
R3
R1 x R4
Therefore the unknown resistor R3 = R2 (all known values)
In calculations it is possible for any of the four resistors to be unknown. However,

provided that the bridge is balanced, the theory remains the same and all that is
required is to transpose the equation to find the unknown. Thus, for example:
10.3 USES ON AIRCRAFT

Whilst the Wheatstone bridge may be used to determine the value of an unknown
resistor, it is far easier to use an Ohmmeter. The Wheatstone bridge is however
extremely useful for measuring and displaying remote indications.
On aircraft, Wheatstone bridge circuits are used for the measurement and
display of temperatures, pressures, positions and quantities. In each case, the
item being measured varies the value of resistor R3, causing a voltage imbalance
that produces a current flow through the galvanometer. The amount of current
through the galvanometer, and the amount of pointer deflection depend upon the
potential difference across the bridge, which in turn depends upon the change in
resistance of R3. The galvanometer can therefore be calibrated to give the
appropriate indication.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
11 ENERGY & POWER IN DC CIRCUITS
11.1 ELECTRICAL WORK

Electrical work is done if a quantity of charge (coulombs) is moved between two
points which are at different electrical potentials.
The SI unit of work is the joule. One joule of work is done when a charge
of one coulomb moves through a potential difference of one volt.
Electrical Work (joule) = Charge (coulomb) Potential Difference (volt)
Work = Q V joules
Since one coulomb is one ampere second

Q = I t
then Work = V It joules
11.2 ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electrical energy is the ability of an electrical system to do work.
Energy is expended when work is done and the amount of energy used is equal
to the work done. The units of energy and work are the same, that is joules and
the same equation is used for both.
Energy = Work = VIt joules
The energy a body contains may be determined by calculating the electrical work
done on the body to give it that energy. Conversely, the work that a body could
do if it used up all its energy may be determined by calculating how much energy
it contains.
This assumes that no energy is lost in the conversion. In practice energy is often
lost in the form of heat.
However no energy is actually destroyed, it is simply converted into some other
form. This is stated in the Law of Conservation of Energy - energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but merely changed into other forms.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
11.3 ELECTRICAL POWER

Electrical power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is done or the rate of
conversion of energy by an electrical system.
Power (watts) = Work done (joules) = VIt

Time taken (seconds) t
The SI unit of power is the watt which is a rate of work of 1 joule per second.
Therefore P = V I
That is watts = volts amps
By substituting V = IR in the above formula, two other expressions for electrical

power are obtained:
P = VI = I2R = V2 watts
R
11.4 POWER RATINGS

Electrical equipment can only stand a certain amount of heat production without
damage and the safe power which a piece of equipment can consume without
damage is its power rating or wattage rating. Each component is given a
wattage rating and if this is exceeded the component will overheat.
The more power consumed by a device the more heat or light it produces in a
given time; a 100w lamp gives more light than a 60w lamp. The rating 6V 12W
on a lamp means that if is connected to a 6V supply, its resistance is such that it
develops 12W of power and that it is intended to work at this rating.
Note that:
The above bulb consumes 12W only at the correct voltage. If the voltage is
increased more power is developed and the component may be damaged.
A fluorescent tube of 12W rating produces more light than a 12W filament
bulb because the tube produces much less heat and is therefore more
efficient.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
11.4.1 POWER RATINGS OF RESISTORS
This power rating has a different meaning from that of a bulb. In this case we
must always keep below the stated value.
To keep below the stated power value, there are maximum permissible values of
voltage and current, which may be calculated as follows:
Maximum Current P = I2R
P
Therefore I = and this is the maximum current to avoid damage to
R
the resistor.
Maximum Voltage P = V2
R
Therefore V = P R and this is the maximum voltage to avoid damage to the
resistor.
11.4.2 SIZE AND POWER RATING
The surface area and therefore the size of a component determines the rate at
which heat is dissipated from the component to its surroundings. Generally
therefore the larger a component, the higher its power rating.
Carbon resistors of the same resistance value are commonly available in ratings
between W and 2W. When higher wattage is required wire-wound resistors
may be used, the normal range here is 1W to 200W.
11.4.3 THE KILOWATT HOUR
The unit of electrical energy is the joule which may be expressed in terms of
power as a Watt second.
The joule however is a very small unit and it is therefore often more convenient to
measure energy used in kilowatt hours where:
1kWh = 1000 watt hours
= 1000 3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3 600 000 J or 3.6 MJ

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
11.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

Every source of EMF has internal resistance. If it is required to develop the
maximum possible amount of power in an external load, then the load resistance
must be equal in value to the internal resistance of the source.
This may be shown by calculating the power developed in RLoad for different
values of RLoad.
This illustrates that maximum power is developed in the load when RLoad equals
RInternal.
Matching is very important in electronic circuits which usually have a fairly high
source resistance. A typical example is the matching of a loudspeaker to an
audio amplifier. Note however that:
For a power source with variable internal resistance and given load (RL), the
smaller the internal resistance, the higher the power transfer to the load.
The highest power transfer is achieved here when the internal resistance is
zero.
Batteries, generators and other power supply systems are not operated
under maximum power transfer conditions, since to do so would result in the
same amount of power being dissipated in the source as was supplied to
the load, which is wasteful of energy. Thus power systems are designed to
have the minimum internal resistance to minimise loses in the power supply.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
12 CAPACITANCE & CAPACITORS

When a voltage is applied to a capacitive circuit there is a change in the electric
flux. The ease with which this change takes place is a measure of the
capacitance of the circuit.
In d.c. circuits, capacitance is only effective when the voltage is switched on and
off, but in a.c. circuits where the voltage varies continuously, the effect of
capacitance is continuous.
A device used specifically to introduce capacitance into a circuit is known as a
capacitor (sometimes called a condenser).
12.1 CHARGING A BODY

A conductor is given a positive charge when electrons are forcibly removed from
the conductor, eg, by connecting it to the positive pole of a d.c. source. Similarly,
when additional electrons are pushed on to a conductor, it is given a negative
charge.
The use of force means that energy has been expended by the source of d.c. and
this energy is stored in an electric field. An electric field is represented by lines of
flux whose direction is the direction of force which would be experienced by a free
positive charge placed in the field. Lines of electric flux behave in an analogous
manner to lines of magnetic flux.
As the charge on a body increases, it repels further charge with greater force until
eventually the repelling force equals the charging force and the conductor is fully
charged.
The charge on a fully charged body may be changed by changing the voltage
supplying the charging force, but the conductor will oppose this charge due to the
charge it already possesses.
Any conductor will hold a charge, the magnitude of the charge depends upon the
magnitude of the voltage applied, but for a single conductor, even a large voltage
produces only a relatively small charge.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
12.2 THE BASIC CAPACITOR

