Evolutionary algorithm for detection and localization
of faults in HVDC systems
Arkadiusz Burek
ABB Corporate Research Center
Krakow, Poland
arkadiusz.burek@pl.abb.com
Abstract--The aim of this work is to analyze evolutionary
algorithms in point of application for detection and localization of
faults in HVDC systems. Considered faults are localized at DC
side. The initial condition for the algorithm is low sampling rate
up to 5-100kHz. This condition eliminates application of
traditional traveling wave technique due to not sufficient time
resolution. It is proposed to base criterion of the fault location on
relation between distance of the fault and amplitude of aperiodic
decaying component in current during transient. In order to
estimate the amplitude of the aperiodic component a genetic
algorithm is proposed. Using benchmarking signals a reference
function of distance of the fault in relation to the amplitude of
aperiodic component is created. Having this function it is possible
to calculate fault location using estimated by genetic algorithm
amplitude during the fault. This paper presents advantages and
disadvantages of proposed technique.
Keywords: HVDC transmission, fault location, signal processing,
genetic algorithm
I. INTRODUCTION
Transient phenomena assessment in HVDC long line during
faults can consider both slow signal components and fast transient caused by fault. GA was exposed for signal
traveling waves propagation (TW). Fast element are
associated with short impulse propagated from the point of the
fault, in both direction of the line, including also influence of
reflection and suppression. Slow components usually have
aperiodic exponential component as well as oscillating
decaying component. Usually the most accurate solution is
provided by the traveling wave principle which can be
graphically presented by Bewleys lattice diagram and
determines values of the waves in transient analysis
[2],[3],[4],[5],[9],[10]. Realization of fault location using
traveling waves method requires high time resolution
measurement systems. This system is often equipped by
additional sensor with quick response for capture the impulse.
Analysis of traveling waves using digital signal processing is
demanding due to high sampling rate referring to wave velocity
and advanced methods for capturing the travel time of the
transient along the lines between the fault point and the
This work was supported by the ABB Corporate Research Center, Poland.
978-1-4799-7993-6/15/$31.00 2015 IEEE
Jacek Rezmer, Tomasz Sikorski
Wroclaw University of Technology
Wroclaw, Poland
jacek.rezmer@pwr.edu.pl, tomasz.sikorski@pwr.edu.pl
substation. Few techniques are proposed in the literature to
implement TW methods including derivation of the signal and
special capturing sensors [4], [6] or wavelet decompositions
[11],[12],[13].
This paper presents supplementary to TW approach when
fault location is focused on low sampling rate data acquisitions
systems, considering sampling frequency in the range
5100kHz and related time resolution is 0.20.01ms. This
condition makes serious limitation for application of traveling
wave technique which requires at least 1s.
The base of presented method is nature of the slow
frequency aperiodic component in the transient state and
especially relation between amplitude of aperiodic component
A and fault location x. This relation follows by specified
characteristic which is proposed to use as reference
characteristic between A and x for considered DC line. Having
this characteristic a fault position can be estimated if amplitude
of aperiodic component is measure. In presented solution a
genetic algorithm (GA) is proposed as the sufficient tool for
determining amplitude of the aperiodic component during
parameters in [1],[14]. General idea of evolutionary algorithm
in point of optimalization process was described in [7], [8]
Presented results show that application of genetic algorithm
allows to calculate aperiodic component in transient state.
However some drawback of the application of proposed
approach is presented, mainly derived from sensitivity of the
amplitude of aperiodic component not only on fault distance x,
which is desirable, but also on fault resistance. However
achieved results shows path of using low-frequency sampling
data for fault location.
II. METHOD DESCRIPTION
In order to introduce proposed method a simplified model of
HVDC transmission line can be considered. For the simplified
consideration without traveling wave concepts it is acceptable
to use an equivalent circuit based on lumped elements. Having
DC line with total length l and metallic fault localized in x km
from Station 1, which corresponds to y distance from Station 2,
a lumped four-terminal T structures can be implemented.
Parameters of particular T structures depends on unitary di1 R 2
parameters of the line (R,L,G,C) and length of segmented line dt L 0
xL i
2E
(x,y) denoted by the fault. Analytic derivation of the selected 1 x L
di2 = 0 R 2
segment x allows to defined character of transient components. i2 + 0 (1)
dt L xL
Fig. 1 presents described approach. u 0
duC 1 1 G C
l

dt x C x C C
x y After derivation desirable form of Laplace transform of
current at the beginning of the line is expressed by:
b0 s + b1
I1 ( s ) = (2)
s ( a0 s + a1 s 2 + a2 s + a3 )
3

