Assignment No.

1
Academic Writing

Name:
Sheraz Rehman
Roll No. :
15102
Class:
MBA (3.5)
6th Semester
Question No. 1
Define writing, who invented writing? What is the origin of writing? What is the
first written language? And how to write, elaborate and justify your answer?

Answer:

Definition:
Writing is a combination of Alphabets, Signals, Symbol, Grammar, and Vocabulary.

Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing systems use sets
of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and may also have symbols for such things as
punctuation and numerals.

a system of more or less permanent marks used to represent an utterance in such a way
that it can be recovered more or less exactly without the intervention of the utterer.

From: Daniels, Peter T. & Bright, William, The world's writing systems, P.3 (Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 1996)

a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way, with
the purpose of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the
language in question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing
system.

From: Coulmas, Florian, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems (Oxford, Blackwell,
1999), P.560

Who invented writing?

There are many opinions about invention of writing which we get from different books, articles
and etc. According to such opinions writing is invented by Sumerians.

The earliest form of writing

The earliest writing we know of dates back to around 3,000 BC and was probably invented by
the Sumerians, living in major cities with centralized economies in what is now southern
Iraq. Temple officials needed to keep records of the grain, sheep and cattle entering or leaving
their stores and farms and it became impossible to rely on memory. So, an alternative method
was required and the very earliest texts were pictures of the items scribes needed to record
(known as pictographs).

These texts were drawn on damp clay tablets using a pointed tool. It seems the scribes realised it
was quicker and easier to produce representations of such things as animals, rather than
naturalistic impressions of them. They began to draw marks in the clay to make up signs, which
were standardized so they could be recognized by many people.

A wedge-shaped instrument (usually a cut reed) was used to press the signs into soft clay. This
gave the writing system its name, 'cuneiform', meaning wedge-shaped.

What is the origin of writing?

Origins mean that from where it starts. Writing is invented in three places which are written
follows:

. The origin of Writing:

A Nowadays there is more-or-less consensus on a few points concerning the origin of writing.
First of all, writing was invented independently in at least three places.
A. Mesopotamia :( Mesopotamia, the region between these two rivers, will be the area of
one of the world's first two civilizations, the other being Egypt.) Geography of Ancient
Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is a Greek word meaning, Land between the Rivers.
MESOPOTAMIA - This region is known as the Fertile Crescent or land between the
rivers-the Tigris and Euphrates. The name Mesopotamia comes from ancient Greek
words meaning "between rivers"--which exactly describes its situation. This land is
shared today by Syria and Iraq. The region is a vast, dry plain through which two great
rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, flow. For over a century after its founding, it was a
minor and relatively weak state, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as
Isin, ( Isin is an archaeological site in Al-Qdisiyyah Governorate, Iraq. Excavations
 have shown that it was an important city-state in the past) Larsa, Assyria and Elam.
However, Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC), the Amorite ruler of Babylon, turned
Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond.
HISTORY OF MESOPOTAMIA. From about 4500 BC there are settlements on the
edges of the marshes where the Tigris and the Euphrates reach the Persian Gulf.
Mesopotamia, the region between these two rivers, will be the area of one of the world's
first two civilizations, the other being Egypt.
B. China
C. Mesoamerica.( Mesoamerica was a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending
approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, within which pre-Columbian societies flourished
before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries.)

What is the first written language?

The Sumerian language is one of the earliest known written languages. The "proto-literate"
period of Sumerian writing spans c. 3300 to 3000 BC. In this period, records are
purely logographic, with no linguistic or phonological content. The oldest document of the proto-
literate period is the Kish tablet. Falkenstein (1936) lists 939 signs used in the proto-literate
period (late Uruk, 34th to 31st centuries).
Write, elaborate and justify your answer:
How we write answer, how we elaborate it, and how to justify answer by which we write the
correct answer and by which we know that our answer is correct or not.

Answer the question according to general rules of academic writing. Use indentations; begin
each paragraph with a topic sentence; support the topic sentence(s) with reasons and/or
examples; use transition words to show logical organization; write a conclusion.

Elaborating is essentially providing more details about the subject. Problem for some people who
are very literally minded or see things in black and white and once the answer is provided dont
see a reason to do more. Breaking out of those constraints isnt always easy, but it can be done.

