Transitioning From At-Risk to STARs: Using Counseling-Based

Interventions with Students on Academic Probation

Courtney B. Walters
Student Academic Support Coordinator
Academic Support Center
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
cbwalte2@ncsu.edu
Ki Byung Chae
Program Director and Assistant Professor
Clinical Mental Health Counseling Program
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
kibyung.chae@uncp.edu

Abstract: The Striving Toward Academic Recovery (STAR) Program is a non-cognitive and
counseling-based program for academic at-risk college students. Interventions are individualized and
counseling-based with a focus on non-cognitive factors, measured by the Learning and Study
Strategies Inventory (LASSI) and College Self-Efficacy Inventory (CSEI). This study, conducted
during the Fall 2015 semester, investigated the effect of the STAR Program on academically at-risk
college students grade point average (GPA), self-efficacy, and awareness of study habits and
academic mindsets. The results indicate that the intervention groups GPA increased significantly
along with self-efficacy total and subscales scores and learning and study strategies scale scores. The
results suggest that the STAR Program is an effective intervention on successful student retention
and performance.

Introduction

The Striving Toward Academic Recovery (STAR) Program is one of several resources available
in the Academic Support Center (ASC) at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke (UNCP). The
other programs in this department include Tutoring, Resource Learning Lab, Strategies for Success course
(UNV 1100), Peer Academic Leaders (PALs), Emerging Scholars, Honing Academics With Knowledge
(HAWK) Alert, and Braves Come Back. ASC staff members serve as program coordinators and work
closely together, as students are often participating in multiple programs within the department.
Tutoring is free, unlimited, and available to all undergraduate students. The Resource Learning
Lab offers self-paced, computer-based learning programs in reading, writing, and comprehension.
Strategies for Success (UNV 1100) is a newer course offered at UNCP, earning three credit hours, and is
recommended for all students placed on academic probation. PALs are assigned to UNV 1100 course
sections and work one-on-one with enrolled students throughout the semester. Emerging Scholars is a
cohort of first year students who take UNV 1100 together and work with a PAL. Students on academic
probation and students in the Emerging Scholars Program are separated into different sections of UNV
1100. HAWK Alert is UNCPs early alert program, intended to identify students who may be
experiencing academic or personal difficulties at any point in the semester. Braves Come Back assists
students who left UNCP either under academic suspension or by choice with the readmission process.
Students who have been academically suspended from the university, along with first year
students (freshmen or transfers) earning below a 1.5 grade point average (GPA) in the first semester
enrolled, are required to participate in the STAR Program. UNCP places any student who earns a
cumulative GPA below a 2.0 on academic probation. Students on academic probation must earn a term
GPA of 2.3 to continue on probation, or achieve a cumulative GPA of 2.0 or higher to be in good
academic standing, by the end of the probationary term. Students not meeting one of these requirements
will be suspended from UNCP for one semester.
Students who are academically suspended from UNCP have the option to submit an academic
appeal. The appeal packet is completed with ASC staff and submitted to the campus appeals committee
for review. Students whose appeals are approved are deemed academically eligible to return to UNCP and
are placed on academic probation. Students who appeal who do not meet the requirements for academic
probation during the probationary term will be suspended for one year for a second suspension, and three
years for a third suspension. Students whose appeals are not approved, and/or students who choose not to
go through the appeals process, can return to UNCP at the end of the suspension period. These students
are classified as readmits and participants in the Braves Come Back Program.
The STAR Program was piloted in the Spring 2015 semester, along with the Academic Resource
Mentoring (ARM) Program that had been in place for several years for probation and suspension students.
At the end of the pilot semester, ASC leadership determined that the STAR Program was more beneficial
for this population of students, and the ARM Program was discontinued.
The ARM Program was staffed with both undergraduate and graduate students who demonstrated
success in academics and as campus leaders. Academic Resource Mentors were provided with a syllabus
to follow for the semester that covered areas such as time management, study skills, and goal setting. The
STAR Program Counselors are graduate students in UNCPs Clinical Mental Health Counseling Program.
The STAR Program uses a structured intake packet and interview, along with the Learning and Study
Strategies Inventory (LASSI) and College Self Efficacy Inventory (CSEI), to develop individualized
plans for success for each student participant.

