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2
 , also known as tooth decay or cavity, is a disease wherein bacterial processes
damage hard tooth structure (enamel, dentin and cementum). These tissues progressively
break down, producing dental caries (cavities, holes in the teeth). Two groups of bacteria are
responsible for initiating caries: Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus. If left untreated, the
disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Today, caries
remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. Tooth decay is caused by
specific types of acid-producing bacteria that cause damage in the presence of fermentable
carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The mineral content of teeth is sensitive
to increases in acidity from the production of lactic acid. Specifically, a tooth (which is
primarily mineral in content) is in a constant state of back-and-forth demineralization and
remineralization between the tooth and surrounding saliva. When the pH at the surface of the
tooth drops below 5.5, demineralization proceeds faster than remineralization (i.e. there is a
net loss of mineral structure on the tooth's surface). This results in the ensuing decay.

Bleeding, technically known as M

M is the loss of blood or blood escape from the
circulatory system. Bleeding can occur internally, where blood leaks from blood vessels
inside the body or externally, either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, or ear,
or through a break in the skin. The complete loss of blood is referred to as exsanguination,
and desanguination is a massive blood loss. Typically, a healthy person can endure a loss of
10-15% of the total blood volume without serious medical difficulties, and blood donation
typically takes 8-10% of the donor's blood volume.

A   is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues for examination. It is the
medical removal of tissue from a living subject to determine the presence or extent of a
disease. The tissue is generally examined under a microscope by a pathologist, and can also
be analyzed chemically. When an entire lump or suspicious area is removed, the procedure is
called an excisional biopsy. When only a sample of tissue is removed with preservation of the
histological architecture of the tissue¶s cells, the procedure is called an incisional biopsy or
core biopsy. When a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle in such a way that
cells are removed without preserving the histological architecture of the tissue cells, the
procedure is called a needle aspiration biopsy.

   
, Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the

subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain. In essence, the
brain "floats" in it. The CSF occupies the space between the arachnoid mater (the middle
layer of the brain cover, meninges), and the pia mater (the layer of the meninges closest to the
brain). It constitutes the content of all intra-cerebral (inside the brain, cerebrum) ventricles,
cisterns, and sulci (singular sulcus), as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. It acts as a
"cushion" or buffer for the cortex, providing a basic mechanical and immunological
protection to the brain inside the skull.

M  is a consequence of chronic liver disease characterized by replacement of liver

tissue by fibrosis, scar tissue and regenerative nodules (lumps that occur as a result of a
process in which damaged tissue is regenerated), leading to progressive loss of liver function.
Cirrhosis is most commonly caused by alcoholism, hepatitis B and C, and fatty liver disease
but has many other possible causes. Some cases are idiopathic, i.e., of unknown cause.

2 M is the medical term for the symptom of difficulty in swallowing. It derives from
the Greek root dys meaning difficulty or disordered, and phagia meaning "to eat". It is a
sensation that suggests difficulty in the passage of solids or liquids from the mouth to the
stomach. Dysphagia is distinguished from other symptoms including odynophagia, which is
defined as painful swallowing, and globus, which is the sensation of a lump in the throat. A
psychogenic dysphagia is known as phagophobia.


 is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and
serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and
preventive medicine. It is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research,
and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for disease and
determining optimal treatment approaches to clinical practice. In the study of communicable
and non-communicable diseases, the work of epidemiologists ranges from outbreak
investigation to study design, data collection and analysis including the development of
statistical models to test hypotheses. Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in
a population, a condition known as a syndemic.

In epidemiology, an infection is said to be


 (from Greek en- in or within + demos
people) in a population when that infection is maintained in the population without the need
for external inputs. For example, chickenpox is endemic (steady state) in the UK, but malaria
is not. Every year, there are a few cases of malaria acquired in the UK, but these do not lead
to sustained transmission in the population due to the lack of a suitable vector (mosquitoes of
the genus Anopheles). For an infection to be endemic in a population, each person who
becomes infected with the disease must pass it on to one other person on average.

