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Diyala University

College of Engineering
Dept. of Electrical Power Eng.Class: 3rd
Dept. of Electronic Eng. Class:4th

Power Electronics

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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What is Power Electronics:

Power Semiconductor Devices:

Power Diode:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Power diode types:

Types of power electronic circuits:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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1- diode rectifiers
2- ac-dc converters: controlled rectifiers
3- ac-ac converter: ac voltage controllers
4- dc-dc converter: dc choppers
5- dc-ac converter: inverters
6- static switchs:

Single phase full wave rectifier circuit:

Full wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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The power transistor:
The transistor is a three layer N-P-N or P-N-P device as
shown in fig.1.Within the working range the collector current IC
is a function of the base current IB a change in base current
giving a corresponding amplified change in the collector
current for a given collector-emitter voltage VCE . The ratio of
these two currents is in the order of 15 to 100.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 1 N-P-N Transistor a) Structure, b) Symbol with current direction

In practice for power applications the transistor is operated as a


switch, with zero bases current. Power transistors have
controlled turn on and turn off characteristics. The transistors
are operated in the saturation region resulting in allow on state
voltage drop. The switching speed of modern transistors is much
higher than that of thyristors but voltage and current ratings are
lower than those of thyristors.

Fig 2

Dynamic Switching Characteristics:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Time delay (td):
Is the time taken for IC to reach 10 % of its final value IC (sat).

Rise time (tr):

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Is the time taken for (Ic) to change from 10% to 90 % of Its
final value IC (sat).

Conduction time (t on) = td + tr

Storage time (ts):


Is the time interval between the input and the point at which Ic
reaches 90% of its final value IC (sat).

Fall time (tf):


Is the time taken for (Ic) to fall from 90% to 10% of its final
value IC (sat) .

Cut off time (t off):


Toff = ts + tf

For the input circuit:

VBB = IBRB + VBE

VBB - VBE
RB = ----------------------
IB

And for the output circuit:

VCC= IC RC + VCE

VCC-VCE
RC = ------------------

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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IC
The equation above can be used to draw the dc load line by
choosing two points as follows:
1- At cut off region:
IC (cut off) = 0
VCE (cut off) =VCC

2- At saturation region:
VCE (sat) = 0
VCC
IC (sat) = ------------
Rc

IC (sat)
= -----------------
IB (sat)

The perfect switch condition is: IB(per) > 3* IB(sat)


EX:1/
For transistor as a switch if the transistor has the following
specification (VCE (sat) = 0.15; VBE (sat) = 0.65; = 45;
Vin= 1.5 V) calculate the value of RB which make the transistor
works in saturation region.

VCC-VCE 30-15
IC (sat) = ----------------- = ------------------ =14 A
RC 2*10

IC (sat) 14*10
() = ------------ = --------------- = 0.3 A
Choose: 45

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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IB (per) = 3* IB (sat) = 3*0.3= 0.9 A

Vin - VBE
RB = ------------ =944 1K
IB (per)

EX: 2
For the circuit shown below (VBE= 0.65 V, = 50, and Vin=1V)
Calculate the value of (R1, RB) which make the transistor works
in saturation region.
VCC 15
IC (sat) = ------------ = ---------------- = 30A
Rc 500

IC (sat)
() = -------------------- = 0.6 A

IB (per) = 3* IB(sat) =3*0.6 *10 =1.8 A

To certify the operation of the transistor in saturation region we


may use

I1= 2* IB (sat) = 2 * 0.6 = 1.2 A


VBB-VBE
R1= ----------------- = 3.625 K
I1

I2 = IB (sat) = 0.6 A

Vin- VBE
RB = --------------- = 0.583 K
I2
Improvement of Switching Time:
The (toff) can improved by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the base resistor RB to attract the base charge and
then reduce the storage time (ts) which reduces the cut off time.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT):

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Symbol of UJT

It consists of a lightly doped silicon bar with a heavily doped P-


type mater
ial alloyed to its one side closer to B2 ,so that a single p-n
junction is produced .As shown in fig (a)there are three
terminals one an emitter &two bases B1&B2at the bottom & the
top respectively of the silicon bar

Fig 3 Construction. Equivalent circuit.


The UJT is just like two resistances in series from B1 to B2
and a diode connected to junction of the two resistors as shown
in fig.3
At IE=0 the voltage at n point is equal to VBB
=RB1/RBB
B1 VBB =
B2 When B2 open circuit & IB2 =0 the relation between
VE & IE is like the relation in PN.

Fig 4 characteristic of UJT

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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When VE< VBB PN is reverse biase and IE is minuse.
When VE > VBB PN is forward & biase and IE is pluse.
IE E B1
RB1 . IE IE
VE . RB1
. IE IB2
Valley point
.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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UJT Applications:
The UJT is often used as a trigger device for thyristors and
triacs other applications include non sinusoidal oscillators,
relaxation oscillator (saw tooth generator), pulse control, and
timing circuits.

Relaxation oscillator circuit (saw-tooth generator)


Vyy- Vv 1
T1 = Ln ------------------ = RC Ln ------------
Vyy-Vp 1-

1
=RC , f = ------
T
Ex: 3
Using the UJT to construct an oscillator as shown below,
calculate?
1- Minimum & Maximum frequency of pulses which can be
generated. (93.2 Hz, 4.33 kHz)
2- Maximum capacitor voltage. (8.4 V)

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Introduction:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Circuit and V & I characteristic:
For IG= 0

The characteristic curve of the Thyristor

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Anode is made positive with respect to cathode J1&J3
forward bias where J2 is reverse bias junction .only a small
leakage currents flows from anode to cathode. The thyristor is
on off-state, the leakage current is known as off-state current
ID.
If the anode to cathode voltage VAK is increased to
sufficiently large value, J2 will break this is known as avalanche
breakdown, and the corresponding voltage is called forward
break-down voltage VBO. Since J1 and J3 are forward then the
free carriers can cross all three junctions resulting in large
forward anode currents. The device will be in conducting state.
The voltage drop would be due to the ohmic drop in the
four layers and it is small. In on-state the anode current is
determined by the external impedance.
IL latching current is minimum anode current required to
maintain the thyristor in the on-state immediately after
thyristors has been turned on and the gate signal has been
removed once thyristor conducts it behaves like conducting
diode and there is no depletion layer on the junction J2due to
the free movement of carriers. If the anode current is reduced to
the holding current IH, a depletion region will develop around
junction J2 due to the reduced no. of carriers and the thyristors
will be in the blocking state. IH is on the order of mA and
IH<IL.
Holding current IH is the minimum anode current to maintain
the thyristor in the on-state. When the cathode voltage is
positive with respect to the anode, J2 is forward biased while J1
and J2 are in reverse-biased state. The current is IR (reverse
Leakage current).
Athyristor can be turned on by increasing VAK beyond VBO,
but such turn-on be destructive. In practice the thyristor can be
turned-on at a forward voltage less than VBO by applying a
positive voltage between its gate and cathode.
Thyristor equivalent circuit:
The thyristor operation can best be understood by
thinking of its internal (pnpn) structure as a two transistor

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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arrangment , as shown below.When IG=0 the Q1 & Q2 are off
then the thyristore operates in off state.When IG has value the
Q1 &Q2 are on and the thyristor will operate in condition on
state and stays in this region.Q1 is pnp,Q2 is npn.