Literature Review

The literature notes the importance of noncognitive factors such as self-efficacy, time
management, motivation, and social and emotional support for college students academic performance.
This section will review each component to set an accurate context for the study that follows.

Self-Efficacy
Research has suggested that self-efficacy is important to college students achievement,
motivational construct (e.g., persistence and goal setting), self-regulated learning, affective construct
(e.g., stress and anxiety), and retention rate (Finney & Schraw, 2003; Robbins et al., 2004; Solberg,
OBrien, Villareal, Kennel, & Davis, 1993; Zajacova, Lynch, & Espenshade, 2005). Krumrei-Mancuso,
Newton, Kim, and Wilcox (2013) examined 579 students enrolled in first year courses at a Midwestern
US public university and indicated that academic self-efficacy and organization/attention to study are
predictive of cumulative GPA at the end of the first year. They also found that first semester GPA affects
academic self-efficacy and organization/attention to study, which had an on effect cumulative GPA at the
end of the first year. This finding suggests the importance of the timing of interventions or programs
targeting first year students, as well as the negative impact that an unsuccessful first semester might have
on a college student.
A meta-analysis study indicated that the best predictors for college GPA were academic self-
efficacy and achievement motivation (Robbins et al., 2004). Multon, Brown, and Lent (1991) reported
that the academic self-efficacy had the strongest effect on academic performance. Higher academic self-
efficacy was associated with fewer unpleasant learning or test-related emotions such as test anxiety
(Preiss, Gayle, & Allen, 2006) and more pleasant emotions such as enjoyment of acquiring knowledge
and skill (Pekrun et al., 2004). Academic self-efficacy was also associated with the use of more effective
learning and study skills (Robbins et al., 2004). Bandura (1997) suggested that students self-efficacy
affect academic achievement by increasing their motivation and persistence to master challenging
academic tasks and by fostering the competent use of acquired knowledge and skills. A strong sense of
self-efficacy is not created easily; it requires ones experience in overcoming obstacles and difficult
situations through maintained effort and persistence (Bandura, 1997).
Time Management
Effective time management is more complex than simply using a calendar to keep up with
important assignments and deadlines. After developing and distributing the Time Management Behavior
(TMB) Scale to a group of 165 undergraduate students, Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, and Phillips (1990)
discovered that time management includes four distinct areas: setting goals and priorities, scheduling and
planning, perception of control of time, and organization. This study found that students may be strong in
one or more of these areas but need improvement in others, and that each of these facets of time
management may affect levels of stress and academic achievement.
Ninety students enrolled in an introductory psychology course at the University of Georgia in
1983 responded to a time management questionnaire for course credit. Britton and Tesser (1991)
collected their responses in addition to their high school Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores and
college cumulative GPA in 1987, four years after the questionnaire was completed. They found two major
areas of time managementshort-term planning and attitudes towards timeseem to be better predictors
of GPA than SAT results (Britton & Tesser 1991). These findings support the time management areas
identified by Macan et al. (1990), and both studies note that the sense of control of or attitude towards
time may be related to self-efficacy.

Motivation and Social/Emotional Support

Dennis, Phinney, and Chuateco (2005) conducted a longitudinal study of 100 first-generation
minority college students (two characteristics which deem them at-risk academically) to examine the
effects of motivation and environmental/social support on academic achievement. They found that
personal motivation to attend college correlated to GPA, adjustment, and commitment, while expectations
of family members (external motivation) did not appear to be significantly related to these outcomes.
Dennis et al. (2005) also found that the lack of social supports was a stronger predictor of academic
outcomes than the presence of social supports. This study found that support from peers was a better
predictor of college adjustment and higher GPA than family supports, which the authors note may be due
to the fact that they were examining the beliefs of first-generation college students.
Individual differences and strengths should be taken into consideration when examining
relationships between non-cognitive factors and academic achievement. Komarraju, Karau, and Schmeck
(2009) used the Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) and the Academic Motivations Scale (AMS) to
examine correlations between personality traits, motivation, and academic achievement.
Conscientiousness was found to be the most influential personality trait, scoring highest in intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation, as well as achievement. This finding suggests that students who are hard-working,
disciplined, and deliberate are more likely to be motivated and successful in college.

