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29/01/2009
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MadhatterWylder
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http://www.sarasuati.com
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TEMA10:
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sufijaciny
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composicin.

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delaspalabrasen
Lxico.Formacin

ingls:Prefijacin,
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Table of contents

*
1. Introduction. _______________________________________________________ 3

**
2. Prefixation _________________________________________________________ 6

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
2.1. Groups of prefixes. _____________________________________________________ 6

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
2.1.1. Negative Prefixes. __________________________________________________________ 6
2.1.2. Reversative or Privative Prefixes. ______________________________________________
* 6

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
2.1.3. Pejorative Prefixes. _________________________________________________________ 7
*
2.1.4. Prefixes of degree or size. ____________________________________________________ 7
*
2.1.5. Prefixes of Attitude. ________________________________________________________ 7
2.1.6. Locative Prefixes. __________________________________________________________ 7
2.1.7. Prefixes of time and order. ___________________________________________________ 8
*

2.1.8. Number prefixes. __________________________________________________________ 8

*
2.1.9. Conversion prefixes. ________________________________________________________ 8
*

2.1.10. Other prefixes. ___________________________________________________________ 8

*

3. Suffixation. _________________________________________________________ 8
*

3.1. Noun Suffixes _________________________________________________________ 9

*

3.1.1. Denominal Ns: Abstract _____________________________________________________ 9

*

3.1.2. Denominal Ns: Concrete ____________________________________________________ 10

*

3.1.3. Deverbal Ns: Abstract. _____________________________________________________ 10

*

3.1.4. Deverbal Ns: Concrete _____________________________________________________ 10

3.1.5. Noun/Adjective Suffixes____________________________________________________ 10
3.1.6. De-adjectival Ns. _________________________________________________________ 11
*

Form abstract Ns expressing state or quality. _____________________________________ 11

D

3.2. Verb Suffixes. ________________________________________________________ 11

E

3.3. Adjective suffixes _____________________________________________________ 11

3.3.1. Denominal Adjs. __________________________________________________________ 11
3.3.2. Denominal Adjs: borrowed and neo-classical in origin suffixes. _____________________ 11
*

3.3.3. Deverbal Adjs. ___________________________________________________________ 11

3.4. Adverb suffixes _______________________________________________________ 12
* *

4. Compound words ___________________________________________________ 12

4.1. Kinds of composition in the Noun. _______________________________________ 13
4.1.1. Subject + Verb ___________________________________________________________ 13
*

4.1.2. Verb + Object. ___________________________________________________________ 13

D

4.1.3. Verb and Adverbial Compounds______________________________________________ 13

4.1.4. Verbless compounds: N + N Compounds. ______________________________________ 14
4.1.5. Bahubrihi Compounds. _____________________________________________________ 15
4.2. Kinds of composition in the verb. ________________________________________ 15
*

4.2.1. Back-formation. __________________________________________________________ 15

** ** **

4.2.2. Verb + Adverb ___________________________________________________________ 15

4.3. Adjective compounds. _________________________________________________ 15
** ** **

4.3.1. Verb and Object compounds _________________________________________________ 15

4.3.2. Verb and Adverbial Compounds. _____________________________________________ 15
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4.3.3. Verbless compounds. ______________________________________________________ 16

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4.4. Reduplicative or repetition compounds. __________________________________ 16

5. Brief Summary. ____________________________________________________ 17
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1. Introduction.
It is common for speakers of a Language to define a word as an
element in the language that conveys1 meaning. This basic common insight is

**
essential to establish the basic unit of morphological analysis. Its important to
*
bear in mind that, although words play an important role in linguistic analysis,

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
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they do not correspond to the essential morphological unit. The reason for it is
* Word is not the
most basic

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
that words may largely vary across languages (Humbolds typologyi) and
*
meaningful unit
*
within one same language and a definition of an essential unit of linguistic
analysis based on an element that varies is not adequate. It is necessary to
*

find a more basic unit.

*

Consider the words pencil, impossible and women. Only the first one can
*

be considered a unit of meaning. In the other two we can identify two

* *

independent meanings: im (not) and possible, woman and plural. The fact that
* *

words may be made up of independent bits of meaning implies that we may Morpheme:
*

Minimal
identify other smaller units of analysis. Precisely, these independent bits of meaningful unit
*

meaning are what we take to be the basic units of word analysis, called
D

morphemes. Bloomfield defined the morpheme as the minimal meaningful

E

element in a language.
To understand further the notion of morpheme consider the following
*

set of words: laugh, laughs, laughed, laughing. Its clear that the four words
*

are different, but also that each one shares an essential part of its meaning
*

with the rest. The all share the essential morpheme {LAUGH}.
*

As just implied, we may distinguish between more and less essential

D

morphemes. The essential morpheme in a word, the one that carries the
lexical meaning, is known as the lexeme or lexical morpheme. In books,
nicer, cooking the corresponding lexical morphemes are {BOOK}, {NICE} and
*