Particular coefficients a0,a1,a2,a3,b1,b0 are related with fault

distance x and unitary parameters R,L,G,C:
x 2 L2 C x 2 L2 x 2 RLC
a0 = ; a1 = + ;
4G 4 2G
x 2 RL L x 2 R 2 C R x2 R2
Figure 1: Simplified DC line equivalent a2 = + + ; a3 = + ; (3)
2 G 4G G 4
xEL 1 xR
b0 = ; b1 = E +
2 xG 2

Inverse form of I1(s) leads to two transient decaying

components of i1(t), aperiodic exponential component and
periodic component, as well as dc steady state component. Fig.
2 depicts character of the current components. The aperiodic
transient component is described by two parameters amplitude
A, and suppression index . The periodical decaying
component is characterized by amplitude B , frequency of
oscillation and suppression index . DC component is forced
by source is expressed by amplitude C:
(4)
i1 = A e 1(t ) + B e sin ( t ) 1(t ) + C 1(t )
t t
 
  


Aperiodic Periodical DC

Figure 2: Localization of the pole of the Laplace transform of the current
during fault and its influence of character of transient component
Figure 3: Visualization of the relations between amplitudes of transient
components A, B, C and fault distance x
Differential equation of mentioned T structure associated
with x based on state variables space can be represented as:
Due to parameters a0, a1, a2, a3, b1, b0 of Laplace form stay
in relation to x (3), naturally parameters of time transient
components is also related to x. It can be recalculated that
following parameters A, , B, , , , C can be also generally
function of x. Fig. 3 shows introduced relations when
amplitudes of particular components are in function of fault
distance A(x), B(x), C(x).
Summary of analytic derivations in point of amplitudes of
particular transient components leads to conclusion that fault
location x has direct influence on amplitude of the components.
It constitutes possible goal of the presented fault location
method: having reference characteristic of relation between
amplitudes of the components and fault distance
A(x), B(x), C(x) and having accurate measurement technique
coupled with signal processing method aimed on revealing
amplitudes of the components it is possible to define method of
fault location.
This paper is focused on application of characteristic of
amplitude of aperiodic decaying component in relation to fault
distance A(x). Raised issues are: definition of reference
characteristics A(x) and its inverse form x(A) and selection of
signal processing method do estimate A during the fault. wheel corresponds to each member of the population. The size
Referring to Fig. 3 and equation (4) characteristic of the of the segment is proportional to the value of the evaluation
amplitude of aperiodic component A in relation to fault function. Members with the larger segments of the roulette
location x can be expressed by exponential formula: wheel have better chances to create a new generation. For each
A ( x ) = + e- x (5) randomly selected member, an exact replica (offspring) is
Parameters ,, can be fitted to considered line taking into formed and after genetic operation is included in the next
account its geometrical and electrical parameters or can be generation. One may note that for members with high value of
recalculated from direct estimation of aperiodic component in the adaptation function, there is much higher probability of
(4) on the basis of few benchmarking current signals during the having several identical descendants than in the case of
fault i1(t). Due to approximation of aperiodic component members with a small value of the adaptation function.
denoted by parameters A, related to fault distance x the
desirable A(x) characteristic is treated as reference function. random crossover point
Present signal processing development has delivered ..... 101111111 101011111 010101010 .....
efficient technique for estimation of functions and its chromosom 1
..... 101111111 101000000 111000111 .....
parameters. It is so called evolutionary algorithm or genetic chromosom 2
algorithm (GA). Having at the disposal few benchmarking
faulty signals i1(t) associated with different fault location it is
..... 101111111 101000000 111000111 .....
possible to implement GA to estimate aperiodic decaying new chromosom 1
component from (4) which leads to specification of parameters ..... 101111111 101011111 010101010 .....
A, for particular fault location x. new chromosom 2
Genetic algorithm provide a reasonable compromise Figure 4: Diagram of the crossover operation
between the wide search of the solution space and the use of ..... 101111111 101011111 010101010 .....
earlier obtained results. The algorithms relay on chromosom
multidirectional exploration of the solution space through a
transformation of the potential solution population. In each ..... 101111111 100011111 010101010 .....
consecutive population, only the best fitted members, e.g. new chromosom 1
sufficiently acceptable solutions, are reproduced while the gen mutation
remaining members are eliminated from the further Figure 5: Diagram of the mutation operation
transformations. A target function is used as a criterion for
evaluation of the population members. In each consecutive Application of the genetic operators constitutes the next step
population, there are always chromosomes, which satisfy better of genetic algorithms. Members of the new generation undergo
the evaluation criterion than others. modifications through the crossovers and mutations. Crossover
Implementation of genetic algorithms for identification of leads to a combination of the parental traits in chromosomes of
the function parameters is based on fitness function i.e. the best two descendants. Fig. 4 depicts diagram of crossover
approximation of analyzed curve. That approximation is operation. Genotype fragments are exchanged between the two
obtained after solving the set of differential equations. Runge- members. With an initially assumed crossover probability, both
Kutta integration method is used due to its numerical a pair of members and the crossover points are selected
simplicity. The genetic algorithm seeks adequate coefficients randomly.
of the differential equation. In a mutation process, genes may change their values. For
Those coefficients were properly coded and processed with each gene of every members of the new generation, a random
the genetic algorithm. In order to estimate the parameters for decision with a given probability is made. If the mutation is to
the measurement signal the minimum of the approximation take place, the value of the bit is changed. Fig. 5 represents
error has been selected as the adaptation criterion. diagram of the mutation operation.
The implementation of the GA method begins with the Having a set of the parameters of aperiodic component A,
construction of the initial population representing the first in relation to fault distance allows to estimate parameters ,,
approximation of the solution. Genes of this generation are and define characteristic A(x). After definition of parameters
selected randomly. Usually, this first approximation is not a ,, an inverse form of relation A(x) can be expressed as
good solution. localization function x(A):
For the fitness function is used to evaluate each member of 1 A
the population. To each member, a value calculated from the x ( A) = ln (6)

