Information about the Fire

Triangle/Tetrahedron and Combustion

In order to understand how fire extinguishers work, you first need to know a little about
combustion. Unfortunately, it is impossible in this short introduction to completely describe all
the complex chemical and physical reactions that take place during a fire. However this page will
attempt to introduce the fundamental theories of fire and explosion.

The Fire Tetrahedron (A pyramid)

For many years the concept of fire was symbolized by the

Triangle of Combustion and represented, fuel, heat, and oxygen. Further fire research determined
that a fourth element, a chemical chain reaction, was a necessary component of fire. The fire
triangle was changed to a fire tetrahedron to reflect this fourth element. A tetrahedron can be
described as a pyramid which is a solid having four plane faces. Essentially all four elements
must be present for fire to occur, fuel, heat, oxygen, and a chemical chain reaction. Removal of
any one of these essential elements will result in the fire being extinguished.

The four elements are oxygen to sustain combustion, sufficient heat to raise the material to its
ignition temperature, fuel or combustible material and subsequently an exothermic chemical
chain reaction in the material. Each of the four sides of the fire tetrahedron symbolise the Fuel,
Heat, Oxygen and Chemical Chain Reaction. Theoretically, fire extinguishers put out fire by
taking away one or more elements of the fire tetrahedron.
 The symbol although simplistic, is a good analogy,
how to theoretically extinguish a fire, by creating a barrier using foam for instance and prevent
oxygen getting to the fire. By applying water you can lower the temperature below the ignition
temperature or in a flammable liquid fire by removing or diverting the fuel. Finally interfering
with the chemical chain reaction by mopping up the free radicals in the chemical reaction using,
BCF and other halon extinguishers, it also creates an inert gas barrier. However this type of
extinguisher is being phased out and in the future other extinguishing agents may be found using
this principle. The 2D figure opposite represents a 3D model of a tetrahedron.

A Definition of Fire
One generally accepted definition of combustion or fire, is a process involving rapid oxidation at
elevated temperatures accompanied by the evolution of heated gaseous products of combustion,
and the emission of visible and invisible radiation. Oxidation occurs all around us in the form of
rust on metal surfaces, and in our bodies by metabolising the food we eat. However, the key
word that sets combustion apart from other forms of oxidation is the word rapid.

The combustion process is usually associated with the oxidation of a fuel in the presence of
oxygen with the emission of heat and light. Oxidation, in the strict chemical sense, means the
loss of electrons. For an oxidation reaction to occur, a reducing agent the fuel, and an oxidizing
agent, usually oxygen must be present. As heat is added, the ignition source, the fuel molecules
and oxygen molecules gain energy and become active. This molecular energy is transferred to
other fuel and oxygen molecules which creates a chain reaction. A reaction takes place where the
fuel looses electrons and the oxygen gains electrons. This exothermic electron transfer emits heat
and/or light. If the fire is in a fire grate/ or furnace we refer to this process as a controlled fire,
and it is a building on fire we refer to this process as a uncontrolled fire.

The Combustion Modes

The combustion process occurs in two modes:

The flaming
 The non flaming, smoldering or glowing embers.

For the flaming mode it is necessary for solid and liquid fuels to be vaporized. The solid fuel
vapors are thermally driven off, or distilled and the liquid fuel vapors evaporated. It is this
volatile vapor from the solid or liquid fuels that we see actually burning in the flaming mode.
This gas or vapor production, emitted from the fuel is referred to as pyrolysis. Once a flame has
been established, heat transfer from the flame to the fuel surface continues to drive off more
volatile gases and perpetuates the combustion process. For continued burning in the flaming
mode requires a high burning rate, and the heat loss associated with transfer of heat from the
flame area by conduction, convection, and radiation must be less than the energy output of the
fire. If the heat loss is greater than the energy output of the fire the fire will extinguish.

Both modes, flaming and non flaming surface modes, can occur singly, or in combination.
Flammable liquids and gases only burn in the flaming mode. Wood, straw, and coal are examples
where both modes may exist simultaneously.

Flaming combustion can occur in the following forms:

1. Premixed flames where the fuel and oxygen are mixed prior to ignition. For example the
flame on a bunsen burner, gas stove, or propane torch.
2. Diffusion flames, more common, where the fuel and oxygen are initially separate but
burn in the region where they mix, like a burning of a pool of flammable liquid or the
burning of a log.

Stages of a Fire
There are three generally recognized stages to a fire. The incipient stage, smoldering stage, and
flame stage.

The incipient stage is a region where preheating, distillation and slow pyrolysis are in progress.
Gas and sub-micron particles are generated and transported away from the source by diffusion,
air movement, and weak convection movement, produced by the buoyancy of the products of
pyrolysis.

