SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS

Lesson 07
Chapter 7 Approach Roadway Deformations

Testing Theory

Experience
Topics

g Topic 1 (Section 7.0 to 7.6)

- Approach roadway deformations
g Topic 2 (Section 7.7, 7.8, 7.9)
- Mitigation of approach roadway deformation
- Construction monitoring and quality assurance
APPROACH ROADWAY
DEFORMATIONS

Lesson 07 - Topic 1
Approach Roadway Deformations
Section 7.0 7.6
Learning Outcomes

g Atthe end of this session, the participant will be

able to:
- Contrast internal and external deformation
- Recall techniques to minimize internal deformation
- Compute vertical stress distribution beneath
embankments
- Calculate settlement in coarse-grained soils
- Calculate consolidation settlement magnitude and time in
fine-grained soils
- Compare immediate, primary and secondary settlements
- Discuss lateral squeeze
Stresses Imposed by Structures

g The approach embankments induce stresses

in the foundation soil
Approach Roadway Embankments
Major Design Considerations
g Stability
g Deformations
- Vertical
- Lateral
g Effects on the Structure
- Bump at the end of the bridge
- Tilting
Stability Problems

g Shallow
Embankment Fill
translational
failure (Infinite Firm Soil
Slope)

g Circular
Failure
Stability Problems

g Sliding
block
failure

g Lateral
squeeze
- Lesson 7
Approach Roadway Deformations

g Internal
- Within the embankment fill
Due to compression of the fill materials
Poor drainage

g External
- In the native soils below the embankment fill
Vertical and lateral deformation of native soils
Vertical: Immediate and consolidation settlements
Lateral: Squeeze (cause tilting of structures)
Internal Deformations
Avoiding Internal Deformations

g No organic or miscellaneous fill material

allowed
g Control fine-grained material use
g Require compaction with proper moisture
control
g Compaction control tests
To Eliminate Internal Deformations
Suggested Approach Embankment Details (Figure 7-1)
50 Minimum

90% T180 3

5 100% T99
1
1
11
6 Topsize

Highway Embankment Material 6 Topsize (95% T180)

Highway Embankment Material (90% T180)

Select Structure Fill (100% T99)

Bump at the End of a Bridge
Reasons for the Bump at the
End of the Bridge
g Poor compaction of embankment material
near the structure
g Migration of fines into drainage material
behind abutment backwall

g What is the solution?

g Approach slab
Bump at the End of the
Approach Slab
To Prevent Bump at End of Bridge
16
Underdrain Filter
g Use select structural fill
Material (6 Lifts)
g Use underdrain filter
material
g Use durable well
graded granular for
high density w/min.
compactive effort
g Figure 7-2 Select Structural
Fill (100 % T99)

Heel Projection + 3 ft
Select Material Specifications

g Specification Item g Reason for Item

- 6-8 Lift Thickness - Small Compaction
Equipment

- Topsize Restriction - Less than 3/4 Lift

Thickness

- Gradation Requirement - Compactibility

- Limit Percent Fines - Density/Piping
Select Material Specification (Contd)

g Specification Item g Reason for Item

- Durability - Minimize Breakdown
- T99 Density Control - Small Compaction
Equipment

- Compatible to Drain - Prevent Piping

Material
External Deformations
Avoid Major Subsoil Settlement

g Identify and provide treatment for organic

soils
g Analyze clay subsoil deposits
Types of Deformations

g Immediate (short-term) deformation

g Consolidation (long-term) deformation

g Immediate deformation occurs in ALL soils

whether cohesive or cohesionless
g Consolidation deformation occurs only in
fine grained soils that are saturated at the
time of application of loads
First Step in Evaluation of
Deformations
g Under applied external loadings, estimate
the stress distribution with depth

g Chapter 2: Stress and Strain in Soils

- Section 2.5
- Section 2.6
Vertical p = th h

Stress Due 0.8p

to External
Loadings 0.6p
g Depth of
Significant 0.4p
Influence
(DOSI), Ds

0.2p
Do you think there is a settlement
problem for the case shown below?