adaptation function is assigned. New members are reproduced
Having defined characteristic x(A) gives possibility to
in successive generations. The reproduction is usually
estimate fault location for given A specified during the fault
consistent with rules of roulette. A segment of the roulette
condition. Estimation of A during fault condition can be also
obtained using genetic algorithm GA or other estimation 250 11.1961e+000 50.3883e+000
techniques. 300 11.0012e+000 46.3974e+000
350 10.7516e+000 45.2518e+000
III. APPLICATION OF THE METHOD 400 10.4774e+000 45.7811e+000

Investigations were based on PSCAD model of bipole with

pole in Station 1, denoted as i1(t). It returns set of parameters
dedicated metallic return HVDC scheme. DC transmission is
A, for particular fault location x and allows to construct
realized by 320kV 405 km overhead line with pole geometry
reference characteristic x(A). Second step is to use GA to
shown in Fig. 6. Sampling rate of the simulation is 5kHz.
approximate parameters Af, f of aperiodic component in the
Referring to previous section proposed method consists of two
current i1(t) for unknown fault distance xf . Use of reference
steps. First is the application of GA to approximate aperiodic
characteristic x(A) for given Af allows to identify unknown
components in few benchmarking signals recorded in positive
fault distance xf.

Amplitude of aperiodic component A [kA]

A ( x ) = + e- x
= 10.32
=5.38
=7.57 10-3

Figure 6: Simulated overhead line and pole geometry

16 0km Figure 8: Creation of reference characteristic A(x) on the basis of coordinates

in TABLE I
14 600
x(A) as inverse of A(x)
12 error introduced by approximation of A(x)
500
1 A
10 400km
x ( A) = ln

Fault location x [km]
Current [kA]

8 400
= 10.32
6
300 =5.38
4 =7.57 10-3
Rf=0 200
2
PSCAD current
GA aperiodic
0 100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t [s]
Figure 7: PSCAD simulation of faults in different locations and approximation
0
of aperiodic component obtained by genetic algorithm GA, fault resistance 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Rf=0 Amplitude of aperiodic component A [kA]
Figure 9: Creation of reference characteristic x(A) as the inverse form of A(x)
TABLE I
APPROXIMATION OF PARAMETERS OF APERIODIC TRANSIENT COMPONENT IN A. Creation of reference characteristic x(A) on the
FAULTY CURRENT USING GENETIC ALGORITHM GA basis of benchmarking faulty signals
x [km] A [A] In presented example the reference characteristic A(x) was
0 15.6266e+000 135.0723e+000 created using PSCAD simulations with distance step 50km.
50 14.2349e+000 73.0059e+000
Fig. 7 presents simulated current signals during the fault for
100 12.7465e+000 68.4426e+000
particular fault distance from 0km to 400km from Station 1.
150 11.9482e+000 60.8556e+000
200 11.4126e+000 55.8922e+000
The simulation was performed with the same fault resistance
Rf=0. Proposed approximation of the aperiodic component of
the faulty current obtained using GA is also depicted in Fig. 7.
Parameters of the aperiodic components A, for particular
fault location x is also presented in details in Tab. I. Taking
into consideration coordinates x and A from Tab. I. reference

