Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat Engineering

CHAPTER 5

Drainage and Drainage structure

Introduction

Proper drainage is important to ensure a high quality long lived pavement; moisture
accumulation in any pavement structural layer can cause problems. Provision must be made for
protecting the road from surface water or ground water .If water is allowed to enter the structure
of the road, the pavement will be weakened and it will be much more susceptible to damage by
traffic. Water can enter the road as a result of rain penetrating the surface or as a result of the
infiltration of ground water. The road surface must be constructed with a camber so that is sheds
rainwater quickly and the top of the sub grade or improved sub grade must be raised above the
level of the local water table to prevent it being soaked by ground water. A good road (external)
drainage system, properly maintained, is essential to the successful performance of a road and
the pavement designs described in this manual are based on the assumption that the side drains
and culverts associated with the road are properly designed and function correctly. Drainage
within the pavement layers themselves (internal drainage) is a critical element of the pavement
design because the strength of the sub grade used for design purposes depends on the moisture
content during the most likely adverse conditions. It is impossible to guarantee that road surfaces
will remain waterproof throughout their lives, hence it is important to ensure that water is able to
drain away quickly from within the pavement layers.

Purpose

It is essential that adequate provision is made for road drainage to ensure that a road
Pavement performs satisfactorily. The main functions of a road drainage system are:

Pass natural stream flows or runoff under roadways

Outlet for detention basins

Drainage can also be used to move water from unwanted areas.

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Drainage structures can be used to reroute water.

Drainage can also be used to reduce the effects of frost heave.

Protect the sub grade from excessive permanent deformation

Resist loss of structural capacity from fatigue produced by repeated traffic loads

Provide adequate serviceability to users, without repair, for a given period of time

To prevent flooding of the road and ponding on the road surface

To protect the bearing capacity of the pavement and the sub grade material

To avoid the erosion of side slopes

Types of drainage systems

Roads are constructed with two types of drainage systems, each taking care of their source of
moisture

1. Surface drainage

i. Transversal drainage

ii. Longitudinal drainage

2. subsurface drainage

Transversal drainage Longitudinal drainage

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1. Surface Drainage
Surface drainage is concerned with removing all water that is present on the pavement surface,
shoulder surface or any other surface from which it may flow onto the pavement. If not
systematically removed, this water can accumulate underneath and weaken the pavement
structure. There are three primary means used to prevent water infiltration and accumulation:

Impermeable pavement surface. An impermeable surface will protect the underlying sub
grade from water sources above. Permeability concerns are different for flexible and rigid
pavements.

Flexible pavements. When HMA air voids are greater than about 5 percent they are
likely to be interconnected with one another, making the HMA water permeable.
Proper compaction practices should be followed to ensure an impermeable pavement.
Also, minor cracks in the HMA should be promptly sealed.
Rigid pavements. PCC is generally considered impermeable in this context; however
joints and panel cracks must be tightly sealed to prevent water infiltration.

Slope. The pavement section should be sloped to allow rainwater to sheet flow quickly to
the edge where it is typically collected in a curb and gutter system or a roadside ditch. A
generally accepted standard is a 2 percent cross slope.
Grade. The curb and gutter or roadside ditch must be properly graded to allow flow to
central collection points such as catch basins or detention ponds. A generally accepted
standard is a grade of 0.5 percent or more although lesser grades have been used effectively.

2. Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water that percolates through or is contained in
the underlying sub grade. This water, typically the result of a high water table or exceptionally
wet weather, can accumulate under the pavement structure by two chief means:

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Gravity flow. Water from surrounding areas can be absorbed by the soil then flow by gravity
to areas underneath the pavement structure. In pavement with high air voids (above 5
percent), water can percolate down through the pavement structure itself.
Capillary rise. Capillary rise is the rise in a liquid above the level of zero pressure due to a
net upward force produced by the attraction of the water molecules to a solid surface (e.g.,
soil). Capillary rise can be substantial, up to 6 m or more. In general, the smaller the soil
grain size, the greater the potential for capillary rise. Often, capillary rise is a problem in
areas of high groundwater tables.

The principal types of drainage systems are:

1. Open Drain

2. Piped Drain

3. French drain
4. Culvert

1. Open Drains
Open drains are the most common form of road drainage on rural national and no national roads.
Maintenance practice from the data available indicates various levels of attention to the open
drain system. Opening of drainage inlets and/or total removal of road margin, to ensure rapid
removal of road surface water, appears to be common practice. However, frequency of inlet
opening is perceived to be inadequate in many circumstances. Open drains have the advantage of
being easily inspected for blockages and are also effective at draining the road sub grade
provided the drain flows to an adequate outfall. Open drains are generally, but not always, within
the road limits.
2. French Drains
French drains are used extensively on sections of the national network and to a limited extent on
non-national roads. The drains generally include pipe work in conjunction with stone media.
Maintenance levels are low and this may affect the long term performance. In most instances
maintenance is carried out as problems manifest themselves, with few counties having an annual
maintenance programmed.

