240

Chapter 6
Methods of Construction
J. Hartldn, Swedish Geotechnical Institute

6.1 GENERAL
Construction on soft organic soil gives rise to special problems. Most obvious
are the large deformations that may occur during and atter the construction period,
both vertically and horizontally. The settlements otten appear very quickly but may
also continue for very long time periods due to creep. The low strength often causes
stability problems, and consequently the load sometimes has to be placed in stages
or, alternatively, the soil must be improved through prior treatment.
It is important to realize that organic soil is not a single type of soil but a number
of soils with very different behaviour. In one case, it may be appropriate to choose
preloading, as for fibrous peat, while in another case this solution turns out to be
inpracticable due to low permeability, as with organic clay. In the latter case, soil
stabilization may be the most economical solution. Even for a special soil type, such
as peat, the properties may vary immensely, as between fibrous and decomposed states.
As in all building projects, the choice of construction method is a matter of find-
ing the optimum solution. Economic and technical aspects must be considered. The
solutions will of course vary according to demands on the standard, as well as avail-
able construction time and geotechnical conditions. The choice of method differs
depending on the soil layers beneath the organic soil. If there are sot~ compressible
layers underneath, their properties may have a large influence on settlements and
stability.
When dealing with stability and settlement problems there are several options to
choose from, such as
9 adjusting the load from the embankment and traffic to the soil or transfering the
load to a more stable level of soil: Load adjustment
9 replacing the soil, totally or partially, by better material: Soil replacement
9 improving the soil properties through some form of prior treatment: Soil im-
provement
Choice of Method 2 41

Preliminary investigations of the geotechnical properties of the soil in question

provide a basis for the choice of construction method. These investigations must
provide information on the depth of the organic soil, the type of organic soil and
presence of compressible layers undemeath. A suitable construction method should
be chosen in cooperation between the geotechnical engineer and other persons in-
volved in the designing process. There after, a more detailed geotechnical investiga-
tion should be made.
The basic conditions of the project vary according to several factors, for in-
stance, whether a new road is to be constructed or an existing road is to be improved.
In the latter case, consideration must be taken as to how the existing road is con-
structed. The design must integrate the longer time perspective so that savings dur-
ing the construction period are not lost through higher maintenance costs.

6.2 CHOICE OF METHOD

It is always important to bear in mind that organic soil is not one unique type of
soil but behaves quite differently through aspects such as its origin. The main differ-
ence in behaviour is the permeability which affects the rate of consolidation. A rapid
consolidation results in a rapid strength increase, provided that the stability (safety
factor) is high enough.
Figs. 6.1 and 6.2 presents some commonly used methods and gives basic con-
cepts for the different methods.
242 Methods of Construction

[ Load adjustment I

Profile lowering Pressure berms

preliminary~
decided J" level
/-- .~f.. 9 .-.......-.'...-.'.....-~,~

-- ~ - ~----- . ': "--- .": ~ "- . . . ~ ' : :2~J.:-a~ ~2 L .~,:. -"-".: ~ ' ~:~

Light weight fill Compensation foundation

...:.:
:::: ..:..... :.......: .,7,~

~ O.....:-':"
O '
no o'ooo 00~
"b a
0 "... ~o:~ ~ ) ~-~ ~ . . ~ ~
" " 0 0 0 0 0 O O m ' ' ~

I Replacement I

Progressive displacement
Excavation
(comb. with surcharge and sometimes blasting)
( shallow depth )

/~ - S u r ~ -~,
" " ........>~
!.::.i.

~"- 9:.'" :" ".'" ~':. .:-~:'~.::~:-[':.':~.r.:'t-'.:T.:,." "./;.'/: .;,~. :/.':.',~.."/" -/'..-.;K."./'.:/'- ~.-'.f. :~I.'/: "F..',~'.',~: :-:~::~.'./

Fig. 6.1. Methods of construction; load adjustment, replacement.

Choice of Method 243

Stage construction ]

Preloading Preloading with vertical drains

/ . . . . . . . \ /-- . . . . . . . . . . \

/ Surcharge
/
""
Surchar.qe
". 9 " ' . ' . ". ". ". ". i "."
\\
X
/ .......... : \\
L . ~ 9 9 /..''- 9 o 9 .-.. 9 N.
~ . . ~ . 9 . . 9 ~ . . . . . . .