Justifying an answer is basically explaining why the answer is right. At a minimum you should
be able to answer a straightforward "Why?" but if the reasons include things that people might
also not understand, you should probably deal with them.

Question No. 2
How to write a Thesis Statement, also determine the purpose of writing
of Thesis Statement. What problem we face about writing Thesis
Statement?
Answer:
Write a Thesis Statement:
Thesis statement is the main part of a thesis. If there is no thesis statement then there is no thesis
because thesis statement tells that about what thesis is written.

A thesis statement focuses your ideas into one or two sentences. It should present the topic of
your paper and also make a comment about your position in relation to the topic. Your thesis
statement should tell your reader what the paper is about and also help guide your writing and
keep your argument focused.

A thesis statement is a sentence that makes an assertion about a topic and predicts how the topic
will be developed. It does not simply announce a topic: it says something about the topic.

A thesis statement makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of the
paper. It summarizes the conclusions that the writer has reached about the topic.

A thesis statement is generally located near the end of the introduction. Sometimes in a long
paper, the thesis will be expressed in several sentences or an entire paragraph.
 A thesis statement is focused and specific enough to be proven within the boundaries of the
paper. Key words (nouns and verbs) should be specific, accurate, and indicative of the range of
research, thrust of the argument or analysis, and the organization of supporting information.

Purpose of writing a Thesis Statement:

Writing a thesis statement is notoriously hard. The attempt to summarize a paper in a single
sentence (or two) probably causes more student frustration than anything else in writing. I have
often been tempted to give up and make do with a mediocre thesis, hoping that a good argument
later will make up for it. Sadly, since the thesis serves as a guide to the argument, this rarely
works. If I keep a few guidelines in mind, however, writing a thesis becomes much easier
especially if I'm willing to persist through a few false starts.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A THESIS?

A thesis performs three main functions in a paper:

It begins to put forth your ideas.

It foreshadows your arguments.
It attracts a reader's attention.

A thesis can perform these functions in any number of ways, depending on the topic, the writer's
style, and the requirements of the audience.

Problem facing in writing a Thesis Statement:

One of the main problems students face is having no idea about where to start from. Composing
a thesis statement may be tricky, but certain approaches exist which can give a writer some
starting ground.

Choosing a thesis statement that is not appropriate in terms of the required length of the paper.
No matter how talented you are, you can hardly disclose all the reasons of a Middle East war
conflict in a one-page essay.
Using quotations. Though it may seem like a sound idea, a quotation shows that the thought
you express in your thesis does not belong to you.
Using a lot of meaningful-sounding words and phrases, but expressing nothing.
Expressing a point of view that doesnt belong to you. Your opinion may not be original, and
most likely it has already been thought of. However, people cannot think identically, and if you
simply restate the assertions of your predecessors, it will be rather noticeable.
 Question No.3
What are the types of writing explain six of them & also explain
development of paragraph & essential elements of a paragraph?
Answer:
Types of writing:
There are many types of writing some of them are written here.

1. Persuasive or argumentative essay

A persuasive or argumentative essay makes a claim or position regarding a subject for the main
purpose of persuasion. It is usually presented with statistics, expert opinions, and well-supported
arguments about a claim or controversy. In using an argumentative tone in essay writing, it is
essential that the issue to be discussed is two-sided wherein the writer takes a stand. Also, the
main argument must be clear, exact, and highly focused.

2. Comparison and Contrast essay

This type of essay writing takes two subjects and identifies their similarities and differences. A
good comparison and contrast paper possesses a valid basis for comparison - a limited focus and
catchy information. In writing essay using compare and contrast, it is vital that the purpose for
comparing and contrasting the two subjects is made clear. This purpose is crucial because it
provides focus to the paper.

3. Descriptive essay

Descriptive essays' aim is to provide a vivid picture of a certain person, place, object, or event. It
offers concise details that enable the readers to imagine the subject described. Generally,
descriptive essays explain the "what, why, when, where, and how" of a topic.

4. Definition essay

Definition essay writing demands writers to present a meaning of a term that goes beyond the
objective definition offered in the dictionary. Essay writers need to provide a more focused and
exact description of the term than what is offered in reference sources.

5. Narrative essay
A narrative essay tells a story in a sequence of events. This type of essay is told from a defined
point of view, often the author's. It offers specific and often sensory details to get the reader
involved in the elements and sequence of the story. Verbs must be vivid and precise.