Granular Fill
24
= 120 pcf
Sandy Gravel
23
= 120 pcf ( = 60 pcf)
6 Soft Clay
Sand
Combined Plot of Stresses
Figure 2-13
Pressure

p pf

Legend:
zw zw = depth to groundwater
po = effective overburden pressure
pt = total overburden pressure
p = pressure due to external loads
pf = p0 + p

po pt
Depth, z
Fundamental Principles

g Stresses induced in the soil from an

embankment load are distributed with depth
in proportion to embankment width
g The additional stresses in the soil decrease
with depth
Stress
Distribution
Under Fills
g Section 7.3.1
g Figure 7-3

In each chart, the upper line gives the

pressure under the centerline while
the lower line gives the pressure
under the mid-point of the side slope
Example 7-1
g Find the stress increase (p) under the proposed
abutment centroid (Point X) at a depth of 0.8 bf
below the base of the fill
Point X
bf
2 bf = 80 30
hf 1

60 100

Fill height hf = 30 ft; End and side slopes (1V:2H)

Embankment top width =100 ft; Fill unit weight f = 100 pcf
Stress Distribution Under Fills
g bf=(100 ft /2) + (60 ft/2) = 80 ft
g Use chart for 0.8bf = 0.8 (80 ft)=64 ft and a distance
measured from mid-point of end slope to Point X as multiple
of bf =(30 ft/80 ft)bf = 0.38bf
g Kf=0.7
g p= Kffhf = (0.7)(100 pcf)(30 ft)=2,100 psf
Mid Point of
1.0bf 0.5bf End Slope 0.5bf 1.0bf
Pressure Coefficient Kf

1.0
0.38b
0.7 Centerline
0.5
0.8bf = 64 ft
Depth
0
Below
Mid Point of Surface
Side Slope
Computation of Immediate
Settlement (Vertical Deformation)
g Many methods for estimating immediate
settlement are available

g All
methods are based on some form of
estimate of soil compressibility
- Bearing Capacity Index, Compression Index,
Elastic Modulus, Constrained Modulus, etc.
Computation of Immediate
Settlement (Vertical Deformation)
g For embankments use Houghs method
- Simple to use
- Settlement estimates are conservative by a
factor of 2 (FHWA 1987)

g For footings use more refined methods

- Schmertmann (1978) ------ Chapter 8
Considers strain distribution with depth
- DAppolonia (1968)
Considers effect of preconsolidation
Houghs Method

Step 1: Determine bearing capacity index, C,

Use N160 value in Houghs chart
Step 2: Subdivide soil layer into 10 ft
increments and sum settlements for
all layers using following equation
for each layer

1 p 0 + p
H = H log 10
C p0
Houghs Chart

g Inorganic SILT
curve should
not be used for
soils exhibiting
plasticity

CORRECTED SPT N-VALUE, N160

Example 7-2

g Determine
immediate settlement of a wide
embankment placed on silty sand

t = 120 pcf
20 ft

10 ft Silty Sand
t = 120 pcf, N160 = 20
Example 7-2 Draw po diagram
g Assume no dissipation of stress under the
centerline of a wide embankment
Pressure (psf)

1000 2000 3000 4000

0

pf
po
3000
5 600 p = 2400

Depth (ft)

10
Example 7-2 Draw po diagram

g ForN160 = 20 and Silty Sand, C 58 from

Figure 7-4 (Houghs chart)

g Find settlement
1 p 0 + p
H = H log 10
C p0

1 600psf + 2400psf
H = 10 ft log 10
58 600psf
H = 0.12 ft = 1.44 in
Vertical p = th h

Stress Due 0.8p

to External
Loadings 0.6p
g Note the
variation of
vertical 0.4p
stress under
a narrow
embankment