Lexical and
** ** **

grammatical
{COOK}. The bits of meaning in these words which correspond to grammatical
morphemes
** ** **

notions such as {PLURA}, {COMPARATIVE} and {PRESENT PARTICIPLE} are

known as grammatical morphemes.
*

*
** *

So far we have only analyzed words in terms of the bits of meaning that
they contained their identifiable independent morphemes. We will now
*

1
transporta
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introduce another aspect or level of word analysis, the level of realization of

*
meaning. An abstract analysis of words provides morphemes and a less
Morphs are the
abstract analysis, the one which directly considers which parts of words actual

*
realization of

*
correspond to the independent bits of meaning, will provide different units morphemes

called morphs. Therefore, *morphs are the actual realization of

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morphemes. It is important to take a step further and refine the notion of
*

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morph into its possible allomorphs (Different realizations of the same
**
morpheme). For example: One morph can
have several
allomorphs
*

MORPHEMES ALLOMORPHS
*

Books = {BOOK} + {PLURAL} Books = book + /s/

* *

Pens = {PEN} + { PLURAL } Pens = pen + /z/

Matches = {MATCH} + { PLURAL } Matches = match + /Iz/
* *

As with morphemes, we can also distinguish morphs of different

*

importance in a word: The root or Stem2 is the morph that realizes the
*

Different kind of
morphs:
essential meaning and the affixes are morphs which are added before or after Root, Base and
*

affixes.
the root. There is also a term to refer to the root plus all the derivational affixes
E

in the word: Base. For example, the word writers is formed from the word
writer, thus the base of writers is writer even though when writer is a complex
morphological word ({write3} + {-er}). Roots are usually found alone4, whereas
*

affixes are never found in isolation.

* *

Word-formation processes (WFP) are a set of grammatical rules

which are used in order to create new English words. Even though there are
*

many processes which enrich the English language, as for instance loans from
D

other languages and historical transfers, the Word formation rules are the most
active and common structures used in order to create new words.
*

Before getting into more detail with the WFR, I think that we must first
** ** **

discuss some basic concepts which might be of interest to this paper. We need
** ** **

to make a distinction between open and close classes of words. The first Open and close
classes of words.
*

group are classes to which new members can be added, for examples nouns,
*
** *

2
The part of the word remaining alter every part has been removed.
3
Root or Stem
4
There is a number of roots that always occur with affixes, we call them bound roots: -ceice,
*

-vene Ex.: Conceive, Intervene,

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verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Closed classes are those whose members are

*
relatively fixed in number, for example articles, pronouns and prepositions.
Obviously, word-formation processes affect to open classes of words in a

**
language. We can create new words without changing the grammatical class.
*
Word formation processes (WFP) of this type are known as class-

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Class-changing &

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maintaining. In all other cases, the processes are known as class-changing.
* class-maintaining

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The process by which the word is formed from another is called word-
**
formation rule.
*

<Adjective> + <-en> <Verb>

* *
*

Normally, rules such as this are aid to have an input, on the left side of the Input and output
in a WFR
arrow, and an output on the right.
* *

There are several processes employed in English to form new words.

*

Major processes:
*

These processes can be divided in two groups: The MAJOR PROCESSES, which -Affixation
*

-Compounding
are the most frequently employed and account for the greater part of the -Conversion
*

English lexicon, and the minor processes which are of more limited
application. The Major processes are Affixation, compounding and
E

Conversion. Affixation is a WFP which adds an affix to the base, with or

without changing the word class. Prefixes are usually class-maintaining (author
*

co-author), whereas suffixes are usually class-changing (drive driver).

*

Assigning the base to a different word-class without changing its form

*

is known as conversion (drive V- drive N-). The most common WFP of

*

all is the compounding, which adds one base to another in order to create a
D

new word. (tea + pot teapot). The MINOR PROCESSES of WF are: Minor processes:
-Reduplication
Reduplication tick-tack -Clipping
Clipping ad (from Advertisement) -Blending
*

Blending brunch (from breakfast and lunch) - Acronyms

** ** **

Acronyms NATO (From North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

** ** **

Once a base has undergone a rule of WF, the derived word itself may become
*

the base for another derivation:

** *

(friend) ........noun
(friend)-ly.....noun Adj
Un-[(friend)-ly].....Adj Adj
*

un-[(friend)-ly]-ness......Adj Noun
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2. Prefixation
Prefixes are such particles as can be added before full words but they Prefixes:
Particles that can
are not words with an independence existence (bound morphemes) [Marchand]

*
be added before

*
full words but
Most prefixes in English are of foreign origin (Latin, Greek or French), except
*
a-, be- fore-, mis- & un-, which are German in origin.
which cannot
occur in isolation.

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Some characteristics of the English prefixes are:
**
a. All prefixes have some stress, though light, in the first syllable, with
the exception of a-. However, the main stress of the word falls on the base.
*

b. Prefixes do not normally alter the stress pattern of the word.

