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1. Composite:

A structural composite is a material system consisting two or more phases on a

macroscopic scale, whose mechanical performance and properties are designed to be
superior to those of the constituent materials acting independently. One of the phases is
usually discontinuous, stiffer and stronger and is called as reinforcement, whereas the
less stiff and weaker phase is continuous and is called matrix. ( Figure). Sometimes,
because of chemical interactions or other processing effects, an additional phase, called
interphase, exists between the reinforcement and the matrix.

1.1 Role of stiffer phase/reinforcement: (a) to take up the load (b) to provide the required
stiffness
1.2 Role of Matrix: (a) To distribute the load between the stiffer phase material/fibers. (b)
To protect the fibers against abrasion, environmental effects etc., (c) To hold the fibers
together (d) The matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fiber buckling
under compressive loading, thus influencing to a large extent the compressive strength
of the composite material. (e) Matrix separates the individual fibers that preventing the
crack growth from one fiber to the other fiber.

2 Classification of Composite Material System:

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2.1 Particle Reinforced Composites: These can be further classified under two
subgroups: (i) large particle and (ii) dispersion- strengthened composites. The distinction
between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism. The term large
indicate that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular level;
rather continum mechanics is used. The particulate phase for most of these composites is
harder and stiffer than the matrix. In the vicinity of each particle, these reinforcing particles
tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase. Obviously, the matrix transfers some of the
applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. We may note that the
degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong
bonding at the matrix particle interface. Concrete is familiar example of large-particle
composite. Concrete is composed of cement (the matrix), and sand and gravel (the
particulates). Large-particle composites are utilized with all three material types, i.e.
metals, polymers and ceramics. Examples of ceramic-metal composite are cermets.
Cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles of a refractory carbide
ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of
a metal such as cobalt or nickel is the most common cermet. These composites are widely
used as cutting tools for hardened steels. The hard particles provide the cutting surface but,
being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding the cutting stresses.
Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile matrix that isolates the carbide
particles from one another and prevents particle to particle crack propagation.

Particles for dispersion-strengthened composites are normally much smaller (diameter

between 0.01 and 0.1 _m). Particle-matrix interactions occur on the atomic or molecular
level and lead to strengthening. We may note that the mechanism of strengthening is
similar to that for precipitation. The matrix bears the major portion of an applied load,
where as the small dispersed particle hinder or impede the motion of dislocations.
Obviously, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as
hardness improve. This type of composite contains small particulates or dispersions, which
increase the strength of the composite by blocking the movement of dislocations. The
dispersed is typically a stable oxide of the original material. A common example is sintered
aluminium powder (SAP). SAP has an aluminium matrix, which contains up to 14%
aluminium oxide (Al2O3). This composite is produced with the powder metallurgy
process, where the powders are mixed, compacted at high pressures, and sintered together.
Sintering involves heating a material until the particles of the material fuse together. Only
the edges of the particles are generally bonded together; the whole particle does not melt.
In terms of sintered ceramics, the product is a strong, rigid, brittle product that exhibit good
compressive strength, high melting points, and good heat resistance. Examples of
dispersion-strengthened composites include AgCdO, used as an electrical contact
material, PbPbO, used in battery plates, and BeBeO, used in nuclear reactor and
aerospace components.

2.2 Fiber reinforced composites: These are strong fibres imbedded in a softer matrix to
produce products with high strength-to-weight ratios. The matrix material transmits the
load to fibres, which absorb the stress. Under an applied stress, fibre matrix bond ceases at
the fibre ends, yielding a matrix deformation pattern (Fig. 18.3). In order to have effective
strengthening and stiffening of the composite material, some critical fibre length is
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essential. This critical length lc is dependent on the fibre diameter d and its ultimate (or
tensile) strength f , and on the fibre-matrix bond strength (or the shear yield strength of the
matrix, whichever is smaller) c according to the following relation

The critical length, lc is on the order of 1 mm for a number of glass and carbon fibre-matrix
combinations and ranges between 20 and 150 times the fibre diameter. Obviously, the
strength of these composites comes from the bonding between the reinforcement fibres and
the matrix. The length-to-diameter, or aspect, ratio of the fibres used as reinforcement
influences the properties of the composite. The higher the aspect ratio, the stronger the
composite. Therefore, long, continuous fibres are better than short ones for composite
construction. However, continuous fibres are more difficult to produce and place in the
matrix. Shorter fibres are easier to place in the matrix but offer poor reinforcement. Some
trade-off is made when shorter, discontinuous fibres are used with aspect ratios greater than
a specified minimum value. The greater the number of fibres, the stronger the composite.
This holds true up to about 80% of the volume of the composite, where the matrix can no
longer completely surround the fibres. Fibres for which l >> lc (normally l > 15 lc) are
called continuous, whereas fibres which have lengths shorter than this are termed
discontinuous. The matrix deforms around the discontinuous fibre having length less than
lc, such that there is virtually no stress transference and little reinforcement by the fibre.
These are essentially the particulate composites as discussed earlier. In order to affect a
significant improvement in strength of the composite, the fibres must be continuous.

The arrangement or orientation of the fibres, relative to each other, the fibre concentration,
and distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of

fibre-reinforced composites. There are two possible extremes with respect to orientation: (i)
a parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibres in the single direction, and (ii) a
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totally random alignment. Continuous fibres are normally aligned as shown in Fig. (a),
discontinuous fibres may be aligned shown in Fig. (b) and randomly oriented, as or
partially oriented as shown in Fig. (c). One can realize overall better composite properties
when fibre distribution is uniform.

2.3 Structural Composites: Laminate: When multidirectional stresses are imposed within
a single plane, aligned layers that are fastened together one on top of another at different
orientations are frequently utilized. These are called laminar composites. These are
generally designed to provide high strength and low cost at a lighter weight. A familiar
laminar composite is plywood, where the veneers are joined by adhesives, typically
phenolic or amine resins. The individual odd number of piles are staked so that the grain in
each layer runs perpendicular to that of the layers above and below it. This technique offers
plywood that is strong and yet cheaper. Safety glass is a laminated structure, where an
adhesive such as polyvinyl butyl is used between two outer layers of glass to keep the glass
from flying when broken. Formica is another common laminate used for countertops.
Laminates require two or more layers be bonded together. Laminations may also be
constructed using fabric material such as cotton, paper, or woven glass fibres embedded in
a plastic matrix. Obviously, a laminar composite has relatively high strength in a number of
directions in the two-dimensional plane; however, the strength in any given direction is, of
course, lower than it would be if all the fibres were oriented in that direction. Modern ski is
one example of a relatively complex laminated structure.

