Assigment 1-ABOOO

UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM Subject: Design of Tall Building
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Assignment: Lateral Load Resisting Systems

M.Sc OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Student: Mowlid Mahmoud abukar Handulle
Definition of Tall Building

It is difficult to distinguish the characteristics of a building which categorize it as tall. After
all, the outward appearance of tallness is a relative matter. In a typical single-story neighborhood,
a five-story building may appear tall. A 50-story building in a city may be called a high-rise, but
the citizens of a small town may point proudly to their skyscraper of six stories. In large cities,
such as Chicago and Manhattan, and now in United Arab Emirates, with a vast number of tall
buildings, a structure must pierce the sky around 100120 stories if it is to appear tall in comparison
with its immediate neighbors.
A tall building cannot be defined in specific terms related to height or number of floors.
There is no consensus on what constitutes a tall building or at what magic height, number of stories
or proportion a building can be called tall. Perhaps the dividing line should be drawn where the
design of the structure moves from the field of statics into the field of structural dynamics.
From the structural design point of view, it is simpler to consider a building as tall when
its structural analyses and design are in some way affected by the lateral loads, particularly the
sway caused by such loads. Sway or drift is the magnitude of the relative lateral displacement
between a given floor and the one immediately below it.
Lateral Load Resisting System

1. Braced-Frame Structures
In braced frames the lateral resistance of the structure is provided by diagonal members
that, together with the girders, form the web of the vertical truss, with the columns acting as
the chords (Fig. 1). Because the horizontal shear on the building is resisted by the horizontal
components of the axial tensile or compressive actions in the web members, bracing systems
are highly efficient in resisting lateral loads.
Figure 1: Braced frame showing different types of bracing
1
2. Rigid-Frame Structures
Rigid-frame structures consist of columns and girders joined by moment-resistant
connections. The lateral stiffness of a rigid-frame bent depends on the bending stiffness of the
columns, girders, and connections in the plane of the bent (Fig. 2), rigid framing is economic
only for buildings up to about 25 stories. Above 25 stories the relatively high lateral flexibility
of the frame calls for uneconomically large members in order to control the drift.
Rigid-frame construction is ideally suited for reinforced concrete buildings because of the
inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete joints.
Figure 2: Rigid Frame
3. Infilled-Frame Structures
Column and girder framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is infilled by panels
of brickwork, block work, or cast-in-place concrete. When an infilled frame is subjected to
lateral loading, the infill behaves effectively as a strut along its compression diagonal to brace
the frame (Fig. 3). Because the infills serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the
system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure.
The complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather random quality
of masonry, has made it difficult to predict with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an
infilled frame.
2
Figure 3: infilled Frame
4. Flat-Plate and Flat-Slab Structures

The flat-plate structure is the simplest and most logical of all structural forms in that it
consists of uniform slabs, of 5-8 in. (12-20 cm) thickness, connected rigidly to supporting
columns (Fig. 4).
Under lateral loading the behavior of a flat-plate structure is similar to that of a rigid frame,
that is, its lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of the components and their
connections, with the slabs corresponding to the girders of the rigid frame. It is particularly
appropriate for apartment and hotel construction where ceiling spaces are not required and
where the slab may serve directly as the ceiling. The flat-plate structure is economical for spans
of up to about 25 ft (8 m), above which drop panels can be added to create a flat-slab structure
(Fig. 5) for spans of up to 38 ft (12 m).
Buildings that depend entirely for their lateral resistance on flat-plate or flat slab action are
economical up to about 25 stories.
Figure 4: two way flat plate.
3
Figure 5: two way flat slab
5. Shear Wall Structures

Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally as partitions
and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading.
In a shear wall structure, such walls are entirely responsible for the lateral load resistance
of the building. They act as vertical cantilevers in the form of separate planar walls, and as
non-planar assemblies of connected walls around elevator, stair, and service shafts (Fig. 6).
Because they are much stiffer horizontally than rigid frames, shear wall structures can be
economical up to about 35 stories.
If, in low to medium rise buildings, shear walls are combined with frames, it is reasonable
to assume that the shear walls attract all the lateral loading so that the frame may be designed
for only gravity loading. It is especially important in shear wall structures to try to plan the
wall layout so that the lateral load tensile stresses are suppressed by the gravity load stresses.
This allows them to be designed to have only the minimum reinforcement. Shear wall
structures have been shown to perform well in earthquakes, for which case ductility becomes
an important consideration in their design.
Figure 6: Shear wall Structure
4
Coupled Wall Structures.