*

c. Prefixes do not generally alter word class of the base (class-maintaining).

*

d. English prefixes, following Quirk et al., can be grouped according to their

* *

meaning
* *
*

2.1. Groups of prefixes.

*

2.1.1. Negative Prefixes.

D

Meaning Added to Examples

E

UN- -Not, the opposite. Adjs & advs Unfair, unexpected,

-Most common negative pref -ed/-ing particles
-Used with Native UK words
NON- -Not Adjs, Ns of action Non-aggression, Non-stop
*

-Can be derived from a V-stem

negative clause
*

IN- -Not, the opposite. Adjs Insane, illegible, irrelevant,

*

-IL/ __i -Preferred to UN in words of impolite

-IM/labils Latin or French origin.
-IR/__r
*

DIS- -Not, the opposite. Adjs, Vs Disloyal, dislike,

D

Abstract Ns
A(N)- -Denotes absence of a quality Adjs, Ns Amoral, anarchy
-Found in borrowed
neoclassical words
*
** ** **

2.1.2. Reversative or Privative Prefixes.

Meaning Added to Examples
** ** **

UN- Reverse action + V V & Ns Undo

Deprived of + N Unhorse
*

DE- To reverse action, to undo Vs Defrost, deforestation

*
** *

/di:/ /dI/ Abstract Ns

DIS- Reverse action, Deprived of Vs & Ns Disconnect, discolored
Participles
*

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2.1.3. Pejorative Prefixes.
Meaning Added to Examples
MIS- Wrongly, bad Vs, Abstract Ns Misinform, misconduct,
Normally unstressed Participles

*
MAL- Bad Abstract Ns Malfunction,

*
2nd element is usually a non
Germanic origin word *

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
PSEUDO- False, imitation Ns & Adjs Pseudo-intellectual,

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
2.1.4. Prefixes of degree or size.
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*
Meaning Added to Examples
*
ARCH- Supreme, highest Ns [+Human] Archduke, arch-enemy
SUPER- Better, more than Ns & Adjs Superman, supernatural
*

OUT- To do something better, Vs [-Transitive] Outrun, outgrow

*
faster, longer,
*

SUR- Over, above Ns Surcharge (=sobrecargar)

*

SUB- Under, lower than Adjs Substandard, subhuman

(=infrahumano)
*

OVER- Too much Vs, ed-participles, Overconfident

*

Vs. Adjs
Too little underprivileged
*

UNDER-
*

HYPER- Extremely, extra specially. Adjs Hypercritical.

*

ULTRA- Extremely, beyond Adjs Ultra-violet, ultra-modern.

excessively
MINI- Little Mini-skirt
*

MICRO- Recent prefix (MINI-)

Vs. Ns
On a large scale Macro-symbiotics
E

MACRO-

2.1.5. Prefixes of Attitude.

*

Meaning Added to Examples

L

CO- Implies accompanying Vs, Ns & Adjs Cooperate, co-pilot

*

*COUNTER- In opposition, against Vs, Abstract Ns Counteract

*

*ANTI- Against, enemy of Ns, Adjs, Advs. Antichrist, anti-social,

Vs. Vs (rare)
PRO- For Ns and Adjs Pro-communist
*

*ANTI- suggests simply a state of mind, an attitude of opposition, while COUNTER- suggests action in
opposition, an activity. A counterattack can only take place if there has already been an attack.
D

2.1.6. Locative Prefixes.

Meaning Added to Examples
SUPER- Over Ns Superstructure
*
** ** **

SUB- Under Ns, Adjs, Vs Subway

INTER- Between Denominal Adjs, Vs, Ns International, interwar
** ** **

TRANS- across Denominal Adjs, Vs Transatlantic,

*

*
** *
*

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2.1.7. Prefixes of time and order.
Meaning Added to Examples
FORE- Before Vs & Abstract Ns Foretell, foreword.

*
PRE- Before Attributive Ns, Adjs, V Pre-war, pre-marital,

*
Vs.
POST-
EX-
After
Former
*
Attributive Ns, Adj, Vs (rare)
Ns [+HUMAN]
Post-war, post-classical
Ex-husband

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
RE- Again Vs, Abstract Ns Rebuilt, recollect

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
2.1.8. Number prefixes.
**
Meaning Examples
UNI- or MONO- One Unilateral, monorail
BI- or DI- Two Bilingual, dichotomy.
*

TRI- Three Trident

*

MULTI- or POLY- Many Multiracial, polygamy,

* *

2.1.9. Conversion prefixes.

*

In contrast with other prefixes, their main function is to convert the

*

base into a different grammatical class. Thus, they are class-changing

*

prefixes.
* *

Added to To form Examples

BE- a) Ns a) Participle Adjs a) Bewigged (=empelucado)
b) Vs, Adjs & Ns b) Transitive Vs b) bewitch (=embrujar)
*

EN- Ns Vs Endanger (=comprometer)

A- Vs Predicative Adjs Afloat (=flotante)
E

2.1.10. Other prefixes.

Meaning Examples
*

AUTO- Self Autobiography

NEO- Now, Revived Neo-gothic
*

PAN- World.-wide Pan-American

*

PROTO- First, original. Proto-type.

