CC304

GEOTECHNICS 1

LECTURER : PN HAZLINA BINTI MAHFIDZ

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO
GEOTECHNICS

CLO 1 : Discover the physical and mechanical properties of

soil basically for engineering practice
CLO 3 : Demonstrate positive team work attributes by
contributing actively in group for laboratory test that
yield valid result
Definition of Geotechnical Engineering

The branch of Civil Engineering

that deals with the properties of
soils and rocks and their
capability of supporting structures
placed on or under them.
Characteristics of Geotechnical Engineering

Works in a complex environment

Requires a higher degree of judgement than
other branches of engineering
More than one acceptable solution to any
problem
The integrity of the structure above is
dependent upon the quality of the foundation
below
Development of Geotechnical
Engineering
The slowest branch of civil engineering to
develop a theoretical basis that could be used
in practical design
Design of foundations traditionally was
conservative and the result of trial and error
Larger structures and catastrophic failures led
to the investigation of the causes of failure
and the establishment of theory which in turn
would lead to design methods that resulted in
workable foundations
 UNDERSTAND SOIL MECHANICS IN GENERAL

Soilmechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics

that describes the behavior of soils.

Forengineering purposes, soil is defined as the

uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid
and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles.

To a civil engineer, the term soil means, the loose

unconsolidated inorganic material on the earths
crust produced by the disintegration of rocks,
overlying hard rock with or without organic matter
 Soil is used as a construction material in various civil
engineering projects, and it supports structural
foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the
properties of soil, such as its origin, grain-size
distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility, shear
strength, and load-bearing capacity.

Soilmechanics is the branch of science that deals

with the study of the physical properties of soil and the
behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of
forces when it is used either as a construction material
or as a foundation material
Application of soil
mechanics
Foundation

Underground and Earth-retaining

Structures

Pavement Design

Excavations, Embankments and

Dams
 Karl Terzaghi
The father of geotechnical engineering
Developed both the theory and practice of the
analysis of soils and the design of foundations
Consolidation theory
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations
Design of retaining walls and cellular cofferdams
Wrote some of the first textbooks
on soil mechanics and
foundations design
Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Practice (1948)
Theoretical Soil Mechanics
(1943)
Definition of Soil and Rock
Soil
Naturally occurring mineral particles which are
readily separated into relatively small pieces,
and in which the mass may contain air, water,
or organic materials (derived from decay of
vegetation).
Rock
Naturally occurring material composed of
mineral particles so firmly bonded together that
relatively great effort is required to separate the
particles (i.e., blasting or heavy crushing
forces).
 KNOW THE TYPES OF ROCK AND EXAMPLES OF
ROCK FOUND IN MALAYSIA
The formation of soils is rather complex but we know that rocks
are the parent material of soils. Soils are formed by the
weathering of rocks. Therefore, it is important to learn about the
various types of rocks. Basically, rocks can be classified into three
basic groups that reflect their origin or method of formation :
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
Types of
Rocks and
The Rock
Cycle
 TYPES OF ROCK
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from molten magma which solidifies
after cooling down. Magma may have been formed due to
volcanic activities or may have existed during the earths
formative stages.
Igneous rock may form with or without crystallization, either below
the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as
extrusive (volcanic) rocks
Igneous rocks can be coarse-grained like granite or fine-grained
like basalt. Generally, these rocks are hard, dense and durable.
Igneous rocks generally make good construction material. They
usually have a high bearing capacity and therefore, make good
foundation-bearing stratum.
Igneous Rocks

Example rocks found in Malaysia

(Igneous rocks)

Medium-grained
Medium-grained Dark green andesite
porphyritic biotite
syenite from Benta, from Kuala Krai,
granite from Kuala
Pahang Kelantan.
Berang,
Terengganu.

Pegmatite from Bt. Mor,

Johor
 SEDIMENTARY
Sedimentary rocks are the most common types of rock found on the
earth surface. They were formed when mineral particles, fragmented
rock particles and remains of certain organisms are transported and
deposited in layers to form sediments.
Before being deposited, sediment was formed by weathering and
erosion in a source area, and then transported to the place of
deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers which are
called agents of denudation
In addition, the soil layer might have been solidified and cemented
by certain minerals (e.g. silica, iron oxides, calcium carbonate)
The most common types of sedimentary rocks are:
(a) Limestone is composed of calcium carbonate. It was hardened by
cementation action rather than by pressure. The strength of limestone
varies from soft (weak) to hard (strong and durable)depending on
the rock texture and the degree of cementation.
(b) Shale is formed through the consolidation of clay or silts. Shale
normally has laminated structures and tends to split along the
lamination. Its strength varies from weak to hard. Sometimes,
shale is referred to as claystone if it is made ofnclay and
siltstone if it is made of silt.