6. Evaluation essay

The prime purpose of this essay writing style is to form judgment on certain ideas, places,
services, etc. basing on clear-cut criteria. An informed opinion is critical to the development of
this essay. It is important to use facts, statistics and other authoritative resources to establish and
organize the criteria to present a substantial analysis and evaluation.

Essay writing is just one tough kind of various paper writing activities. Students usually ask for
professional essay help to assist them on what type of approach or style to use in their
composition.

Development of Paragraph:
A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic. Effective
paragraphs have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence, and adequate
development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

Unity

Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph "hang
together" in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new
idea -- one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph -- the writer should
begin a new paragraph. Unity is important because it aids the reader in following along with the
writer's ideas. The reader can expect that a given paragraph will deal only with one main topic;
when a new paragraph begins, this signals that the writer is moving on to a new topic.

Example

"Employees' attitudes at Jonstone Electric Company should be improved. The workers do not
feel that they are a working team instead of just individuals. If people felt they were a part of a
team, they would not misuse the tools, or deliberately undermine the work of others.
Management's attitude toward its employees should also be improved. Managers at Jonstone
Electric act as though their employees are incapable of making decisions or doing their own
work. Managers treat workers like objects, not human beings."

Coherence
Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood by
the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When a writer changes main
ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To achieve coherence, then, a writer
should show how all of the ideas contained in a paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

Example

"Schools should offer courses to help students with the problems of unemployment. Such a
course might begin with a discussion of where to find employment, then cover resume writing
and interviewing. Algebra and history don't help students with real-world needs. They are
required courses that students aren't interested in, and this is frustrating for students who would
rather learn about other subjects. If schools offered job-skills courses, students would be well
prepared for the difficult task of finding a job once they finish school."

Adequate Development

A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the topic sentence.
If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after
reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed. Generally speaking, a
paragraph which consists of only two or three sentences is under-developed. A good rule of
thumb to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least four sentences which explain
and elaborate on the topic sentence.

Example

"The topics of leadership and management are both similar to and different from one another in
several important ways. To be effective, a manager should be a good leader. And good leaders
know how to manage people effectively."

Topic Sentences

Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and unity
in one's writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about,
such that the reader has clear expectations about what will follow. An effective topic sentence
typically contains only one main idea. The remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea
more fully, offering supporting points and examples. After reading a topic sentence, one should
be able to anticipate the type of information contained in the rest of the paragraph. If the
remainder of the paragraph does not fulfill the "promise" of the topic sentence, the paragraph
will lack unity, coherence and adequate development.

Examples
"The cockroaches that inhabit many city apartments and homes are parasites that are almost
impossible to exterminate completely."

Essential Elements of Paragraph:

The four elements essential to good paragraph writing are: unity, order,
coherence, and completeness.

Unity:

Unity in a sentence starts with the subject phrase. Every sentence has one individual, managing
concept that is indicated in its subject phrase, which is generally the first phrase of the sentence.
A sentence is specific around this main concept, with the assisting phrases offering details and
conversation. In order to create a good subject phrase, think about your style and all the details
you want to make. Choose which point pushes the relax, and then create it as your subject
sentence.

Order:

Order represents the way you arrange your assisting phrases. Whether you choose date order,
order of importance, or another reasonable demonstration of detail, a solid sentence always has a
certain organization. In a well-ordered sentence, people follows along easily, with the design
youve established. Order helps people understanding your indicating and avoid
misunderstandings.

Coherence:

Coherence is the quality that makes your writing understandable. Sentences within a paragraph
need to connect to each other and work together as a whole. One of the best ways to achieve
coherency is to use transition words. These words create bridges from one sentence to the next.
You can use transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above,
below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact). Also, in writing a paragraph, using a consistent
verb tense and point of view are important ingredients for coherency.