SEMI- Half Semicircle
VICE- Delegate vice-president
*

3. Suffixation.
Suffix:
A suffix is a derivate final element which is productive in forming new Final element
*

words [Marchand]. We must distinguish between suffixes with semantic value which is
** ** **

productive in
(derivational suffixes) and inflections with grammatical value (Inflectional forming new
** ** **

words.
suffixes).
*

Unlike prefixes, suffixes are usually class-changing elements.

** *

Inflectional and
Prefixes, though not used as separate words, mostly have distinct meaning of derivational
suffixes.
their own. Suffixes rarely have meaning if their own and, as a rule, they only
*

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serve to modify the meaning of the main element (red reddish) or to

*
Suffixes rarely
have meaning of
change its category (clean cleanness). their own and, as
a rule, they only
There are certain words which are half way between a full word and a

*
serve to modify

*
the meaning of
suffix: Semi-suffixes [Marchand]. They are basically free forms, which are
*
almost used as suffixes (same position and semantically empty) as in craft in
the main element
or to change its

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
category

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
witchcraft, statecraft, -proof in fireproof, waterproof, -wise in lengthwise, -
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
monger in ironmonger, fishmonger, scandalmonger, - wright in playwright, - Semi-suffixes
*
are basically
*
like in childlike, -man in walkman, -burger in cheeseburger, fish burger etc. free forms,
which are
Native suffixes combine only with a native base, and there is no almost used
*

as suffixes
*

change of stress: hopeful, goodness. Foreign suffixes, however, can combine

* *

with a foreign base as in utterance or with a native base as in eatable,

Words with a
beautiful. These are called hybrids.
*

native base &

*

a foreign suffix
Here, following Quirk, I shall group suffixes not only by the class of
*

is called
*

hybrid.
the word they form, but also by the class of the base they are added
*

(de-nominal, i.e. from nouns, de-adjectival, i.e. from adjectives, )

*

3.1. Noun Suffixes

E

3.1.1. Denominal Ns: Abstract

Added to To form Ns Meaning Examples
*

-AGE Ns Noncount Measure of, collection of Baggage, frontage

L

abstract Ns
-DOM Ns Noncount Perjorative overtones Kingdom
*

abstract Ns
*

-ERY Ns Noncount (i) condition or behavior Slavery, druggery

abstract Ns associated with
*

(ii) Location of Nursery, rookery

-FUL Ns Noncount The amount N contains Mouthful, spoonful
D

abstract Ns (=cucharada)
-HOOD Ns Noncount Status Brotherhood,
abstract Ns
-ISM Ns Noncount Doctrine of Calvinism,
*

abstract Ns impresionalism
** ** **

-OCRACY Ns Noncount System of government Democracy

abstract Ns
** ** **

-SHIP Ns Noncount Status condition Friendship,

abstract Ns dictatorship,
*

*
** *
*

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3.1.2. Denominal Ns: Concrete
Added to To form Ns Meaning Examples
-EER Ns Concrete Ns Skilled in Pamphleteer,

*
-ESS Ns[+ANIMATED] Ns[+ANIMATED] Female people Waitress

*
-ETTE* Ns Diminutive Ns (i) small, compact Cigarette
* (ii) Imitation Flannelette (=imitacion franela)

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
(iii) female Usherette (=acomodadora)

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
-LET Count Ns Concrete Ns
* Small, unimportant booklet
-LING Ns[+ANIMATED] Ns Minor, offspring of Duckling, princeling, ...

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*
-STER Ns Concrete Ns Involved in Gangster
*
-ER Ns Concrete Ns (i) Person of a profession Banker,
(ii) Maker of Hatter,
(iii) Inhabitant Londoner,
*

* Stressed on the last syllable

* *

3.1.3. Deverbal Ns: Abstract.

*

To form NS Meaning Examples

*

-ANT (im-) personal Ns Agentive and instrumental Inhabitant,

*

-ATION Abstract/collective Ns Process or state of Exploration, starvation

*

-MENT Abstract Ns Result of Amazement, arrangement

*

-AL Abstract Ns Action of, result of Trial, refusal,

*

-ING Abstract Ns Activity / state Building, opening

-AGE Non-count abstract Ns Action of, instance of Drainage (=desague), coverage
*