IE=emitter current

ICBO = Leakage current of the collector-base junction


IC
= ------, common-base current gain.
IE
For Q1, the emitter current is the anode current

Where 1 is the current gain and ICBO is the leakage current


of Q1.Similarly for transistor Q2 the collector current IC2 is

Where 2 is the current gain and ICBO2 is leakage current of Q2.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Thyristor Turn-On:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Turn on Thyristor characteristics:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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:

Symbol Structure Equivalent circuit

Applications:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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LASCR (Light Activated or Light Triggered Thyristor):
This thyristor is turned-ON by photon bombardment of the silicon wafer
which can be achieved by direct light radiation on the wafer. The gate
structure is designed to provide sufficient gate sensitivity for triggering
from practical light sources (as light emitting diode LEDs).
The LASCRs are used in high voltage, high current applications. A
LASCR offers complete electrical isolation between the light, triggering
source and the main circuit of thyristor. The rating of a LASCR could be
as high as 4 KV at 1500 A with light triggering power of less than 0.1W.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Diac:
It is a four layer device that can conduct in both directions.
Conduction occurs in the diac when the break over voltage
(VBR) is reached with either polarity across the two terminals.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Symbol Construction

Characteristics Curve of Diac

MOSFET:
The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
(MOSFET) is a transistor device used as fast acting switch at
power levels. It is mostly suited for low-power applications.
The device has three terminals: the Gate (analogous to the base
in a BJT); the drain (analogous to the collector); and the source
(analogous to the emitter).The bulk or substrate of the device is
shown to be electrically connected to the source, and there for
does not appear in the electrical circuit diagram as a separate
terminal. The device is controlled by a voltage signal between
the gate (G) and the source (S).the current flows from D S by
controlled VG. If a positive voltage 3V is applied to the gate a
negative charge is induced on silicon surface under the gate
which causes P layer to become N layer allowing electrons to
flow.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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N-channel construction and symbol

Characteristics of the MOSFT:


The Characteristics of the MOSFT is shown below. A very
low value of drain-source voltage the device has a constant
resistance Characteristic but at the higher values of drain-
source voltage the current is determined by the gate voltage. In
power applications the drain-source voltage must be small in
order to minimize the on state conduction losses. The gate
voltage is thus set at a high enough level to ensure that the drain
current limit is above the load current value that is the device is
operating in the constant resistance condition. The gate voltage
must be limited to a maximum value of approximately 20 volt.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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The modern power MOSFT has an internal diode called a body
diode connected between the source and the drain. This diode
provides a reverse direction for the drain current.

Internal body diode


Switching time of MOSFT:
The MOSFT has no storage time this very important for
many applications. Fall time can very small but a higher voltage
than 300 V it is approximately the same for both fast bipolar
and MOSFT devices.
Its turn off very quickly when the gate-source voltage falls to
zero.

Thyristors triggering techniques:


Thyristors can be switched on by a slow-rising rectified ac
signal, a sharp single pulse, a constant-magnitude dc signal, or
train of high-frequency pulses as shown in fig 1.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 1 Different types of trigger signals for switching a thyristor

1-Triggering by using DC Current:

A/Independent DC supply: as shown in fig 2A

B/Part of anode voltage: as shown in fig 2B

i/Using resistance only:

Fig2A Fig 2B
2
Rmax ------- V
Ig
V = supply voltage
Ig = gate current
In spit of simplicity and alow components of these circuits it is
difficuilt to get a firing (trigger)angle greater than 90.
ii/Using resistor and capacitor:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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In this circuit the value of R&C must be chosen to make the
charging current of the capacitor greater than the gate current
(Ig) when the value of (R pot.)is in maximum. The values of
R&C are increase with increasing the load. The value of firing
angle is greater than (90).

Fig 3
iii/Synchronization and Timing:
EX:4/
For the circuit is shown in Fig bellow calculate the value of
(variable R)to get a trigger angle of (30).where Ig= 40 mA
,Vg=3V,and Vs=350 sin wt.
Sol:
Vs= Ig*R+VD +Vg

350 sin 30 0.7 - 3


R = ------------------------- = 4.3 K
40 *10

EX :5/

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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In the circuit below when Igt(min) =150 mA,Igt(max) =4 A,Vgt
=3V.Calculate R,max.and min. value of firing angle().

Sol: /
Vgt 3
RGK =------------ = -----------------=20
Igt 150*10
V
Rmax +RGK =----------- Rmax = 2243
Igt(min)

Rmin = 64.85 (64.85 R 2243)

2 V Sin t = (Rmax + RGK )* Igt(min)

Sin t 1 t = 90 max = 90

2 V Sin t = (Rmin(=0)+ RGK )* Igt(min)

Sin t = 0.089 min = 0.5


0.5 90
2-Triggering by using AC current:
In this method a part of anode voltage was fed to (gate
cathode)circuit and shifting the firing signal by using (R)and
(C)circuit with phase shift angle .
XC XC
tan = --------- = tan ----------
R R

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 4
By using this technique with a proper choice of (Rpot) it can be
get (from 0 to 90).
R=0 = 90
R= Xc =45
R = max = 0

Fig 5
3-Triggering by using current pulse:
This is the best method to firing the thyristor by applying a
pulse of current to the gate terminal. These pulses may have a
short time (spik)or wide time or a series of pulses. The firing
(triggering) pulses must have a sufficient amplitude and width
as shown below.

Amplitude

Width
Fig 6
There are many ways to generate a firing pulse:

i/ Zero-Crossing Detector:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 7
ii/ Relaxation Oscillator:
Using the transistor as a switch to drive the thyristor gate. Also
in other stage, in applications we need to isolate the firing
circuit from the power circuit, by using optical-coupler or a

transformer as shown below.


Fig 8

iii/ Using an (Op-amp.):

EX:6/
Explain the job of each elements. Calculate Vdc, Vp, Ic, and
when V supply =6V,50 Hz C=100F Rb=8.2 K, Rc=1K,.

EX:7/

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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A240V,50 Hz supply is connected to an RC trigger circuit. If R
is variable from 1 to 22k, VGT= 2 V and C=0.47 F , what
are the minimum and maximum triggering or switching angle
?
A240V,50 Hz supply is connected to an RC trigger circuit. If R
is variable from 1 to 22k, VGT= 2 V and C=0.47 F , what
are the minimum and maximum triggering or switching angle
?