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French Drains

3. Piped Drainage
Piped drainage systems are essential in urban areas and are also used in rural areas where space
is limited. Piped systems can be sealed or open-jointed. The normal practice is to use sealed
systems in urban areas and open-jointed systems in rural areas. Piped systems with gullies
require regular maintenance and while in many instances these systems are cleaned annually the
data received suggests that the frequency of maintenance is generally considered inadequate

3. Culverts
Road culverts would appear, from the data collected, to be neglected to a large extent with a very
poor maintenance regime. Sometimes this can result in the collapse of a culvert.
A culvert is a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence to
increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used to convey surface runoff through
embankments. A culvert can be a structure, as distinguished from bridges, that is usually covered

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with an embankment and is composed of structural material around the entire perimeter. These
include steel and concrete pipe culverts and concrete box culverts.
However, a culvert can also be a structure supported on spread footings with the streambed
serving as the bottom of the culvert. These include some multi-plate steel structures and concrete
slab culverts. In addition, a culvert can be a structure that is 6 meters or less in centerline span
length, or between the extreme ends of openings for multiple boxes.

Culverts

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Typical Pavement Cross-Sections

Four alternative cross-sections are presented in Figure. It is to be noted that, unless the base
course material is extended fully across the shoulders, some extra width is nevertheless provided
for the base. This provides support to the edge of the pavement, where compaction is difficult to
achieve. The extra width of the base course should be on the order of 20 to 30 cm. The edge seal
covering the extra width of the base and the joint should extend a total of 40 to 60 cm. A fifth
cross-section is also shown, using curbs, as is occasionally required in urban areas. It is to be
noted that, since the drainage of the base course is impeded, it is essential that internal drainage
be provided by a pervious sub base or a drainage layer. Side drains should be avoided in areas
with expansive soils. If side drains cannot be avoided due to site conditions, they shall be kept at
a minimum distance of 4 - 6 m. from the toe of the embankment, dependent on the road
functional classification. Side slopes shall also be flattened to 1:6 or flatter (see both ERA Site
Investigation Manual 2002 and ERA Geometric Design Manual - 2002 for further details).

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Design of drainage
Design process
For the design of any part of a drainage system, the same process framework can be employed,
including the following steps:
Definition of the specifications of the item, in terms of capacity, properties of the flow,
influence on the upstream areas, durability, access for maintenance.
Collection of hydrographic and hydrologic data
Identification of alternatives
Preliminary design and final selection
Detailed design of the structure
Control of the impact of the structure on the environment and on the surrounding
structure, including adjacent, downstream, and upstream impacts.

In the different sections of this manual, detailed procedures are given to guide the designer either
in the collection of data or in the design process of the features commonly found in drainage
systems. Selected data, much of which is time-sensitive and subject to revision, such as rainfall
intensity-duration-frequency curves, are included in the appendices for easy updating.
Highway drainage structures are an essential component in the design of a highway. It is
desirable that they be designed economically and provide an adequate level of service. Factors
such as initial cost, design life, and the risk of loss of use of the roadway for a time due to runoff
exceeding the capacity of the drainage structure, need to be considered in the design.

Construction considerations
Many serious construction problems arise because important drainage and water-related factors
were overlooked or neglected in the planning and location phases of the project.
With proper planning, many factors can be avoided or cost effective solutions developed to
prevent extended damages. Such factors include:
Soil erosion

Sediment deposition

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Drainage and landslide

Timing of project stages

Protection of irrigation systems and continued use during construction

Protection of streams, lakes, and rivers and

Protection of wetlands

Analysis of available data, scheduling of work, and other aspects involved in the early planning
and location studies can alleviate many problems encountered in the construction of drainage
structures.
Data collection
As part of planning and location studies several categories of data shall be obtained an evaluated,
including:
Physical characteristics of drainage basins

Maps and topographic data including channel surveys and cross sections

Runoff quantity data (hydrologic and precipitation data)

Channel and flood plain delineation and related studies

Flood history and problem inventory

Existing storm water management structure characteristics

Development of alternative plan concepts

Hydrologic and hydraulic analysis of alternative concepts

Consideration of multipurpose opportunities and constraints, benefit/cost

analysis and evaluation and

Runoff quality data.