(c) Sandstone consists primarily of quartz and is formed through

pressure and the cementation of silica, calcite, iron oxide or
clay. The strength and durability of sandstone depends on
many factors such as the cementing material, degree of
cementation and the applied pressure.

(d) Dolomite is composed of calcium carbonate interbonded with

magnesium. The grain structure and colour are similar to those
of limestone.
Sedimentary Rocks
Definition
Rocks formed by deposition,
usually under water, of
products derived by the
disaggregation of pre-existing
rocks.
Types
Shales clay and silt
particles
Sandstones
Limestone (Karst topography)
Dolstone (marl, chalk)
Importance of Weathering
Example rocks found in Malaysia
(Sedimentary Rocks)

Conglomerate from
Light grey sandstone from
Pedu Lake, Kedah.
Kajang, Selangor.

Red mudstone from Utan

Aji, Perlis
 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks were produced when igneous and
sedimentary rocks were subjected to intense pressure, heat and
shear. The rocks changed their texture, structure, mineral and
chemical composition. In a process called metamorphism, which
means "change in form.
They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth's
surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of
the rock layers above it.
For example, granite metamorphosed into gneiss, shale
metamorphosed into slate, limestone and dolomite
metamorphosed into marble.
The rocks can be very strong if unweathered and can be used as
building materials
Metamorphic Rocks
Definition
Rocks that may be either igneous or
sedimentary rocks that have been altered
physically and sometimes chemically by the
application of intense heat and pressure at
some time in their geological history
Example rocks found in Malaysia
(Metamorphic Rocks)

Black slate from

Pulau Langkawi,
Kedah Banded marble from
Gua Musang,
Kelantan

Quartz-mica
schist from
Manek Urai,
Kelantan.
Calc-silicate hornfels
from Belum, Perak.
Serpentinite from
Ranau, Sabah.
 UNDERSTAND THE FORMATION PROCESS OF SOIL AND
EXAMPLE OF AREAS OF SOIL CAN BE FOUND IN
MALAYSIA
Most of the soils that cover the earth are formed by the
weathering of various rocks. There are two general types of
weathering.
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken into
smaller and smaller pieces by physical forces, including running water,
wind, ocean waves, glacier ice, frost, and expansion and contraction
caused by the gain and loss of heat.
Chemical weathering is the process of chemical decomposition of the
original rock. In the case of mechanical weathering, the rock breaks
into smaller pieces without a change in its chemical composition.
However, in chemical weathering, the original material may be
changed to something entirely different. For example, the chemical
weathering of feldspar can produce clay minerals.

Most rock weathering is a combination of mechanical and

chemical weathering
 Soil produced by the weathering of rocks can be transported by
physical processes to other places or remain in position at the
place of region.
Soil that remain in position at the place of region are Residual
Soils.
Residual soils differ very much from transported soils in their
characteristics and engineering behaviour. The degree of disintegration
may vary greatly throughout a residual soil mass and hence, only a
gradual transition into rock is to be expected. An important
characteristic of these soils is that the sizes of grains are not definite
because of the partially disintegrated condition. The grains may break
into smaller grains with the application of a little pressure

