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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter undertakes past studies which have significant bearing to the present

study. This provides the researchers a framework and background of the current research.

Years of Study (Age and Generation)

One variable that mattered most to this research was the Years of Study. Certain

literatures were found that were related to this topic. These were generational differences

and career cycles based on a life-span approach (Super, 1953). It has been stated that age

and career developmental maturity are personal factors that have been studied separately.

However, the two can have a significant relationship with each other. When age

increases, the person becomes more mature in his/her career progression. According to

Borchert (2002) when he studied high school students, he then concluded that making a

choice of career is an ever evolving process, requiring trial and error, and

experimentation, which would be supported by more career-related information and

counseling being made available as early as the elementary level.

Viewing careers in stages aligns with a perspective that much of life happens in

cycles. Super (1853), in his theory of Self-Concept, identified five stages and the types
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of tasks typically associated with each stage. First stage is Growth which occurs from

birth to age 14. Second stage is Exploration which falls from ages 15 to 24. Then, the

Establishment stage which happens from ages 25 to 44. Next is the Maintenance, which

occurs from ages 45 to 59. And lastly, the fifth stage is the Decline which happens from

age 60 and above (Renando. 2016). On the Growth stage, the child forms a picture of the

kind of person he/she is, and self-concept is developed through fantasies, interests and

curiosity. Knowledge and attitudes towards of work both in general and occupations in

particular are learned by exposure to and/or experiences with people, tasks, objects, and

ideas. In the Exploration phase, the person begins to translate and specify self-preference

into occupational terms. And on the later stages, the person stabilizes, advances and

maintains his career development through experience until he/she plans for retirement

during declination (Morrow, 2014)

Adults in late midlife are a diverse group with different career progression needs.

During the last stage of career development, the definition of retirement is shifting due to

changes workers are making in the later part of their careers (Rix 2002, p. 27). Large

numbers of adults do choose retirement, while others remain in the work force because

they do not have sufficient resources to allow them to retire. Even career stages are being

re-examined, revealing that in the middle and later career years, individuals' career

concerns change more dynamically and continuous learning is required for success. In

theory, the late career stage has traditionally meant adjustment into retirement but in

current practice, job involvement still continues. At this point, adults in their mid-60s find

new goals and begin integrating personal characteristics that had been in opposition to

their vocational identities (Imel, 2003)

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Career Expectations

Another variable that played a crucial part in this study was the Career

Expectations. Various literature were found that connects to this matter. In this part,

career expectations were first defined before discussing how it can differ from one age

group to another.

According to Cambridge Dictionary Online (n.d.), job expectations are the things

that an employee wants from a job such as responsibility, fulfillment, and good pay.

While it may sound that job and career are synonymous to each other, they actually

have major differences, and this is vital for every job-seeker to know. Basically, a job is

merely something you do to earn money, while a career is a series of connected

employment opportunities. A career is something long-term and it provides the

foundation of experiences, training and learning that will heavily fuel ones professional

life for years, or maybe even a whole lifetime (Hamm, 2008). Hence, career expectations

are the things that an employee wants during development of their professional endeavors

and employment opportunities.

Defining career expectations are crucial because this will be a way to add value to

a job-seeker. An employer wants to assure that an applicant will be the best fit for the

position, and he/she also wants to determine if the latter is interested in the job for the

long run. Discussing clear career expectations increase chances of getting the job, and

this might even be the opportunity to showcase ones potential (Tucker, 2015). These

expectations also help the employer look for insights about how the applicant wants to

grow as a professional, his/her commitment and valuable contribution to the company,

and how ambitious he or she is (William, 2016). However, Tucker (2015) emphasized
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that one must avoid being too ideological, and must focus on setting practical goals.

Setting very high goals may result to disappointment and disengagement to reality,

especially in the current economic situation of the Philippines. An example of a very high

expectation is to think that an applicant will be able to negotiate a huge salary increase

for the job offer (Salemi, 2014). One of the people that set high career expectations are

students, especially fresh graduates that are on the hunt for companies to apply.