I Cotumns ]

Lime, cement or other material

,/- -- S"urc"h~rge" -- -~ \
/~ .- . . . . .. \
,- " o . 9 . 9 . .

/././, /. / / ,z/. ~,.,4 ~ ~ 9A 9 .L :i. ./, .i../..,~, .I

' Other methods I

Reinforcement
Geotextile Timber mat

..~" ....i i..-..:....-.:-:~:~ .... ~:i-:-.. :; i. ..! i..i..;. :.'~_

Piling with continuous concrete slab

" ." 9 9 9 "/- V'. V- '/-/. "/-/- 9 " / - " / . " / - "/. " / - " / - / . "]

Fig. 6.2. Methods of construction; Stage construction, columns, other methods.

244 Methods of Construction

In Table 6.1 a crude division into suitable methods is suggested, related to differ-
ent soil types. However, as each case is unique, it is always necessary to make sure
that the method is applicable. The different methods are presented in the following
chapters, together with the limitations.

Table 6.1. General applicability of construction methods to different kinds of soft

subsoils. Limitations are presented in Chapters 7-11.

TYPE OF S O I L PEAT GYTTJA GYTTJA-BEARING SOFT

03 CLAY CLAY
o 03

o
03 , ,.~

METHOD OF 0 o

CONSTRUCTION 03

LOAD ADJUSTMENT
Profile lowering P P P P P S
Pressure berms P P P P P S
Lightweight fill U UU U P S

REPLACEMENT
Excavation shallow S S S S S S
deposits
Progressive displacement U P S S S S

STAGE CONSTRUCTION
Preloading S P U P U U

Preloading + P P P P S S
vertical drainage

LIME/CEMENT
COLUMNS U P S

OTHER METHODS
Corduroys P P P P P P
Geotextile P P P P P P
Embankment piling U P* P* P* P* S

S = suitable
P = possible
U = unsuitable
- = not possible
*) Embankment piling and pile-supported concrete deck.
Choice of Method 245

An example of current Swedish practice for road construction in areas with soft
soils with organic content is described in Table 6.2, from which the importance of
soil type is evident.

Table 6.2. Methods used for road construction on soils with organic content in
Sweden,

Soil conditions Construction methods Remarks

Fibrous peat on firm Preloading (stage Depending on road

soil layers construction) or ex-
cavation and backfill
Pseudo-fibrous and Soil replacement
amorphous peat (Excavation and back-
Dy and gyttja fill or progressive
displacement)
standard, thickness
of peat layer and
available construc-
tion time
Preloading in excep-
tional cases. Floating
structure sometimes
for low cost roads

Organic clay Soil replacement, In exceptional cases

lime/cement columns vertical drainage
or pile foundation
(embankment piling
and pile-supported
concrete deck)
Soft clay Leight-weight fill or Depending on
compensation foundation thickness of clay layer
replacement, preloading
with or without vertical
drains, lime/cement columns
or pile foundation

Recently superlight fill material, such as expanded polystyrene (EPS) has been
used more and more frequently in road embankments in Sweden. The use of EPS-
material in combination with preloading with conventional fill material sometimes
proves to be the most favourable solution regarding technique and economy.
Preloading and thin floating embankments reinforced/supported by geotextiles is
a technique that is under rapid development.
246 Methods of Construction

6.3 REVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPTS OF EMBANKMENT

CONSTRUCTION ON ORGANIC SOILS

6.3.1 Load adjustment

The optimum method of utilizing the natural soil properties is to adjust the load.
The simplest, and often the most efficient way of adjusting the load is to lower the
embankment height. Due to geometrical requirements, this simple method is not
always applicable.
Another way of adjusting the shear stresses induced in the soil is to reduce the
inclination of the embankment slopes or to construct pressure berms. The use of
pressure berms produces a more deep-seated critical slip surface. Pressure berms
are therefore most efficient when the shear strength increases with depth or when the
depth to firm layers is limited. The method requires more material and also more
space along the embankment. Pressure berms solve the stability problem, but the
settlements may still be troublesome. For this reason pressure berms may be less
suitable for structures sensitive to settlements.
The use of lightweight material in embankments can solve the stability prob-
lems as well as reduce the settlements. The lightweight fill must have low density,
good beating capacity, high long-term durability, low compressibility and be non-
pollutant in respect e.g. to groundwater. The material must also be easy to handle
when constructing the embankment. In areas with organic soil the groundwater table
often is very high, sometimes up to the ground level, but may be subjected to season-
al variations. Therefore, it is important that the embankment is not too light, other-
wise it may be damaged by uplift forces.
Some organic soils have a very low shear strength and high compressibility. The
bearing capacity of such soils only allows very low embankment heights, and large
settlements will occur in any case. Support of the embankment with piles may then
be necessary. Usually the top layer is very weak and it is then necessary to construct
a piled continuous concrete deck.