2.4 Sandwhich panels: These have thin layers of facing materials over a low density
material, or combcore, such as a polymer foam or expanded metal structure. A familiar
sandwich-structured composite is corrugated cardboard. The corrugated paper core is
covered by two faces of thin paper. In structures of this type, the facing material serves to
fix the inner core in place. The core provides the strength. Typical face materials include
aluminium alloys, fibre-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel and plywood. Structurally, the
core serves two purposes: (i) it separates the faces and resists deformations perpendicular to
face plane, and (ii) it provides a certain degree of sheer rigidity along planes that are
perpendicular to the faces. Foamed polymers, synthetic rubbers, inorganic cements, balsa
wood, etc. are used for cores. Core has lower stiffness and lower strength.
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3 Natural and man made composites:

3.1 Natural Composites: woods, bones, stones, etc. are natural composites, as they are
either grown in nature or developed by natural processes .Wood is a fibrous material
consisting of thread-like hollow elongated organic cellulose that normally constitutes
about 60-70% of wood of which approximately 30-40% is crystalline, insoluble in
water, and the rest is amorphous and soluble in water. Cellulose fibers are flexible but
possess high strength. The more closely packed cellulose provides higher density and
higher strength. The walls of these hollow elongated cells are the primary load-bearing
components of trees and plants. Bones contain short and soft collagen fibers i.e.,
inorganic calcium carbonate fibers dispersed in a mineral matrix called apatite. The
fibers usually grow and get oriented in the direction of load. Tooth is a special type of
bone consisting of a flexible core and the hard enamel surface. The most remarkable
features of woods and bones are that the low density, strong and stiff fibers are
embedded in a low density matrix resulting in a strong, stiff and lightweight composite.

3.2 Man made composites: Modern day needs require many special properties for the
materials that are not provided by the conventional materials. Various artificial
composites are made by combining different type of materials. These are carbon-carbon
composites; Glass fiber reinforced polymer composites; Metal matrix composites etc.,
catering to the demands like high stiffness, lower thermal expansion, light weight
requirement, good thermal stability etc., These are being extensively used in the
application like aero-space, automobiles and domestic equipment. Newer materials are
under development.

4 Composites Vs Convention materials

(a) Composite characterization requires a comprehensive test program for determination
of a large number (more than 10) of basic material parameters. In the case of
conventional materials, mechanical characterization is simple, as only two elastic
constants and two strength values are sufficient.
(b) Design and optimization: Composites components design and optimization is a
concurrent process due to the number of degrees of freedom available. However the
process is more involved and more complex. In the case of conventional materials,
optimization is limited due to the few degrees of freedom available, usually one or two
geometric parameters.
(c) Fabrication: Number of parts to be assembled and the number of required joints can be
reduced in the composite manufacture. Relatively simple tooling is enough for the
composite manufacturing. On the negative side, composite fabrication is still
dependent on skilled hand labor with limited automation and standardization. This
requires more stringent and extensive quality control procedures. In the case of
conventional materials, material fabrication and structure fabrication are two separate
processes. Structures usually necessitate complex tooling and elaborate assembly with
multiple joints.
(d) Maintainability, serviceability and durability: Composites can operate in hostile
environments for long periods of time. They have long fatigue lives and are easily
maintainable and repaired. However, they suffer from sensitivity to hygrothermal
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environments. Service induced damage growth may be internal, requiring

sophisticated, nondestructive techniques for its detection and monitoring. Sometimes it
is necessary to apply protective coatings against erosion, surface damage, and
lightning strike. Conventional materials, usually metals, are susceptible to corrosion in
hostile environments. Discrete flaws and cracks may be induced in service and may
grow and propogate to catastrophic failures. Although detection of these defects may
be easier, repair of conventional materials is not simple.
(e) Cost Effectiveness: One of the important advantages of the composites is the reduction
in acquisition and/or life time costs. This is affected through weight savings, lower
tolling costs, reduced number of parts, and fewer assembly operations. This may be
offset by the high cost of raw materials, fibers , pre-preg and auxiliary materials used
in the fabrication and assembly with composite materials. In the case of conventional
structural materials, the low cost of raw materials is offset by the high cost of tooling,
machining and assembly.
(f) Stress analysis is complex in composites. Simple in conventional materials.
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5 Types of Fibers:
5.1 Glass Fibers:

Fiberglass is produced by pulling molten glass through orifices at a temperature where the
glass has just the right amount of viscosity. A schematic of one of two common glass
manufacturing process is shown in Fig. This process is starting with solid glass beads
(marbles) that are remelted and metered into a drawing box, the bottom of which contains
holes lined with platinum bushings. From three hundred to three thousand such bushings,
which act to meter out the right amount of glass, may be used. The fibers are formed into
continuous filaments by high-speed precision winders (Draw Rolls). Various size fibers,
from 10 nm to 40 nm, can be formed from the same bushing diameter by changing the
speed of the drawing roll. A chemical treatment, usually referred to as "sizing" or "binder,"
is applied to the filaments during the winding process to coat the filaments and reduce
filament breakage during subsequent processing steps. These basic fiber glass strands (each
strand is composed of filaments) are then twisted to achieve a product which meets the
requirements for further processing. Single yarns can then be converted to plied yarns by
twisting two or more singles together in a second twisting operation.

Three types of glass fibers are possible. (A) S glass: high strength, high cost (b) E Glass:
Economy. Good electrical insulation. But cheap. (c) C glass: Suitable for chemical
applications because of good chemical resistance.

Properties of Glass fibers: (1) low cost (2) good tensile strength (3) high chemical
resistance (4) excellent insulation properties. (5) isotropic (6) good heat and fire resistance
(7) low thermal conductivity (8) low thermal expansion Disadvantages: (1) low tensile
modulus (2) high specific gravity (3) sensitivity to abrasion while handling (4) low fatigue
resistance (5) high hardness which causes excessive wear on molding dies and cutting
tools.

5.2 Carbon Fibers: Carbon fibers are used in advanced structural composites for
aerospace and sporting goods industries. They are characterized by very high stiffness and
low density, low specific gravity, high tensile strength/weight. Some carbon fibers have a
stiffness that are ten times and densities that are one half that of glass fibers. Although
many carbon fibers have high tensile modulus/weight, have high strength, they are
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generally not as strong as glass fibers or aramid (Kevlar) fibers. The thermal properties of
carbon fibers are outstanding. If they can be protected from oxidation above 1000C they
are stable to 2000C. Above that temperature they will thermally decompose. Over a more
modest temperature range, carbon fibers exhibits very low coefficients of thermal
expansion; even negative thermal expansion in some cases. This characteristic allows the
composite designer to achieve near zero expansion to temperatures as high as 300C in
critical structures such as spacecraft antennae. Carbon fibers are chemically inert and not
susceptible to corrosion or oxidation at temperatures below 1000C. Unlike glass fibers,
carbon fibers have very high fatigue strength that is transmitted to their composites. Carbon
fibers are electrically conducting, which is quite advantageous to the aircraft designer who
must be concerned with the ability of an aircraft to tolerate lightning strikes. However, this
characteristic posses a severe challenge to the carbon textile manufacturer because of the
tendency of conducting weaving debris to interfere with electrical equipment. There are a
few other drawbacks to carbon fibers especially in comparison to glass fibers. The primary
drawback is their cost. The lowest cost carbon fibers are twice as expensive as S-glass but
some grades can be 100 times more expensive than E-glass. This high cost has excluded
carbon fibers from many mass-market applications, such as the automotive market. They
have found greatest use in areas where cost is not the primary consideration: military
aircraft, spacecraft and sporting goods. Carbon fibers are quite anisotropic. Their strength
and stiffness can be ten to 100 times greater in the fiber direction than in the transverse
direction. Carbon fibers are actually composed of graphite and non-graphitic carbonaceous
material. The graphitic phase present in the form of crystallites with discrete dimensions
that can be oriented differently from each other. The very high stiffness carbon fibers
contain a large portion of graphite aligned in the fiber direction.