A coupled wall structure is a particular, but very common, form of shear wall structure
with its own special problems of analysis and design. It consists of two or more shear walls in
the same plane, or almost the same plane, connected at the floor levels by beams or stiff slabs
(Fig. 7). The effect of the shear resistant connecting members is to cause the set of walls to
behave in their plane partly as a composite cantilever, bending about the common centroidal
axis of the walls. This results in a horizontal stiffness very much greater than if the walls acted
as a set of separate uncoupled cantilevers.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: (a) Couple Shear Walls (b) Analytical model for close-form solution.
5
6. Wall-Frame Structures
When shear walls are combined with rigid frames (Fig. 8) the walls, which tend to deflect
in a flexural configuration, and the frames, which tend to deflect in a shear mode, are
constrained to adopt a common deflected shape by the horizontal rigidity of the girders and
slabs. As a consequence, the walls and frames interact horizontally, especially at the top, to
produce a stiffer and stronger structure. The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate
for buildings in the 40 to 60 story range, well beyond that of rigid frames or shear walls alone.
An additional, less well known feature of the
wall-frame structure is that, in a carefully
tuned structure, the shear in the frame can be
made approximately uniform over the height,
allowing the floor framing to be repetitive.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8: (a) Wall Frame Structure (b) Wall Frame Interaction
7. Framed-Tube Structures
The lateral resistance of framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment resisting
frames that form a tube around the perimeter of the building. The frames consist of closely
spaced columns, 6-12 ft (2-4 m) between centers, joined by deep spandrel girders (Fig. 9).
Although the tube carries all the lateral loading, the gravity loading is shared between the tube and
interior columns or walls. When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frames aligned in the direction
of loading act as the webs of the massive tube cantilever, and those normal to the direction
of the loading act as the flanges.
6
Figure 9: Framed Tube
Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core Structures.

This variation of the framed tube consists of an outer framed tube, the hull, together with
an internal elevator and service core (Fig. 10). The hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity
and lateral loading. In a steel structure the core may consist of braced frames, whereas in a concrete
structure it would consist of an assembly of shear walls. To some extent, the outer framed tube and
the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall-frame structure,
with the benefit of increased lateral stiffness. However, the structural tube usually adopts a highly
dominant role because of its much greater structural depth.
Bundled-Tube Structures.
This structural form is notable in its having been used for the Sears Tower in Chicago the
worlds tallest building. The Sears Tower consists of four parallel rigid steel frames in each
orthogonal direction, interconnected to form nine bundled tubes (Fig. 11 a). As in the single tube
structure, the frames in the direction of lateral loading serve as webs of the vertical cantilever,
with the normal frames acting as flanges.
The introduction of the internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges;
consequently their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single-tube structure, and their
contribution to the lateral stiffness is greater. This allows columns of the frames to be spaced
7
further apart and to be less obtrusive. In the Sears Tower, advantage was taken of the bundled form
to discontinue some of the tubes, and so reduce the plan of the building at stages up the height
(Fig. 11 b, c, and d)
Braced-Tube Structures.
Another way of improving the efficiency of the framed tube, thereby increasing its
potential for use to even greater heights as well as allowing greater spacing between the columns,
is to add diagonal bracing to the faces of the tube
Figure 10: Tube in Tube
8
Figure 11: (a d) bundled tube
Figure 12: Braced Tubes
8. Outrigger-Braced Structures
This efficient structural form consists of a central core, comprising either braced
frames or shear walls, with horizontal cantilever outrigger trusses or girders connecting
the core to the outer columns (Fig. 13a). When the structure is loaded horizontally, vertical
plane rotations of the core are restrained by the outriggers through tension in the windward
columns and compression in the leeward columns (Fig. 13b). The effective structural depth
of the building is greatly increased, thus augmenting the lateral stiffness of the building
and reducing the lateral deflections and moments in the core. In effect, the outriggers join
9
the columns to the core to make the structure behave as a partly composite cantilever.
Perimeter columns, other than those connected directly to the ends of the outriggers, can
also be made to participate in the outrigger action by joining all the perimeter columns with
a horizontal truss or girder around the face of the building at the outrigger level. The large,
often two-story, depths of the outrigger and perimeter trusses make it desirable to locate
them within the plant levels in the building.
The degree to which the perimeter columns of an outrigger structure behave
compositely with the core depends on the number of levels of outriggers and their
stiffnesses. Multilevel outrigger structures show a considerable increase in their effective
moment of resistance over single outrigger structures. This increase diminishes, however,
with each additional level of outriggers, so that four or five levels appears to be the
economic limit. Outrigger-braced structures have been used for buildings from 40 to 70
stories high, but the system should be effective and efficient for much greater heights.
Figure 13: (a) outrigger brace structure (b) outrigger braced structure under load
9. Suspended Structures
Figure 14: Suspended Structure
10
10. Core Structures

In these structures a single core serves to
carry the entire gravity and horizontal loading
(Fig. 15). In some, the slabs are supported a t
each level by cantilevers from the core. In others,
the slabs are supported between the core and
perimeter columns, which terminate either on
major cantilevers at intervals down the height, or
on a single massive cantilever a few stories above
the ground.
Figure 15: Core Structure
11. Space Structures

