6.5.

3 Inferences Concerning BOD

The BOD test relies on growth of the micro-organisms degrading the organic matter in the
sample. Hence, right conditions to allow the microorganisms to grow without undue
environmental stress should be created. If the pH of the sample is too low (below 6.5) or too high
(above 7.5), the BOD analysis may be affected by the ability of bacteria to grow. Therefore, if
the pH of the samples is below 6.5 or above 7.5, it should be modified by the addition of acid or
alkali so that a pH is within the range 6.5 to 7.5.

Toxic material present in the BOD sample also inhibits the analysis and hence the sample
must be seeded with bacteria so that the analysis proceeds normally. Organic compounds are
not the only materials which, when discharged to the aquatic environment, have an oxygen
demand. Ammonia, either free or when released from nitrogen containing organic compounds, is
also oxidised in rivers resulting in depletion of dissolved oxygen. The oxidation of nitrogen
compounds, carried out by nitrifying bacteria (a process known as nitrification) in the BOD
sample can be suppressed by the addition of an inhibitory chemical so that only the BOD
resulting from the oxidation of carbon compounds is determined. If such a chemical is not added,
the resulting BOD may be a combination of the oxygen demand caused by both carbonaceous
matter and ammonia based material in the sample.

Algae have the ability to produce oxygen by photosynthesis. Hence, if the sample
contains algae, they must be stored in the dark.

Example 6.1: Calculate the oxygen demand exerted by a sample of industrial waste whose
ultimate BOD is 256 mg/L, in 1, 2, 3 and 4 days. Assume that 25% of remaining demand is
exerted each day.

Solution: Table below shows the computations of BOD. First column shows the day number and
the second the BOD remaining in the sample. Column 3 gives the BOD exerted for the day and
the last column is the cumulative BOD. The BOD at the end of day t is the BOD at the beginning
of a day t less the BOD exerted on day t.

Time Remaining BOD mg/L BOD exerted for the day Cumulative BOD exerted
day mg/L mg/L
0 256 0 0
1 192 64 64
2 144 48 112
3 108 36 148
4 81 27 175
6.5.4 Factors Affecting the Oxygen Demand Rate
A number of factors control the rate of oxidization of organic matter in the aquatic environment.
These are the composition of the material, water temperature and the concentration of micro-
organisms. Generally the rate of the BOD reaction increases with temperature.

The concentration of micro-organisms present in the water body also affects the rate of
the BOD reaction. Normally there are sufficient numbers of suitable micro-organisms in a
natural water body to allow the BOD reaction to proceed. In some cases, for example, when
water contains chemicals which are toxic to bacteria, a few micro-organisms may be there to
carry out the oxygen demand reaction. If the BOD of such a sample were to be determined, it
would give a value much lower than that given the concentration of organic matter in the sample.
To get the correct results, the sample must be seeded with suitable bacteria. Usually a small
amount of settled raw sewage is used as a source of seed. In case the waste is toxic, an
acclimated seed must be developed.

6.5.5 Chemical Oxygen Demand Test

When organic polluting matter is discharged in the aquatic environment, it normally takes up
dissolved oxygen during its degradation thus reducing the oxygen available for the respiration of
fish and other aquatic life. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) analysis measures the maximum
amount of oxygen that can be consumed by the organic matter in a sample of water. The test is
based upon the fact that all organic compounds, with a few exceptions, can be oxidised by the
action of strong oxidising agents under acidic conditions.
However unlike BOD, in the COD test the oxygen demand is determined by means of a
chemical test. A strong chemical oxidizing agent is added and it is ensured that virtually all
organic matter within the sample is oxidized during the analysis, some of which may not be
susceptible to bacterial decomposition. The amount of oxygen used during the test is then
calculated. Some naturally occurring organic compounds such as celluloses, or many synthetic
petrochemicals, are either non-decomposable or are degraded very slowly by bacteria.
A limitation of the COD test is its inability to differentiate between biologically
oxidisable and biologically inert organic matter. Further, COD does not provide any evidence of
the rate at which the biologically active material would be stabilised under the existing
conditions. Hence, COD values are greater than BOD values and may be much greater when
significant amounts of biologically resistant organic matter is present. Nevertheless, the COD
test gives a rapid indication of the amount of oxygen a sample will demand when released to the
aquatic environment.