Today there are two basic methods for manufacturing carbon fibers based on the starting
material or precursor. The most extensively used method is the conversion of
polyacrylonile (PAN) to carbon and then to graphite. The conversion of PAN to the various
grades of carbon fibers is shown diagrammatically in Fig. Carbon fibers are processed in a
continuous line in which acrylic fibers are introduced as the starting material and emerge as
carbon yarn. In the first step of this process the PAN fibers are heated to 200C to 300C in
air for 1 to 2 hours while the fibers are in tension. Sufficient tension is used to unfold the
tightly folded chain molecules. The oxidizing environment causes the unfolded chains to
cross-link with oxygen molecules replacing a hydrogen molecules on adjacent chains.
Excess oxygen carries the hydrogen away as water vapor. This intermediate product of
cross-linked PAN is heat resistant and often used as a low cost fiber in heat resistant
clothing under the trade name CELIOX. The fibers are then heated in nitrogen
atmosphere at 1200C-1500C for 30 to 60 seconds. This heat treatment is referred to as
the carbonization step and converts the cross-linked structure to the carbon ring structure.
During this step excess water and hydrogen cyanide are evolved. The crystal structure is
very small resulting in rather high strength. The fiber weighs on 50% of the original PAN
fiber at this stage. This is the fiber form that is marketed as a low cost, moderate strength
carbon fiber. The stiffness of this product is 200 GPa, which is a minimum for carbon
fibers. In order to achieve higher strength and higher stiffness additional high temperature
heat treatment is required. This third stage of processing is called the graphitization
treatment. The carbon fiber strands are heated in nitrogen/argon mixtures for 15 to 20
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seconds at 2000C to 3000C. This treatment completes the conversion of remaining

carbonaceous material to graphite. The graphite tends to align the basal planes in the
direction of the fiber. During the process, however, the crystallite size can increase. The
increase in graphite content results in increased stiffness while the increase crystallite size
will lower the strength.

5.3 Aramid Fibers: Aramid fibers are highly crystalline aromatic polyamide fibers that
have the lowest density and the highest tensile strength-to-weight ratio among the current
reinforcing fibers. Kevlar 49 is the trade name of one of the aramid fibers available in the
market. As a reinforcement, aramid fibers are used in many marine and aerospace
applications where lightweight, high tensile strength, and resistance to impact damage (e.g.,
caused by accidentally dropping a hand tool) are important. Like carbon fibers, they also
have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the longitudinal direction, which is
used in designing low thermal expansion composite panels. The major disadvantages of
aramid fiber-reinforced composites are their low compressive strengths and difficulty in
cutting or machining. Kevlar 49 fibers exhbit a high degree of yielding on the compressive
side, so used in light weight body armor and helmets used for protecting.

One of the more serious limitations of aramid fibers is their degradation upon exposure to
ultra-violet light. This degradation, however, only occurs in the presence of oxygen. These
fibers also absorb water, coating are required to protect them from ultra-violet light, oxygen
and moisture to assure reliable performance over long periods of time. Because the
hydrogen bonds are much weaker than the molecular bond along the length of the fiber
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aramid fibers have poor transverse tensile strength, compressive strength and shear
strength.

5.4 Boron Fibers: The most prominent feature of boron fibers is their extremely high
tensile modulus, which is in the range of 379414 GPa. Coupled with their relatively large
diameter, boron fibers offer excellent resistance to buckling, which in turn contributes to
high compressive strength for boron fiber-reinforced composites. The principal
disadvantage of boron fibers is their high cost, which is even higher than that of many
forms of carbon fibers. For this reason, its use is at present restricted to a few aerospace
applications.

5.5 Ceramic Fibers: Silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) fibers are
examples of ceramic fibers notable for their high-temperature applications in metal and
ceramic matrix composites. Their melting points are 2830C and 2045C, respectively.
Silicon carbide retains its strength well above 650C, and aluminum oxide has excellent
strength retention up to about 1370C. Both fibers are suitable for reinforcing metal matrices
in which carbon and boron fibers exhibit adverse reactivity. Aluminum oxide fibers have
lower thermal and electrical conductivities and have higher coefficient of thermal
expansion than silicon carbide fibers.

6 Types of Matrices
6.1 Polymers: Polymers are divided into two broad categories: thermoplastics and
thermosets . In a thermoplastic polymer, individual molecules are not chemically joined to
gether. They are held in place by weak secondary bonds or intermolecular forces, such as
van-der-Waals bonds and hydrogen bonds. With the application of heat, these secondary
bonds in a solid thermoplastic polymer can be temporarily broken and the molecules can
now be moved relative to each other or flow to a new configuration if pressure is applied
on them. On cooling, the molecules can be frozen in their new configuration and the
secondary bonds are restored, resulting in a new solid shape. Thus, a thermoplastic polymer
can be heat-softened, melted, and reshaped (or post-formed) as many times as desired. In a
thermoset polymer, on the other hand, the molecules are chemically joined together by
cross-links, forming a rigid, three-dimensional network structure (Figure b). Once these
cross-links are formed during the polymerization reaction (also called the curing reaction),
the thermoset polymer cannot be melted by the application of heat. However, if the number
of cross links is low, it may still be possible to soften them at elevated temperatures.
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Selection of Matrix: Thermosets vs. Thermoplastics

The primary consideration in the selection of a matrix is its basic mechanical properties.
For high-performance composites, the most desirable mechanical properties of a matrix are
1. High tensile modulus, which influences the compressive strength of the composite 2.
High tensile strength, which controls the intraply cracking in a composite laminate 3. High
fracture toughness, which controls ply delamination and crack growth. For a polymer
matrix composite, there may be other considerations, such as good dimensional stability at
elevated temperatures and resistance to moisture or solvents. The former usually means that
the polymer must have a high glass transition temperature Tg. In practice, the glass
transition temperature should be higher than the maximum use temperature. Resistance to
moisture and solvent means that the polymer should not dissolve, swell, crack (craze), or
otherwise degrade in hotwet environments or when exposed to solvents. Some common
solvents in aircraft applications are jet fuels, deicing fluids, and paint strippers. Similarly,
gasoline, motor oil, and antifreeze are common solvents in the automotive environment.
Traditionally, thermoset polymers (also called resins) have been used as a matrix material
for fiber-reinforced composites. The starting materials used in the polymerization of a
thermoset polymer are usually low-molecular-weight liquid chemicals with very low
viscosities. Fibers are either pulled through or immersed in these chemicals before the
polymerization reaction begins. Since the viscosity of the polymer at the time of fiber
incorporation is very low, it is possible to achieve a good wet-out between the fibers and
the matrix without the aid of either high temperature or pressure. Fiber surface wetting is
extremely important in achieving fibermatrix interaction in the composite, an essential
requirement for good mechanical performance.