Purpose of the Study

The present study was to examine whether the STAR Program improved academic at-risk college
students GPA, self-efficacy, and awareness of study habits and academic mindsets. The goal of this study
was to identify potential implications for supporting the implementation of a non-cognitive and
counseling-based program for academic at-risk college students. The three questions investigated were:
(1) What is the effect of the STAR Program on the GPA of academically at-risk students? (2) What is the
effect of the STAR Program on self-efficacy scores of academically at-risk students?; and (3) What is the
effect of the STAR Program on learning and study strategies scores of academically at-risk students?
Methodology

Procedure and Participants

Researchers at UNCP conducted the current study during the Fall 2015 semester. Researchers
obtained approval to conduct the study from the UNCP Institutional Review Board (IRB). Students who
had been academically suspended or first-year students (either freshmen or transfers) earning below a 1.5
GPA in their first semester participated in this study as they were offered an option to participate in the
STAR Program. Students who participated in the STAR Program were introduced to the study and
provided with the informed consent and intake forms. They completed the CSEI and LASSI pretest online
at the beginning of the program and the posttest at the end of the program. Participants GPAs were
provided by the university through the request of the researchers.
Probation and suspension students are informed about the STAR Program requirement during
appeals and/or readmission meetings with Academic Support Center staff. This requirement is also
outlined in the Academic Procedures and Policies section of the UNCP Academic Catalog (University
of North Carolina at Pembroke, 2015). The minimum requirement for these students is to complete the
STAR Program intake process. Students who do not schedule a STAR Program intake appointment by
midterm will have a registration hold placed on their account, and it will not be removed until they have
completed the intake process. Intake appointments are not scheduled beyond the 12th week of the semester
(out of 16 weeks). After this point, students must meet with the STAR Program Coordinator in order to
have the registration hold removed.
STAR Program participants are identified at the beginning of the semester. The STAR Program
Coordinator compiles a contact list from various sources.
A database of all students who submitted academic and/or financial aid appeals who are
academically eligible to return to UNCP, which is maintained by Academic Support Center staff
and readily available. Enrollment in courses for the current term is verified before contacting
these students.
A database of all first year undergraduate students (freshmen and transfers) earning below a 1.5
GPA during the first enrolled semester, requested from UNCPs Office of Institutional Research.
A database of all enrolled undergraduate students who are on academic probation, requested from
UNCPs Office of Institutional Research.
Students who are required to participate in the STAR Program are contacted by phone and campus email
during the first three weeks of the semester. After the third week, they are sent weekly reminders by
campus email. All students on academic probation are informed about STAR Program services and are
provided with the option to participate voluntarily.