If we have two metal plates close together, but separated by an insulator or
dielectric (which could be air) and we apply a voltage across them, electrons are
removed from one plate and applied to the other and each becomes charged.
The charge held by the combination may be very large because of the
concentration of the electric field between the plates. This represents a basic
capacitor.
Thus, a capacitor is a device which

opposes voltage change in a circuit
through its capacity to store electrical
energy (or charge) in the form of an
electric field.
12.3 CAPACITANCE
If we increase the voltage between the plates, the charge increases, but the ratio
of charge to voltage remains the same. This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of
the capacitor.
Charge
Voltage = A constant called capacitance
When the charge (Q) is in coulombs and the voltage (V) in volts, then the
capacitance (C) is in farads (F).
Q Q
C = V (and also Q = VC, V = C )
A capacitor has a capacitance of one Farad when a charging current of one

ampere, flowing for one second, causes a change of voltage of one volt between
its plates. The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in practice.
1 microfarad (F) = 10-6 farad
1 picofarad (pF) = 10-12 farad

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
12.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE

The factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor are:
Overlapping area of the plates (A). The capacitance increases as the area
of overlap increases since a larger plate area provides more room to
accommodate the increase charge.
Distance between the plates (d). The capacitance increases as the
distance between the plates decreases, since the electric field then
becomes more concentrated.
Material between the plates. This introduces a constant called the absolute
permittivity (). The constant is actually the product of two constants, the
permittivity of space (o) which has a value of 885 x 10-12 Fm-1 and the
relative permittivity (r), which is basically a multiplication factor (no units)
that indicates how many more times the material is able to concentrate the
electric flux compared with space. For example, if waxed paper is inserted
between the plates instead of air, the ability to concentrate a flux (the
permittivity) is multiplied by approximately 3, therefore the relative
permittivity (r) of waxed paper is approximately 3.
We may summarise this in equation form as:

A
C= d
The units of C are Farads if the units of the other quantities are:
Area (a) square metres (m2).
Distance between plates (d) metres (m).
Absolute permittivity () farads per metre (Fm-1).
In the case of multi-plate capacitors, capacitance is calculated using the formula:
(n - 1) A
C=
d
Where n is the number of plates and A is the area of a single plate.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
12.5 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

Energy is stored in the electric field of a charged capacitor. If a dielectric is
inserted, extra energy is stored above that stored in free space, due to the
distortion of electron orbits in the atoms. The energy stored is given by the
equation:
Energy = CV2 joules
= QV since CV = Q
= Q2/C since V = Q/C
12.6 CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
12.6.1 FIXED CAPACITORS
Fixed capacitors usually consist of sheets of metal foil between which is

sandwiched the dielectric, or alternatively the metal, such as aluminium, is
deposited onto both sides of the dielectric. The characteristics and quality of the
capacitor depends mainly on the dielectric, which may be paper, chemically
impregnated paper, plastics mica or ceramic.
12.6.2 VARIABLE CAPACITORS
Variable capacitors are usually meter plates with air as the dielectric. The
variation is achieved by varying the area of overlap of the plates.
Preset capacitors may use air, mica or ceramics as the dielectric.
12.6.3 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
Electrolytic capacitors use the metal oxide as the dielectric which is formed
directly on the metal plates. High values of capacitance can be achieved here
with small physical size. Most electrolytic capacitors must be connected into
circuit with the correct polarity or damage (possibly including explosion) may
result.
12.6.4 SAFE WORKING VOLTAGE
The safe working voltage is the maximum d.c. voltage that can safely be applied
to a capacitor without causing the dielectric to break down.
When breakdown occurs, the electric field is strong enough to tear electrons free
from their orbits. A current then flows with the production of a large amount of
heat. The dielectric is commonly burned through rendering the capacitor
unserviceable.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Higher voltage require thicker dielectrics, but this reduces capacitance. Thus, a
given value of capacitance requires a larger capacitor (greater plate area a) for
greater voltage working.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
12.7 CAPACITOR SYMBOLS

The diagram below gives the symbols for capacitors. The pre-set capacitor
(sometimes referred to as a padder or trimmer) allows slight variations to be
made about its fixed value.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
13 CAPACITORS IN DC CIRCUITS
13.1 CAPACITORS IN SERIES
When three capacitors are connected in series. If one electron moves from the
negative terminal of the cell to the right hand plate of C3, and one electron moves
from the left hand plate of C1 to the positive terminal of the cell, one electron will
move between C1 and C2 and between C2 and C3. Thus, the total charge moved
is one electron and the charge on each capacitor is one electron. Thus:
QTOTAL = Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3
but V = V1 + V2 + V3 (Kirchoffs second law)
also V = Q
C
Therefore Q = Q + Q + Q
CTOTAL C1 C2 C3
Hence 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
C C1 C2 C3
Therefore, the three single capacitors may be replaced by a single capacitor

whose capacitance (C) is given by the above equation, provided its safe working
voltage is of a sufficiently high value to withstand the applied voltage.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
13.2 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
Three capacitors are connected in parallel. If on closing the switch S a current I

flows in the circuit, then from Kirchoffs first law:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
therefore It = I1t + I2t + I3t (where t is the time)
but Q = It
therefore QTOTAL = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
QTOTAL = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
therefore
V V V V
but Q = C
V
Therefore C = C1 + C2 + C3
Thus, we may replace capacitors in parallel by a single capacitor whose value is

given by the above equation.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
13.3 CAPACITORS IN SERIES / PARALLEL COMBINATIONS

When capacitors are connected in series and parallel combinations, the process
of finding the total capacitance is basically the same as that used to find the total
resistance of a resistor network. It must of course be noted, that the formulae
used for capacitors in series and parallel are different from those used for
resistors connected the same way.
Where capacitors appear in both series and parallel, they may be reduced to a
single effective capacitance using a step-by-step sequence as follows;
Combine any simple parallel groupings within branches.
Replace any simple series groups by a single equivalent capacitor.
Repeat the process until a single capacitor remains.
13.4 CHARGE & DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS