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Snubber circuits:
To protect a thyristor, from a large di/dt during turn-on and a large
dv/dt during turn -off, a snubber circuit is needed. A general snubber
circuit is shown in fig 10 the turn-on snubber is made by inductance
L1(often L1 is stray inductance only). This protects the thyristor from a
large di/dt during turn-on process. The auxiliary circuit made by R1and
D1 allows the discharging of L1 when the thyristor is turned off.
The turn-off snubber is made by resistor R2 and capacitance C2.This
circuit protects a GTO from large dv/dt during the turn off process. The
auxiliary circuit made by D2 and R2 allows the discharging of C2 when
the thyristor is turned on. The circuit of capacitance C2 and inductance
L1 also limits the value of dv/dt across the thyristor during forward-
blocking. In addition, L1 protects the thyristor from reverse over-
currents. R1 and diodes D1, D2 are usually omitted in ac circuits with
converter-grade thyristors. A similar second set of L, C and R may be
used around this circuit in HVDC applications.

Fig 9
turn-on (top elements), and turn-off (bottom elements) snubber
circuits for thyristors

di/dt protection:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig10
dv/dt protection:

Fig 11

Cooling:
Power losses associated with operation of the semiconductor
devices may be listed:
1- The major source of loss at mains and lower frequency
operations during forward condition which is a function of the
forword volt-drop and conduction current.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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2- The loss associated with the leakage current during the
blocking state.
3- The loss occurring in the gate circuit as a result of the energy
input from the gating signal.
4- The switching loss that is the energy dissipated in the device
during turn-on and turn-off which can be significant when
switching is occurring at a relatively high frequency.
The losses will lead to heat generation within device, the heat
generated in the junction area is transferred to the base and
then to a heat sink. When the level of heat dissipation is not very
high air cooled is used but if the level of heat dissipation is very
high water cooled is used. Most of the heat transfer takes places
by convection to air as in fig.

Fig.12

Heat transfer takes place from a higher temperature region


to a lower temperature region. The heat transfer P is
proportional to the temperature difference (T1-T2) the ratio
being know the thermal resistance R.

T1-T2
R=-------------
P

P in watt, T in C, R in C/W
The heat flow is from junction to base to heat sink to the
surrounding. The total thermal resistance will be the series
addition of the individual thermal resistance.

Rja = Rjb +Rbn +Rha

The virtual junction

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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temperature Tvj is

Tvj=Ta +PRja

Where Ta is the ambient


temperature.

The above calculation all refer to a steady state continuous-


current conditions. At overload the temperature rise of the
junction must be calculated by taking into account the thermal
storage capacity of the device. The heat generated by loss is
partly stored in the thermal mass by an increase in temperature.
The rest being dissipation by transfer to the cooling sink.

Junction temperature rise during overload condition


At overload condion the thyristor is operated until the time =t1,
if it is worked more than t1,may be distroyed.

temperature differerence rise


Zth =----------------------------------------------------
power loss in device over the defind time
where Zth is called the transient thermal impedance.

EX: 8/ A thyristor with a steady power loss of (30 W)has a


junction to heat sink thermal resistance of 0.7 C/W.Determine

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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the maximum value ot the thermal resistance the heat sink can
have if the ambient temperature is 40 C and the junction
temperture is limited to 125 C. Gave the base temperture at this
condition .
Solution:
T1-T2 125 - 40
R=------------ = --------------------- =2.83 C/W
P 30

R is the total thermal resistance=2.83 0.7= 2.13 C/W


the temperature at the base is =40 +(30 * 2.13)=104 C.

EX:9/ Athyristor of thermal resistance 1.8 C/W is mounted on


a heatsink of thermal resistance 2.0 C/W. Calculate the
maximum power loss of the thyristor if the junction temperature
is not exceed 125 C in an ambient temperature of 40 C.
Rth total= 2 + 1.8 =3.8 C/W

T1-T2 124-40
R=------------ p= --------------------- =22.4 W
P 3.8
EX:10/
In apractical application during switch- on from cold condition
of 40 C ,athyristor expriences asurge giving apower los of
2000W for 10 ms. calculate the junction temperature if the
transient thermal impedance for this time is 0.03 C/W.

Diode with RC and RL loads:


With RC load:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 13
when S is closed at t=0,the charging current i flows through the
capacitor can be found from:

when S is closed at t=0,the current i through the inductor increases and


is expressed as:

EX:11/

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 14

With LC Load:
when S is closed at t=0,the charging current i of the capacitor is
expressed

Fig 15

EX:12/

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 19

With RLC Load:


when S is closed

with initial condition i(t=0),vc(t =0)=Vo


differential and dividing both sides by L

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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under S.S the C charged to Vs and I=0, by laplace eq.

Constant A1 and A2 can be determind from the intial conditions of the


circuit.
EX:13/
The second order RLC circuit shown in figure has the source voltage
Vs=220V , L=2 mH , C=0.05 F ,R=160 . The initial value of the
capacitore Voltage Vo= 0. If the switch S1 is closed at T=0 determine:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Freeweeling Diode:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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The circuit operation can be devided into two modes.

EX:14/

In fig above R= 0, Vs=220V ,L= 220H determine the energy


stored in L, the switch closed for a time =100 S and is then
opened.
Single Phase Half-wave Rectifiers:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 20

Performance Parameters:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 21

EX:15/

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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Example 1: A half-wave rectifier has a pure resistive load of R
Determine (a) The efficiency, (b) Form factor (c) Ripple factor

Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier with RL Load:

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 22
To increase average V& average I make =0 by adding freewheeling
diode to prevent negative VL appearing across the load as shown in fig
24c.
Battery Charger:

If the output connected to a battery the rectifier can be used


as a battery charger. FVs>E, D1 conducts. The angle when D
starts conducting can be found from the condition.

EX:16/

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig23

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Fig 24

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 25

EX:17/
If the rectifier as shown below has a purely resistive load
of R, determine:

Fig26

Note:the performance of a full-wave rectifier


is significantly improved compard to that a
half wave rectifier.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009
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Example 2: A single-phase diode bridge rectifier has a purely
resistive load of R=15 ohms and, VS=300 sin 314 t and unity
transformer ratio. Determine (a) The efficiency, (b) Form
factor, (c) Ripple factor, (d) and, (d) Input power factor.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Fig 27 (b) waveforms

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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Multiphase Star Rectifiers:
For larger than 15 Kw, power output three phase and
multiphase rectifiers are used . The fourier series of the output
voltage indicates that the output containes harmonics and the
frequency of the fundmental component is two times the source
frequency (2f).In Fig 24a can be extended to multiple phases by
having multiphase windings on the transformer secondry as

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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shown in fig 28a .This circuit may be considered as q single
phase half-wave rectifiers.The conduction period of each diode
is 2/q.

Fig 28

Assuming a cosine wave form /q ,the average output voltage for a q-


phase rectifier is given by

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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EX:18/
A three-phase star rectifier has a purely resistive load with R
ohms.Determine:

(e) the peak inverse voltage PIV of each diode.


