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c 2006 chamer, akhvedelidze, mlavelle@plymouth.ac.uk
Last Revision Date: October 16, 2006 Version 1.0
Table of Contents
1. Introduction (AC Systems)
2. From Phases to Phasors
3. Adding Phasors (Introduction)
4. Final Quiz
Solutions to Exercises
Solutions to Quizzes
Vm
0 Vpeak to peak
t
−Vm
Note that AC voltmeters display the value of the RMS voltage. The
RMS values are also used for comparisons with DC systems.
The peaks or troughs of the red curve are measured at earlier times
than their blue equivalents. The red curve is ahead of the blue curve
by one quarter of a cycle (1cycle = 360◦ or 2π). As the frequencies are
the same, this phase difference stays constant. Here is some notation:
Vm
0
t
−Vm
Hint: draw, say, V1 first and then add V2 with the requested phase
shift and smaller amplitude.
Vm Vm 6 30
0
t Vm
−Vm
V
Read off relative
Vm
0 angle from graph.
(c)
t Use blue curve as
−Vm
reference.
Section 2: From Phases to Phasors 11
V V
Vm Vm
0 0
t t
−Vm −Vm
If all signals have one, fixed frequency, adding them produces a signal
with the same frequency but a different amplitude and a phase shift.
We will not prove this result here.
Section 3: Adding Phasors (Introduction) 12
This result can be obtained directly by adding the two voltages in the
phasor diagram. They are added in the same way that vectors are
added. This is calculated in detail on the next page.
Section 3: Adding Phasors (Introduction) 13
Vm VR 6 θ VR
Vm
θ θ
Vm Vm
From the right angled triangle, the angle θ is given by
Vm
tan(θ) = = 1, ⇒ θ = tan−1 (1) = 45◦ .
Vm
while the amplitude of the resultant voltage, VR , is the length of the
hypotenuse: by Pythagoras’s theorem
p √
VR2 = Vm2 + Vm2 , ⇒ VR = 2Vm2 = 2Vm
√
The result is thus: Vm ∠0◦ + Vm ∠90◦ = 2Vm ∠45◦ .
3406 135◦
3406 67◦
340 V
The arrows show the geometrical way to add phasors. Phasors point-
ing in opposite directions tend to cancel each other.
4. Final Quiz
Begin Quiz V
100 V 3406 60◦
0
t 340 V
−100 V
End Quiz
Solutions to Exercises 17
Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1(a)
Since the AC voltage V1 lags V2 by 180◦ and its peak is twice as large
as the V2 peak, the voltage V1 is given by
V1 = 2V2 cos(2πf t − 180)
and the diagram for the voltages is
V
V2
0
t
−V1
A phase difference of 180◦ means that the two voltages are completely
out of phase.
Click on the green square to return
Solutions to Exercises 18
Exercise 1(b)
The AC voltage V1 leads V2 by 90◦ and its peak is twice as large as
the V2 peak therefore the voltage V1 is
V1 = 2V2 cos(2πf t + 90)
and the diagram is
V
V2
0
t
−V1
Exercise 1(c)
V2
0
t
−V1
Exercise 1(d)
The AC voltage V1 lags V2 by 45◦ and its peak is twice as large as the
V2 peak, therefore the voltage V1 is
V1 = 2V2 cos(2πf t − 45)
and the diagram is
V
V2
0
t
−V1
Exercise 1(e)
The AC voltage V1 has a negative phase shift with respect to V2 of
60◦ and its peak is twice as large as the V2 peak therefore the voltage
V1 is given by
V1 = 2V2 cos(2πf t − 60)
and the voltages are
V
V2
0
t
−V1
Exercise 1(f )
V2
0
t
−V1
Exercise 2(a)
V
The blue reference voltage
leads the red voltage by 30◦ Vm
0
and the peak voltages are re- t
lated by Vred = 2Vblue .