A capacitor opposes voltage change in a circuit; indeed, if we had a perfect d.c.
circuit and a perfect capacitor, then only an instantaneous current would flow,
charging the capacitor instantaneously to equal the applied voltage (but in the
reverse sense) and so preventing further current flow. However, in any real
circuit, resistance is present in the form of:
the connecting wires.
Internal resistance within the d.c. source.
This causes the capacitor to take a finite time to charge up.
13.4.1 CHARGING A CAPACITOR
In the diagram below, all of the resistance in the circuit is added together and
shown as a single value R.
With S1 closed and S2 open, the capacitor

will charge up.
Note that Kirchhoffs second law always
applies, that is:
E = VR + VC

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The charging sequence is as follows:

On closing S1, no current has yet flowed, the capacitor plates have no
charge on them and hence, there is no voltage across it.
The whole of the applied voltage is developed across the resistor:
VR = E
The initial charging current is equal to the current through the resistor:
VR E
IINIT = =
R I
As C charges, the potential difference across it (VC) increases, opposing the
applied voltage (E) so that the charging current is progressively reduced.
Finally the capacitor is fully charged (VC = E) and current ceases
(consequently VR = O).
This sequence is shown graphically below.
dVc
The curves are called exponential curves and it can be seen that the slopes dt
dI
and dt are progressively decreasing as time increases.
13.4.2 TIME CONSTANT
It is found that the time taken to charge up the capacitor depends on the product
of capacitance and resistance. This product is called the time constant of the
circuit and its value is in seconds, providing R is in ohms and C in farads.
TIME CONSTANT = CR

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The time constant is defined as either:

The time which would be taken for the capacitor voltage to reach its
maximum value if it continued to increase at the initial value, or
The time for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 of its maximum value (or
63.2%, this is sometimes taken as 2/3 in calculations).
It is difficult to say at exactly what point the capacitor is fully charged, however,
for all practical purposes it may be considered fully charged after five time
constants:
TIME TO FULLY CHARGE = 5CR

seconds
13.4.2.1 Proof of time constant
When C is fully charged, then Q = CE. The time taken to fully charge at the initial
charging rate is equal to the time constant (TC).
E E
Thus Q = Iinitial TC (but Iinitial = ) so CE = TC
R R
E/
Therefore CE/ = TC
R
Hence Time Constant TC = CR
13.4.3 DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
On opening S1 and closing S2 (after the capacitor is fully charged), the capacitor
discharges, thus current flows (in the opposite direction to the original current)
and the voltage across the capacitor falls to zero exponentially.
In this case the voltage across the capacitor falls by 63.2% to 0.368E in CR
seconds and takes 5CR seconds to fall to zero (0.368 is sometimes taken as 1/3
in calculations).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
13.4.4 A CAPACITOR IN A DC CIRCUIT
It can be seen that although current does flow for a period of time in a d.c. circuit
containing a capacitor (until the capacitor is fully charged), the current is
eventually reduced to zero. Thus, a capacitor inserted in a d.c. circuit prevents
current flow and is sometimes called a dc blocking capacitor.
Two points should be noted;
1. Current does not flow through a capacitor, it only appears to, because the
number of electrons arriving at one plate is the same as the number leaving
the other plate.
2. Alternating current always appears to pass through a capacitor. The degree
of opposition to a.c. current flow is determined by a variety of factors which
will be studied later in a.c. circuits. The study of capacitors in a.c. circuits will
also provide additional reasons for using them in d.c. circuits.
13.5 THE EFFECTS OF OPEN & SHORT CIRCUITS

A capacitor is in effect an open circuit, however, if the connection to a capacitor
were to go open circuit then it would be unable to charge and there would be
absolutely no current flow. If this occurred in a parallel combination, the total
capacitance of the circuit would decrease, in a series combination the capacitors
would be ineffective because of the lack of current flow.
When a capacitor is short circuited it is unable to charge, if one capacitor in a
parallel combination is short circuited it will prevent the other paralleled capacitors
from charging. In a d.c. circuit, a shorted capacitor will no longer act as a d.c.
block and will allow the flow of both d.c. and a.c. current.
The effects of open and short circuited capacitors will be examined in more detail
as there uses in various circuits are studied.
13.6 SAFETY & TESTING

A charged capacitor can store a large amount of energy which it releases on
discharge. It is therefore important to ensure that capacitors, especially large
ones, are discharged before you attempt to touch them. Particular care is
required when servicing faulty high voltage equipment.
A capacitor can be tested using an ohmmeter. When connected across a
capacitor, the ohmmeter's battery charges the capacitor. The charging of the
capacitor is indicated by a changing value of resistance, from zero to infinity as
the capacitor charges. If the charging process is too quick to see, a resistor can
be placed in series with the meter and capacitor to slow it down (time constant =
CR). In many cases it is necessary to remove the capacitor from the circuit in
order to test its serviceability.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
13.7 CIRCUITS INVOLVING CAPACITIVE DECAY

Consider the circuit shown below. Depending on the time constant of the circuit,
relative to the period of the square wave applied to it, the response of the circuit
can vary widely. Assuming T is half the period of the square wave.
If CR is slightly less than T, the waveform in the top diagram is produced at the
output (across C).
If Cr<<T, the square wave is hardly affected, centre diagram.
If CR>>T, the circuit is an integrating circuit, since the output waveform is that
of the integral of the square wave, that is the area underneath it. This is shown in
the lower diagram.
If the positions of the resistor and capacitor are reversed and the voltage across
the resistor measured, then the waveform produced will be that of the current,
since V=IR.
If CR is short enough then a stream of pulses is produced when a square wave is

applied to the input. Shown in the top diagram.
If CR<<T the circuit is called a differentiating circuit, since the pulses
approximate to the slope of the input waveform as in the centre diagram.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
When CR>>T the circuit is called a coupling circuit. A coupling circuit allows
the input waveform to pass to the output whilst blocking the passage of any d.c.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
14 MAGNETISM
Everyone has seen and handled a magnet in the form of a straight or horseshoe-
shaped bar of steel or steel-alloy. The magnet was originally a piece of steel
before it was magnetised.
A material called magnetite is a naturally occurring magnet (also called
lodestone) which was used at sea for primitive navigation.
A magnet is easily recognised by its ability to attract pieces or iron and steel; and
if suspended freely on a piece of string, will swing to align with the earths own
magnetic field.
14.1 MAGNETIC THEORIES
14.1.1 MOLECULAR THEORY
If we continue cutting our magnet into smaller and smaller pieces we would
eventually arrive at the smallest piece, which would be a molecule and this
molecule would be a magnet. Thus the molecular theory of magnetism states
that:
All materials contain molecules with magnetic properties.
In unmagnetised substances, these molecules are arranged in a random
manner and no external magnetic effect is produced.
When the material is being magnetised, we are aligning the molecules. The
number aligned increases, as we further magnetise the specimen and when
all are aligned no further increase in magnetisation is possible and the
specimen is said to be magnetically saturated.
In theory all substances could be magnetised, but in practice it is impossible
to align the molecules of most substances.
14.1.2 DOMAIN THEORY
In domain theory it is assumed that magnetic materials are composed of tiny