The smoldering stage is a region of fully developed pyrolysis that begins with ignition and
includes the initial stage of combustion. Invisible aerosol and visible smoke particles are
generated and transported away from the source by moderate convection patterns and
background air movement.

The flaming stage is a region of rapid reaction that covers the period of initial occurrence of
flame to a fully developed fire. Heat transfer from the fire occurs predominantly from radiation
and convection from the flame.

Classes of fire
Combustible and flammable fuels involved in fires have been broken down into five categories:

Class A fires are fires involving organic solids like paper, wood, Esc
Class B fires are fires involving flammable Liquids
Class C fires are fires involving flammable Gasses
Class D fires are fires involving Metals
Class F fires are fires involving Cooking oils.

Summary

A fire begins by an external ignition source in the form of a flame, spark, or hot ember. This
external ignition source heats the fuel in the presence of oxygen. As the fuel and oxygen are
heated, molecular activity increases. If sufficiently heated, a self-sustaining chemical chain
reaction or molecular activity occurs between the fuel and oxygen. This will continue the heating
process and the resulting chain reaction will escalate without the need for an external ignition
source. Once ignition has occurred, it will continue until

1. all the available fuel or oxidant has been consumed or

2. the fuel and/or oxygen is removed or
3. by reducing the temperature by cooling, or
4. by reducing the number of excited molecules and breaking the chain reaction.

Explosions
Generally, an explosion is defined as a very rapid release of high-pressure gas into the
environment. The energy from this very rapid release of the high-pressure gas is dissipated in the
form of a shock wave.

Explosions can be classified as physical, a balloon bursting, as physical and/or chemical, a boiler
explosion, or a chemical reaction of a gas/particle mixture. Our discussion will focus on
chemical reaction explosions.

The process of a chemical reaction explosion is similar to the combustion process whereby a fuel
and oxidant have premixed prior to ignition such as petroleum vapor or fine particles of grain
dust mixed with air. However, in an explosion the oxidation process proceeds at a greatly
accelerated rate. The oxidation process is usually, but not always, confined within an enclosure
such as a tank, grain silo, so that a rapid high-pressure rise occurs with an associated flame front.
Generally, it is this high-pressure shock wave that causes the damaging effects from an
explosion.

Resultant shock waves that propagate from the point of ignition at a velocity less than the speed
of sound are termed deflagration. Shock wave velocities in excess of the speed of sound are
termed detonations.
A rise in pressure creating a shock wave of 6894.76 Pascals is sufficient to knock a person
down. If the rise in pressure creates a shock wave of 13789.52 Pascals to 20684.28 Pascals this
sufficient to shatter an 8 to 12-inch thick concrete wall. A Pascal (pa) is equivalent to one N/m2.

The Safety Triangle Explained

In 1969, a study of industrial accidents was undertaken by Frank E. Bird, Jr., who was then the Director
of Engineering Services for the Insurance Company of North America. He was interested in the accident
ratio of 1 major injury to 29 minor injuries to 300 no-injury accidents first discussed in the 1931 book,
Industrial Accident Prevention by. H. W. Heinrich.

Since Mr. Heinrich estimated this relationship and stated further that the ratio related to the occurrence
of a unit group of 330 accidents of the same kind and involving the same person, Mr. Bird wanted to
determine what the actual reporting relationship of accidents was by the entire average population of
workers. H.W. Heinrichs classic safety pyramid is now considered the foremost illustration of types of
employee injuries.

There Bird analyzed 1,753,498 accidents reported by 297 cooperating companies. These companies
represented 21 different industrial groups, employing 1,750,000 employees who worked over 3 billion
hours during the exposure period analyzed. The study revealed the following ratios in the accidents
reported:

For every reported major injury (resulting in fatality, disability, lost time or medical treatment), there
were 9.8 reported minor injuries (requiring only first aid). For the 95 companies that further analyzed
major injuries in their reporting, the ratio was one lost time injury per 15 medical treatment injuries.

Forty-seven percent of the companies indicated that they investigated all property damage accidents
and eighty-four percent stated that they investigated major property damage accidents. The final
analysis indicated that 30.2 property damage accidents were reported for each major injury.

Part of the study involved 4,000 hours of confidential interviews by trained supervisors on the
occurrence of incidents that under slightly different circumstances could have resulted in injury or
property damage. Analysis of these interviews indicated a ratio of approximately 600 incidents for every
reported major injury.