Completeness:

Completeness means a expression is well-developed. If all words clearly and properly assistance
the significant idea, then your expression is complete. If there are not enough words or enough
information to confirm your dissertation, then the expression is partial. Usually three assisting
words, moreover to a topic expression and completing expression, are needed for a expression to
be complete. The completing expression or last expression of the expression should sum up your
significant idea by strengthening your topic expression.
 Question No.4
What is the difference between speech & writing also explains the
technical writing process?
Answer:
SPEAKING VERSUS WRITING
SPEECH WRITING

The worst part about it was I had a friend
Sitting up here and shes saying ha ha
And I was saying Go get the police go
Get someoneI later learned that there are
Some people who do that in the face of
disasterI mean they just start cracking up
as opposed to crying.
My helpful friend, perhaps not realizing that I
was serious, began laughing. Sue roared all the
harder as my situation became more difficult.
She claimed I looked funny, clinging there
screaming. I realized that she was laughing
Because she was incapable of acting: the
situation must have been greatly disturbing to
her, and so she treated it as if it were another
situation.

DIFFERENCES

There are many differences between the processes of speaking and writing. Writing is not
simply speech written down on paper. Learning to write is not a natural extension of learning to
speak. Unlike speech, writing requires systematic instruction and practice. Here are some of the
differences between speaking and writing that may clarify things for you and help you in your
efforts as a writer and speaker.

SPEECH WRITING

Universal, everybody acquires it Not everyone learns to read and write

Spoken language has dialect variations that
represent a region
Speakers use their voices (pitch, rhythm,
stress) and their bodies to communicate their
message
Speakers use pauses and intonation
Speakers pronounce
Speaking is often spontaneous and unplanned.
Speakers have immediate audiences who nod,
interrupt, question and comment
Speech is usually informal and repetitive
Speakers use simpler sentences connected by
lots of ands and buts.
Speakers draw on their listeners reactions to
know how or whether to continue
Speakers can gauge the attitudes, beliefs, and
feelings of their audience by their verbal and
non-verbal reactions
Written language is more restricted and
generally follows a standardized form of
grammar, structure, organization, and
vocabulary
Writers rely on the words on the page to
express meaning and their ideas
Writers use punctuation
Writers spell
Most writing is planned and can be changed
through editing and revision before an
audience reads it
Writers have a delayed response from
audiences or none at all and have only one
opportunity to convey their message, be
interesting, informative, accurate and hold
their readers attention
Writing on the other hand is more formal and
compact. It progresses more logically With
fewer explanations and digressions.
Writers use more complex sentences With
connecting words like however, Who,
although, and in addition.
Writers are often solitary in their process
Writers must consider what and how much
their audience needs to know about a given
topic
Technical Writing Process:

Plan
"If you fail to plan, you plan to fail." This chapter covers the planning activities you need to
carry out to set up your documentation project for success, such as defining scope, customising
the Technical Writing Process to suit your project, scheduling, tracking progress, and creating a
Documentation Plan.

Structure
The table of contents is the backbone of your document, providing a structure or "information
architecture" for you to populate with text. This chapter covers the four main approaches to
structuring technical documentation (narrative, process-based, library, and system-based) and
how to work with stakeholders to develop it.

Write
Writing is where you convert your bare-bones table of contents into a series of drafts. This
chapter covers writing methods such as active voice and Plain English; reviewing with subject
matter experts; managing the review process with version control; and techniques on layout and
formatting. There's even a section on graphic design tips for writers.

Review
Review begins with editing, the time-honoured process of polishing a document to bring it up to
a publishable state. This chapter includes highly practical tools such as an Editing Checklist and
the Levels of Editing diagram. It also covers peer review, testing and validation; defining the
review team; and conducting formal stakeholder reviews.

Publish
Publication can be a complicated process, whereby technical writers carefully manufacture and
launch a final product. This chapter covers common publication tasks such as establishing
document control, performing final checks like proofreading, and communication with
stakeholders. It also discusses more advanced scenarios such as print production and translation.