−2Vm
Therefore in the phasor diagram the red phasor is rotated clockwise
by 30◦ and the arrow of the red phasor is twice as long as the blue
reference phasor:
Vm
2Vm 6 30
Exercise 2(b)
V
The blue voltage lags the
Vm
red reference voltage by 30◦ 0
and the peak voltages are t
the same Vred = Vblue . −Vm
Vm
Vm 6 − 30
Exercise 2(c)
V
From the graph, the red
Vm
voltage leads the blue ref- 0
erence voltage by 90◦ while t
the peak voltages are equal. −Vm
Vm 6 90
Vm
Exercise 3(a)
The sum of two phasors 12∠0◦ V and 5∠90◦ V is the sum of two vectors
VR = V1 = (12, 0) , V2 = (0, 5) (see the package Introduction to
Vectors). The length of the resulting vector V1 + V2 = (12, 5) is
p √
VR = 122 + 52 = 169 = 13 V ,
and its angle relative to V1 is
5
tan(θ) = ≈ 0.42 , ⇒ θ = tan−1 (0.42) ≈ 23◦ .
12
The result 12∠0◦ V + 5∠90◦ V = 13∠23◦ V is drawn below
56 90◦
136 23◦
θ
126 0◦
Click on the green square to return
Solutions to Exercises 27
θ 36 0◦
46 − 90◦
56 − 53◦
Exercise 3(c)
The sum of two currents 1∠0◦ A and 2∠60◦ A is a√sum of two vectors
A1 = (1, 0) and A2 = (2 cos(60), 2 sin(60))
√ = (1,
√ 3) . Evaluating the
sum AR = A1 + A2 = (1 + 1, 0 + 3) = (2, 3) we find the length
and the relative angle of the resulting current as
√ √
AR = 4 + 3 = 7 ≈ 2.65A .
√
3
tan(θ) = ≈ 0.87 , ⇒ θ = tan−1 (0.87) ≈ 41◦ .
2
The result 1∠0◦ A + ∠60◦ A = 2.65∠41◦ A is drawn below
2.656 41◦
26 60◦
θ
16 0◦
Click on the green square to return
Solutions to Exercises 29
Exercise 3(d)
Since the amplitudes of the voltages 2∠0◦ and 2∠30◦ are the same, the
sum must point halfway between them (here ∠15◦ ). The amplitude
depends upon the size of the angle between the phasors we are adding.
The sum of the vectors V1 = (2, 0) and
√
V2 = (2 cos(30), 2 sin(30)) = ( 3, 1)
√
is V1 + V2 = (2 + 3, 1) and the resulting amplitude is
q √
VR = (2 + 3)2 + 12 ≈ 3.86 V .
The result 2∠0◦ V + 2∠30◦ V = 3.86∠15◦ V is drawn below
26 30◦
3.866 15◦
26 0◦
Click on the green square to return
Solutions to Quizzes 30
Solutions to Quizzes
Solution to Quiz:
If the RMS voltage is 400 kV the peak voltage can be found as follows.
Since
Vm
VRMS = √ ,
2
therefore the peak voltage is
√
Vm = 2 × VRMS
= 1.41 × 400 kV
= 566 kV ,
End Quiz
Solutions to Quizzes 31
Solution to Quiz:
V
Vm
0
t
−Vm
In the diagram above the blue curve has a negative phase shift of 30◦
with respect to the red curve because the peaks or troughs of the red
curve are measured at earlier times than their blue equivalents.
Equivalent ways of stating this are:
• the blue curve lags the red curve by 30◦ ,
• the red curve leads the blue curve by 30◦ .
End Quiz
Solutions to Quizzes 32
Solution to Quiz:
Solution to Quiz:
56 180◦ 76 0◦
126 0◦
we see that the resulting sum reads
12∠0◦ + 5∠180◦ = (12 − 5)∠0◦ = 7∠0◦ V .
End Quiz