3.1.4. Deverbal Ns: Concrete

E

Added to To form Ns Meaning Examples

-ANT Vs Concrete Participant, lubricant
count Ns
-EE* Vs Concrete passive Appointee, payee
*

count Ns
-ER, Vs Concrete (i) personal Singer, writer
*

-OR count Ns (ii) Non personal Computer, thriller

*

* Stressed on the last syllable

3.1.5. Noun/Adjective Suffixes

*

A number of suffixes yield tems that can be used both a Ns and as

D

nongradable Adjs.
Added to To form Ns/Adjs Meaning Examples
-ITE Ns (names) Ns and non- Member of: a community, Israelite, socialite,
gradable adjs tribe, sect
*

-(I)AN Ns Ns and non- (i) Relating to Republican, lutheran

** ** **

gradable adjs (ii) Citizen of Indonesian

** ** **

-ESE Foreign countries Ns and non- Member of, the Lg of Chinese, Portuguese, ...
gradable adjs
-IST Ns, Adj, some Vs Ns and non- Skilled in Violinist, socialist, ...
*

gradable adjs
*
** *
*

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3.1.6. De-adjectival Ns.

Form abstract Ns expressing state or quality.

*
Added to To form Ns Meaning Examples

*
-NESS* Neoclassical Adjs Abstract Ns State / quality Happiness
-ITY Adjs *
Abstract Ns State / quality sanity

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
* Very productive suffix.

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
3.2. Verb Suffixes.
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*
There are very few in English:
*
Added to To form Vs Meaning Examples
-(I)FY Ns & Adjs Vs mainly trans Causative Simplify
-IZE Ns & Adjs Vs mainly trans Causative Popularize
*

(-ISE)*
*

-ATE Ns Vs Orchestrate
*

-EN Adjs Vs (in-)Trans Causative Deafen (=ensordecer),

*

quicken
* British English
* *

3.3. Adjective suffixes

* *

Adjectives forming suffixes may be divided into three groups:

*

3.3.1. Denominal Adjs.

*

Added to To form Adjs Meaning Examples

D

-FUL Abstract Ns Gradable Adjs Providing: Helpful

E

Full of: Forgetful

-LESS Ns Adjs Without Childless
Not giving Penniless
-LY Personal Ns Gradable Adjs Having the quality of Cowardly, daily,
*

Ladylike
L

-LIKE Concrete Ns Adjs Having the quality of

-Y Concrete Gradable Adjs Like Creamy, hairy,
non-count Ns
*

Monkeyish, foolish
*

-ISH Count Ns (non) gradable (i) Somewhat like

Adjs (ii) Names of peoples Turkish, Swedish
-IAN Proper Ns Adjs In the tradition of Darwinian
*

3.3.2. Denominal Adjs: borrowed and neo-classical in origin suffixes.

To form Adjs Examples
-AL, -IAL, -CAL Primarily non-gradable Adjs Criminal, editorial, musical,
-IC Gradable / non gradable Adjs Heroic, Arabic
*

-ESQUE Adjs Burlesque, arabesque ...

** ** **

-OUS, -EOUS, -IOUS Primarily gradable Adjs Virtuous, courteous, ambitious

** ** **

3.3.3. Deverbal Adjs.

Added to To form Adjs Meaning Examples
*

Readable, forcible
*

-ABLE Vs Adjs Passive

** *

-IVE Vs Adjs Attractive, possessive

*

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**
3.4. Adverb suffixes
Added to To form Advs Meaning Examples
-LY Adjs Advs In a manner Happily
-WARDS Advs & Ns Advs Manner & direction Backwards

*
-WISE Ns Advs In the manner of, weather-wise

*
as far as concerned
*

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
4. Compound words

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
A compound may be defined as a combination of two words so as
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*
Compound:
to function as a word, as a unit [Jespersen]. English has a great number of
*
-A combination of
examples of lexical items which, though felt and used as simple words, are 2 words so as to
function as a unit
*

made up of two or more elements each of which may also be used as a -A unit consisting
*
of 2 or more
*

separate word. Such items are called compounds. Quirk also gives us another bases.
*

definition of compounds as a unit consisting of 2 or more bases.

*

Compounds may be written in three ways: firstly, as two

*

Diff ways of writing

*

a compound:
independent words, as in washing machine. Secondly, joined by a hyphen,
*

-2 independnt words
*

-Joined by a hyphen
as in tax-free. Finally, as one word, as in toothache. There is no rule about -As one word
how compounds should be spelt.
*

Compounds usually have main stress on the first element and

E

Stress:
secondary stress on the second element. For example: black,bird
Black,bird
(compound: species of birds) and ,blackbird (a bird that is black).
*

The meaning of a compound cannot always be deduced from the

separate meaning of its individual elements. For instance, the compound
* *

hotdog is not a dog which is hot, but a sausage in a sandwich [Quirk].