Thermosets: resins and epoxies: Epoxies( Principally used in aerospace & aircraft
applications). Polyster and Vinyl Esters( Commercially used in automotive, marine,
chemical and electrical applications). Phenolics (used in bulk moulding compounds).
Polymids (high temp aerospace applications).

Advantages: (1) a good wet between the fibers and matrix without the aid of high temp and
pressure. (2) good thermal stability (3) good chemical resistance (4) less creep and
relaxation than thermoplasts.
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Dis adv.: (1) limited storage life (before final shape is molded) at room temp. (2) long
fabrication time on the mold (where polymerization reaction is carried out to completion
and a solid part is obtained (3) low strain to failure (4) low impact strength.

Thermoplastics: Nylons(used with discontinuous fibers in injection molded articles)

Polymides (High temperature applications with continuous fibers)

Advantages: (1) High impact strength (2) high fracture resistance (3) higher strains to
failure, which provides a better resistance to matrix microcracking to the composite
laminate (4) unlimited storage life at room temp. (5) short fabrication time (6) post
formability (7) ease of repair (8) ease of handling (no tacking)

Disadv: (1) high melt of solution viscosities, making incorporation of continuous fibers into
thermoplastic materials is difficult (2) low creep resistance and thermal stability.

6.2 Metal Matrix: Metal matrix has the advantage over polymeric matrix in applications
requiring a long-term resistance to severe environments, such as high temperature. The
yield strength and modulus of most metals are higher than those for polymers, and this is an
important consideration for applications requiring high transverse strength and modulus as
well as compressive strength for the composite. Another advantage of using metals is that
they can be plastically deformed and strengthened by a variety of thermal and mechanical
treatments. However, metals have a number of disadvantages, namely, they have high
densities, high melting points (therefore, high process temperatures), and a tendency
toward corrosion at the fibermatrix interface. The two most commonly used metal
matrices are based on aluminum and titanium. Both of these metals have comparatively
low densities and are available in a variety of alloy forms. Although magnesium is even
lighter, its great affinity toward oxygen promotes atmospheric corrosion and makes it less
suitable for many applications. Beryllium is the lightest of all structural metals and has a
tensile modulus higher than that of steel. However, it suffers from extreme brittleness,
which is the reason for its exclusion as a potential matrix material. Nickel- and cobalt-
based superalloys have also been used as matrix; however, the alloying elements in these
materials tend to accentuate the oxidation of fibers at elevated temperatures. Aluminum and
its alloys have attracted the most attention as matrix material in metal matrix composites.
Commercially, pure aluminum has been used for its good corrosion resistance. Aluminum
alloys, such as 201, 6061, and 1100, have been used for their higher tensile strengthweight
ratios. Carbon fiber is used with aluminum alloys; however, at typical fabrication
temperatures of 500C or higher, carbon reacts with aluminum to form aluminum carbide
(Al4C3), which severely degrades the mechanical properties of the composite. Protective
coatings of either titanium boride (TiB2) or sodium has been used on carbon fibers to
reduce the problem of fiber degradation as well as to improve their wetting with the
aluminum alloy matrix. Carbon fiber-reinforced aluminum composites are inherently prone
to galvanic corrosion, in which carbon fibers act as a cathode owing to a corrosion potential
of 1 V higher than that of aluminum. A more common reinforcement for aluminum alloys
is SiC. Titanium alloys that are most useful in metal matrix composites are a, b alloys (e.g.,
Ti-6Al-9V) and metastable b-alloys (e.g., Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al). These titanium alloys have
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higher tensile strengthweight ratios as well as better strength retentions at 4000C5000C

over those of aluminum alloys. The thermal expansion coefficient of titanium alloys is
closer to that of reinforcing fibers, which reduces the thermal mismatch between them. One
of the problems with titanium alloys is their high reactivity with boron and Al2O3 fibers at
normal fabrication temperatures. Borsic (boron fibers coated with silicon carbide) and
silicon carbide (SiC) fibers show less reactivity with titanium. Improved tensile strength
retention is obtained by coating boron and SiC fibers with carbon-rich layers.

Advantages: (1) long term resistance to severe environments (2) yield strength and
modulus is higher (3) can be plastically deformed (4) strengthened by a variety of thermal
and mechanical treatments
Disadvantages: (1) high specific gravities (2) high melting points (3) tendency towards
corrosion at the fiber and matrix interphase.

6.3 Ceramic Matrx: Ceramics are known for their high temperature stability, high
thermal shock resistance, high modulus, high hardness, high corrosion resistance, and low
density. However, they are brittle materials and possess low resistance to crack
propagation, which is manifested in their low fracture toughness. The primary reason for
reinforcing a ceramic matrix is to increase its fracture toughness. Structural ceramics used
as matrix materials can be categorized as either oxides or monoxides. Alumina and mullite
are the two most commonly used oxide ceramics. They are known for their thermal and
chemical stability. The common monoxide ceramics are silicon carbide (SiC), silicon
nitride (Si3N 4), boron carbide (B 4C), and aluminum nitride (Al N). Of these, SiC has
found wider applications, particularly where high modulus is desired. It also has an
excellent high temperature resistance. Silicon nitride is considered for applications
requiring high strength and aluminum nitride is of interest because of its high thermal
conductivity. The reinforcements used in ceramic matrix composites are silicon carbide,
silicon nitride and aluminum nitride, and other ceramic fibers. Of these, SiC has been the
most commonly used reinforcement because of its thermal stability and compatibility with
a broad range of both oxide and monoxide ceramic matrices. The forms in which the
reinforcement is used in ceramic matrix composites include whiskers (with length to
diameter ratio as high as 500), platelets, particulates, and both monofilament and
multifilament continuous fibers.

7 Types of Composites:
7.1 GFRP: Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or
discontinuous, contained within a polymer matrix; this type of composite is produced in the
largest quantities. There are several limitations to this group of materials. In spite of having
high strengths, they are not very stiff and do not display the rigidity that is necessary for
some applications (e.g., as structural members for airplanes and bridges). Most fiberglass
materials are limited to service temperatures below 200C (400F); at higher temperatures,
most polymers begin to flow or to deteriorate. Service temperatures may be extended to
approximately 300C (575F) by using high-purity fused silica for the fibers and high-
temperature polymers such as the polyimide resins. Many fiberglass applications are
familiar: automotive and marine bodies, plastic pipes, storage containers, and industrial
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floorings. The transportation industries are utilizing increasing amounts of glass fiber-
reinforced plastics in an effort to decrease vehicle weight and boost fuel efficiencies. A host
of new applications are being used or currently investigated by the automotive industry.