In referring to the 1-10-30-600 ratio detailed in a pyramid it should be remembered that this represents
accidents reported and incidents discussed with the interviewers and not the total number of accidents
or incidents that actually occurred.
Bird continues, as we consider the ratio, we observe that 30 property damage accidents were reported
for each serious or disabling injury. Property damage incidents cost billions of dollars annually and yet
they are frequently misnamed and referred to as "near-accidents. Ironically, this line of thinking
recognizes the fact that each property damage situation could probably have resulted in personal injury.
This term is a holdover from earlier training and misconceptions that led supervisors to relate the term
"accident" only to injury.

The 1-10-30-600 relationships in the ratio indicate clearly how foolish it is to direct our major effort only
at the relatively few events resulting in serious or disabling injury when there are so many significant
opportunities that provide a much larger basis for more effective control of total accident losses.

It is worth emphasizing at this point that the ratio study was of a certain large group of organizations at
a given point in time. It does not necessarily follow that the ratio will be identical for any particular
occupational group or organization. That is not its intent. The significant point is that major injuries are
rare events and that many opportunities are afforded by the more frequent, less serious events to take
actions to prevent the major losses from occurring. Safety leaders have also emphasized that these
actions are most effective when directed at incidents and minor accidents with a high loss potential.

There is always a large variation between the most serious and no claim incident, as shown in both
pyramids.

In 2003, ConocoPhillips Marine conducted a similar study demonstrating a large difference in the ratio
of serious accidents and near misses. The study found that for every single fatality there are at least
300,000 at-risk behaviors, defined as activities that are not consistent with safety programs, training and
components on machinery. These behaviors may include bypassing safety components on machinery or
eliminating a safety step in the production process that slows down the operator. With effective
machine safeguarding and training, at-risk behaviors and near misses can be diminished. This also
reduces the chance of the fatality occurring, since there is a lower frequency of at-risk behaviors. The
variation can be explained by distance or time for example, the injury was missed by one second or by
one inch. Machine safety can make a material. The difference in widening the variation, favorably
impacting frequency and severity of claims and, therefore, workers compensation premiums.

PPE The Last Line of Protection

Know how and when to use Personal Protective Equipment.

By Gustavo A. Gonzalez

Personal Protective Equipment, or PPE, includes a variety of equipment or protective devices

used to create a safety barrier between the employee and a potential hazard. Gloves, hard hats,
safety glasses, safety shoes and hearing protection are among the most common types of PPE.
Other types are more specialized, such as air purifier masks, harnesses and respirators.

Since PPE is designed to provide a level of protection for specific applications, U.S. and
Canadian safety regulations require that each employee be trained and understands the proper
use, care and maintenance of the equipment before wearing it.

Before providing employees with any kind of PPE, the employer must conduct a hazard
assessment of the workplace in order to identify physical hazards and the nature of the threats
they pose to the workers. The employer must also have a written program in place. If the
employees handle hazardous chemicals or skin irritants, such as concrete, the employer must
consult the Material Safety Data Sheets for those products in order to provide the required PPE.

Once the hazard assessment is complete, the employer may decide to use other methods to
eliminate the hazards, such as engineering and administrative controls. These methods are more
effective than PPE, because they eliminate the hazards. However, if the hazards cannot be
eliminated, then the use of PPE is required. Remember, PPE does not eliminate the hazard; it is
designed to protect the employee from the hazard.

Once the PPE is issued, the employee must wear it whenever requested to do so. In most
companies, refusal to wear PPE may result in administrative action or even dismissal.

The following paragraphs describe the most common PPE used in the precast concrete industry
and the proper usage of each.

Hard hats

Hard hats are designed to offer some head protection. OSHA regulations require hard hats when
working in areas where there is a potential for injury to the head from falling objects or exposure
to electrical contact. They are also recommended for protecting the head whenever there is a
danger of bumping it against fixed objects, such as exposed pipes or beams.

Hard hats must comply with ANSI Standard Z-89.1 and must be marked as such. They must not
be painted or drilled with holes for ventilation. They must be adjusted correctly so that the top of
the shell hangs about an inch or so from the top of the head. Do not wear baseball caps under the
hard hat, and do not turn the visor to the rear.

Protect your hard hat; do not sit or stand on it, and keep it away from heat sources. Inspect it
daily for cracks, dents and broken plastic suspension parts, and replace it if necessary.

Eye and face protection

Eye and face protection is a requirement in every precast plant due to the potential for eye
injuries. OSHA requires that each affected employee uses appropriate eye or face protection
when exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids
or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, or potentially injurious light radiation, such as in
welding and torch cutting. Safety glasses must comply with ANSI Standard Z.87.1, and they
must be stamped as such.