(f)the peak current through a diode if the rectifier delivers
Idc = 30A at an output voltage of Vdc=140V.

Three Phase Bridge Rectifiers:

Fig 29
Three Phase Bridge Rectifiers(Full wave Rectifier)
It can operate with or without a transformer and gives six-pluse
ripples on the output voltages.The pair of diodes which are
connected between that pair of supply lines having the highest

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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amount of instantaeous line toline voltage will conduct.

Lect.: Zuhair S. Al-sagar Diyala university Power Electronics 2009


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EX: 19/

EX: 20/

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EX:21/

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Principle of phase controlled converter operation:

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EX:22/
A half wave rectifier with resistive load 100K.if Vs=220V.Calculate
Vdc. Draw the waveforms with inductive load at =30and calculate
Vrms if the thyristor replaced by diode.
Single Phase Semi convertors:

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Single Phase Full Converters:

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T1&T2 turn off at negative V & I=0 by line commutation
(natural).Load current continuous &free ripple. Average output
could be either positive or negative then the region of
conversion two quadrant operations. Industrial application up
two 15 Kw.

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EX:23/
Single Phase Full Converters if L=50 mH, R=10, = 30,
V=325 sin 100 t , calculate Vdc,(),time to comutate the SCR and
discusse the wave form of I load.

Vdc=179.2V
tan =WL /R
=57.5
Wtq = = -
tq =8.3 m sec.
Because > the current is continuous.

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Single- Phase Dual Converters:

The system will provide four quadrant operations.


1 delay angle of conversion 1.
2 delay angle of conversion 2.
Then the system will provide four quadrant operations.

The instantaneous output voltages of two converters are out of


phase there will be instantaneous voltage difference and this
result in circulating current between the two converters.ir will
not flow through the load normally limited by Lr.
The circuit can work with out circulating current when only one
converter work and the other blocked.

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= ( )()

For = , its magnitude becomes max. when t = n,


n = 0,2,4,., and min. when t = n,n= 1,3,5,..

Three-Phase Half-Wave Converters:

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>/6.
Frequency of output=3fs.This circuit is not used in practical
because the supply current contains DC component.

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EX:23/
Aresistive load=10 if Vin (phase) =230V. Calculate and draw Vo when
the current is continuous and
discontinuous.

=/6 continious
Vdc=281.65V
at =2 /3(120)discontious

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Vdc=20.8V

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Three Phase Semi converters:

This circuit used up to 120 Kw .P.F low as high.


Out put frequency = 3 f.
varied from 0 to .

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Varied from 0 to 180

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Three Phase Full Converters:

Frequency out put ripple =6 fs

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Three-Phase Dual Converters:

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Thyristors Commutation Techniques:

Forced Commutations:

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1. Self-commutation

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EX:24/

2. Impulse-commutation

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EX:25/

EX:26/

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EX:27/

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EX:28/

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Effects of Source and Load Inductances:

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The average voltage reduction due to the commutating
conductances is:

(If Lc=L1=L2=L3)
Vx = 6 fLc Idc (where f is supply frequency in hertz)

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DC Chopper:DC to DC Converter:
Introduction :
1- In many industrial applications, it is required to converter a
fixed-voltage dc source into a variable-voltage dc source.
2-A dc chopper converters directly from dc to dc and is also
known as dc to dc converter.
3- A chopper can be considered as dc equivalent to an ac
transformer with continuously variable turns ratio.
4- Like a transformer, it can be used to step down or step up a
dc voltage source.
5- Choppers are widely used for traction motor control in
electric automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift trucks,
and mine haulers.
6- They provide smooth acceleration control, high efficiency,
and fast dynamic response.
7- Choppers can be used in regenerative braking of dc motors
to return energy back into the supply, and this feature results
in energy savings for transportation systems with frequency
stops.
8-Choppers are used in dc voltage regulators, and also used,
in conjunction with an inductor, to generate a dc current
source, especially for the current source inverter.
9- The voltage source driven dc-dc converters are more
popular than the current driven converters.
10- All converters use effective filtering on both the input and
output to reduce the ac components from going outside the
converters.
Principle of step-down operation:

Step-down chopper with resistive load

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Chopper switch: power BJT; power MOSFET, GTO forced-
commutated thyristor.

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EX:1/

SOL:

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Step-down chopper with RL load:

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EX:2/

SOL:

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EX: 3/

0.25, input voltage=550V and


battery voltage E=0 V. The
average load current Ia= 200A,
chopping f=250 Hz. Use the
average output V to calculate
the load inductance L which
would limit the maximum load ripple current to 10% of Ia.
Solution:
T=1/f =0.004s.
i= 200*0.1=20A
The average output Vo=KVs=R Ia
The V across the inductor is given by

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di1
L ----- = Vs-R Ia =Vs KVs=Vs (1-k)
dt
the load current assumed to rise linearly dt= t1 = kT and di=i

Vs (1-k)
i=--------------- kT
L

And this gives k= 0.5


i L=20*L = 550(1-0.5)0.5*0.004
L=27.5mH

Principle of step-up operation:

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The efficiency of a practical chopper varies between 92 and
99%.

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AC to AC
Introduction:

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EX:1/

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EX:2/

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EX:3/

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EX:4/ Apair of parallel thyristors connected in opposite to control a
resistive load =7 , t on=2.5ms, Vs= 350 sin 315t. Calculate Vo rms,
power dissipated in the load.

1
T = 2 f t f= = 50 Hz T= 20 .
2

3602.5
= 45 + = ()
20

+ = 180 =180- 45 = 135 = 3/4

Vo= 75.3 V
Po= (Vo) /7 =810 watt

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Star Connected Resistive Load:

Delta-Connected Resistive Load:

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EX:5/

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Cycloconverters:
The ac voltage controllers provide a variable output voltage, but
the frequency of the output voltages fo is fixed and in the
addition the harmonic content is high especially at low output
voltage range .A variable Vo at variable frequency can be
obtained from two stage . Cycloconverter is a direct frequency
changer that converts ac power at one frequency to ac power at
another frequency .
Single Phase cycloconvertyers:
The principle of operation of single phase /single phase
cycloconverter can be explained as shown in fig (a)below ,the
two single phase controlled converters are operated as bridge
rectifiers . Their delay angles are such that the Vo of one
converter is used equal and opposite to that of the other
converter. Fig b shows the wave forms for Vo and gating
signals of positive and negative converters.