individual magnets called domains, a single domain is very small - about 1012
atoms.
Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only orbit the nucleus but spin
axially on their own axis.
In non magnetic materials the same number of electrons spin clockwise as
anti-clockwise. In magnetic materials more electrons spin one way than the other
way
The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic moments.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In unmagnetised state the moments of the electrons are in the same direction in
a single domain, but the domains produce random pockets of magnetism.
As the magnetic material becomes magnetised the domains become partially
aligned. In fully magnetised material all domains become fully aligned.
14.2 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
14.2.1 MAGNETIC POLES
The two regions near the ends of a magnet at which the attracting forces appear
to be concentrated are called the magnetic poles.
The pole (when freely suspended) which points towards the earths geographic
north pole is called the North Seeking Pole N (or north pole for short) and that
which points to the south geographic pole, the South Seeking Pole S (or south
pole).
It is observed that two north poles repel each other and likewise with two south
poles; however a north pole and a south pole will attract each other. This is
summarised in the fundamental law of magnetism:
Like Poles Repel, Unlike Poles Attract
To test a specimen for the presence of magnetism it is necessary to observe

repulsion. Attraction simply means that the specimen is magnetic but it may not
be magnetised. Thus the test for magnetism is repulsion.
14.2.2 MAGNETIC FIELD
The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is called the magnetic
field. The magnetic field is three-dimensional and it may be shown visually by
drawing imaginary lines called lines of magnetic flux.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
14.2.3 LINES OF FLUX
A line of flux is a line indicating the direction in which a free north pole would
travel, if placed in the field at that point. Alternatively it is the direction in which
the north pole of a compass needle would point. The direction which would be
taken is indicated on the lines of flux by arrow heads.
Therefore lines of flux emanate from north poles and re-enter at south poles, see
diagram below.
14.2.3.1 Properties of Lines of Flux
To make the imaginary lines of flux describe the behaviour of the magnetic field
we must give them appropriate properties. Thus lines of flux have the following
properties:
They are imaginary.
By definition they emerge from a north pole and re-enter at a south pole.
They are continuous and never ending (thus they travel inside the magnet
from the south to north).
They never cross each other (a compass placed at a given point can only
point in one direction).
They can bend, but resist bending or distortion.
They behave as though elastic (and therefore try to shorten themselves).
They repel each other sideways (they fill evenly the volume available
there are no abrupt discontinuities).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
14.3 THE EARTHS FIELD

The earth acts as a magnet and the lines of force produced by it follow the
pattern shown in the diagram below.
If the Earth were completely symmetrical, the

north and south magnetic poles would
coincide with the axis of the Earth. The
magnetic poles are, in fact, separated from
the true poles by about 1000 Miles, the north
magnetic pole being in the area 70 - 75
degrees North and roughly 95 degrees West.
Since the North pole of a magnet is really a
North seeking pole and similarly the South
pole is really a South seeking pole it follows
that at the Earth's North pole there must be a
south seeking magnet and similarly at the
Earth's South pole there must be a North
seeking magnet. Unfortunately before the
significance of the Earth's magnetism was
realised, navigators had dropped the word
"seeking" leaving the embarrassing statement
that there is a magnetic south pole at the
North pole and a magnetic North pole at the
South pole.
This problem is overcome by defining the North seeking pole as the Red Pole
and the South seeking pole as the Blue Pole.
14.4 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
14.4.1 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetised and exhibit strong magnetic

properties. This group can be further subdivided into hard and soft magnetic
materials.
Above certain temperatures ferromagnetic materials behave as paramagnetic
materials.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
14.4.1.1 Hard Iron
Hard magnetic materials are more difficult to magnetise but retain most of their
magnetism when the magnetising force is removed.
Examples - steel and nickel alloys such as:
Ticonal - Iron-Cobalt / Nickel / Aluminium / Titanium and Copper
Alnico - Iron-Nickel / Cobalt And Aluminium
These materials are used for permanent magnets
14.4.1.2 Soft Iron

Soft magnetic materials become magnetised very easily, but they loose most of
the magnetism when the magnetising force is removed.
Examples - alloys such as stalloy and mumetal
These materials are used for temporary magnets
14.4.2 PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Most materials fall into this group. These materials can only be magnetised with a
great amount of effort, usually resulting in their destruction. If magnetised the
material only exhibits small magnetic properties.
Examples Wood / Glass /Air / Water / Aluminium
14.4.3 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
This is a small group of materials that actually oppose a magnetising force. If

placed in a magnetic field they will decreases its strength. If suspended in a
magnetic field, they will swing to adopt a position at 90 degrees to the lines of
flux.
Examples Copper / Brass / Bronze / Mercury / Bismuth
14.5 PRODUCTION OF A MAGNET