Following Quirk, we are going to concentrate our classification on the
*

classification of
compounds:
productive types of compounding and will indicate the syntactic relation of
D

Syntactic relation of
the compounding
the compounding element by paraphrases. element by
paraphrases
The categorization of the different compounds has been done following
*

the Quirk et al clause-structure functions of the compound elements. As an

** ** **

example of this approach, I will take two compounds daydreaming &

** ** **

sightseeing, which are superficially similar (N + -ing), yet the relations of their
*

constituents, & the grammatical meanings of the two compounds are different:
** *

X dreams during the night VERB + ADVBL

X sees sights VERB + OBJ
*

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**
4.1. Kinds of composition in the Noun.

4.1.1. Subject + Verb

**
a) Subject + Deverbal N. This is a very frequent kind of compound.
*
sunrise (The sun rises). Other examples: headache, rainfall, daybreak.

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
b) Verb + Subject. This is a weakly productive type.
*
Playboy (the boy plays)

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
**
c) Verbal noun ing + Subject.
Washing machine (the machine washes). Other examples: firing squad
*

* *

4.1.2. Verb + Object.

*

a) Object + Deverbal Noun.

*

Blood test (X tests blood)

*

This kind of compounds may be formed by count Ns and mass Ns:

* *

Count Ns Mass Ns (Primarly)

Crime report Birth-control
*

Haircut Steel-production
E

Book review Dress-design

b) Verb + Object.
*

Pushbutton (X pushes the buton).

c) Verbal N in ing + Object.
* *

Chewing gum (John chews gum). Others: drinking-water, reading-materials.

d) Object + Verbal N in ing. This type is VERY productive
*

Story-telling (John tells stories). Others: book-keeping, oath-taking,

e) Object + Agential N in er. This is also VERY productive and refers to
concrete (usually human) agents.
*
** ** **

Cigar-smoker (John smokes cigars). Others: songwriter, radio-operator.

** ** **

4.1.3. Verb and Adverbial Compounds

*

a) Verbal N in ing + Adverbial. This is a VERY productive type of

*
** *

compound.
Swimming-pool (Mary swims in the pool). Others: typing paper, walking stick.
*

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*
b) Adverbial + Abstract Verbal N in ing. Moderate productivity. This

*
group consist of:
TIME: Sleepwalking, daydreaming (Mary dreams during the day).

**
c) Adverbial + Agential N in er. Fairly productive.
Baby-sitter (Mary sits with the baby) *

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
d) Adverbial + Deverbal N. moderately productive.
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
PLACE: home-work (Mary works at home), boat-ride
**
e) Verb + Adverbial.
Dance-hall (Mary dances in a hall). Others: Springboard, workbench,
*

* *

4.1.4. Verbless compounds: N + N Compounds.

*

- SUBJ AND OBJ

* *

a) N1 operates N2.
*

Windmill (The wind operates the mill), motorcycle,

* *

b) N2 produces/yields N1
Toy factory (The factory produces toyd), water pistol
*

c) N1 produces/yields N2
E

Gas Light (The gas produces light), sawdust (=suciedad de sierra - serrn)
d) N1 has N2.
*

Window-pane (=mirror), arrowhead

*

- SUBJ AND COMPLEMENT

*

a) N2 is N1. This group contains animate and inanimate Ns.

*

Animate Ns: drummer boy, woman writer, girl friend (The friend is a girl)
D

Inanimate Ns: Rose bush, pine tree

b) Adj + N:
Darkroom (the room is dark), blackboard,
*
** ** **

c) N2 is like N1. VERY productive

** ** **

Frogman, goldfish (The fish is like gold)

d) N2 consists of N1.
*

*
** *

Apple pie (A pie that consist of apple), rice pudding

e) N2 is for N1.
Hand-towel (Towel for the hands), fire engine, coffee time, tearoom
*

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**
4.1.5. Bahubrihi Compounds.
These compounds names an entire thing by specifying some features of
it, as for instance paperback (A book which has a paper back). They may be formed

**
in two ways: NOUN+NOUN, as in birdbrain (=cabeza de chorlito) and
*
butterfingers (=torpe); ADJ + NOUN, as in paleface (=rostro palido) and

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
heavyweight (=persona de influencia). *

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
**
4.2. Kinds of composition in the verb.
*

4.2.1. Back-formation.
* *

Back-formation is said to occur when a compound Verbal N is shortened

*

to form a V, as in housekeeper housekeep. There are two types of syntactic

* *

relation in these verb compounds:

*

a) Object + Verb.
* *

Fire watch, house-hunt, lip-read (X reads the lips), brain-wash

b) Adverbial + Verb.
*

Bottle-feed, spring-clean, sleep-walk, baby-sit

E

4.2.2. Verb + Adverb

*

The principal advs used in these compounds are: out, over and under.
L

For example: outrun, overcome, underestimate

* *

4.3. Adjective compounds.

*

4.3.1. Verb and Object compounds

a) Object + -ing Participle.
Man-eating (Peter eats men), breathtaking, self-governing
*
** ** **

4.3.2. Verb and Adverbial Compounds.

** ** **

a) Adverbial + -ing particle.