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Design channel drainage

Chezy Equation

v =is the mean velocity

C =is the Chzy coefficient
R= is the hydraulic radius
S0 = slope of the conduit\channel

This formula can also be used with Manning's Roughness Coefficient, instead of Chzy's
coefficient. Manning derived the following relation to C based upon experiments

Where

C= is the Chzy coefficient

R= is the hydraulic radius

n =is Manning's roughness coefficient.

Manning's Equation

For a given channel geometry, slope, and roughness, and a specified value of discharge Q, a
unique value of depth occurs in steady uniform flow. It is called the normal depth. The normal
depth is used to design artificial channels in steady, uniform flow and is computed from
Manning's equation:

V Q/ A 1
R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
n

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Values of Manning n

Lined Canals n
Cement plaster 0.011

Untreated gunite 0.016

Wood, planed 0.012
Wood, unplanned 0.013
Concrete, trowled 0.012

Concrete, wood forms, unfinished 0.015

Rubble in cement 0.020

Asphalt, smooth 0.013

Asphalt, rough 0.016

Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight 0.025
Gravel beds plus large boulders 0.040
Earth, straight, with some grass 0.026
Earth, no vegetation 0.030

Earth , with vegetation 0.050

Recommended side slopes are given in the Table below

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Freeboard:

Vertical distance between the water surface and top of the channel.

Freeboard can be estimated as

F 0.55 Cy

C 0.01184Q 1.493
Where

C= coefficient

The minimum freeboard is usually 15 cm.

Computation of normal depth

In channel analysis, it is often convenient to group the channel properties in a single term called
the channel conveyance K:

V Q/ A 1
R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
n
K = (1/n)AR2/3 k=is a function of the normal depth (conveyance factor)

Q = KS1/2

Properties of the channel section, and manning n

A R2/3 = nQ/S1/2

Following methods are used for determining the normal depth.

(i) Design curves
(ii) Trial and error method
Design curves
Design curve are presented in fig (chart)

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If we want to determine the normal depth for specified discharge in a given channel section we
know the value of Q, n, and S0
if the cross section is trapizodal divide the computed value by B08/3
if the cross section is circular divide the computed value by D08/3
B0 channel bottom bed
D0 conduit diameter
Now yn/B0 or yn/D0 corresponding to thevalue of

A R2/3 / B08/3 or

A R2/3 / D08/3

(ii) Trial and error method

AR 2 / 3 0
nQ1
1/ 2
s

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Distance, meters

Time minutes

Time of flow to Inlet

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Rainfall intensity mm/Hr

Duration

Typical rainfall intensity duration curve

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Example -1

Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of 10 m and side
slope of 2H to 1V and carrying a flow of 30m3/s .the slop of the channel bottom is 0.001 and
n=0.013

Determining by

i. Design curves and

ii. Trial and error method

Problem

Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of 10 m and side slop
of 2H to 1V and carrying a flow of 30000Lt/s .the slop of the channel bottom is grade0.1% and
the channel bottom is consist Wood, unplanned

Determining by

i. Design curves and ii. Trial and error method

Problem

Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of 10 m and side slop
of 2H to 1V and carrying a flow of 1800m3/min .the slop of the channel bottom is 0.05730 and
the channel bottom is consist Asphalt, smooth

Determining by

i. Design curves and ii. Trial and error method

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Example -2

The TRUF (small trees vegetation) cover draining area which an average of 1.5 % toward the
drainage and the point of entry to side of drained is 200 m the average value of run off
coefficient is 0.25.the length of the longitudinal open drainage is the sandy clay soil from the
inlet point to the cross drainage is 540 m .the velocity of flow in the side drainage may be
assume as 0.60 m/s. estimate the design quantity of flow on the side drainage flow for a 10 year
period frequency occurrence of the storm (RF)

Example -3

The max quantity of water expect in one of the open longitudinal drainage of clay soil is 0.9
m3/s. deign the cross section and longitudinal slop of trapezoidal section to be 1 m cross slop to
be (side slop) 1:1.5 .the allowable velocity of flow in the drainage 1.2 m/s manning coefficient
0.02.

Example -4

The surface water from road side is drained to the longitudinal side drain from across of the one
half a bitumen pavement surface of total width of 7m .shoulder and jointing land width of 8m
on one side of drain on the other side of longitudinal drain, water flow across from reserved land
with grass and 2% cross slop towards the side drain, the width of this strip of land being to 25m
the , run off coefficient of the pavement, shoulder and reserve land with grass surface is 0.8,0.25
and 0.35 respectively .the length of starches of the land parallel to the road from where water is
expected to the land flow to side of drainage is about 400 m.

Estimate the quantity of runoff flowing in the drain , assuming 25 years of period of frequency
.design the cross section and slop of the side drain in loamy soil with manning roughness
coefficient 0.025 and velocity of flow 0.8m/s

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