Magnets can be produced in a variety of ways, generally the method used is
determined by the type of magnet required.
14.5.1 STROKE METHOD
Using the stroke method of producing a magnet, a piece of steel is stroked by a

permanent magnet or magnets. Backward and forward movement of the steel
should be avoided and magnets should follow the assumed lines of force when
stroking the steel.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Magnets with same polarity at either end can be produced using the double
stroke method. This entails stroking the steel from the centre to the end,
reversing the direction of the magnet for each end. Such a magnet is said to have
consequent poles.
14.5.2 INDUCTION
The property of magnetism may be induced in a piece of material that does not
normally have that characteristic.
If a piece of soft iron is placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, the
soft iron will assume the properties of a magnet and become magnetised. This
action is called magnetic induction. It occurs because the lines of flux tend to flow
through the path of least opposition, and air offers more opposition than soft iron.
When the lines of flux pass through the soft iron, the molecules of soft iron line up
with the lines of force, their north poles pointing in the direction in which the lines
of force are travelling through the iron. The end at which the lines of flux enter the
soft iron becomes a south pole, the end at which they leave, a north pole.
If the magnetic field is removed, the soft iron will loose its magnetism.
It should be noted that a piece of soft iron sitting in the earth's magnetic field will
concentrate the lines of flux and become magnetised.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
14.5.3 USE OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT
When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced around

that conductor. This phenomenon was discovered by Oersted in 1820.
Oersted found that a wire carrying an electric current produces a magnetic field
around the wire for as long as current continues to flow. The direction of the
magnetic field depends upon the direction of the current. The field is symmetrical
around the wire and is represented by lines of flux drawn as concentric circles
around the wire.
By convention current flowing into a diagram is represented by a cross, current
flowing out of the diagram by a dot. One can liken this to the view obtained from a
dart thrown towards you, or away from you.
14.5.3.1 Corkscrew Rule
Knowing the direction of the current, it is possible to determine the direction of the
magnetic field using Maxwells Corkscrew rule, usually abbreviated to the
Corkscrew Rule (or sometimes the right hand screw rule).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The Corkscrew Rule states; if a corkscrew is turned so that it moves in the

direction of conventional current flow, then the direction of rotation of the
corkscrew corresponds to the direction of the magnetic field, see diagram below.
14.5.3.2 Attraction & Repulsion
Two parallel wires, which are close together, each carrying an electric current,
produce magnetic fields which interact with one another. If the currents flow in
the same direction, the wires experience a force of attraction. If the currents flow
in opposite directions, the wires experience a force of repulsion, see diagram
below.
The force between two such conductors forms the basis for the definition of the
unit of current - the ampere.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
15 ELECTROMAGNETISM
If a straight wire carrying a current is formed into a circular loop, the magnetic
field is as shown. The field may be deduced by taking elements of the loop and
looking at the field around each part of the loop.
15.1 PRODUCTION OF A BAR MAGNET

If a length of wire is bent into a series of loops, it forms a solenoid. The direction
of the magnetic field around any small part of it can be obtained by using the
corkscrew rule. If the fields for a series of such loops are combined, the result
will be a field pattern similar to that of a bar magnet.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
15.1.1 END RULE
The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of conventional
current flow. We can find out which end of the coil is acting as the north pole and
which is the south pole by observing the direction of current flow at each end.
This is called the End Rule or sometimes, the clock rule, see diagram below.
15.1.2 RIGHT HAND GRIPPING RULE
The right hand gripping rule can also be used to determine the north pole of a
coil. The coil is gripped by the right hand with the fingers pointing along the
conductors in the direction of conventional current flow, when the thumb is then
extended, it indicates the end of the coil that has a magnetic north polarity.
15.2 THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
15.2.1 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF)
In an electric circuit, a current is established due to the existence of an

electromotive force. In the same way, in a magnetic circuit, a flux is established
due to the existence of a magnetomotive force. The mmf is produced by the
current flowing in the coil and its value is the product of the current and the
number of turns on the coil.
Magnetomotive Force = Current x Number of Turns on the Coil
Note that, although mmf is quoted in ampere turns, the actual unit dimension is in
amperes.
15.2.2 MAGNETISING FORCE
The magnetomotive force can be expressed in terms of the length of the magnet.
It is then referred to as the magnetising force or magnetic field strength and given
the symbol H. The magnetising force is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic
effects at any given point in the magnetic field.
Magnetomotive Force
Magnetising Force (H) =
Length of magnet

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Note that:
The unit of field strength is ampere per metre, although it may be quoted as
ampere turns per metre.
The length of a solenoid l, is the length along its axis and not the length of
wire from which the solenoid is made.
It will therefore be seen that a solenoid having 10 turns per metre carrying a
current of 6A (10 6 = 60 ampere/metre) will produce the same strength of
magnetic field as one of 12 turns per metre carrying 5A (12 5 = 60
ampere/metre).
15.2.3 FLUX & FLUX DENSITY
A magnetising force produces a certain amount of magnetic flux ( ),

measured in Webers. The magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines of
magnetic flux. The number of lines of flux passing though a given area is called
the flux density. Flux density is denoted by the symbol B and given the unit
Tesla.

Flux density (B) = Teslas
A
The unit of flux density is actually Webers per m2, so:
1 Weber
1 Tesla =
m2
15.2.4 PERMEABILITY
When an mmf produces a magnetising force H, a certain flux density B is

established.
B
Ratio is termed 'the permeability of the material'.
H
Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to permeate the material. If

the material in which the flux is established is a vacuum, or free space, then the
ratio is called the permeability of free space' and given the symbol o. This
value is considered to be a constant, 4 10-7 H/M
If a flux is established in any material other than air or free space, then the flux
density will increase. The number of times by which the flux density increases is
called the relative permeability of the material denoted by the symbol r.
This is not a constant but varies with different material. i.e. steel = 800.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The product of o and r is called the absolute permeability and is denoted

by the symbol .
B
For all materials = = o x r
H
15.2.5 RELUCTANCE
The opposition experienced by a magnetising force to the creation of a flux is

called reluctance and denoted by the symbol S. The following derivation is for
information only.

Total Flux = B A Webers (1) (from flux density B = A )
IN
mmf = I.N and H = length
therefore H x length = IN and mmf = H length (2)
BxA
using equations (1) and (2) above mmf = H x length
B
But H = o x r
A
Therefore mmf = o x r x length
mmf length
And reluctance (S) = =
o x r x A
Ampere Turns
The units of reluctance are Weber
15.2.6 COMPOSITE PATHS AND AIRGAPS
A magnetic circuit may be composed of paths of different materials. Such

magnetic path is called a composite path. The total reluctance of a composite
path is equal to the sum of the individual reluctance's.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In many devices such as transformer motors and generators the magnetic flux
has parallel paths. The purpose is to reduce the total reluctance given two
parallel paths S1 and S2.
S1 S 2
S TOTAL =
S1 + S 2
For more than two parallel paths:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ..... +
S TOTAL S1 S 2 S 3 Sn
15.3 BH CURVE
For any ferromagnetic material there is a definite value of flux density (B),
corresponding to a specified value of magnetising force (H). These values can
be ascertained from graphs of B against H for each material. A BH curve can only
be obtained using a piece of material that has never been magnetised before.
Once the material has been magnetised and the curve obtained, the production
of another BH curve, from the same piece of material, is not possible.
The BH curve is the line O to Q on the hysteresis curve shown below.
The gradient of the BH curve gives the permeability of the material. In practice it
is found that the magnetic property of different specimens of the same material
vary considerably. The fact that permeability varies for a given material may also
be seen from the shape of the curve, if the permeability was a constant, the graph
of B against H would be a straight line.
15.4 HYSTERESIS LOOP