There are different types of eye and face protection according to the hazards encountered at the
workplace. The most common are impact-resistant or safety glasses, which protect you from
particles produced by grinding, cutting wood, cleaning molds, tying rebar, etc.

Goggles protect the eyes and eye sockets from impact, dust and splashes, because they fit tightly
to the face. Face shields protect the face from dust, splashes or sprays, but they do not protect
against impacts. Therefore it is recommended that you wear safety glasses under the face shield
to protect against impact hazards. Use face shields while pouring and vibrating concrete.

Welding shields protect your eyes against dangerous radiation caused by welding or torch
cutting. Welding masks also protect your face against flying sparks and molten metal particles.

Inspect your eye protection equipment frequently and replace if there are any signs of cracked or
scratched lenses, loss of elasticity in the band, loose fitting or any other type of wear. Clean your
eyewear as needed, and wash it off right away if any concrete splashes onto it.

Foot protection

According to OSHA standards, foot protection must be worn when working in areas where
there is a danger of foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects, or objects piercing the sole, and
where such employees feet are exposed to electrical hazards. Protective footwear must meet
ANSI Standard Z41.1.

Leather boots with steel toes are the most common form of foot protection in the precast
industry, but you can also find boots with metatarsal protection, which are special guards that run
from the ankle to the toes and protect the upper part of the feet. Some shoes also have reinforced
soles to protect against punctures.

Work shoes should be oil-resistant with antiskid rubber soles, and they should be insulated. The
shoe must grip the heel firmly, and the forepart must allow freedom of movement for the toes.
When its time to buy work shoes, follow these simple rules:

Do not accept footwear that is too tight to stretch with wear.

Measure both feet, as they normally differ in size.
Buy shoes to fit the larger foot.
Buy shoes late in the afternoon when the feet are likely to be swollen to their maximum
size.

Take care of your footwear. Inspect it before you use it. Look for holes and cracks that might
leak. Replace footwear that is worn or torn. After working with chemicals, hose your footwear
with water to rinse away any chemicals or dirt before removing your footwear. Remember,
improper footwear can cause or aggravate foot problems.

Hand protection

OSHA requires thatemployers select and require employees to use appropriate hand
protectionwhen employees hands are exposed to hazards such as those from skin absorption of
harmful substances; severe cuts or lacerations; severe abrasions; punctures; chemical burns;
thermal burns; and harmful temperature extremes.
There is quite a variety of hand protection for different work hazards. Cotton work gloves protect
against dirt, abrasions and small cuts. Leather gloves protect against sparks, heat and rough
objects. Welders and torch operators must wear leather gloves.

Rubber gloves protect workers from burns, irritation and skin injuries caused by contact with
oils, greases, solvents and other hazardous chemicals. Since rubber gloves are made from
different materials for different applications, it is important to review the MSDS or ask the
supplier for the right kind of glove material for each application. Not all types of rubber material
can be used with all chemicals.

Another point to consider is that certain machines and power tools become more hazardous when
using gloves because of the danger of the gloves getting caught in moving or rotational parts,
pulling your hand into the equipment. Examples are table saws, drills and grinders. If you do not
know which kind of gloves to wear, ask your supervisor.

Hearing protection

Hearing protection must be used when noise levels are consistently above 85 decibels (dB) for
eight hours or in accordance with the following OSHA table.

One rule of thumb is that if you have to yell to be heard by another person about 3 feet away
from you, the noise level is too high and you must use hearing protection. Employees using
hearing protection must be trained in the selection, limitation, care and proper use of hearing
protectors. Employees must also be tested regularly by qualified professionals to see if the
hearing protection is effective. There are different types of hearing protection and with different
noise attenuation ratings. Cotton is not an approved material for hearing protection. Consult with
your supervisor regarding the required hearing protection equipment in your plant or work area.
As with all other PPE, hearing protection equipment should be inspected daily and used properly
in order to protect your hearing. Keep your hearing protectors clean at all times, wash your hands
before inserting plugs in your ears, and do not leave them lying around collecting dust. If they
are the disposable type, throw them away after use. Do not use any other employees hearing
protection equipment.
Respiratory protection Respiratory protection must be used when an employee is exposed to a
given concentration of contaminants in the air. Dust masks are not considered respirators and
cannot be used if there is exposure to a harmful contaminant. Exposure to silica requires the use
of respirators. The use of respirators is too complicated an issue to be fully discussed in this
article. OSHA has strict guidelines in reference to the use of respirators, and no employer should
issue a respirator to an employee if those guidelines have not been followed. In order to use a
respirator, the employee must receive a medical evaluation, be tested on the respirator to be used
and be properly trained in the use, care, maintenance and storage of the equipment. They should
always be worn on a clean-shaven face. There are many different types of respirators for many
different contaminants. Respirators are certified by the National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) and must be used in compliance with their certification. Employees with
certain medical conditions or respiratory problems may not be allowed to use respirators. Also,
individuals with a lot of facial hair may be required to shave in order to obtain a tight seal
between the face piece and the face. Do not use a respirator if you have not received the required
training and evaluations. Remember, your Personal Protective Equipment will not eliminate a
hazard, but rather it is the last line of defense. Inspect all your PPE daily and report any problems
to your supervisor. Do not use any defective PPE and keep it in a clean and sanitary condition.
Your health and safety depend on them.