7.2 CFRP: Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are currently being utilized extensively
in sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs), filament-wound rocket
motor cases, pressure vessels, and aircraft structural components; both military and
commercial, fixed wing and helicopters (e.g., as wing, body, stabilizer, and rudder
components).

7.3 Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites: The aramid fibers are most often
used in composites having polymer matrices; common matrix materials are the epoxies and
polyesters. Since the fibers are relatively flexible and somewhat ductile, they may be
processed by most common textile operations. Typical applications of these aramid
composites are in ballistic products (bullet-proof vests), sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile
cases, pressure vessels, and as a replacement for asbestos in automotive brake and clutch
linings, and gaskets.

7.4 Metal Matrix Composites: As the name implies, for metal-matrix composites
(MMCs), the matrix is a ductile metal. These materials may be utilized at higher service
temperatures than their base metal counterparts; furthermore, the reinforcement may
improve specific stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, thermal
conductivity, and dimensional stability. Some of the advantages of these materials over the
polymer matrix composites include higher operating temperatures, nonflammability, and
greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids. Metal-matrix composites are much
more expensive than PMCs, and, therefore, their (MMC) use is somewhat restricted. The
superalloys, as well as alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and copper, are employed
as matrix materials. The reinforcement may be in the form of particulates, both continuous
and discontinuous fibers, and whiskers; concentrations.

7.5 Ceramic Matrix Composites: As discussed in Chapter 13, ceramic materials are
inherently resilient to oxidation and deterioration at elevated temperatures; were it not for
their disposition to brittle fracture, some of these materials would be ideal candidates for
use in high temperature and severe-stress applications, specifically for components in
automobile and aircraft gas turbine engines.

7.6 Carbon Carbon Composites: One of the most advanced and promising engineering
material is the carbon fiber reinforced carbon-matrix composite, often termed a carbon
carbon composite; as the name implies, both reinforcement and matrix are carbon. These
materials are relatively new and expensive and, therefore, are not currently being utilized
extensively. Their desirable properties include high-tensile moduli and tensile strengths that
are retained to temperatures in excess of 2000C (3630F), resistance to creep, and relatively
large fracture toughness values. Furthermore, carbon carbon composites have low
coefficients of thermal expansion and relatively high thermal conductivities; these
characteristics, coupled with high strengths, give rise to a relatively low susceptibility to
thermal shock. Their major drawback is a propensity to high-temperature oxidation. The
 15

carboncarbon composites are employed in rocket motors, as friction materials in aircraft

and high-performance automobiles, for hot-pressing molds, in components for advanced
turbine engines, and as ablative shields for re-entry vehicles.

7.7 Hybrid Composites: A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the hybrid, which
is obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix; hybrids have a
better all-around combination of properties than composites containing only a single fiber
type. A variety of fiber combinations and matrix materials are used, but in the most
common system, both carbon and glass fibers are incorporated into a polymeric resin. The
carbon fibers are strong and relatively stiff and provide a low-density reinforcement;
however, they are expensive. Glass fibers are inexpensive and lack the stiffness of carbon.
The glasscarbon hybrid is stronger and tougher, has a higher impact resistance, and may
be produced at a lower cost than either of the comparable all-carbon or all-glass reinforced
plastics.

8 Definitions:
8.1 Anisotropic, orthotropic and isotropic material: A material is isotropic when its
properties are same in all directions or are independent of the orientation of reference axis.
A material is anisotropic when its properties at a point vary with the direction or dependent
on the orientation of the reference axis. If the properties of the material along any direction
are the same as those along a symmetric direction with respect to that plane, then that plane
is defined as the plane of symmetry. A material may have zero, one, two, three or an
infinite number of planes of symmetry through a point. A material without any plane of
symmetry is called generally anisotropic. At the other end, an isotropic material has infinite
number of planes of symmetry. The material having three mutually perpendicular planes of
symmetry is called as the orthotropic material. The intersection of these planes is called as
the principle axis.
 16

Fiber-reinforced composites, in general, contain three orthogonal planes of material

property symmetry, namely, the 12, 23, and 13 plane shown in Figure ( ), and are
classified as orthotropic materials. The intersections of these three planes of symmetry,
namely, axes 1, 2, and 3, are called the principal material directions. Differences in the
mechanical behavior of isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic materials are demonstrated
schematically in Figure ( ).

Tensile normal stresses applied in any direction on an isotropic material cause elongation in
the direction of the applied stresses and contractions in the two transverse directions. No
shear deformation will be produced. Under pure shear loading , the material under goes a
pure shear deformation i.e., a square element deforms into a diamond shaped one with
equal and unchanged lengths. And also as indicated below the shear modulus is not an
independent constant, but is related to youngs modulus and poisons ratio.

Similar behavior is observed in orthotropic materials only if the normal stresses are applied
in one of the principal material directions. However, normal stresses applied in any other
direction create both extensional and shear deformations. Under pure shear loading along
the principle material axis, the material undergoes pure shear deformation. i.e a square
element deforms into a diamond shaped one with unchanged side lengths. Here the shear
modulus is independent material constant and not related to the youngs modulus or poisons
ratio. Normal loading does not produce shear strain and pure shear loading does not
produce normal strains.

In an anisotropic material, a combination of extensional and shear deformation is produced

by a normal stress acting in any direction. This phenomenon of creating both extensional
and shear deformations by the application of either normal or shear stresses is termed
extension-shear coupling and is not observed in isotropic materials.
 17

8.2 Homogeneity and heterogeneity: A material is called homogeneous if its properties are
the same at every point or are independent of location. The concept of homogenenuity is
associated with a scale or characteristic volume and the definition of properties involved.A
material is heterogeneous or inhomogeneous if its properties vary from point to point or
dependent on location. However this also depends on the scale of the sample involved.

8.3 Microscopic analysis and Macroscopic analysis: Microscopic analysis is called as the
micromechanics and is the study of the interactions at the level of constituents. It deals with
the terms like matrix failure, fiber failure etc. Macro-mechanics deals with the level of
lamina considering it as a quasi homogeneous anisotropic material with its own average
stiffness and material properties.

8.4 Specific modulus: ratio between the Youngs modulus (E) and the density () of the
material.

8.5 Specific strength: is defined as the ratio between the strength ULT and the density of
the material ().

9 Necessity of composite:
Most metals are superior with regard to stiffness and hygroscopic sensitivity, but they have
high density and are subjected to chemical corrosion. Ceramics in bulk for have low tensile
strength and toughness, but good thermal stability, high hardness, low creep and high
corrosion resistance. Ceramics in fibers form behave very differently from those in bulk
form and have some unique advantages. They rank highest with regard to tensile strength,
stiffness, creep, thermal stability and corrosion resistance. The biggest advantage that
 18

polymers have is their low density. But they rank poorly with respect to stiffness, creep,
hardness, and dimensional stability and corrosion resistance. The observation above shows
that no single material possesses all the advantages for a given application and that it would
be highly desirable to combine materials in ways that utilize the best of each constituent in
a symmetric way. A good combination, for example, would be ceramic fibers in a
polymeric matrix.