After a sample of water containing organic matter has been collected, it is possible that
natural biochemical reactions within the sample will act to reduce the COD. Therefore, samples
should be tested without delay. If delay in analysing the sample is unavoidable, the sample
should be preserved by acidification to pH = 2 or below.
 Since the COD test measures both the biologically degradable and biologically non-
degradable organic matter, the COD value of a sample is always higher than its BOD value.
Further, COD test measures the total oxygen equivalents of the organic matter while the BOD
test measures oxygen equivalents of organic matter which is degraded in 3 days. This 3 day
value is about 70 % of the ultimate BOD. For domestic wastewaters and many decomposable
industrial wastes, COD is about 2.5 times the BOD. For unpolluted surface and ground waters
this ratio is even higher.

The Total Organic Carbon (TOC) content of a water sample is a measure of all the
carbon, which is bound up in the organic matter in the water sample. TOC is related to BOD and
COD as most of the oxygen demand measured during these analyses is due to organic carbon.

Since the BOD of a sample can be related to both the COD and the TOC, it is possible to
estimate the BOD from either the COD or the TOC. For this purpose, it is necessary to establish
a relationship between these variables for a particular sampling point. This is best done by
carrying out BOD and COD or TOC analyses on the sampling point under various conditions to
establish a reliable relationship.

6.6 Sediment Related Data

The data of amount of sediment transported by a river is need in design and management of
water resources projects, flood control structures, bridges, canals etc. The movement of solids
transported in anyway by the flowing water is termed as sediment transport. The measurement of
sediment is an expensive process and hence sediment rating curves are widely used to indirectly
assess the sediment concentration as a function of river stage or discharge.

Sediment being carried away by river flow originates from various sources, including the
watershed, agriculture field river bed and banks. The sediment data collected includes the
particle size distribution for the sediment and the sediment transport as bed and suspended load.
Sediment transport rates depend on many factors, and it may less than the sediment transport
capacity because of sediment availability. The total sediment transport by a river is the sum of
the suspended load and bed load. The sediment might originate as the bed material load and the
wash load. Fig. 6.4 shows the classification of sediment as suggested by ISO (ISO 4363: 1993).
 Along Bed
Bed the bed load
material
Total
In load
Total load suspension Suspended (t
(origin)
load
Wash load in
suspension

Fig. 6.4 Definition of sediment load and transport (Source ISO 4363: 1993).

Sediment samplers are used to determine the concentration of sediment. The type of
sampler depends upon the need and the purpose. The suspended sediment samplers collect
samples of water and sediment mixture in a river. The sampler is lowered to the desired depth
and is filled with a sample. The sampler should be big enough such that an adequate amount of
sample, say at least 0.5 liter, is filled. A special class of samplers, known as the depth integrating
samplers, is used to obtain the vertical profile. The samplers are filled as they are lowered from
surface to bed and then raised up. The rate of lowering or raising should be constant in both
directions.
In flowing channel, samples are collected using scoop material sampler in shallow rivers
and low velocities. Dredge type bed material samplers are useful for higher depths and velocities.
In dry beds the samples are collected by scrappers after digging a pit of about 1 foot depth in
river bed. The samples collected are dried. Normally 3 to 5 samples are collected during pre-
monsoons monsoon and post-monsoon period. These samples are brought to laboratory for
analysis.

When doing the sampling, the width of the cross-section is divided into sub-areas,
depending on the variability of sediment concentration in the lateral direction. Specially designed
samplers are used to measure bed load sediments. Bed load samplers are lowered to the bottom
and are allowed to be filled up for 5-10 minutes. It is necessary to do sampling a wide range of
discharges so that a representative rating curve relating sediment and water discharge can be
established.
The concentration of sediments is commonly expressed in g/cm3 or kg/m3. The
international standards ISO 3716 and 4363 provide details of sediment sampling. The samples
are usually analyzed in laboratories. After allowing the sediments to settle down, water is
carefully removed from the container and the remaining sediments are oven-dried. The particle
size analysis is first carried out by sieving and then the finer sediments are analyzed using
hydrometer. The sediment transported as suspended load is classified in three categories,
depending on the particle size:
The coarse fraction (particles above 0.2 mm diameter),
The medium fraction (particles between 0.075 and 0.2 mm diameter), and
 The fine fraction (particles below 0.075 mm diameter).

Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) are being increasingly used for streamflow
and suspended sediment measurements. These instruments measure either the attenuation of an
acoustic pulse due to suspended particles or the backscatter of the pulse by the particles. Remote
sensing data are also now being used to estimate suspended sediments in water. The reflectance
properties of water change depend on the concentration and the properties of suspended
sediments and these form the basis to estimate suspended sediments.

6.6.1 Processing of Sediment Data

The sediment data collected at each site is checked thoroughly and processed. An important
analysis is derivation of sediment rating curve.