Fault location x [km]

characteristic A(x) can be approximated. Shape of the
characteristic and its parameterization is expressed in Fig. 8.
Desirable for the proposed method characteristic of fault
location x in function of amplitude of aperiodic component A is
obtained as inverse form of approximated function A(x). Fig. 9
presents function x(A) which serves as fault locator in
TABLE II
DETERMINATION OF FAULT LOCATION USING X(A) CHARACTERISTIC AND
ERROR ASSESSMENT

Af - amplitude xf fault location true x |Error of x

of aperiodic readable from estimation|
component characteristic
determine by x(A) as xf(Af) Figure 11: PSCAD simulation of faults in different locations and
GA approximation of aperiodic component obtained by genetic algorithm GA, fault
[A] [km] [km] [km] resistance Rf=10
15.6266e+000 1.9461e+000 0 1.9461e+000 distance xf which can be determine for given amplitude of
14.2349e+000 42.1026e+000 50 7.8974e+000 aperiodic component Af in the current i1(t). Due to limited
12.7465e+000 105.2507e+000 100 5.2507e+000
number of benchmarking signals taken into creation of
11.9482e+000 157.9158e+000 150 7.9158e+000
approximation of characteristic A(x) as the consequence for
11.4126e+000 210.5651e+000 200 10.5651e+000
11.1961e+000 239.7065e+000 250 10.2935e+000
characteristic x(A) some error assessment can be defined
11.0012e+000 272.9054e+000 300 27.0946e+000 introduced by approximation process. The error assessment is
10.7516e+000 333.0961e+000 350 16.9039e+000 also depicted in Fig. 9.
10.4774e+000 465.9682e+000 400 65.9682e+000
B. Determination of fault distance using estimated by
GA amplitude of aperiodic component and reference
x(A) characteristic
In order to test proposed method a calculation of distance
Current [kA]

fault determination xf on the basis of x(A) characteristic was

performed using amplitudes of aperiodic components Af
obtained by GA estimation. Results was compared with true
distance of simulated fault in order to determine fault location
error. Table II shows the results of proposed technique.
Referring to Fig. 9, due to estimation error, inherent relation
between increasing distance error estimation for far distance
fault is visible.
Figure 10: PSCAD simulation of faults in different locations and
approximation of aperiodic component obtained by genetic algorithm GA, fault C. Investigation of the sensitivity of the proposed
resistance Rf=10 method on fault resistance.
Desirable properties of fault locator is independence of fault
resistance Rf. In order to investigated influence of fault
resistance on reliability of the proposed method construction of
reference characteristic x(A) was repeated for set of
benchmarking fault simulation with Rf=10. In comparison to
Fig 7, Fig. 10 presents simulated current signals during the
fault for particular fault distance from 0km to 400km from
Station 1. Constructed characteristic x(A) obtained for Rf=0
and Rf=10 is compared in Fig. 11. It can be concluded that
proposed method is dependent on fault resistance condition.

IV. CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes method for fault location in HVDC
transmission line when low-sampling rate data acquisition
systems are considered. In the paper 5kHz sampling data were
considered. This measurement limitations eliminates possibility
to implement traveling waves approach due to not sufficient
time resolution. Presented method is concentrated on
estimation of parameters of the transient components which
exhibits in the current signal during the fault. For consideration
can be aperiodic and periodic decaying component. In the
paper the principle is based on amplitude of aperiodic
component. As it was shown it is possible to construct
reference characteristic x(A) which allows to determine
unknown fault location on the basis of estimated amplitude of
aperiodic component. Applied genetic algorithm is useful for
estimation of aperiodic component. Advantages of the method
is possibility to consider fault location using low-sampling rate
and estimation of aperiodic component using genetic
algorithm. Tests of the method show significant disadvantages
caused by influence of estimation of characteristic x(A) which
exhibits by increasing level of distance error estimation when
fault is localized far distance from the measurement point, as
well as dependence of the characteristic x(A) on fault
resistance. Extended investigation can consider including
improvement of the method using higher number of
benchmarking signals to reduce error of approximation and
using relation between fault distance x and other parameters of
transient components like amplitude and frequency of periodic
component or attenuation indices in order to reduce
dependence on fault resistance.
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