Intervention
The STAR Program operates during the fall and spring semesters. Staff includes a program
coordinator, six-eight counselors, and a research assistant. The STAR Program Coordinator is a Licensed
Professional Counselor (LPC) in North Carolina and has been approved to provide clinical supervision
for graduate students enrolled in the Clinical Mental Health Counseling Program by the program faculty.
STAR Program Counselors are students enrolled in either Counseling Practicum (CNS 6100) or Clinical
Mental Health Counseling Internship (CNS 6120). The STAR Program Research Assistant is typically a
psychology or counseling major and has expressed interest in working in a higher education setting after
graduation. All student staff are selected one semester in advance.
Intake appointments are scheduled for 60-90 minutes. During that time, the student meets with a
STAR Program Counselor to review the intake paperwork, set goals for the semester, and complete the
LASSI and CSEI pretests. At this time, students decide how involved they want to be with the STAR
Program.
STAR Program participants may choose individual meetings or groups, or they may request to
participate in both. Students who choose to attend individual sessions in addition to or instead of
participating in a group sessions will be expected to attend a minimum of eight individual sessions before
the end of the semester. Students who select groups are sorted based on areas that need improvement and
matching availability. Groups meet for one hour each week (same day/time). Past group topics include
time management, motivation, general study skills, and personal issues. All participants complete the
LASSI and CSEI posttests at the end of the semester.
Students may also opt out of participating in STAR Program activities (individual meetings or
groups). Those who opt out are required to return to complete the LASSI and CSEI posttests at the end of
the semester, but are given the option to return at any point in the semester if they need assistance. These
students are informed that this selection could have a negative impact on any future academic or financial
aid appeals submitted at UNCP.

Instruments
Students are provided with a STAR Program Intake Packet at the time the intake is scheduled and
are asked to complete as much of it as possible on their own prior to the appointment. The packet includes
nine sections to be completed by the student.
1. Student Information
2. Course Schedule and Availability
3. Requirements for Students on Academic Probation
4. Assessment of Factors Limiting Success
5. Analysis of Academic Performance
6. Academic History
7. Semester Goals and Action Plan
8. Academic Support Resources
9. STAR Program Options
The packet primarily focuses on academic concerns, but includes some questions regarding any
other factors that may have impacted the students ability to be successful during the previously enrolled
semester.
The College Self-Efficacy Inventory (CSEI; Solberg et al., 1993) was used to measure students
confidence in performing academic related tasks associated college success. The 20-item CSEI consists
has four factors: course, social, roommate, and social integration self-efficacy.
The Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI; Weinstein & Palmer, 2002) was used to
assess students awareness about and use of the learning and study strategies related to skill, will, and
self-regulation components of strategic learning (p. 4). The LASSI has 10 scales (i.e., Information
Processing, Selecting Main Ideas, Test Strategies, Anxiety, Attitude, Motivation, Concentration, Self-
Testing, Study Aids, and Time Management) and consists of 80 items using a 5-point Likert scale from
(a) not at all typical of me to (e) very much typical of me.

Data Analysis
A pre- and posttest control group design was selected for this study. After the intervention, the
data were collected and entered into a database and analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS; Version 23) using pair-sample t-test and one-way ANCOVA test. The dependent
variables were the GPA differences, overall CSEI scores and its subscales, and 10 LASSI scales and the
independent variable was the STAR intervention.

Results

Participants
For Fall 2015, 222 students were offered to participate in the STAR program and 66 students
decided to not participate. Also, 14 students opted out or participated late in the program and were
therefore excluded from this study, leaving 142 students who participated in the program. Of the
participants, only 68 students (48%) completed more than five individual counseling sessions. These
students were used in comparing previous and current semester GPAs. The students (n = 62) who decided
not to participate in the STAR program served as a control group. Four students were excluded because
they had a zero GPA from their previous semester. The control group (n = 62) participated in other
university programs (e.g., Tutoring, Resource Learning Lab, UNV 1100, PALs, Emerging Scholars,
HAWK Alert, and Braves Come Back) to help improve their GPAs.
Out of the students who participated in at least six individual counseling sessions (n = 68),
70.59% (n = 48) completed both pre and posttest of the CSEI. For the LASSI, 83.82% (n = 57) of the
students completed both tests.
Seventy-three participants were female (56.2%) and 57 were male (43.8%). Participants were
asked to self-identify their ethnicity or race as African American (n = 73, 56.2%), American Indian or
Alaska Native (n = 28, 21.5%), White (n = 20, 15.4%), Hispanic/Latino (n = 4, 3.1%), Asian Pacific
Islander (n = 1; 0.8%), and others (n = 3, 2.3%). There was one participant who selected not to disclose
his or her ethnicity or race. Table 1 shows demographic information for both groups.