0.2p
Implications of Embankment
Settlement
g At end of embankment construction,
additional fill is required to reach final grade
g 1 inch of settlement over 1 mile of 60-ft wide
embankment will need approximately 1000
cubic yards of additional fill
g This is sometimes referred to as
Compaction Factor and is included in bid
documents
Student Exercise 3
g GIVEN: povalues at the depths where SPTs
were taken; Soil is fine to coarse sand
Depth, ft SPT N60-values po (psf)
5 6 550
10 10 1100
15 15 1650
20 17 2200
25 16 2438
g FIND: (a) N160 value
(b) C (bearing capacity index) value
Student Exercise

g Solution
Consolidation (Long-term) Deformation

g Consolidation deformation occurs only in

fine grained soils that are saturated at the
time of application of loads
g Laboratory estimates of settlements are
often inaccurate
g Use consolidation approach when S > 90%
g Effect of consolidation is 3-D for limited
loaded areas typical of transportation
structures
Lateral Zone of Tensile
Stresses
Stress Due p = t h
h

to External 0.6p
Loadings 0.4p
Soft
0.2p Layer
g NoteLateral
Stresses
Beyond
Loaded
Area
Consolidation (Long-term) Deformation

g Verticalcomponent of 3-D consoldation is

estimated based on data from 1-D laboratory
consolidation test
g Chapter 5, Section 5.4
Normally Consolidated Soils
po ='ppc= 'vo
'
pvff

'v
p n Cc pf
eo = e p Sc = H o log10
i 1 + eo po
VOID RATIO, e

Cc
ef

0.42e o

VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS ' v (LOG SCALE)

p
(a)
Over Consolidated (Preconsolidated)
Soils
p'ovo p
'v '
pvff

eo '
ppc
1
C n Ho pc pf
ep S= ( C r log10 + Cc log10 )
1 1 + eo po pc
VOID RATIO, e

1
ef
Cc

0.42e o

VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS p' v (LOG SCALE)

(a)
Under Consolidated Soils

pcp pov 0

pf v f

e0
pov0
p v
1
ep Cr
n Ho p0 pf
S= ( Cc log10 + Cc log10 )
VOID RATIO

1 1 1 + eo pc p0
ef
Cc

VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS p

(LOG SCALE)
Time Rate of Consolidation
Settlement-Time Relationship
2
Tv H d
t=
cv
where:
t = Time for Settlement
Tv = Time Factor (dimensionless)
Hd = Vertical Drainage Path Length
cv= Coefficient of Consolidation (e.g., ft2/day)
 Embankment on Clay Subsoil
Time-Settlement Curve
0
Settlement (Inches)

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (Months)
Example 7-3

g Determine magnitude and the time for 90%

consolidation for the primary settlement

t = 120 pcf
20

10 Clay (Normal Consolidated) t = 120 pcf,

ft 2
Cc = 0.5, e0 = 1.0, cv = 0.2
day
Rock
Example 7-3

g po diagram Pressure (psf)

1000 2000 3000 4000

0

pf
po
3000
5 600 p = 2400

Depth (ft)

10
Example 7-3

g Find primary settlement

Cc p 0 + p
H = H log10
1 + e0 p0

0.5 600 psf + 2400 psf

H = 10 ft log
10 = 1 . 75 ft = 21 inches
1 + 1.0 600 psf
Example 7-3

g Findtime for 90% consolidation. Assume

single drainage due to impervious rock
underlying clay layer. Use
Tv H d2
t 90 =
cv

(0.848)(10 ft ) 2
t 90 = = 424 days
2
0.2 ft / day
Student Soil Profile
Exercise 4 Granular Fill
= 120 pcf
24'
Compute:
(a) Primary
Sandy Gravel
23' T = 122 pcf

settlement 6' Soft Clay T= 104 pcf, e o = 2.1, Cc = 1.1 Cv = 0.0175 ft2 /day
of NC clay Sand

Pressure Diagram
(b) Time in
months for Sandy po pF
90% Gravel

primary
Middle of clay layer
23
Clay
settlement 29 p
Secondary Compression

g See Section 7.5.4

Lateral Squeeze
be

Fill
Lateral Zone of Tensile
Stresses
Squeeze p = t h
h

0.6p
g Short-term 0.4p
undrained Soft
0.2p Layer
bearing
capacity
failure
g Long-term
drained 3-D
creep
Abutment Tilting Due to Lateral
Squeeze
Rotation of Rockers
Threshold Condition for Lateral
Squeeze