Question No. 5
What role does Topic Sentence play for paragraphs development, its
characteristics, positioning & how you will test your Topic Sentence?
Answer:
Topic Sentence:
Topic sentence is the main idea of a sentence, if there is no topic sentence then there is no
sentence. It is the main part of a sentence.
Definition:
A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. Sometimes referred to as a
focus sentence, the topic sentence helps organize the paragraph by summarizing the information
in the paragraph. In formal writing, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph
(although it doesn't have to be).
Role of Topic Sentence in Paragraph Development:
Topic sentences make the structure of a text and the writers basic arguments easy to locate and
comprehend. In college writing, using a topic sentence in each paragraph of the essay is the
standard rule. However, the topic sentence does not always have to be the first sentence in your
paragraph even if it the first item in your formal outline.
 The topic sentence can be the first, middle, or final sentence in a paragraph. The assignments
audience and purpose will often determine where a topic sentence belongs. When the purpose of
the assignment is to persuade, for example, the topic sentence should be the first sentence in a
paragraph. In a persuasive essay, the writers point of view should be clearly expressed at the
beginning of each paragraph.
Choosing where to position the topic sentence depends not only on your audience and purpose
but also on the essays arrangement, or order. When you organize information according to order
of importance, the topic sentence may be the final sentence in a paragraph. All the supporting
sentences build up to the topic sentence. Chronological order may also position the topic
sentence as the final sentence because the controlling idea of the paragraph may make the most
sense at the end of a sequence.
When you organize information according to spatial order, a topic sentence may appear as the
middle sentence in a paragraph. An essay arranged by spatial order often contains paragraphs
that begin with descriptions. A reader may first need a visual in his or her mind before
understanding the development of the paragraph. When the topic sentence is in the middle, it
unites the details that come before it with the ones that come after it.
As you read critically throughout the writing process, keep topic sentences in mind. You may
discover topic sentences that are not always located at the beginning of a paragraph. For
example, fiction writers customarily use topic ideas, either expressed or implied, to move readers
through their texts. In nonfiction writing, such as popular magazines, topic sentences are often
used when the author thinks it is appropriate (based on the audience and the purpose, of course).
A single topic sentence might even control the development of a number of paragraphs. For more
information on topic sentences, please see "Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping
Content".
Developing topic sentences and thinking about their placement in a paragraph will prepare you to
write the rest of the paragraph.

Characteristics:

Characteristics define a good topic sentence:

1. A good topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the
paragraph.

Weak example. People rarely give firefighters the credit they deserve for such a physically and
emotionally demanding job. (The paragraph is about a specific incident that involved
firefighters; therefore, this topic sentence is too general.)
Stronger example. During the October riots, Unit 3B went beyond the call of duty. (This topic
sentence is more specific and indicates that the paragraph will contain information about a
particular incident involving Unit 3B.)
2. A good topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea or opinion.

Weak example. In this paper, I am going to discuss the rising suicide rate among young
professionals. (This topic sentence provides a main idea, but it does not present a controlling
idea, or thesis.)
Stronger example. The rising suicide rate among young professionals is a cause for immediate
concern. (This topic sentence presents the writers opinion on the subject of rising suicide rates
among young professionals.)

3. A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.

Weak example. In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or nonacademic

document is considerably easier and of much higher quality if you first construct an outline, of
which there are many different types. (This topic sentence includes a main idea and a controlling
thesis, but both are buried beneath the confusing sentence structure and unnecessary vocabulary.
These obstacles make it difficult for the reader to follow.)
Stronger example. Most forms of writing can be improved by first creating an outline. (This
topic sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage and simplifies the previous statement, making it
easier for the reader to follow.)

4. A good topic sentence does not include supporting details.

Weak example. Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons, most importantly so we
dont allow the same team to win year after year. (This topic sentence includes a supporting
detail that should be included later in the paragraph to back up the main point.)
Stronger example. Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of baseball for many
reasons. (This topic sentence omits the additional supporting detail so that it can be expanded
upon later in the paragraph.)

5. A good topic sentence engages the reader by using interesting vocabulary.

Weak example. The military deserves better equipment. (This topic sentence includes a main
idea and a controlling thesis, but the language is bland and unexciting.)
Stronger example.The appalling lack of resources provided to the military is outrageous and
requires our immediate attention. (This topic sentence reiterates the same idea and controlling
thesis, but adjectives such as appalling and immediate better engage the reader. These words also
indicate the writers tone.)

Paragraph Positioning:

Testing for Topic Sentences

"When testing your article for topic sentences, you should be able to look at each paragraph and
say what the topic sentence is. Having said it, look at all the other sentences in the paragraph and
test them to make sure they support it. . . .
"If you find that you have come up with the same topic sentence more than once, you have two
paragraphs doing the same work. Cut one of them out.

"If you find a paragraph that has several sentences that don't support the topic sentence, see if all
the outlaw sentences support some other topic sentence and turn the one paragraph into two."