The primary load-resisting system of a space structure consists
essentially of a three-dimensional triangulated frame as distinct from an
assembly of planar bents whose members serve dually in resisting both
gravity and horizontal loading. The result is a highly efficient, relatively
lightweight structure with a potential for achieving the greatest heights
Figure 16: Space Structure
11
12. Hybrid Structures

In this structural form combinations of two or even more of the basic structural forms have
often been used in the same building, either by direct combination as, for example, in a
superimposed tube and outrigger system (Fig. 17), or by adopting different forms in different parts
of the structure.
Figure 17: Hybrid Structure
12
Limitation of Lateral Load resisting Systems
Loads types to be considered and how to apply them

1. Gravity Loading: vertically applied loads including
a. Dead & Live Loads
b. Live Load Reduction
c. Impact Gravity Loading
d. Construction Loads
2. Wind Loading: lateral loading.
3. Earthquake Loading: lateral loading.
13
Difference Between Seismic and Wind Loads

No Seismic Force Wind Force
No. Seismic force depends on mass of the structure and Wind force depends on the exposed
the distribution of mass. The load acts at the centre area of the structure
of mass of the structure.
The seismic force will be distributed along interior The wind force will act mainly on
and exterior frames and columns in a structure. i.e., exterior (i.e., exposed) frames and it
acts at location of masses may reduce to interior frames based on
the type of structure(Shielding effect)
A structure having lesser mass will perform well A structure having higher mass will
during seismic events since it attracts lesser load and resist the wind load effectively and the
the exposed area has got no influence on the structure having lesser surface area
performance during seismic events. will perform better since it attracts
lesser wind force.
The stiffness of the structure influences the seismic The stiffness of the structure has no
force developed influence on the wind force developed
The base shear value is more at bottom and it The wind force increases as height
decreases as height increases due to reduction in increases if the exposed area remains
cumulative weight same
The damping will be considered in the calculation of The damping will not be considered in
seismic forces the calculation of wind forces in
normal conditions (i.e., for static
analysis)
14
The inertia of the structure is the main factor which Inertia has less impact in the
causes seismic force m + c + ku = 0 generation of wind force ku = F(t)
(Depending on case m, c may be
considered
The seismic force is mainly generated at the base of The wind force is generated at each
a structure nodes in the exposed area
When a structure is subjected to seismic load, Wind load doesn't cause torsion in a
torsion will develop if the centre of mass and the structure
centre of stiffness doesn't coincide
The soil type in which the structure stands will also The soil type will not have much
affect its performance during seismic force effect on performance
of structures during wind
The performance of a structure during seismic The performance of a structure can be
events can be improved by providing base isolators improved when a wind acts by
which will retard the transfer of seismic load from improving the shape of the structure
ground to structure. by providing curved edges so that the
wind load will be less.
The suction effects will not develop during seismic When the wind load acts in a building,
events negative pressure can act in it due to
suction
The deflection of the structure will be to and fro The deflection will be about the initial
about the centre of mass and it causes stress reversal static deflected position and the to and
in members fro motion is less compared to seismic
force and hence less reversal of
stresses
The storey displacement will be large at upper floors The storey displacement at upper
during seismic events and the displacement will be floors will be less compared to seismic
parabolic forces and the displacement is linear
The maximum deflection of the structure will be The maximum deflection of the
around 0.4% structure will be around 0.5%
15
The seismic force will depend on the focus of The wind force will depend on terrain
earthquake and ground conditions through which the and topography of the location
wave travels
The duration of seismic force varies from a few The duration of wind load varies from
seconds to minutes and we will not get any warning minutes to even hours (cyclone) and
the warning will be there before it hits
The area affected by seismic force is large The area affected by wind force is
comparatively low (Except cyclones)
The prediction of seismic event is only probabilistic The formation of storms can be
predicted accurately
16

Assigment 1-ABOOO

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Assigment 1-ABOOO

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM Subject: Design of Tall Building

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Assignment: Lateral Load Resisting Systems

Definition of Tall Building

Lateral Load Resisting System

Figure 1: Braced frame showing different types of bracing

Figure 2: Rigid Frame

Figure 3: infilled Frame

4. Flat-Plate and Flat-Slab Structures

Figure 4: two way flat plate.

Figure 5: two way flat slab

5. Shear Wall Structures

Figure 6: Shear wall Structure

Coupled Wall Structures.

Figure 9: Framed Tube

Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core Structures.

Figure 10: Tube in Tube

Figure 11: (a d) bundled tube

Figure 12: Braced Tubes

Figure 14: Suspended Structure

10. Core Structures

Figure 15: Core Structure

11. Space Structures

Figure 16: Space Structure

12. Hybrid Structures

Figure 17: Hybrid Structure

Limitation of Lateral Load resisting Systems

Loads types to be considered and how to apply them

Difference Between Seismic and Wind Loads

You might also like