(FILL)(H FILL) > 3cu

Safety Factor against Lateral Squeeze

2c u 4.14c u
FSSQ = +
D S tan H
Lateral Squeeze:
How to Prevent Abutment Rotation

Get fill settlement out before abutment deep

foundations are constructed
Learning Outcomes

g Atthe end of this session, the participant will be

able to:
- Contrast internal and external deformation
- Recall techniques to minimize internal deformation
- Compute vertical stress distribution beneath
embankments
- Calculate settlement in coarse-grained soils
- Calculate consolidation settlement magnitude and time in
fine-grained soils
- Compare immediate, primary and secondary settlements
- Discuss lateral squeeze
Any Questions?

THE ROAD TO
UNDERSTANDING
SOILS
AND
FOUNDATIONS
 APPROACH ROADWAY
DEFORMATIONS

Lesson 07 - Topic 2
Mitigation of Approach Roadway Deformations
Construction Monitoring and Quality Assurance
Section 7.7, 7.8, 7.9
Learning Outcomes

g Atthe end of this session, the participant will

be able to:
- Recall techniques for reducing settlement
magnitude
- Describe techniques for reducing time rate of
settlement
- Identify types of performance monitoring
instrumentation
- Discuss importance of proper compaction
Solutions for Settlement Problems

g Reduce Amount of Settlement

- Category 1: Increasing the resistance
- Category 2: Reducing the load

g Reduce Settlement Time

- Surcharge
- Vertical Drains
Reduce Amount of Settlement

g Category 1: Increasing the resistance

- Excavation and recompaction
- Excavation and replacement
- Vertical inclusions, e.g., stone columns
- Horizontal inclusions, e.g., geosynthetics
- Grouting
- Dynamic compaction
Reducing Amount of Settlement

g Category 2: Reducing the load

- Reduce grade line
- Use lightweight fill, e.g., expanded shale, foamed
concrete, geofoam
- Bypass soft layer with a deep foundation
Need load transfer platform
Reducing Settlement Time

g Surcharge treatment
g Vertical drains
Embankment on Clay Foundation
Effect of Surcharge Treatment

Surcharge
Surcharge
Fill
Fill
Without
Without
Settlement
Settlement

Surcharge
Surcharge Clay
Clay

With
With Surcharge
Surcharge

Time Time
Time for
for Equivalent
Equivalent Settlement
Settlement Time
Time for
for Total
Total Settlement
Settlement
Time With Surcharge Remove
With Surcharge Remove Without Surcharge
Without Surcharge
Surcharge
Surcharge at
at This
This Time
Time
Acceleration of Consolidation
Using Vertical Drainage
Sand

Clay
Vertical Drains
Surcharge

Settlement Platform
Drainage Blanket
Permanent Fill

Soft Clay
Vertical
Drain

Firm Soil

Piezometers Not to Scale

Vertical Drain Installation
Sequence
g Position rig at drain location
g Place anchor on drain end
g Penetrate mandrel to desired depth
g Withdraw mandrel
g Cut drain material above drainage blanket
Construction Monitoring and QA

g Clearly specify line and grade on plans

g Do not make frequent changes in details
because repetition makes construction
easier
g Make sure that embankments are compacted
to meet the compaction requirements and
limits noted on the plans
Construction Monitoring by
Instrumentation
g Piezometers
g Settlement plates
g Inclinometers
Typical Instrumentation Plan

Fill
S.I. Original Ground S.I.
H
H
4 3
2 H
Soft Clay 4
H

Firm Soil
Piezometers
Settlement Plate
S.I.
Slope Inclinometer
Settlement Platform Schematic
Vertical Inclinometer

Embankment

Compressible
Soil

Firm Soil
Principle of Inclinometer Operation

L Sin
L Sin

L = Distance between readings

= Angle measured by sensor
Piezometer

Embankment

Compressible
Soil
Learning Outcomes

g Atthe end of this session, the participant will

be able to:
- Recall techniques for reducing settlement
magnitude
- Describe techniques for reducing time rate of
settlement
- Identify types of performance monitoring
instrumentation
- Discuss importance of proper compaction
Any Questions?