Back Belts are Not Considered PPE According to NIOSH, Employers relying on back belts
to prevent injury should be aware of the lack of scientific evidence supporting their use. After a
review of the scientific literature, NIOSH has concluded that, because of limitations of the
studies that have analyzed workplace use of back belts, the results cannot be used to either
support or refute the effectiveness of back belts in injury reduction. NIOSH is not alone in
questioning the effectiveness of back belts. Other institutions issuing similar statements include
the American Industrial Hygiene Association, the Bureau of Mines, the Army Office of the
Surgeon General, the State of Washington Department of Labor and Industries, the Alberta
Ministry of Occupational Health and Safety ( Canada), the United Brotherhood of Carpenters,
and the Construction Safety Association of Ontario. ( DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-127
October 1996). In the largest study of its kind ever conducted, NIOSH announced Dec. 5, 2000,
that it had found no evidence back belts reduce back injury or back pain for retail workers who
lift or move merchandise. The study, conducted over a two-year period, found no significant
difference in workers compensation claims between employees using back belts and those who
dont.

OSHA Issues New Rule

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has issued a new rule to clarify employer-
issued Personal Protective Equipment. A previous rule stated that OSHA required employers to
issue PPE to protect employees from job-related injuries and illnesses. The rule did not
specifically state that the employer is to provide PPE at no cost to the employee. The new rule,
which becomes effective Feb. 13, 2008, specifically requires employers to pay for PPE issued to
employees. The requirements generally cover a wide range of PPE, including hard hats, gloves,
goggles, safety shoes, safety glasses, welding helmets and goggles, face shields, chemical
protective equipment and fall protection equipment. The rule does not require employers to
provide PPE where none has been required before. Instead, the rule merely stipulates that the
employer must pay for the required PPE, except in limited cases specified in the standard. For
more information, visit www.osha.gov and search the term PPE 2007.

Gustavo Gonzalez has nearly 20 years of experience in the precast concrete industry. He has a
bachelors degree in Industrial Engineering Technology from Florida International University
and is a former precast concrete plant manager. He currently serves as an instructor for the
National Safety Council and the National Precast Concrete Association.

What is the difference between a 'hazard'

and a 'risk'?
A hazard is something that can cause harm, e.g. electricity, chemicals, working up a ladder,
noise, a keyboard, a bully at work, stress, etc.

A risk is the chance, high or low, that any hazard will actually cause somebody harm.

For example, working alone away from your office can be a hazard. The risk of personal danger
may be high. Electric cabling is a hazard. If it has snagged on a sharp object, the exposed wiring
places it in a 'high-risk' category.

Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation

Definition: The Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation is a traditional motivation theory
that asserts, in motivating people to elicit desired behaviors, sometimes the rewards are given in
the form of money, promotion, and any other financial or non-financial benefits and sometimes
the punishments are exerted to push an individual towards the desired behavior.

The Carrot and Stick approach of motivation is based on the principles of reinforcement and is
given by a philosopher Jeremy Bentham, during the industrial revolution. This theory is derived
from the old story of a donkey, the best way to move him is to put a carrot in front of him and jab
him with a stick from behind. The carrot is a reward for moving while the stick is the punishment
for not moving and hence making him move forcefully.
Thus, an individual is given carrot i.e. reward when he performs efficiently and is jabbed with a
stick or is given a punishment in case of non-performance. While giving the punishments, the
following points need to be taken care of:

1. Punishment is said to be effective in modifying the behavior if an individual selects a

desirable alternative behavior.
2. If the above condition does not occur the behavior will be temporarily suppressed and
may reappear after the punishment is over.
3. The punishment is more effective when given at the time the undesirable behavior is
actually performed.
4. The management should make sure, that punishment is properly administered and does
not become a reward for the undesirable behavior.

Thus, carrot and stick approach of motivation should be applied carefully such that, both have
the positive motivational effect on the people in the organization.