6.3.2 Soil replacement

Replacement of organic soil by non-cohesive soil or blasted rock can be carried
out with excavation and backfill or byprogressive displacement. Excavation often
leads to a better result while progressive displacement sometimes leads to costs for
maintaining the embankment some years after completion. The use of excavation
has its limitations due to economic and technical restraints when the excavations
have to be deep.
Basic Concepts 247

Progressive displacement means that the soft subsoil is displaced by producing a

continuous shear failure through the weight of the embankment. There is often a
need for a surcharge to produce this shear failure. A surcharge also helps to speed up
the settlement development in order to produce most of the settlements before the
embankment is put into operation. The surcharge should in any case be untouched
for up to 3-6 months. Sometimes the progressive displacement is complemented with
excavations and blasting.

6.3.3 Soil improvement

Using stage construction increases the effective stress in the soil which will
result in an increase in shear strength and stiffness. It is essential for the method that
the soil have a sufficiently high permeability and/or that the compressible strata are
sufficiently thin to permit dissipation of the excess porewater pressures within the
available construction time. During stage construction it is important to make a
careful follow-up of settlements. Information from settlement measurements can lead
to a change of design.
Incremental loading with surcharge is one kind of stage construction. When the
calculated consolidation has occurred, the surcharge is removed. With a correct de-
sign of the surcharge, it is possible to produce an embankment free from long-term
settlements, even if the subsoil has a high compressibility. The method has proved to
be very useful, especially on fibrous peat with a low degree of decomposition and
with a total thickness of less than about 4-5 m. When the subsoil consists of amor-
phous peat, gyttja or gyttja-bearing clay, the method is not as useful because of the
low permeability and consequently slow consolidation of these materials. The meth-
od also requires a careful follow-up.
Embankments constructed by using incremental load and surcharge can be com-
bined with vertical drains. The applicability of preloading depends on the type of
organic soil. A fibrous peat has a high permeability so there may be no need for
vertical drams. When the subsoil consists of amorphous peat on clay, the method
with vertical drains may be an efficient alternative. Settlements will normally be
considerable and it is therefore necessary that the surcharge be so high that the
reduction of load due to settlements is taken into account. As a consequence of the
initial height there may be a need for pressure berms to ensure the stability. The
applicability of vertical drains in organic soil can be discussed, but the method has
proved successful in practice. To avoid problems with long term (creep) settlements,
the load of the final embankment should be at most about 80 % of the preconsolida-
tion pressure achieved by preloading.
Lime/cement column stabilisation has often been considered to be less useful in
248 Methods of Construction

organic soils. However, in recent years, the method has been tested in organic soils,
often with good results. Quick lime, gypsum, cement or fly ash mixed with the soil
increases the shear strength and decreases the compressibility. The advantage of
lime/cement column stabilisation in comparison with, for instance, vertical drams is
an "instantaneous" increase in shear strength, which may lead to a reduced or elim-
inated need for pressure berms. Lime/cement columns can also be considered as
drams and will consequently reduce the time of consolidation. The settlements will
be reduced approximately in the order of 30 % to 50 % when using lime or lime/
cement columns, compared to those occurring using preloading and vertical drains.
When designing an embankment with lime column stabilisation, laboratory tests
should be made to clarify the effect of the stabilising agent on the soil properties. The
method demands a follow-up during installation and preloading period.

6.3.4 Other techniques

In recent years geotextile reinforcement of embankments has been used and is
often combined with a lightweight fill. A geotextile can act as a separating layer
between the gravel in the embankment and the soft subsoil. It also provides better
possibilities for compacting the embankment. Whether the geotextile always works
as a reinforcement is not clarified.
There are many other methods, such as stone columns, that can be chosen. How-
ever, these methods are often related to very specific soil conditions.