THE ROAD TO
UNDERSTANDING
SOILS
AND
FOUNDATIONS
Interstate 0 Apple Freeway
Note: Scale shown in Station Form
S.B. N.B.
Apple Apple
Frwy Frwy

Baseline
Baseline 90
90 91
91 92
92 93
93
Stationing
Stationing
Interstate
Interstate 00

Proposed
Proposed Toe
Toe
of
of Slope
Slope
Proposed
Proposed Final
Final Grade
Grade
2 Proposed
Proposed
1 Abutment
Abutment
Existing
Existing
Ground
Ground Surface
Surface
 9
Subsurface Terrain reconnaissance

Apple Freeway
Explorations Site inspection
Subsurface borings

9
Basic Soil Properties Visual description

Exercise
Classification tests
Soil profile

9
Laboratory Testing Po diagram
Test request
Consolidation results

g Appendix A Strength results

- Section A.6 9
Slope Design soil profile
Stability Circular arc analysis
Sliding block analysis
Lateral squeeze analysis

Design soil profile

Approach Magnitude and rate of
Roadway settlement
Surcharge
Deformations Vertical drains
Spread Footing Design soil profile
Design Pier bearing capacity
Pier settlement
Abutment settlement
Surcharge
Vertical drains

Driven Pile Design Design soil profile

Static analysis pier
Pipe pile
H pile
Static analysis abutment
Pipe pile
H pile
Driving resistance
Lateral movement - abutment

Construction Wave equation

Monitoring Hammer approval
Embankment instrumentation
Design Soil Profile (East Approach
Embankment Settlement)

Fill
2:1 = 130 pcf
= 400 30'
c=0

5' Organic = 90 pcf w = 120% s.g. = 1.6 3'

Sand == 110 pcf N = 17
50pcf C' = 90 7'

Clay
= 65 pcf
Cc = 0.35
Cr = 0.035 35'
Cv = 0.6 ft 2 /day
w = 35%
s.g. = 2.78

Incompressible
Po Diagram
Pressure (psf)
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
x 135 Organic x 4100
x 570 Sand x 4460
10
x 1020 x 4950

20
x 1630
Clay pc 4450
x 5300
x
30
po
2460
x x 3600 pF x 5800
40
Compute Total Settlement

Total Settlement

Layer 1 - Organic (0' -3') 19.54"

Layer 2 - Sand (3' - 10') 0.83"
Layer 3 - Clay (10' - 18') 1.17"
Clay (18' - 28') 2.55"
Clay (28' - 45') 8.11"
HTotal 32.20"
Time-Settlement Plot
Time - Settlement Plot
Time (days)
100 200 300 400 500
0.83

100 for sand +

10 for clay
11.39" 90
@ 433 days)

12.66" (max. H)
15
Assume:
10 high compacted surcharge ( = 130 pcf)
P of emb. (PF) + surch. (Ps) = 5200 psf
Time - Settlement Plot

180
Days

30 Fill + 10 Surcharge
Recheck stability of 30 Fill With 10' Surcharge
F.S. Bishop= 1.33

2:1
33' Fill

10' 7' Sand

25' 35' Clay

Dense
Gravel

F.S. w/surcharge = 1.33 (1.63 w/o surcharge)

 Time - Settlement Plot
Time (days)
100 200 300 400 500
0.83 180
days

30' Fill
10
12.66"
30' Fill + 10' Surcharge
15 30' Fill w/Drains

Treatment t 90 (mo.) Extra Cost

Fill only 14 -
Fill w/10' surcharge 6 $120,000
fill w/ wick drain 2 $172,000
Summary Design Soil Profile
Soil layer consolidation
properties selected

Settlement
32" settlement predicted
Recommend organic excavation
Rec. waiting period @ abut.

Time-Rate
433 days for t90

Surcharge
10' surcharge improves t90 to 190 days
Cost $120,000, F.S. = 1.33 O.K.

Vertical Drains
60 days for t90
Cost $172,000 -> $385,000
Any Questions?

THE ROAD TO
UNDERSTANDING
SOILS
AND
FOUNDATIONS