*

Ocean-going (Laura goes across oceans), lip-sucking, mouth-watering

** *

b) Adverbial + -ed participle.

Home-made (Laura makes it at home), self-employed
*

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*
c) Adjective / Adverb + ing participle.

*
Hard-working (Laura works hard), everlasting, good-looking
d) Adjective / Adverb + Past Participle.

**
New-laid, widespread, quick-frozen (X is quickly frozen)
*

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
4.3.3. Verbless compounds.

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
a) Noun + Adjective. VERY productive.
*

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
**
Tax-free (free with respect to taxes), air-tight, homesick, waterproof
b) Other Noun + Adjective. Other compounds of this kind have tow
*

meaning:
* *

- AS + Adj + AS + N bottle-green (as green as a bottle)

*

- Adj + LIKE + N snow-white (white like snow).

* *

c) Contacts: (adj 1 + Adj 2). Many compounds of this type have a first
*

element ending in -o which does not form an independent word, as for

* *

instance socio-economic, Anglo-American

*

4.4. Reduplicative or repetition compounds.

E

These compounds are formed by two elements which are either

identical or slightly different. They are very common in very informal
*

speech and some derive from the nursery. The most common ones are:
a) To imitate sounds (onomatopoeia).
* *

Tick-tock, drip-drip
b) Alternating movements.
*

Ping-pong, flip-flop
c) Vacillation, insincerity
Riff-raff, wishy-washy, tittle-tattle (=chafardear)
*
** ** **

d) Intensification.
Tip-top, teeny-weeny
** ** **
*

- CEDE publications (Madrid)

*
** *

- Jespersen, O. 1993, The essentials of English grammar. London.

- Marchand, H. The categories and types of present day English word formation. Wiesbaden, 1960.
- Reeves, A & Llins, M, 1995 English grammar: An introductory description. Serveis de publicacions UAB:
Cerdanyola; Chapter 2.
*

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Summary 10: Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.
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**
5. Brief Summary.
1.Introduction:

*
-Word is not the most basic meaningful unit (pencil, impossible, women) (laugh, laughs, laughing )

*
-Morpheme: Minimal meaningful unit Lexical and grammatical morphemes
*
-Morphs are the actual realization of morphemes One morph can have several allomorphs.

** ** ** ** * * * * * *
-Different kind of morphs: Root (free), Base and affixes (bound).

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*
- Word-formation processes (WFP) are a set of grammatical rules which are used in order to

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
*
create new English words.
*
-Basic concepts: Open & closed words classes; Class-changing & class-maintaining; Input & output in WFR.
-Major WF processes: AFFIXATION, COMPOUNDING, CONVERSION.
-Minor WF processes: REDUPLICATION, CLIPPING, BLENDING, ACRONYMS.
*

* *

2.1.Prefixes are particles that can be added before full words but which cannot occur in isolation.
*

Characteristics:
*

- Foreign origin (except a-, be- fore-, mis- & un- [German origin]) & Class-maintaining
*

- Light stress; no change of overall stress pattern; Prefixes grouped according meaning.
* *
*

Groups of prefixes: SEMANTICAL ORGANIZATION [Quirk]

NE -Negative: In an anarchy, unexpected non-stop parties dislike just to insane men.
RE -Reversative: I disconnected the defrost mechanism to undo the problem.
*

PE -Pejorative: We realized that the pseudo-intelligent robot was mal-functioning because of his misconduct.
DE -Degree/Size: arch-, super-, out-, sur-, sub-, over- vs. under-, hyper-, ultra-, mini- & micro- vs. macro-
E

A -Attitude: Antichrist and pro-communists citizens cooperated to counteract the Pope.

LO -Locative: I got the supersonic subway to catch the international transatlantic on time.
TI -Time/order: My ex-husband foretold that he will rebuild his house both in the pre and post-war.
CO -Conversion: Bewitched, endanger.
*

NU -Number: mono-, uni-; bi-,di-,tri-; multi-,poly-

O -Others: The vice-president of Pan-America described in his autobiography t last neo-gothic prototypes.
2. Affixation

* *

2.2. Suffixes: Final element which is productive in forming new words Inflectional & Derivational.
Characteristics:
*

- Suffixes rarely have meaning of their own and, as a rule, they only serve to modify the meaning of
D

the main element or to change its category.

- Native suffixes combine only w/native base; Hybrid: Words w/a native base & a foreign suffix.

Classification: GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION [Quirk]

- NOUN SUFFIXES:
*

- Denominal Ns (abstract): In a democracy, friendship, a spoonful of Calvinism and brotherhood are essential in a
** ** **

kingdom, not slavery.

- Denominal Ns (concrete): An engineer weakling waitress burnt a Londoner banker booklet with a cigarette.
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- Deverbal Ns (abstract): The driving inhabitant refusal of the anal exploration was an amazement to my gay friend.
- Deverbal Ns (concrete): The participants to the writers contest were appointee in NY.
- Noun/Adjective suffixes: Israelite and Chinese violinists are Lutheran.
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- De-adjectival Ns: Happiness and sanity: all I want..