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EX:6/

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyclo-converter
Advantages:

1. In a cyclo-converter, ac power at one frequency is converted


directly to a lower frequency in a single conversion stage.
2. Cyclo-converter functions by means of phase commutation,
without auxiliary forced commutation circuits. The power
circuit is more compact, eliminating circuit losses associated
with forced commutation.
3. Cyclo-converter is inherently capable of power transfer in
either direction between source and load. It can supply power
to loads at any power factor, and is also capable of
regeneration over the complete speed range, down to
standstill. This feature makes it preferable for large reversing
drives requiring rapid acceleration and deceleration, thus
suited for metal rolling application.
4. Commutation failure causes a short circuit of ac supply. But,
if an individual fuse blows off, a complete shutdown is not
necessary, and cyclo-converter continues to function with
somewhat distorted waveforms. A balanced load is presented
to the ac supply with unbalanced output conditions.
5. Cyclo-converter delivers a high quality sinusoidal waveform
at low output fre-quencies, since it is fabricated from a large
number of segments of the supply waveform. This is often
preferable for very low speed applications.
6. Cyclo-converter is extremely attractive for large power, low
speed drives.

Disadvantages:

1. Large number of thyristors is required in a cyclo-converter,


and its control circuitry becomes more complex. It is not
justified to use it for small installations, but is economical for
units above 20 kVA.
2. For reasonable power output and efficiency, the output
frequency is limited to one-third of the input frequency.

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3. The power factor is low particularly at reduced output
voltages, as phase control is used with high firing delay angle.
The cyclo-converter is normally compared with dc link
converter, where two power controllers, first one for converting
from ac input at line frequency to dc output, and the second one
as inverter to obtain ac output at any frequency from the above
dc input fed to it. The thyristors, or switching devices of
transistor family, which are termed as self-commutated ones,
usually the former, which in this case is naturally commutated,
are used in controlled converters (rectifiers). The diodes, whose
cost is low, are used in uncontrolled ones. But now-a-days,
switching devices of transistor family are used in inverters,
though thyristors using force commutation are also used. A
diode, connected back to back with the switching device, may be
a power transistor (BJT), is needed for each device. The number
of switching devices in dc link converter depends upon the
number of phases used at both input and output. The number of
devices, such as thyristors, used in cyclo-converters depends on
the types of connection, and also the number of phases at both
input and output. It may be noted that all features of a cyclo-
converter may not be available in a dc link converter. Similarly,
certain features, like Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
techniques as used in inverters and also converters, to reduce
the harmonics in voltage waveforms, are not applied in cyclo-
converters. The various circuits used on DC to AC Converters
termed as Inverters.

Advantages and Disadvantages of DC Link Converter


Advantages:

1. The output frequency can be varied from zero to rated value,


with the upper frequency limit, being decided by the turn-off
time of the switching devices, which is quite low due to the
use of transistors in recent time.
2. .The control circuit here is simpler, as compared to that used
in cyclo-converter.

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3. It has high input power factor, if diode rectifier is used in the
first stage. If phase-controlled thyristor converter is used,
power factor depends upon phase angle delay.
4. It is suitable for higher frequencies, as given earlier.
Disadvantages:

1. The conversion is in two stages, using two power controllers


one as converter and other as inverter, as stated earlier.
2. Forced commutation is required for the inverter, if thyristors
are used, even though phase control is used in converter,
where natural commutation takes place.
3. The feature of regeneration is somewhat difficult, and also is
involved to incorporate in a dc link converter.
4. The output waveform of the inverter is normally a stepped
one, which may cause non-uniform rotation of an ac motor at
very low frequencies (< 10 Hz). The distorted waveform also
causes system instability at low frequencies. This can be
reduced by using PWM technique as given earlier.
In this lesson, the first one in the second half of this module, the
cyclo-converter is first introduced, along with the basic
principle of operation. The circuit and the operation of single-
phase to single-phase cyclo-converter, with both resistive and
inductive loads, are described in detail, with voltage and
current waveforms. The current is discontinuous, with resistive
and inductive (with low value of inductance) loads, but can be
continuous, if the inductance is higher. In the next lesson, the
circuit and operation of three-phase to single-phase cyclo-
converter, followed by three-phase to three-phase one, will be
described in detail

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DC to AC Converters

(Inverter)

Voltage Source Inverters

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Introduction:

Fig 1 General block diagram


The inverter operates from a dc voltage source or a dc
current source and converts it into ac voltage or current. The
function of an inverter is to change a dc input voltage to an
ac output voltage of a different frequency and magnitude than
the input ac of the utility supply.
The simplest dc voltage source for a VSI may be a battery bank,
which may consist of several cells in series-parallel
combination. Solar photovoltaic cells can be another dc voltage
source. An ac voltage supply, after rectification into dc will also
qualify as a dc voltage source. A voltage source is called stiff, if
the source voltage magnitude does not depend on load
connected to it. All voltage source inverters assume stiff voltage
supply at the input. The output voltage waveforms of ideal
inverters should be sinusoidal, but in practical inverters are
nonsinsoidal and contain harmonics. Inverters are widely used
in industrial applications( uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
units, adjustable speed drives (ASD) for ac motors, electronic
frequency changer circuits etc).
It can be classified into two types:
Single Phase Inverters, Three Phase Inverters.
Each type can be divided into four categories depending on the
type of thyristor commutations:
a)Pulse width modulation(PWM)inverter.
b)Resonant inverter.
c) Auxiliary commutated inverter.
d)Complementary commutated inverter.
Principle of operation:

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The inverter circuit consists of two choppers. When only
Q1is turned on for a time To/2 is Vs/2. If Q2 only is turn on
for a time To/2,- Vs/2 appears the load. Q1 and Q2 are not
turned on at the same time. For resistive load the waveforms of
and shown in fig2.
this inverter requires a three wired-dc source Q is off its reverse
Vs instead of Vs/2. This inverter is known as a half bridge
inverter. a half-bridge VSI,where two large capacitors are
required to provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor
maintains a constant voltage vi/2. Because the current
harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-
order harmonics, a set of large capacitors (C+ and C) is
required. It is clear that both switches S+ and S cannot be on
simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage
source.
The rms Vo can be found from Vo=Vs/2
The rms value of fundamental component as
2
V1= = 0.45
2

For inductive load, the load current cannot change


immediately with the output voltage. If Q1 is turned off at t=
To/2 the load current would continue to flow through D2,load
and the lower half of the dc source until the current falls to zero.
Similarly, when Q2 is turrened off at t=To the load current
flows through D1 ,load and the upper half of the dc source.

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Fig 2 shows the load current and conduction intervals of
devices for purely inductive loads.

Fig 2 The circuit and waveforms with inductive load


Performance Parameter :

Vn
Harmonic Factor, HF: is defined as HFn = ---------
V1

where V1 is the rms of the fundamental component and Vn is the


rms value of nth harmonic component.
Total harmonic distortion, THD: The total harmonic distortion
which is a measure of closeness in shape between a waveform
and its fundamental component is defined as
1
THD= ------ ( V n )
V1 n=2,3.