10 HYBRID LAMINATES:
Hybrid composites contain more than one fiber or one matrix system in a laminate.
The main four types of hybrid laminates follow.
Interply hybrid laminates contain plies made of two or more different composite systems.
Examples include car bumpers made of glass/ epoxy layers to provide torsional rigidity and
graphite/epoxy to give stiffness. The combinations also lower the cost of the bumper.
Intraply hybrid composites consist of two or more different fibers used in the same ply.
Examples include golf clubs that use graphite and aramid fibers. Graphite fibers provide
the torsional rigidity and the aramid fibers provide tensile strength and toughness.
An interplyintraply hybrid consists of plies that have two or more different fibers in the
same ply and distinct composite systems in more than one ply.
Resin hybrid laminates combine two or more resins instead of combining two or more
fibers in a laminate. Generally, one resin is flexible and the other one is rigid. Tests have
proven that these resin hybrid laminates can increase shear and work of fracture properties
by more than 50% over those of all-flexible or all-rigid resins.

11 APPLICATIONS:
AIRCRAFT AND MILITARY APPLICATIONS: The major structural applications for
fiber-reinforced composites are in the field of military and commercial aircrafts, for which
weight reduction is critical for higher speeds and increased payloads. Ever since the
production application of boron fiber-reinforced epoxy skins for F-14 horizontal stabilizers
in 1969, the use of fiber-reinforced polymers has experienced a steady growth in the
aircraft industry. With the introduction of carbon fibers in the 1970s, carbon fiber-
reinforced epoxy has become the primary material in many wing, fuselage, and empennage
components. The structural integrity and durability of these early components have built up
confidence in their performance and prompted developments of other structural aircraft
components, resulting in an increasing amount of composites being used in military
aircrafts. For example, the airframe of AV-8B, a vertical and short take-off and landing
(VSTOL) aircraft introduced in 1982, contains nearly 25% by weight of carbon fiber-
reinforced epoxy. The F-22 fighter aircraft also contains ~25% by weight of carbon fiber-
reinforced polymers; the other major materials are titanium (39%) and aluminum (16%).
The outer skin of B-2 and other stealth aircrafts is almost all made of carbon fiber-
reinforced polymers. The stealth characteristics of these aircrafts are due to the use of
carbon fibers, special coatings, and other design features that reduce radar reflection and
heat radiation.
 19

Airbus was the first commercial aircraft manufacturer to make extensive use of
composites in their A310 aircraft, which was introduced in 1987. The composite
components weighed about 10% of the aircrafts weight and included such components as
the lower access panels and top panels of the wing leading edge, outer deflector doors, nose
wheel doors, main wheel leg fairing doors, engine cowling panels, elevators and fin box,
leading and trailing edges of fins, flap track fairings, flap access doors, rear and forward
wingbody fairings, pylon fairings , nose radome, cooling air inlet fairings, tail leading
edges, upper surface skin panels above the main wheel bay, glide slope antenna
 20

cover, and rudder. The composite vertical stabilizer, which is 8.3 m high by 7.8 m wide at
the base, is about 400 kg lighter than the aluminum vertical stabilizer previously used.

Airbus A 320

The Airbus A320, introduced in 1988, was the first commercial aircraft to use an all-
composite tail, which includes the tail cone, vertical stabilizer, and horizontal stabilizer.
Schematically shows the composite usage in Airbus A380 introduced in 2006. About 25%
of its weight is made of composites. Among the major composite components in A380 are
the central torsion box (which links the left and right wings under the fuselage), rear-
pressure bulkhead (a dome-shaped partition that separates the passenger cabin from the rear
part of the plane that is not pressurized), the tail, and the flight control surfaces, such as the
flaps, spoilers, and ailerons. Starting with Boeing 777, which was first introduced in 1995,
 21

Boeing has started making use of composites in the empennage (which include horizontal
stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, elevator, and rudder), most of the control surfaces, engine
cowlings, and fuselage floor beams. About 10% of Boeing 777s structural weight is made
of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy and about 50% is made of aluminum alloys. About 50%
of the structural weight of Boeings next line of airplanes, called the Boeing 787
dreamliner, will be made of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers.

Specific advantages of the composites in the air-craft structures:

1. Reduction in the number of components and fasteners, which results in a reduction of

fabrication and assembly costs. For example, the vertical fin assembly of the Lockheed L-
1011 has 72% fewer components and 83% fewer fasteners when it is made of carbon fiber-
reinforced epoxy than when it is made of aluminum. The total weight saving is 25.2%.

2. Higher fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance, which result in a reduction of

maintenance and repair costs. For example, metal fins used in helicopters flying near ocean
coasts use an 18 month repair cycle for patching corrosion pits. After a few years in
service, the patches can add enough weight to the fins to cause a shift in the center of
gravity of the helicopter, and therefore the fin must then be rebuilt or replaced. The carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy fins do not require any repair for corrosion, and therefore, the
rebuilding or replacement cost is eliminated.
 22

Figure of Vayoger plane that is made up of all composites and made the first world trip
without refueling.

3. The laminated construction used with fiber-reinforced polymers allows the possibility of
aeroelastically tailoring the stiffness of the airframe structure. For example, the airfoil
shape of an aircraft wing can be controlled by appropriately adjusting the fiber orientation
angle in each lamina and the stacking sequence to resist the varying lift and drag loads
along its span. This produces a more favorable airfoil shape and enhances the aerodynamic
characteristics critical to the aircrafts maneuverability.

The key limiting factors in using carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy in aircraft structures are
their high cost, relatively low impact damage tolerance (from bird strikes, tool drop, etc.),
and susceptibility to lightning damage. When they are used in contact with aluminum or
titanium, they can induce galvanic corrosion in the metal components.

SPACE APPLICATIONS: Weight reduction is the primary reason for using fiber-
reinforced composites in many space vehicles. Among the various applications in the
structure of space shuttles are the mid-fuselage truss structure (boron fiber-reinforced
aluminum tubes), payload bay door (sandwich laminate of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy
face sheets and aluminum honeycomb core), remote manipulator arm (ultrahigh-modulus
carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy tube), and pressure vessels (Kevlar 49 fiber-reinforced
epoxy). In addition to the large structural components, fiber-reinforced polymers are used
for support structures for many smaller components, such as solar arrays, antennas, optical
platforms, and so on. A major factor in selecting them for these applications is their
dimensional stability over a wide temperature range. Since the temperature in space may
vary between -100 C and 100 C, it is critically important that the support structure be
dimensionally stable; otherwise, large changes in the relative positions of mirrors or lenses
 23

due to either thermal expansion or distortion may cause problems in focusing the telescope.
However, one of the major concerns with epoxy-based composites in LEO satellites is that
they are susceptible to degradation due to atomic oxygen (AO) absorption from the earths
rarefied atmosphere. This problem is overcome by protecting the tubes from AO exposure,
for example, by wrapping them with thin aluminum foils.

AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS: Applications of fiber-reinforced composites in the

automotive industry can be classified into three groups: body components, chassis
components, and engine components. Exterior body components, such as the hood or door
panels, require high stiffness and damage tolerance (dent resistance) as well as a Class
A surface finish for appearance. The composite material used for these components is E-
glass fiber-reinforced sheet molding compound (SMC ) composites, in which discontinuous
glass fibers (typically 25 mm in length) are randomly dispersed in a polyester or a vinyl
ester resin. The application of fiber-reinforced composites in engine components has not
been as successful as the body and chassis components. Fatigue loads at very high
temperatures pose the greatest challenge in these applications. Development of high-
temperature polymers as well as metal matrix or ceramic matrix composites would greatly
enhance the potential for composite usage in this area. Manufacturing and design of fiber-
reinforced composite materials for automotive applications are significantly different from
those for aircraft applications. One obvious difference is in the volume of production,
which may range from 100 to 200 pieces per hour for automotive components compared
with a few hundred pieces per year for aircraft components. Although the labor intensive
hand layup followed by autoclave molding has worked well for fabricating aircraft
components, high-speed methods of fabrication, such as compression molding and SRIM,
have emerged as the principal manufacturing process for automotive composites. Epoxy
resin is the major polymer matrix used in aerospace composites; however, the curing time
for epoxy resin is very long, which means the production time for epoxy matrix composites
is also very long. For this reason, epoxy is not considered the primary matrix material in
auto motive composites. The polymer matrix used in automotive applications is polyester, a
vinyl ester, or polyurethane, all of which require significantly lower curing time than
epoxy. The high cost of carbon fibers has prevented their use in the cost-conscious
automotive industry. Instead of carbon fibers, E-glass fibers are used in automotive
composites because of their significantly lower cost. Even with E-glass fiber-reinforced
composites, the cost-effectiveness issue has remained particularly critical, since the basic
material of construction in present-day automobiles is low-carbon steel, which is much less
expensive than most fiber-reinforced composites on a unit weight basis. Fiber- reinforced
composites have become the material of choice in motor sports where lightweight structure
is used for gaining competitive advantage of higher speed and cost is not a major material
selection decision factor. The first major application of composites in race cars was in the
1950s when glass fiber-reinforced polyester was introduced as replacement for aluminum
body panels. Today, the composite material used in race cars is mostly carbon fiber -
reinforced epoxy.

SPORTING GOODS APPLICATIONS: Fiber- reinforced polymers are extensively used in

sporting goods ranging from tennis rackets to athletic shoes and are selected over such
traditional materials as wood, metals, and leather in many of these applications. The
 24

advantages of using fiber-reinforced polymers are weight reduction, vibration damping,

and de sign flexibility. W eight reduction achieved by substituting carbon fiber-reinforced
epoxies for metals leads to higher speeds and quick maneuvering in competitive sports,
such as bicycle races and canoe races. In some applications, such as tennis rackets or snow
skis, sandwich constructions of carbon or boron fiber-reinforced epoxies as the skin
material and soft, lighter weight urethane foam as the core material produces a higher
weight reduction without sacrificing stiffness. Faster damping of vibrations provided by
fiber-reinforced polymers reduces the shock transmitted to the players arm in tennis or
racket ball games and provides a better feel for the ball. In archery bows and pole-vault
poles, the high stiffnessweight ratio of fiber - reinforced composites is used to store high
elastic energy per unit weight, which helps in propelling the arrow over a longer distance or
the pole-vaulter to jump a greater height. Some of these applications are described later.

MARINE APPLICATIONS: Glass fiber-reinforced polyesters have been used in different

types of boats (e.g., sail boats, fishing boats, dinghies, life boats, and yachts) ever since
their introduction as a commercial material in the 1940s. Today, nearly 90% of all
recreational boats are constructed of either glass fiber-reinforced polyester or glass fiber-
reinforced vinyl ester resin. Among the applications are hulls, decks, and various interior
components. The manufacturing process used for making a majority of these components is
called contact molding. Even though it is a labor-intensive process, the equipment cost is
low, and therefore it is affordable to many of the small companies that build these boats.
Carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy is used in racing boats in which weight reduction is
extremely important for competitive advantage. In these boats, the complete hull, deck,
mast, keel, boom, and many other structural components are constructed using carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy laminates.

12 MANUFACTURING OF COMPOSITES:
12.1 Pre peg: These are thin sheets of fibers impregnated with predetermined amounts of
uniformly distributed polymer matrix. Fibers may be in the form of continuous rovings,
mat, or woven fabric. Epoxy is the primary matrix material in prepreg sheets, although
other thermoset and thermoplastic polymers have also been used. Unidirectional fiber-
reinforced epoxy prepregs are manufactured by pulling a row of uniformly spaced
(collimated) fibers through a resin bath containing catalyzed epoxy resin dissolved in an
appropriate solvent (Figure ( )). The solvent is used to control the viscosity of the liquid
resin. Fibers pre-impregnated with liquid resin are then passed through a chamber in which
heat is applied in a controlled manner to advance the curing reaction to the B-stage. At the
end of B-staging, the prepreg sheet is backed up with a release film or waxed paper and
wound around a take-up roll. The backup material is separated from the prepreg sheet just
before it is placed in the mold to manufacture the composite part. The normal shelf life
(storage time before molding) for epoxy prepregs is 68 days at 23 0 C; however, it can be
prolonged up to 6 months or more if stored at -18 0 C.
 25

12.2 Pultrusion: Pultrusion is a continuous molding process for producing long, straight
structural members of constant cross-sectional area. Among the common pultruded
products are solid rods, hollow tubes, flat sheets, and beams of a variety of cross sections,
including angles, channels, hat sections, and wide-flanged sections. Pultrusion processes
for producing variable cross sections along the length as well as curved members have also
been developed. Figure 5.21 is a schematic of a typical pultrusion line. Continuous strand
rovings and mats are pulled from one end of the line into a resin bath that contains liquid
resin, curing agent (initiator), and other ingredients, such as colorant, ultraviolet (UV)
stabilizer, and fire retardant. The viscosity of the liquid resin, residence time, and
mechanical action on the fibers (such as looping of fibers) in the resin bath are adjusted to
ensure a complete wet-out of fibers with the resin. Thermoplastic polyester surfacing veils
are added to the fiberresin stream just outside the resin bath to improve the surface
smoothness of the molded product. The fiberresin stream is pulled first through a series of
preformers and then through a long preheated die. The preformers distribute the fiber
bundles evenly, squeeze out the excess resin, and bring the material into its final
configuration. Final shaping, compaction, and curing take place in the die, which has a
gradually tapering section along its length. The entrance section of the die is usually water
cooled to prevent premature gelling, and the rest of the die is heated in a controlled manner
either by oil heaters or by electric heaters. Infrared heating has also been used to speed up
the curing process. A number of pulling rolls or blocks pull the cured pultruded member
out of the die. The die temperature, die length, and pulling speed are controlled to ensure
that the resin has cured completely before the pultruded member exits from the die. After
cooling with air or water, it is cut into desired lengths by a diamond impregnated saw at the
end of the line.