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- VERB SUFFIXES: To deafen and popularize at some time simplifies your life.
- ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES:
- Denominal Adjs: The most cowardly & childless un-forgetful event that I have ever seen was when a diny foolish
ladylike doc tried to contradict the darwian theory.
- Denominal Adjs (foreign origin suffs): The ambitious criminal had an grotesque Arabic air.
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- Deverbal Adjs: attractive, readable.

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- ADV SUFFIXES: Weatherwise, we will happily move backwards in time.

Ivn Matellanes Notes
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Summary 10: Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.
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3. Compound Words: Two different definitions: a) A combination of 2 words so as to function as

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a unit [Jespersen] b) A unit consisting of 2 or more bases [Quirk].
Characteristics:
- Diff ways of writing a compound: 1) Two independent words, 2) Joined by a hyphen & 3) As one word.
-Stress: black,bird (main stress on the first element and secondary stress on the second element)

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-In a NP it moves, as in ,blackbird (a bird that is black).

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-Meaning: It cannot always be deduced from its different elements.
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Classification: Syntactic relation of the compounding element by paraphrases.

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Kinds of composition in the Noun
* Verb Compounds Adjective Compounds

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a) Subject + Verb:
THE SUN
- Subject + Deverbal N Sunrise RISES
THE BOY
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- Verb + Subject Playboy PLAYS

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THE MACHINE
- Verbal N in ing + Subj Washing machine WASHES
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b) Verb + Object:
b) Verb + Object > Obj +
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JOHN TELLS A
- Obj + verbal N in ing Story-telling STORY -ing Particle: man-eating
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JOHN SMOKES A (PETER EATS MEN)

- Obj + Agential N in er Cigar-smoker
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CIGAR
JOHN TESTS
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- Obj + Deverbal N Blood test BLOOD

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JOHN PUSHES
- Verb + Object Push button THE BUTTON
JOHN CHEWS
- Verbal N in ing + Obj Chewing-gum
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GUM
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c) Verb + Adverbial (Advl) compounds c) Verb + Adv c) Verb and Adverbial compounds
- Verbal N in ing + MARY SWIMS IN THE
Advl Swimming pool POOL
(out, over, Advl + Ocean- LAURA GOES
-ing going ACROSS THE OCEAN
- Advl + Agential MARY SITS WITH THE under, up)
noun in er Baby-sitter BABY Home- LAURA MAKES IT AT
Underestimate Advl +
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- Advl + Abstract MARY DREAMS -ed made HOME

verbal N in -ing Daydreaming DURING THE DAY
Adj/Adv Hard- LAURA WORKS
MARY WORKS AT + -ing
home-work
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- Advl + Deverbal
WORK working HARD
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MARY DANCES IN Adj + Quick- CHICKEN WAS

- Verb + Advl Dance-hall -ed
THE HALL frozen FROZEN QUICKLY
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d) Bahuvrihi Compounds d) Back Formation: d) Vless compounds

N+N
D

Birdbrain - Object + brain-wash N + Adj Tax-free FREE IN RESPECT

Adj + N Noun
Paleface - Advl + V
TO TAXES
baby-sit As [adj] as bottle- AS GREEN AS A
[N] BOTTLE
green
[adj] like [N] snow- WHITE LIKE SNOW

white
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Contacts: Anglo-
Adj1 + Adj2
American
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e) Noun + Noun compounds

- N1 operates N2 Windmill THE WIND OPERATES THE MILL
Subj & Obj

- N2 produces N1 Toyfactory THE FACTORY PRODUCES TOYS

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- N1 produces N2 THE GAS PRODUCES LIGHT

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Gaslight
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- N1 has N2 doorknob THE DOOR HAS A KNOB

- N2 is N1 Girl friend THE FRIEND IS A GIRL
Subj & Compl

- Adj + N Darkroom THE ROOM IS DARK

- N2 is like N1 Goldfish THE FISH IS LIKE GOLD
- N2 consists of N1 Apple pie A PIE THAT CONSITIS OF APPLE
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- N2 is for N1 Hand-towel A TOWEL FOR THE HAND

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Ivn Matellanes Notes

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Summary 10: Lxico. Caractersticas de la formacin de las palabras en Ingls. Prefijacin, sufijacin y composicin.
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Having mentioned the essential units in word analysis, we can now introduce a language typology which
is widely referred to as Humboldts language typology. Humboldt established three types of
languages: Firstly, isolating languages are those with only morphologically simple words (Chinese),

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secondly agglutinating languages are those with morphologically complex words in which morphemes

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and morphs can be easily identified (Turkish), thirdly inflecting languages are those with

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morphologically complex words in which constituent morphs cannot be easily identified (Latin, Spanish).
It is important to bear in mind that most languages are a mixture of two or three of this types.

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