Distortion factor, DF:


The THD gives the total harmonics content, but it does not
indicate the level of each harmonic component.
The distortion factor, of an individual (or nth)harmonic
component is defined as:

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Vn
DFn= -------
V1n
Lowest order harmonic, LOH:
The lowest order harmonic is that harmonic component
whose frequency is closest to the fundamental one, and its
amplitude is greater than or equal to 3% of the fundamental
component.
Single Phase Bridge Inverter:
It consists of four choppers when Q1&Q3 are turned on
simultaneously ,the input Vs appears across the load. If Q2&Q4
are turned on at the same time the voltage across the load is
reversed and is Vs.

Fig3 the circuit

Fig 4 Waveforms of output voltage and load current for


inductive loads
2 /2
Vo=( 0 Vs dt) = Vs

4
V1= = 0.9
2

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When D1&D3 conduct the energy is fed back to the dc source
and they are known as feedback diodes.

EX1:
A Single Phase Bridge Inverter shown in fig 3 R=2.4 and dc
input Vs is =48V .Determine the :
a)rms output voltage at the fundamental frequency,V1.
b)output power Po.
c)average and peak currents of each transistor.
d)peak reverse blocking voltage of each transistor, VB.
e)total harmonic distortion THD.
f)distortion factor DF.
e)harmonic factor and distortion factor of lowest-order
harmonic.

Solution:
4Vs
a) V1=------ = 0.9 Vs=0.9* 48 =43.2 V
2

2 To/2
b) V0= (------- Vs dt) = Vs = 48V.
To 0
The output power Po=Vs/R=960W.
c) The peak transistor current Ip=48/2.4=20A.Since each
transistor conduct for a 50% duty cycle, the ID of each
transistor is 0.5 *20=10A.
d) VBR=48V.
e) 4Vs
V1=------ = 0.9 Vs =0.9*48=43.2V the rms harmonic
voltage Vn
2

is Vh= ( Vn)= (Vo - V1) =o.435 Vs
n=3,5,7

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THD= ------ ( V n )= 0.4359 Vs / 0.9 Vs=48.34%
V1 n=2,3.

f) 1 Vn
DF= ------ [ ( ----- )]=0.03424 Vs /
0.9Vs=3.804%
V1 n=2,3. n
rd
g)The lowest-order harmonic is the 3 ,V3=V1/3

V3
Harmonic Factor, HF3= --------- = 1/3 =33.33%
V1

V3/3
DF3= ------- =1/27=3.704%
V1

EX:2/H.W/
An inductive load of resistive of 10 and inductive of 10mH is
to be supplied with a Quasi Square waveform voltage, using
single-phase bridge inverter. If the on periods is to be 1/2 of the
total period ,load frequency = 200Hz and the dc supply
available is 200V, trace with calculated dimensions for the first
cycle.
A) Load voltage waveform.
B) Load current waveform.
Solution:

EX:3/A single-phase bridge inverter supplies from 200Vdc


source a load of R= 8 and inductive of 20mH if the inverter is

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operating at 50Hz. Determine the load voltage and current
waveforms for the first two cycles with square wave output.
EX:4/A single-phase bridge inverter supplies from 200Vdc
source a load of R= 8 and inductive of 20mH if the inverter is
operating at 50Hz. Determine the load voltage and current
waveforms for the first two cycles with Quasi square wave
output with an on period of 0.6 total period.
EX:5/A single-phase bridge inverter supplies from 200Vdc
source a load of R= 8 and inductive of 20mH if the inverter is
operating at 100Hz. Determine the load voltage and current
waveforms for the first cycle with Quasi-square waveforms with
an on periods of 0.75.

Quiz Problems :

1. A large capacitor, put across dc bus of a voltage source


inverter, is intended to:
(a) allow a low impedance path to the high frequency
component of dc link current.
(b) to minimize high frequency current ripple through the ideal
dc source.
(c) to maintain a constant dc link current.
(d) to protect against switch failure.

2. A diode in anti-parallel with the controlled switch, like IGBT,


is used in VSI to:
(a) prevent reversal of dc link current.
(b) allow a non-unity power factor load at the output.
(c) protect the circuit against accidental reversal of dc bus
polarity.
(d) none of the above.

3. The inverter switches work in fully-on or fully-off mode to


achieve:
(a) easier gate control circuit for the switching devices.
(b) minimum distortion in the output voltage waveform.
(c) reduced losses in the switches.

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(d) satisfactory operation for non-resistive load at the output.

4. Gate (base) signals to the VSI switches, using n-channel


IGBTs, need to be isolated to allow:
(a) protection of switches against short at the inverter output
terminals.
(b) switches to be connected in bridge fashion.
(c) lower losses in the gate drive circuit.
(d) a dc link voltage higher than the switch voltage rating.

Three Phase Inverters:


Three Phase Inverters are normally used for high-power
applications. Three single-phase half(or full)bridge inverters
can be connected in parallel to form the configuration of a three
phase inverter. The gating signals of single phase inverters
should be advanced or delayed by 120with respect to each
other in order to obtain three phase balanced (fundamental
)voltages. The transformer primary windings must be isolated
from each other ,while the secondary winding may be
connected in wye or delta. The transformer secondary is
normally connected in wye to eliminate triplen harmonics
(n=3,6,9..)appearing on the output voltages and the circuit
arrangement is shown in fig 1.

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Fig1 Three-phase inverter formed by three single-phase
inverters

A three phase output can be obtained from a


configuration of six transistors and six diodes as shown in fig
2A . When Q1 is switched on , terminal a is connected to the
positive terminal of the dc input voltage. When Q4 is switched
on , terminal a is brought to the negative terminal of the dc
source. There are six modes of operation in a cycle and the
duration of each mode is 60.The sequence of gating
transistors(123,234,345,456,561,612) and each transistors
conducts for180. The gating signals shown in fig(2B)are shifted
from each other by 60 to obtain three-phase balanced voltages.

Fig(2 A) the circuit of three phase bridge inverter

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Fig 2B waveforms of three phase bridge inverter

The load may be connected in wye or delta as shown in fig3

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Fig3 wye connected delta connected

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For a wye connected load, the V L to N must be determined to
find the line or phase currents .There are three modes of
operation in a half cycle and the equivalent circuits are shown
in fig 4.

Mod1 mod2 mod3


Fig 4 Equivalent circuit for wye connected resistive load

conducting switches. Star connected R load


a ) Model 1 0 t60
Req= R+R/2=3 R/2
i1=Vs / Req

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van= vcn = i1 R/2= Vs /3
vbn = - i1 / R = - 2Vs /3
b) model 2 60 t 120
Req=R+R/2=3R/2
i2= Vs / Req =2Vs/3R
van = i2R =2Vs/3
vbn= vcn= - i2R/2= - Vs/3
c) mod 3 120 t180
Req=R+R/2=3R/2
i3=Vs / Req =2Vs /3R
van =vbn =i3R / 2 =Vs/3
vcn = - i3/R = 2Vs/3
The VL-L are shown in fig 5

Fig 5 phase voltages for wye connected resistive load

The vab (L-L)in fig2B can be expressed in a Fourier series,


recognizing that vab is shifted by 30and the even harmonics are
zero.