12.3 Filament Winding Process: In a filament-winding process, a band of continuous resin-

impregnated rovings or monofilaments is wrapped around a rotating mandrel and cured to
produce axisymmetric hollow parts. Among the applications of filament winding are
 26

automotive drive shafts, helicopter blades, oxygen tanks, pipelines, spherical pressure
vessels, conical rocket motor cases, and large underground gasoline storage tanks. The
filament-winding process is also used to manufacture prepreg sheets or continuous fiber-
reinforced sheet-molding compounds, such as XMC. The sheet is formed by slitting the
wound shape parallel to the mandrel axis. Figure ( ) shows the schematic of a basic
filament-winding process. A large number of fiber rovings are pulled from a series of creels
into a liquid resin bath containing liquid resin, catalyst, and other ingredients, such as
pigments and UV absorbers. Fiber tension is controlled using the fiber guides or scissor
bars located between each creel and the resin bath. Just before entering the resin bath, the
rovings are usually gathered into a band by passing them through a textile thread board or a
stainless steel comb. At the end of the resin tank, the resin-impregnated rovings are pulled
through a wiping device that removes the excess resin from the rovings and controls the
resin coating thickness around each roving. The most commonly used wiping device is a
set of squeeze rollers in which the position of the top roller is adjusted to control the resin
content as well as the tension in fiber rovings . Another technique for wiping the resin -
impregnated rovings is to pull each roving separately through an orifice, very much like the
procedure in a wire drawing process. This latter technique provides better control of resin
content. However, in the case of fiber breakage during a filament winding operation, it be
comes difficult to rethread the broken roving line through its orifice. Once the rovings have
been thoroughly impregnated and wiped, they are gathered together in a flat band and
positioned on the mandrel . Band formation can be achieved by using a straight bar, a ring,
or a comb. The band former is usually located on a carriage, which traverses back and forth
parallel to the mandrel , like a tool stock in a lathe machine. The traversing speed of the
carriage and the winding speed of the mandrel are controlled to create the desired winding
angle patterns. Typical winding speeds range from 90 to 110 linear m/min. However, for
more precise winding, slower speeds are recommended. The basic filament -winding
process described earlier creates a helical winding pattern and is called the helical winding
process . The angle of the roving band with respect to the mandrel axis is called the wind
angle. By adjusting the carriage feed rate and the mandrels rotational speed, any wind
angle between near 0 (i. e., longitudinal winding) to near 90 (i.e., hoop wind - ing) can be
obtained.
 27

12.4 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) is a low pressure, closed molding process which
offers a dimensionally accurate and high quality surface finish composite molding, using
liquid thermoset polymers reinforced with various forms of fiber reinforcements. Typically
polymers of Epoxy, Vinyl Ester, Methyl Methacrylate, Polyester or Phenolic are used with
fiberglass reinforcement. Other reinforcements, are offered for more demanding
applications such as Aramid, Carbon and Synthetic fibers either individually or in
combination with each other. Along with the polymer and reinforcement the addition of
mineral fillers may be added to enhance fire retardancy, flex modulus and surface finish.
Reinforcements are presented in their dry form to the mold in either binder-bound chopped
mat, random-continuous strand mat or woven cloth format. The fiber has been either
"preformed" to the exact shape of the molding tool in a previous operation or is hand-
tailored during the loading process in the molding tool. After the fiber is installed into the
mold, a premixed catalyst and resin is injected into the closed mold cavity encapsulating
the fiber within. The primary surface of the molding may be gel-coated, a process of
spraying the mold surface before installing the fiber. If a gel coat is not required, the
exterior finish would be the same from the front to back of the molded part. The RTM
process has the inherent advantage of low-pressure injection, it usually does not exceed 100
psi of resin injection pressure during the mold-fill process.

Advantages of RTM: 1. Closed Molding process is cleaner and healthier which attracts higher
skilled employees. 2. Moldings can be manufactured to close dimensional tolerances. 3.
Components will have good surface finish on both sides. 4. Selective reinforcement and accurate
fiber management is achievable. 5. Ability to build-in fiber volume fraction loadings up to 65%. 6.
Consistency in thickness and fiber loading, resulting in uniform shrinkage. 7. Inserts may be
incorporated into moldings. 8. Tooling costs comparatively low compared to other manufacturing
processes. 9. Ability to produce near net shape moldings, reducing material wastage. 10. Process
can be automated, resulting in higher production rates with less scrap. 11. Ability to mold complex
structural and hollow shapes. Low resultant voidage in molded components. 12. Ability to achieve
from 0.1mm to 90mm laminate thickness.

Important Questions

1. (a) Classify the composite material system? (b) Describe various characteristics of lamina and
laminate? (c) State, giving your reasoning, which composite materials you would select for
the following applications.
(i) A component to operate with in a vacuum furnace at 21000 C
(ii) A Component of diesel engine, which is subject to wear.
 28

2. (a) How carbon fibers are made? Describe with neat sketches a typical fabrication process.
(b) Write a note on Natural and Man made composites.

3. Write short notes on:

a) Metal matrix composites (b) Quasi-isotropic laminates (c) Particulate composites.

4. (a) Define the term composite material. What are the important properties of various types
of composite materials? (b) Write an essay why composites are very common in the
Aerospace industry. Explain with suitable examples. (c) What are the unique properties of
composites over conventional materials?

5. (a) Distinguish fully between thermoplastics and thermosets. (b) Discus the advantages and
disadvantages of carbon-carbon composites over traditional PMCs.

6. (a) What is a composite material? What are the important characteristics of composites,
which make them as important engineering materials? Give you answer with suitable
examples. (b) Distinguish completely between Natural Composites and man-made
composites.

7. (a) Define composite and explain about a few composites which are available in nature. (b)
Discuss briefly the broad classification of composites.

8. (a) Why epoxy resins are preferred as matrix material? Give reasons. (b) Sketch and
explain the manufacturing process of carbon fibers.

9. Write short notes on the following: (i) Ceramic matrix Composites. (ii) GFRP.
(iii)CFRP. Discuss their relative advantages and disadvantages.

10. a) Most fiber reinforced composites consist of three parts: The fiber, the matrix and the
interface. Describe the major function of these parts with examples. b) Compare and
contrast the failure of metals and composite materials.

11. a) Compare and contrast the following fibres i)Glass ii) Aramid (Aromatic polymide) iii)
glass iv) KEVLAR, with respect to composition, properties, applications and limitations.
b) Discuss the influence of fiber length, orientation and composition on the fiber reinforced
composites.

12. (a) Explain the following terms (i) Pre Preg (ii) pultrusion (iii) filament winding. (b)
Explain the relative features of polymer matrix and metal matrix.