A ferromagnetic material retains some magnetism after the magnetising force is
removed. The BH curve (O to Q) will therefore only be followed once, on initial
magnetisation.
When a material is subjected to a changing magnetising force, the flux density is
affected by its previous magnetic history. There is tendency for the magnetic
conditions to lag behind the magnetising force that is producing them. This is
known as hysteresis and comes from the Greek meaning late or lagging.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle of magnetising and

demagnetising the graph of B against H is as shown, this diagram is called a
hysteresis loop.
O to Q - Initial magnetisation to saturation at point A

Q to R - Magnetising force is reduced to zero.
O to R - Represents remanence. Remanence is the flux density remaining in
or the material after the magnetising force is removed. It is sometimes
0 to U called retentivity. If the material had not been taken to saturation then
OR or OU would represent the remanent flux density.
R to S - The magnetising force is reversed.
O to S - Represents the magnetising force required to reduce the flux density
or to zero. This is called the coercivity of the material. If the material
O to V had not reached saturation it is termed the coercive force.
S to T - Further increase in the reverse magnetising force. This causes the
material to reach saturation in the opposite direction.
T to Q - Reversal of magnetising force again eventually makes the material
saturate in original direction.
The term residual magnetism is used to describe the useful flux remaining after
the magnetising force has been removed for a considerable time. It is
proportional to the coercivity of the material and is also called coercivity. This
term should not be confused with remanence or remanent flux density.
The area of the loop represents the energy loss during each magnetic cycle, or
the power dissipated. Its size is dependent upon the type of material and
frequency at which the magnetising force is switched.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The following should be noted:

Soft iron saturates with much less magnetising force than steel.
The remanence of soft iron is greater than that of steel.
The area of the loop and coercivity for steel is much greater than for soft
iron. This indicates greater hysteresis loss and residual magnetism.
Materials with large loops are used for permanent magnets ticonal.
Materials with small loops are used for temporary magnets stalloy,
Mumetal.
15.5 COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL & MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

It is useful to compare various electric and magnetic quantities and their
relationships. Consider the electric and magnetic circuits shown below.
Tabulating the comparisons:
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
Emf Volt mmf Ampere turn
Current Ampere Magnetic Flux Weber

Ampere turns /
Resistance Ohm Reluctance
Weber
Current = emf / Resistance Magnetic Flux = mmf / Reluctance

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
15.6 MAGNETIC SCREENING

The differing values of reluctance of air and soft iron are made use of in magnetic
screening. Air had high reluctance whilst soft iron has a low reluctance. Thus if
the equipment to be screened is surrounded by soft iron, most of the flux will pass
through the soft iron, rather than the air inside it, since lines of flux take the path
of least reluctance.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
16 INDUCTION
In 1831, a scientist called Michael Faraday discovered that an electric current
was produced by the relative movement of a magnet and a coil, a phenomenon
which is now known as electromagnetic induction.
16.1 ELECTRICITY FROM MAGNETISM

If a magnet is moved into or out of a coil of wire and if the coil is connected to a
meter, the meter records a flow of current as long as the magnet is moving.
The same result is obtained if the magnet is kept stationary and the loop is
moved. The meter therefore shows that there is a current as long as there is
relative movement between the loop (coil) and the magnet (magnetic field). Note
that energy is not being produced but simply converted from mechanical energy
to electrical energy.
16.1.1 FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED EMF
By experiment, the following factors may be noted:

The faster the magnet (or coil) is moved, the greater is the deflection
obtained on the meter. This shows that the magnitude of the emf is
proportional to the rate of relative movement.
Repeating the experiment using a stronger magnet results in greater meter
deflection for the same rates of movement. Hence the magnitude of the emf
is proportional to the flux density.
Reversal of the direction of motion produces meter deflecting in the opposite
sense. The direction of the induced emf therefore depends on the direction
of motion.
Using the south pole of the magnet instead of the north results in meter
deflections in the opposite sense, showing that the direction of the induced
emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
If more turns are used on the coil, meter deflection is greater and is
proportional to the number of turns (N).
These results are summarised in two laws, as follows.
16.1.2 FARADAYS LAW
When the magnetic flux through the coil is made to vary, an emf is induced in the
coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
flux.
d d = change of flux
Hence, E where dt = time taken to change
dt
The emf is also dependent on the number of turns on the coil (N), the greater the
number of turns on the coil, the greater emf. Hence, we may write:
d
E N volts
dt
16.1.3 LENZS LAW
A change of flux in a closed circuit induces an emf and sets up a current. The
direction of this current is such that its magnetic field tends to oppose the change
of flux. See diagram below.
The direction of the induced emf as given by Lenzs Law may be shown in our
equation by introducing a negative sign, but remember that the negative sign is
vectorial and not arithmetic.
d
Hence, E = - N volts
dt
This formula is not strictly correct. A conductor must cut 108 lines of flux per
second in order to induce 1 volt. That is the flux must be changing at a rate of
108 lines per second. The formula should therefore be written as:
d
E = -N x 10 -8 volts
dt

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
16.1.4 FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE
When a straight wire is moved through a magnetic field, an emf is induced in it, in
the manner of the coil and magnet experiment. Once again, lines of flux are
being cut by a conductor and if the wire forms part of a closed circuit, a current
will flow. The same effect is observed if the wire is stationary and the magnetic
field moves. The direction of the induced emf may be determined by Flemings
Right Hand Rule.
The thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand are held at right angles
to each other, then:
With the thuMb pointing in the direction of the conductor movement.
With the First finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field (N to S).
Then the seCond finger points in the direction of conventional current flow
and thus indicates the direction of the induced voltage.
16.2 SELF INDUCTANCE