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4Vs n
vab= -------------- cos --------- sin n ( wt + ----- )
n 6 6
n=1,3,5

vbc and vca can be found by phase shifting vab by 120 and
240respectively.the triplen harmonics n=3,9,15. would be
zero in the line to line voltage. The V rms line to line
VL= 0.8165 Vs
For n=1 the rms value of fundamental component can be found
from the peak magnitude .
4Vs cos 30
VL1= ------------------ =0.7797Vs
2
With resistive load the diode across the transistors have no
functions. If the load is inductive the current in each arm of the
inverter would be delayed to its voltage as shown in fig6.

Fig 6 waveforms of voltage and current of each transistor inthe


three phase inverter with RL load.
EX6/
In the Fig shown below has awye connected the resistive load of
R= 10. fo=60Hz, dc input Vs =220V.
a)Express the instantaneous line to line voltage vab (t),and the
current ia(t)in a forier series. b)Determine VLrms. c)
Vprms(phase voltage). d)VL1 rms. e)Vp1rms. f)THD.
g)DF. h)Harmonic factor and distortion factor of the
lowest-order harmonic. i) Load power Po. J)Average
transistor current ID. k)IR rms.

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Voltage control of single phase inverters:
Pulse width modulation (PWM) control:

1)Single pulse- width modulation:

Fig 7single pulse width modulator Fig8 Harmonic profile of


SPWM

In single pulse PWM control there is only one pulse per half
cycle and the width of the pulse is varied to control the inverter
output voltage. Fig 7 shows the generation of gating signals and
output voltage of single phase full bridge inverters. The gating
signals are generated by comparing a rectangular reference
signal of amplitude Ar , with a triangular carrier wave of
amplitude Ac.The frequency of the carrier wave determines the
fundamental frequency of output voltage. By varying Ar from 0
to Ac ,the pulse width can be varied from 0 to 180.The ratio
of Ar to Ac is the control variable and defined as the modulation
index.
Ar
M = --------
Ac
The rms output voltage can be found from

2 (+)/2 /
Vo = [---- Vsd(wt) ] =Vs -----

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146
2 (-)/2

The Fourier series of output voltage yield

4Vs n
v0(t)= -------------- sin ------ sin nwt
n 2
n=1,3,5

Fig 8 shows the harmonic profile with the variation of


modulation index M. The dominant harmonic is the third and
the distortion factor increase significantly at a low output
voltage. The DF is required significantly compared to that of
SPWM.
2)Multiple - pulse- width modulation:
The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in
each half cycle of output voltage. The generation of gating
signals for turning on and off of transistors by comparing a
reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency
of reference signal sets the out put frequency fo and the carrier
frequency fc determines the number of pulses per half cycle ,
p.The modulation index controls the output voltage. This type is
also known as uniform pulse width modulation(UPWM).

fc
P= --------
2fo

The variation of modulation index M from 0 to 1 varies the pulse


width from 0 to /p and the output voltage from 0 to Vs. The
output voltage for single phase bridge inverters is shown in fig
9.

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147
Fig 9 Multiple PWM Fig 10 harmonic profile of
M-PWM
If is the width of each pulse the rms output voltage can be
found from Is

2p (/p+)/2 / p
Vo = [---- Vsd(wt) ] =Vs -----
2 (/p-)/2

Figure 10 shows harmonic profile against the variation of


modulation index for five pulses per half cycle.

3)Sinusoidal pulse- width modulation::Instead of maintaining


the width of all pulses the same as in the case of multiple pulse
modulation , the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to
the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center of the same
pulse. The distortion factor and lower order harmonics are
reduced significantly. The gating signals as shown in fig11a are
generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal with a
triangular carrier wave of frequency ,fc. The frequency of
reference signal fr determines the inverter output frequency fo
and its peak amplitude Ar controls the modulation index ,M ,

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148
and rms output voltage Vo. The number of pulses per half-cycle
depends on the carrier frequency. Q1 and Q4 cannot conduct at
the same time , the instantaneous output voltage as shown in
fig 11a . The same gating signals can be generated by using
unidirectional triangular carrier wave as in fig 11b. The rms Vo
can be varied from 0 to Vs by varying the modulation index M
from 0 to 1. It can be observed that the area of each pulse
corresponds approximately to the area under the sine wave
between the adjacent midpoints of off periods on the gating
signals. If m is the width of mth pulse the equation
2p (/p+)/2 / p
Vo = [---- Vsd(wt) ] =Vs -----
2 (/p-)/2

Can be extended to find the rms Vo


p m /
Vo= Vs ( --------------)
m=1

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Fig 11 (a,b) SPWM Fig 12 harmonic profile of SPWM
Fig 12 show five pulses per half cycle. DF is significantly
reduced compare MPWM. This type of modulation eliminate all
harmonics less than or equal to 2p-1.For p=5 the lower order
harmonics is ninth.

4)Modified sinusoidal pulse- width modulation:

Fig 11 indicates that the widths of pulses that are nearer the
peak of the sine wave do not change significant with the
variation of modulation index. This is due to the characteristics
of a sine wave , and the SPWM
technique can be modified so that the carrier wave is applied
during the first and last 60intervals per half cycle. This type of
modulation is known as MSPWM as shown in fig 13 .The
fundamental component is increased and its harmonic
characteristics are improved . It reduces the number of
switching of power devices and also reduces switching losses.
The number of pulses ,q, in the 60 period is normally related to
the frequency ratio. particularly in the three phase inverter by

fc
------ = 6q + 3
fo

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150
Fig 13 Modified sinusoidal pulse- width modulation
5-Phase-displacement control:
Voltage control can be obtained by using multiple inverters and
summing the output voltages of individual inverters. A single
phase full bridge inverter in fig 3 can be perceived as the sum of
two half bridge inverters as in fig 2 . A180 phase displacement
produces an output voltage as in fig 14c where as a delay or
displacement angle of produces an output in fig 14e.The
output rms voltage,


= if

2Vs
vao= -------------- sin nwt , then
n
n=1,3,5

2Vs
vbo= -------------- sin n(wt-) ,
n
n=1,3,5

The instantaneous output voltage,


2Vs
vab= vao vbo = ----------{ sin nwt - sin n ( wt- ) }
n
n=1,3,5

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151
Since sin A- sinB = 2 sin {(A+B)/2}cos {(A-B/2)} so

Fig 14(a,b,c,d,e) Phase-displacement control

4Vs n
vab= ----------{ sin ----- cos n ( wt-/2 ) }
n 2
n=1,3,5

The rms value of the fundamental output voltage is

4Vs
V1 = --------- sin -----
2 2

This equation indicates that the output voltage can be varied by


varying the delay angle. This type useful for high power
application requiring a large number of transistors or thyristors
in parallel.