Table 1: Demographic information of treatment and control groups

Control Group (n = 62) Treatment Group (n = 68)

Gender Female 31 (50.0%) 42 (61.8%)

Male 31 (50.0%) 26 (38.2%)

Ethnicity African American 31 (50.0%) 42 (61.8%)

American Indian 18 (29.0%) 10 (14.7%)

White 8 (12.9%) 12 (17.6%)

Hispanic/Latino 2 (3.2%) 2 (2.9%)

Asian/Pacific Islander 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%)

Others 2 (3.2%) 1 (1.5%)

Academic Performance
A one-way ANCOVA was conducted in order to determine whether STAR program intervention
has significant contribution in increasing students GPA in comparison with participants who did not
participate in the STAR program. The independent variable was the STAR program intervention and the
dependent variable was the difference between previous and current semester GPA. The previous GPA
was used as the covariate.
Preliminary checks were conducted to find any violation of the assumptions of normality,
linearity, homogeneity of variances and homogeneity of regression slopes. The Levenes test for
homogeneity of variances was not significant (p > .05) indicating that the data do not violate the
assumption of equality of error variance. As shown in Table 1, the result indicated that there is a
significant difference between groups on the differences in GPA after controlling for previous GPA, F(1,
127) = 4.13, p < .05, partial eta squared = 0.03, with a small to medium effect size. The mean scores
indicate that students in the STAR program (M = .23) obtained a GPA difference significantly larger than
the control group (M = .14) as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary of tests between-subjects effects
df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta
Squared

Previous GPA 2 1.44 13.65 .01 .10

Group 1 .44 4.13 .04 .03

Error 127 .11

Table 3: Group GPA differences descriptive statistics

Groups N Mean SD

STAR program 68 .23 .35

Control 62 .14 .33

Total 130 .19 .34

Self-Efficacy
The CSEI was used to obtain students self-efficacy scores. The CSEI pre and posttest scores of
the participants (n = 48) are presented in Table 3. A paired-sample t-test indicated that the participants
total scores increased significantly from the initial assessment to the posttest, t(47) = -5.25, p< .01. The
four CSEI subscale scores also significantly increased: course self-efficacy [t(47) = -6.08, p < .01]; social
self-efficacy [t(47) = -3.14, p < .01]; roommate self-efficacy [t(47) = - 2.09, p < .05]; and social
integration [t(47) = -4.74, p < .01]. The CSEI total and subscale scores did not have statistically
significant relationships to gender, ethnicity, and hours earned.

Table 4: CSEI descriptive statistics

Total Course Social Roommate Social Integration

STAR Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
students
(n = 48)

M 74.71 82.58 25.54 29.17 23.17 25.06 16.23 17.13 9.77 11.23

SD 11.88 10.20 4.05 3.60 4.90 4.27 3.24 2.05 2.60 2.57

Learning and Study Strategies

The LASSI was used to measure students awareness and use of learning and study strategies.
The pre and posttest of LASSI scores of the participants (n = 57) are presented in Table 4. A paired-
sample t-test were used to identify whether participants study skills were improved after the program.
The results revealed a statistically significant increase in the posttest scores for all 10 scales of the LASSI.
This result indicates that participants awareness and use of study strategies assessed on the LASSI
improved by the end of the semester.
Table 5: LASSI descriptive statistics
Pre Post