According to Thomas (2014), a survey has found out that 79% of these students expect to

be in a graduate-level job within six months. However government figures say otherwise,

and showed that only around 53% of those graduated within the past five years are in

such jobs.

When setting expectations, job-seekers need to know various reality checks.

Furthermore, when having high expectations, one should in return have higher efforts

when developing their careers. On the actual situation, experts believe that job-hunting

should in itself be a full-time job (Hansen, R., & Hansen, K., 2015). Moreover, having a

one-size-fits-all kind of resume is an unrealistic act to do. A survey has found out that

71% of hiring managers said they preferred a resume that is customized and specific for

the open position. Additionally, in the real world, most jobs arent even advertised

through public or online means. In an investigation, 80% of jobs never get posted and are

only found through networking (Smith, 2013). While it might be true that getting inside a

competitive job market will a big challenge to students and a setback to their

expectations, it is never bad to have professional goals for career development. Despite

harsh realities, a job-seeker must always be open for self-improvement and opportunities

(Harrison, 2016).
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The phenomenon of varied career expectations from different age groups is

rampant worldwide. It is observed that older people have a generational difference on the

career choices of younger people. This has sometimes been a concern over the hiring and

employment of applicants. Furthermore, those from younger age groups, like students,

have higher career expectations as compared to their antecedents. In fact Raybould &

Wilkins (2005) found out that students in New Zealand have higher career expectations

and they rate the value of their degrees higher than employees do in the actual industry.

Most undergraduates in the Hospitality Management course expect to be a senior

management level employee in the near future (Brien, 2004; Harkison, 2004). When in

reality, it takes a long way for it to be achieved. In order to become a general manager in

a hotel, prospective senior managers may require considerable operational and

managerial experience. In the same New Zealand study, it appears that top managers in

Auckland hotels moved through supervisor and low management, then on to mid-

management, before obtaining their first general manager position (Steele, 2003).

Another survey conducted by Poll (2015) to compare Chicago workers and high

school students has found similar results. When respondents were asked what salary they

need to earn to be successful, 1 in 4 current workers (25 %) feel they would be successful

making less than $50,000 a year, while high school students are nearly three times as

likely as current workers to say they need to make $200,000 or more to feel the same

way. When it comes to earning promotions, high school students display more optimism

than working professionals. Eighty-seven percent of high school students agree that one

should be promoted every two to three years if one is doing a good job.
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In an Asian perspective, differences of work values and aspirations between

generations are also evident. As Baby Boomers leave the Singaporean workforce due to

reasons like aging and retirement, organizations are going to have to rely more on their

millennial employees. A survey has found out the Gen Ys are the most challenging to

retain. In order to do so, employers will need to take their high expectations for pay and

promotion in mind. Eighty percent of respondents say that millennials career choices is

influenced from their very high expectations for advancement, while 75% say they want

more compensation than they are actually worth.

In the Philippines, younger generations are having different aspirations than their

older antecedents. Mattison (2011) has found out that Filipino youths are often

encouraged to follow paths for economic and monetary purposes, such as medical routes

so that they could go abroad as nurses or medical technicians. Filipino students choose

their majors in part because of the market value and remuneration of the field, rather than

any real interest or capability in it.

Meanwhile, a Jobstreet survey of 450 companies in Manila has found out what

employers are bothered about fresh graduates, and how they are compared to older

workers. Employers think that they cannot settle long enough in a job. This may be due to

the fact that millennials love to experiment different careers at one time. Moreover, their

expectations for remuneration and job positions are very high as compared to their

antecedents. Many employers also feel that younger generations have no regard for rules

in the workplace unlike their predecessors. Examples of these conduct are tardiness,

improper dress code, and constant absences (Tantuco, 2015).