EX:7/
A single phase full bridge inverter controls the power in a
resistive load Vdc is Vs =220V and uniform pulse-width
modulation with five pulses per half-cycle is used .For the

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152
required control the width of each pulse is 30. a)determine the
rms voltage of the load .b) If the dc supply increases by 10%,
determine the pulse-width to maintain the same load power. c)
If the maximum possible pulse-width is 35, determine the
minimum allowable limit of the dc input source.
Voltage control of three phase inverter:
A three phase inverter may considered as three single-phase
inverters and the output of each single-phase inverter shifted by
120.The generations of gating signals with sinusoidal pulse-
width modulation are shown in fig 15.There are three sinusoidal
reference waves each shifted by 120. The carrier wave is
compared with the reference signal corresponding to a phase to
generate the gating signals for that phase. The Vo is also shown
in fig 15.

Fig 15 Sinusoidal pulse- width modulation for three phase inverter

Harmonic reduction:
This equation indicates that the nth harmonic can be eliminated
by a proper choice displacement angle ,, if Sin n / 2 = 0 or
= 360 / n
4Vs n
vab= ----------{ sin ----- cos n ( wt-/2 ) }
n 2

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153
n=1,3,5
and the 3rd harmonic will be eliminate if = 360 / 3 = 120.
A pair of unwanted harmonics at the output of single phase
inverters can be eliminated by introducing a pair of
symmetrically placed voltage notches as shown in fig16 .

Fig 16 out put voltage with two notches per half-cycle

The Fourier series of output voltage can be expressed as



vo = An sin nwt

n=1,3,5

Where

The 3rd and 5th harmonics would be eliminated if A3=A5=0 and


equation above gives the necessary equations to be solved.

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154
Equations above can be solved iteratively by initially assuming
that 1 = 0 and repeating the calculations for 1 and 2 . The
result is 1= 23.62 and 2 = 33.3.The MSPWM techniques
can be applied to generate the notches which would eliminate
certain harmonics effectively in the Vo. As shown in fig 17. An
can be extended to m notches per quarter wave:

Fig 17 output voltages for MSPWM


The output voltages of two or more inverters may be connected
in series through a transformer to reduce or eliminate certain
unwanted harmonics . The arrangement for combining two
inverter output voltages is shown in 18a .
The wave forms for the output of each inverter and the resultant
output voltage are shown in 18b. The second inverter is phase
shifted by /3. From equation
4Vs
vo= ---------- sin nwt the output of 1st inverter can be
n
n=1,3,5
expressed as
vo1= A1 sin wt +A3 sin 3wt +A5 sin 5wt +.
Since the output 2nd inverter vo2 is delayed by /3,

.b

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Therefore, a phase shifting of /3 and combining voltages by
transformer connection would eliminate third(and all triplen)
harmonics. It should be noted that the result fundamental
component is 3/2 (=0.866) of that for individual output
voltages and effective output has been reduced by (1- 0.866=)
13.4%. The harmonic elimination techniques which are only
suitable for fixed output voltages increase the order of
harmonics and

Fig 18 Elimination of harmonics by transformer connection

reduce the sizes of output filter. However this advantages should


be weighed against the increased switching losses of power
devices and increased iron (or magnetic losses) in the
transformer due to higher harmonic frequencies.

EX:8/
A single phase fullwave inverter uses multi notches and is
required to eliminate the 5th ,7th,11th and 13th harmonics from
the output wave. Determine the number of notches and their
angles.

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Quiz Problems
(1) The over-modulation of sine-PWM inverter is generally
avoided because it introduces:
(a) lower frequency harmonics in the inverter output waveform
(b) non-linearity between the magnitudes of modulating signal
and fundamental voltage output by the inverter
(c) both the above . (d) none of the above
(2) A three-phase sine-PWM inverter operates from a dc link
voltage of 600 volts. For modulation index = 1.0 the rms
magnitude of line voltage of fundamental frequency will be
equal to:
(a) 600 volts (b) nearly 367 volts
(c) nearly 481 volts (d) nearly 581 volts
(3) The carrier waveform of a sine-modulated PWM inverter is
of 10 kHz frequency. When the fundamental output frequency of
the inverter is 50 Hz, the inverter switches need to be turned-on
and turned-off at a rate of
(a) 1000 times per second (b) 10,000 times per
second
(c) 50,000 times per second (d) 50 times per second
(4) A three-phase sine-modulated PWM inverter is used to get a
balanced 3-phase fundamental output voltage. The modulating
waveforms must ave
(a) Three DC signals of identical magnitude
(b) Three balanced ac signals of fundamental frequency
(c) Three identical and in-phase ac signals of fundamental
frequency
(d) Three balanced ac signals of carrier frequency

Quiz Problems
(1) A PWM inverter is operated from a dc link voltage of 600
volts. The maximum rms line voltage (fundamental component)
will be less than or equal to:
(a) 600 volts (b) 300 volts
(c) 467 volts (d) 582 volts

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157
(2) In the harmonic analysis of the pole-voltage waveform
(produced by a three-phase PWM inverter feeding a balanced
rd rd
three-phase load) the 3 and multiples of 3 harmonics are
ignored because:
(a) They will not appear in pole voltage
(b) They will not appear in load phase voltage
(c) They will not appear in load phase and line voltage
(d) They will appear in line voltage but not in phase voltage
(3) An IGBT based PWM inverter, with very large number of
(nearly) evenly distributed notches per output cycle, is used to
feed a three-phase balanced R-L load with a load power factor
of 0.9. The peak magnitude of diode current and the IGBT
current will have the following relation:
(a) They will be equal
(b) Peak diode current will be less than half of the peak IGBT
current
(c) Diode current will nearly be zero
(d) Peak diode current will be less than one third of the peak
IGBT current
(4) A PWM inverter is capable of producing the following type
of output voltage: (a) Variable in magnitude and frequency
(b) Variable voltage, fixed frequency
(c) Fixed voltage, variable frequency
(d) Fixed voltage, fixed frequency
Quiz problems
1. For a dc link voltage of 142 volts, which of the following
PWM schemes can produce good quality line voltage (free from
lower order harmonics) of 95 volts (rms) and 50 Hz.
(a) Sine PWM
rd
(b) Sine+3 harmonic PWM
(c) Space vector PWM
(d) all the above
2. The third harmonic component in the pole voltages of a 3-
phase inverter, connected to a balanced 3-phase load, affects:
(a) load-phase voltage (b) load-line voltage
(c) load-phase current (d) none of the above

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3. An inverter designed to work with fixed input dc voltage is fed
with a fluctuating dc voltage. The basic controller for the
following PWM scheme can still be used to output good quality
current of constant magnitude:
rd
(a) Sine (b) Sine+3 Harmonic
(c) Space Vector (d) Current Controlled PWM
4. With 283 volts dc link voltage connected to a 3-phase inverter
what maximum phase voltage (rms magnitude) of good quality
can be output by Sine PWM and Space Vector PWM:
(a) 50 and 75 volts (b) 100 and 115 volts
(c) 141 and 200 volts (d) 200 and 282 volts

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