When current through a coil changes, the changing flux induces an emf that
opposes the current flow. This emf is the result of self inductance and is called
back emf. The term self inductance is often replaced merely by inductance.
The value of back emf is given by:
dI
E = -L x dt
dI
Where L is the inductance in henries, and dt the rate of change of current.
The minus indicates back emf.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
The unit of inductance is the henry and is based on the equation. If current
changing at a rate of 1 amp a second induces an emf of 1 volt then the
inductance is 1 henry.
All circuits have inductance even a straight conductor, but if a straight piece of
wire is formed into a coil the number of flux linkages increases and so does the
inductance.
A further increase in inductance is achieved by increasing the flux density. This
depends on the area, the length of the coil and the permeability of material in
which flux is established,
N2 o r A
Thus, L = l Henries
N = Number of Turns
o r = Absolute Permeability
A = Area in square metres
I = Length of coil in metres (not wire)
length l N2
As reluctance (S) = o r A = S and L = S
o x r x A
dl
Also by transposition of E = -L dt
dt
L = -E dl
16.3 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

If the changing flux in a coil links with the turns of a second coil, the two coils are
said to be mutually coupled and mutual inductance exists between them. The
unit of mutual inductance is Henry and is defined by:
If the primary current, changing at a rate of 1 amp per second, induces a
secondary voltage of 1v, then the mutual inductance is 1 henry.
dlprimary
Thus: Es = M dt

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
16.4 COUPLING FACTOR

If all the flux of a primary coil links with all the turns of a secondary then 100%
coupling exists. Sometimes it is more convenient to use a coupling factor - k.
Maximum Coupling (100%) is represented by a k value of 1.
Thus if flux linkage is 97% the coupling factor is 0.97.
Given that mutual coupling depends on k then so does the mutual inductance.
The relationship is given by: M = k L1 L2
Where L1 and L2 are individual inductances of the mutually coupled coils.
The value of k depends on:
Purpose of coils involved
Relative positions of the coils
Frequency or rate of change of current
and can be as high as 0.98 or as low as 0.0001.
16.5 ENERGY STORED IN MAGNETIC FIELD

If we consider the theoretical case of a circuit with inductance only, all of the
energy used in the circuit must go into the magnetic field. It can be shown that
the energy stored in the magnetic field is given by equation:
Energy stored = L I2 joules
Where L is the inductance of the coil in Henries and I is the current flowing
through it in amps.
16.5.1 SPARK SUPPRESSION
If we consider a circuit with a large inductance, possibly one using a magnetic

relay. At the instant the switch is opened, the current through the coil is changing
at maximum rate, therefore the back emf induced in the coil is also at maximum.
This emf is applied to the air gap between the switch contacts and ionises the air,
producing a spark which the burns the contacts. This increases their electrical
resistance and radiates energy which may cause interference, therefore sparks
must be suppressed. Good design of switch contacts can help, but connecting a
capacitor in parallel with the switch is the best method of eliminating sparking.
When using a capacitor the energy released by the coil charges the capacitor
instead of ionising air. When the switch is closed again the capacitor discharges.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Blank Page

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
17 INDUCTORS
Coils which are used for their opposition to current change in a circuit are known
as inductors or chokes.
17.1 CONSTRUCTION
Inductors with an air core have small inductance values and are used at high
frequencies within radio tuning circuits, or as r.f. chokes to stop radio frequency
currents taking certain paths in circuits. Coils for use at high frequency are made
of Litz wire which consists of several thin copper wires insulated from each other.
Materials based on iron are used where a large inductance is required. Iron
increases the strength of the magnetic field several hundred times. Silicon steel
and nickel iron are used at frequencies up to 20kHz.
Iron cores are laminated. The laminations reduce the conversion of electrical
energy to heat by making it difficult for currents in the coil to induce currents in
the core. These induced currents are called eddy currents because they flow in
circles through the iron core. If the laminations are at right angles to the plane of
the coil windings, the core offers a large resistance to the eddy currents.
Iron based cores can be used at high frequencies if the material is in the form of a
powder which has been coated with an insulator and pressed together.
Ferrite cores consist of ferric oxide combined with other oxides such as nickel
oxide and may also be used at high frequencies.
Iron dust and ferrite cores increase the inductance of a coil considerably. For
example, an air cored inductor of 1mH could be increased to 400mH by fitting a
ferrite core. These cores also have a high resistance, thereby reducing eddy
currents.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
17.2 INDUCTOR SYMBOLS
Air Core:
old symbol new symbol
Iron Core:
Iron Dust or Ferrite

Core:

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
18 INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
18.1 INDUCTORS IN SERIES

If it is required to increases the value of inductance in a circuit, then two or more
inductors may be connected in series. The total inductance then depends on the
sum of individual inductances and the mutual coupling between them.
With no mutual coupling:
LT = L1 + L2 etc
If the coils are positioned so that the mutual induced emfs in each coil aid the self
induced emfs then the coils are said to be series aiding, and
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
If the coils are positioned so that mutually induced emfs in each coil oppose the
self induced emfs, the coils are said to be in series opposing, and
LT = L1 + L2 - 2M
Thus if the position of L2 reference to L1 can be reversed, then the total

inductance will vary between:
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
and LT = L1 + L2 - 2M
giving a total variation of 4M.

A device which will achieve this is called variometer. It consists of two coils
located one inside the other. The outer coil (stator) is stationary whilst the inner
coil (rotor) is capable of rotation through 180 degrees. The coils are mutually
coupled and connected in series, in one position the rotor field aids the stator
field, when the rotor is turned 180 the rotor field opposes the stator field. Then
the coils are at 90 degrees to each other, mutual coupling is negligible.
18.2 INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL

If inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance decreases.
With no mutual coupling:
1 1 1 1
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 etc.
Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 18-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Or if only two inductors are connected:
L1 L2
LT = L + L
1 2
18.3 INDUCTORS IN A DC CIRCUIT

If a circuit contained only pure resistance, then the current would rise to its full
E
value I = R in zero time when the switch is closed.