Residual soils tend to be more abundant in humid and warm zones

where conditions are favourable to chemical weathering of rocks and
have sufficient vegetation to keep the products of weathering from
being easily transported as sediments. Residual soils have not received
much attention from geotechnical engineers becausethese are
located primarily in undeveloped areas
 Soil produced by the weathering of rocks may get transported
from the place of origin by various agencies such as wind, water,
ice, gravity, etc. In this case these are termed Transported soil
A high degree of alteration of particle shape, size, and texture as also
sorting of the grains occurs during transportation and deposition.
A large range of grain sizes and a high degree of smoothness and
fineness of individual grains are the typical characteristics of such soils.
Transported soils may be further subdivided, depending upon the
transporting agency and the place of deposition, as under:
Alluvial soils. Soils transported by rivers and streams: Sedimentary
clays.
Aeoline soils. Soils transported by wind: loess.
Glacial soils. Soils transported by glaciers: Glacial till.
Lacustrine soils. Soils deposited in lake beds: Lacustrine silts and
lacustrine clays.
Marine soils. Soils deposited in sea beds: Marine silts and marine
clays.
 Organic soils are usually found in low-lying areas where the water
table is near or above the ground surface. The presence of a high
water table helps in the growth of aquatic plants that, when
decomposed, form organic soil. This type of soil deposit is usually
encountered in coastal areas and in glaciated regions. Organic
soils show the following characteristics:
1. Their natural moisture content may range from 200 to 300%.
2. They are highly compressible.
3. Laboratory tests have shown that, under loads, a large
amount of settlement is derived from secondary
consolidation.
From Rock to Soil
Weathering of Rocks to Soil
Weathering is the Chemical Weathering
physical or chemical Oxidation
breakdown of rock Hydration
Physical Weathering Hydrolysis
Unloading of Carbonation
overburden Solution
compressive stresses
Especially significant
Frost Action
in the erosion of
Organism Growth limestone and the
Temperature Changes formation of Karst
Crystal Growth Topography and
sinkholes
Abrasion
Basic Soil Types
Sedimentary Soils
Soils which are Transported Soils
weathered in place Soils which are
Residual transported and
Organic deposited in a new
location
Alluvial
Aeolian
Glacial
Marine
Colluvial
Pyroclastic
Sedimentary Soils
Residual Soils: Material formed
by disintegration of underlying
parent rock or partially indurated
material.
Sands
Residual sands and fragments
of gravel size formed by
solution and leaching of
cementing material, leaving
the more resistant particles;
commonly quartz.
Clays
Residual clays formed by
decomposition of silicate
rocks, disintegration of shales,
and solution of carbonates in
limestone.
Organic Soils: Accumulation of
highly organic material formed
in place by the growth and
subsequent decay of plant life
Peat. A somewhat fibrous
aggregate of decayed and
decaying vegetation matter
having a dark colour and odour
of decay.
Muck. Peat deposits which
have advanced in stage of
decomposition to such extent
that the botanical character is
no longer evident.
Very compressible. Entirely
unsuitable for supporting
building foundations.
Transported Soils:
Alluvial Soils
Transported Soils:
Alluvial Soils
Other examples
Alluvial fans:
water
transported
deposits in
relatively dry
places
Piedmont
deposits
Transported Soils:
Aeolian Soils
Transported Soils:
Glacial Soils
Transported Soils
Marine Soils: Material
transported and deposited by
ocean waves and currents in
shore and offshore areas.
Shore deposits
Deposits of sands and/or
gravels formed by the
transporting, destructive,
and sorting action of
waves on the shoreline.
Marine clays
Organic and inorganic
deposits of fine-grained
material.
Colluvial Soils: Material
transported and deposited by
gravity.
Talus
Deposits created by
gradual accumulation
of unsorted rock
fragments and debris
at base of cliffs.
Hillwash
Fine colluvium
consisting of clayey
sand, sand silt, or clay.
Particle or Grain Sizes
Soil Cohesion
Cohesionless Soils
Cohesive Soils
Generally are
granular or coarse Generally are fine
grained grained
Particles do not Particles have
naturally adhere to natural adhesion to
each other each other due to
presence of clay
Have higher
minerals
permeability
Have low
permeability
 Structure of Clay Minerals

Atoms of clay minerals

form sheets
Silica tetrahedral sheets
Alumina octahedral
sheets
Sheets can layer in
different ways, forming
different types of clay
minerals
Clay minerals tend to
form flat, platelike
shapes
Types of Clay Minerals
Kaolinite
One sheet alumina, one
silica
Most prevalent clay
mineral
Halloysite
One sheet alumina, one
silica, sheet of water in
between
Properties affected by
presence or removal of
water sheet
Reverts to kaolinite when
water is removed
Illite
One silica, one alumina,
one silica sheet, bonded
with potassium
More plastic than kaolinite
Most prevalent in marine
deposits
Montmorillonite
Same as illite except no
potassium; iron or
magnesium replace the
alumina
Very prone to expansion
with changes in water
content due to weak
bonding