In epidemiology, an 
 occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human
population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is "expected," based on
recent experience (the number of new cases in the population during a specified period of
time is called the "incidence rate"). In recent usages, the disease is not required to be
communicable; examples include cancer or heart disease. Another example includes the
infamous Black Plague of the Middle Ages.

A 

 (from Greek ʌ Ȟ pan "all" + į ȝȠȢ demos "people") is an epidemic of
infectious disease that is spreading through human populations across a large region; for
instance a continent, or even worldwide. A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms
of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic. Further, flu pandemics
exclude seasonal flu, unless the flu of the season is a pandemic. Throughout history there
have been a number of pandemics, such as smallpox and tuberculosis. More recent
pandemics include the HIV pandemic and the 2009 flu pandemic.

 is the study of causation, or origination. The word is most commonly used in
medical and philosophical theories, where it is used to refer to the study of why things occur,
or even the reasons behind the way that things act, and is used in philosophy, physics,
psychology, government, medicine, theology and biology in reference to the causes of
various phenomena.

The term 
 refers to inadvertent adverse effects or complications caused by or

resulting from medical treatment or advice. In addition to harmful consequences of actions by
physicians, iatrogenesis can also refer to actions by other healthcare professionals, such as
psychologists, therapists, pharmacists, nurses, dentists, and others. Iatrogenesis is not
restricted to conventional medicine and can also result from complementary and alternative
medicine treatments. Some iatrogenic artifacts are clearly defined and easily recognized, such
as a complication following a surgical procedure. Some are less obvious and can require
significant investigation to identify, such as complex drug interactions. And, some conditions
have been described for which it is unknown, unproven or even controversial whether they be
iatrogenic or not; this has been encountered particularly with regard to various psychological
and chronic pain conditions. Research in these areas is ongoing. Causes of iatrogenesis
include chance, medical error, negligence, social control and the adverse effects or
interactions of prescription drugs.

In medicine, a 

 is a diagnostic and at times therapeutic procedure that is
performed in order to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for biochemical,
microbiological, and cytological analysis, or very rarely as a treatment ("therapeutic lumbar
puncture") to relieve increased intracranial pressure.

   is the premature death of cells and living tissue. Necrosis is caused by external
factors, such as infection, toxins or trauma. This is in contrast to   , which is a
naturally occurring cause of cellular death. While apoptosis often provides beneficial effects
to the organism, necrosis is almost always detrimental, and can be fatal. Cells which die due
to necrosis do not usually send the same chemical signals to the immune system that cells
undergoing apoptosis do. This prevents nearby phagocytes from locating and engulfing the
dead cells, leading to a build up of dead tissue and cell debris at or near the site of the cell
death. For this reason, it is often necessary to remove necrotic tissue surgically.

The 

 is formed by the fusion of the parts of the amniotic fold, which first
makes its appearance at the cephalic extremity, and subsequently at the caudal end and sides
of the embryo. As the amniotic fold rises and fuses over the dorsal aspect of the embryo, the
amniotic cavity is formed.



is an old process for sterilizing food. In the case of sterilization using
unpressurized heating to 100°C in boiling water, the heat will kill the bacterial cells but the
viability of bacterial spores may survive. In this latter case the Tyndallization process can be
used to destroy the spores. The process is named after its inventor, the 19th century scientist
John Tyndall. Tyndallization essentially consists of boiling the substance for 15 minutes for
three days in a row. On the second day most of the spores that survived the first day will have
germinated into bacterial cells. These cells will be killed by the second day's heating. The
third day kills bacterial cells from late-germinating spores. During the waiting periods over
the three days, the substance being sterilized is kept at a warm room temperature; i.e., a
temperature that is conducive to germination of the spores. Germination also requires a moist
environment. It is not often used today, but it has applications in sterilizing some things that
cannot withstand pressurized heating, such as gardener's seeds. It is not necessary to bring the
temperature all the way up to 100°C to kill bacterial cells

Patrick Wagener