In practice, there is no such thing as pure resistance and it is normal to find a
circuit containing resistance and inductance in series. Also, there is no such
thing as pure inductance since any coil must have some resistance. Therefore,
the circuit to be considered will have inductance and resistance in series.
An inductance opposes any change in current by producing a back emf. The
back emf tries to prevent current flow when the circuit is switched ON and tries
to maintain current flow when the circuit is switched OFF. Current can therefore
not rise instantly to a maximum, or fall instantly to zero.
18.3.1 WHEN DC CURRENT IS APPLIED
On moving the switch to position A in the diagram below, the current circuit will
start to rise. All times Kirchhoffs second law applies.
By Kirchhoffs second law
E - Eb = VR (Eb = back emf)
dl
but Eb = -L dt
and VR = IR
dl
hence E = L dt - IR volts

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
In the above equation, E, L and R are constant, therefore as I increases,

dl
Dt (the slope of the graph at any point) must decrease.
The current therefore follows a curve whose gradient is continually decreasing
and which is called an exponential curve.
18.3.2 TIME CONSTANT
It is impossible to decide exactly when the maximum point is reached on an

exponential curve, or when the curve has fallen to exactly zero. To enable
calculations to be performed a time constant is used. The time constant gives
an indication of the time taken for the current to rise to its maximum value or fall
to zero. The time constant is defined as either:
The time taken for a current to reach its maximum value if the initial rate of
increase were maintained.
The time taken for the current to reach 0.632 of its maximum value (or
63.2%).
The latter definition arises since it is found that after one time constant, the
current has always built up to 63.2% of its maximum value. The time constant for
a series LR circuit is given by:
L
Time Constant = seconds
R
Therefore, although it is not possible to say exactly when the current reaches its
maximum value, for all practical purpose it can be considered a maximum after 5
time constants:
5L
Maximum Current flows after R

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
18.3.2.1 Proof of Time Constant
At the instant of closing the switch (point A) I = O.

dl
But E = L dt + IR
dl dl E
Therefore E = L dt and dt = L
dl
But dt at A is the slope of the graph at A.
BC E
The slope of AB = AC = L
E
But if AC is the time constant and BC = R
E 1 E
Then =
R Time Constant L
L
Therefore the Time Constant must equal R
18.3.3 THE EFFECTS OF BACK EMF ON CIRCUIT CURRENT
In proving the time constant, it was stated that, at the instant the switch is closed,
the current (I) is zero. This is because, at that instant in time the current in the
coil and the flux surrounding the coil are both changing at their maximum rate.
This rate of change of flux produces maximum back emf, the value being equal
and opposite to the applied voltage. Therefore, with no potential difference
across the circuit, no current can flow. This fact is quite simple to prove using the
equation for the self induced emf in a coil and elements of the proof of time
constant above:
dI
E = -L x dt
The current starts from zero, and would rise to its maximum value in 1 time
constant if the initial rate of change could be maintained.
The rate of change of current is therefore given by the gradient of line AB. The
BC IMAX - 0
gradient of AB = AC = Time Constant .

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
VSupply
IMAX can be calculated using R , because when the current reaches its
maximum value it is no longer producing a changing flux and therefore not
producing a back-emf. At this time, the whole supply voltage is dropped across
the resistor.
18.3.4 WHEN DC CURRENT IS REMOVED
A similar situation occurs when the switch is moved from position A to position B.
The current does not immediately fall to zero because the inductor opposes any
change and tries to maintain the current flow. Instead the current decays
exponentially to zero over a period of 5 time constants.
In the circuit shown, the resistor is kept in circuit, therefore the time constant
calculated will be the same as when the switch was moved to position A. If a
different value of resistance is present then the time constant will be different.
It should be noted that in trying to keep the current flowing in the same direction
around the circuit, the polarity of the voltage across the inductor must be the
reverse of what it was when the switch was moved to position A. ie +ve at the
bottom of the coil and ve at the top.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
18.3.5 SAFETY
As the current increases through an inductor, flux builds up and energy is stored
in the magnetic field. On short circuiting an inductor, the magnetic field collapses
and the energy is returned to the circuit in the form of an emf that tries to maintain
the current flow. If the circuit is open-circuited rather than short-circuited by a
resistor, as in the case of the circuit studied (moving the switch to B), then the
collapsing flux will produce a large back-emf that may cause sparking across the
switch contacts as they are opened. The sparks damage the contacts, produce
heat, could ignite fuel vapour and transmit electromagnetic radiation which
interferes with communication and navigation equipment. The large emfs can
also cause electric shocks on what are considered safe, low voltage d.c. circuits.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
19 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
The following circuit symbols have been taken from a typical aircraft manual and
are intended to be a small selection of what you will find being used in aircraft
maintenance documentation. You will be expected to memorise common
symbols, as without them you will be unable to negotiate the aircraft schematic
diagrams and wiring diagram manuals. This applies irrespective of your intended
trade.
For manuals produced i.a.w. the ATA specification 100, a list of circuit symbols
can be found in the WDM Chapter 20. For other aircraft no such list may exist
and you will have to rely on memory.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part A)
uk ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering

EASA Part 66 Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals Part A PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EASA Part 66 Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals Part A PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE ................................................................. 1-1

3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY .................................................... 3-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 1

4.3 BY MAGNETISM ...................................................................... 4-2

5 CELLS & BATTERIES.................................................................. 5-1

6 OHMS LAW ................................................................................. 6-1

7 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS .............................. 7-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 2

7.3 DIGITAL MULTIMETERS ........................................................... 7-12

9 RESISTORS IN DC CIRCUITS ..................................................... 9-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 3

10 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE ...................................................... 10-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 4

14.1 MAGNETIC THEORIES ............................................................. 14-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 5

16.5.1 Spark suppression ................................................. 16-5

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page Index 6

1.1.1 STATES OF MATTER

There are three normal states of matter:

1.1.2 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

From a chemical view we again have three divisions:

1.1.3 ATOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-2

1.3.1 THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

1.3.2 THE FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-3

Thus our picture of the structure of matter is as shown below.

Protons Neutrons Electrons

1.3.3 PARTICLE FUNCTION

The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material:

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-4

A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive charges (protons) and

1.4 ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-5

1.4.1 ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-6

1.4.3 ENERGY LEVELS

Elements with 6 to 8 valence electrons cannot have electrons-in the conduction

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-7

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 1-8

Isolated positive and

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 2-1

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 2-2

2.1 ATTRACTION & REPULSION

Like Charges Repel, Unlike Charges Attract.

The force of attraction or repulsion is governed by an inverse square law

2.2 UNIT OF CHARGE

One Coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons

2.3 STATIC ELECTRICITY & AIRCRAFT

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 2-3

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 2-4

3.1.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 3-1

The converse is also true, if no current is flowing, then no potential difference

3.1.3 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE EMF

To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the potential

3.2.1 MOVEMENT OF CHARGE

Although electric current is referred to as the flow of electrons through a

Issue 1 - 30 August 2001 Page 3-2

The Coulomb and the Ampere

3.2.2 CONVENTIONAL FLOW