STAR students (n = 57) M SD M SD

Anxiety 19.25 7.71 24.53 8.56

Attitude 32.61 4.42 34.63 3.65

Concentration 25.61 5.88 29.61 5.24

Information Processing 26.74 5.67 29.96 5.96

Motivation 29.81 5.43 33.61 4.48

Self-Testing 22.84 6.60 27.46 7.23

Selecting Main Ideas 26.65 6.28 30.32 5.50

Study Aids 23.56 6.27 27.72 6.08

Time Management 23.19 6.28 28.82 6.35

Test Strategies 26.40 5.75 30.47 5.05

Conclusion

This study was conducted to address whether the non-cognitive and counseling-based STAR
Program would improve academic at-risk college students academic performance, self-efficacy, and
awareness of study habits and academic mindsets. The findings indicated a significant increase in the
participants GPA (M = .23, SD = .35) comparing to the non-participant group (M = .14, SD = .33). This
suggests that the STAR Program does support students academic performance. The STAR Program
helps students to understand the underlying issues regarding poor academic performance. As students
identify their issues or problems, the counselors provide emotional support to deal with academic stress
and work with the students to create an individualized strategic plan to improve their grades. Zajacova et
al. (2005) reported that college-related stress was inversely related to academic performance. One of the
main missions for STAR Program Counselors is to provide a safe and supportive environment for
students to talk freely about their stressors and challenges in college.
The STAR Program participants also indicated a significant increase from their pretest CSEI
scores (M = 74.71, SD = 11.88) to their posttest scores (M = 82.58, SD = 10.20), which suggests that the
program helps students improve their beliefs about their ability to complete college-related tasks.
Research has shown that academic self-efficacy is positively related with academic performance. The
STAR Program Counselors help students identify their strengths and increase motivation and persistence
to complete academic tasks. Additionally, all LASSI scales indicated a significant increase in the posttest
scores, suggesting that the program helps students learn new and effective ways of studying. Counseling
interventions were effective in improving the students awareness about and use of study habits and
learning strategies. Areas such as attitude, motivation, time management, and anxiety are consistently
discussed within the STAR counseling sessions. The current study demonstrated the effectiveness of the
STAR program as a non-cognitive and counseling-based intervention for academically at-risk college
students.
References

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time-management practices on college grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 83(3), 405-410.
Dennis, J. M., Phinney, J. S., & Chuateco, L. I. (2005). The role of motivation, parental support, and peer
support in the academic success of ethnic minority first-generation college students. Journal of
College Student Development, 46(3), 223-236.
Finney, S. J., & Schraw, G. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs in college statistic courses. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 28, 161-186.
Komarraju, M., Karau, S. J., Schmeck, R. R. (2009). Role of the Big Five personality traits in predicting
college students academic motivation and achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 19,
47-52.
Krumrei-Mancuso, E. J., Newton, F. B., Kim, E., & Wilcox, D. (2013). Psychosocial factors predicting
first-year college student success. Journal of College Student Development, 54(3), 247-266.
Macan, T. H., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Phillips, A. P. (1990). College students time management:
Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4),
760-768.
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs of academic
outcomes: A meta-analysis investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30-38.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Perry, R. P., Kramer, K., Hochstadt, M., & Molfenter, S. (2004). Beyond test
anxiety: Development and validation of the Test Emotions Questionnaire (TEQ). Anxiety, Stress
and Coping, 17, 287316.
Preiss, R. W., Gayle, B. M., & Allen, M. (2006). Test anxiety. Academic self-efficacy and study skills: A
meta-analytic review. In B. M. Gayle, R. W. Preiss, N. Burrell, & M. Allen (Eds.), Classroom
interaction and instructional processes: A meta-analytic review (pp. 99111). Maywah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Robbins, S. B., Lauver, K., Le, H, Davis, D., Langley, R., & Carlstorm, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and
study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 261-
288.
Solberg, V. S., OBrien, K., Villareal, P., Kennel, R., & Davis, B. (1993). Self-efficacy and Hispanic
college students: Validation of the self-efficacy instrument. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 15, 80-95.
University of North Carolina at Pembroke. (2015). Academic catalog 2015-2016. Retrieved from
http://www.uncp.edu/academics/2015-16-academic-catalog
Weinstein, C. E., & Palmer, D. R. (2002). LASSI users manual for those administering the learning and
study strategies inventory (2nd ed.). Clearwater, FL: H & H.
Zajacova, A., Lynch, S. M., & Espenshade, T. J. (2005). Self-efficacy, stress, and academic success in
college. Research in Higher Education, 46, 677-706.