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PROJECT REPORT ON

LEADERSHIP

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR


BACHELOR IN MANAGEMENT STUDIES
2007-2008

PROJECT GUIDE

PROF.PRERNA S.

REPORT SUBMITTED BY: ANUBHAVKUMAR M. KASHYAP

SPECIALIZATION: MARKETING MANAGEMENT

MAHATMA EDUCATION SOCIETY’S


PILLAI’S INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES & RESEARCH

NEW PANVEL, 410206

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PROJECT SPECIALIZATION

IN

“LEADERSHIP”

SUBMITTED BY

ANUBHAVKUMAR M. KASHYAP
T.Y.B.M.S

Project Guide
Prof. Prerna S.

IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE


COURSE IN BACHELOR IN MANAGEMENT STUDIES

2007-2008

MAHATMA EDUCATION SOCIETY’S

PILLAI’S COLLEGE OF ARTS, SCIENCE &


COMMERCE

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MAHATMA EDUCATION SOCIETY’S

Pillai’s College of Arts, Science &


Commerce
New Panvel

Certificate
To Whom So It May Concern
This is to certify that the work entered in this
Journal is the work of
MR. ANUBHAVKUMAR M. KASHYAP
T.Y.B.M.S
Have successfully completed the project report on
the topic
“LEADERSHIP”
Terms of the year 2007-08 in
The college as laid down by the college authority.

Ms. Prerna S.
(Principal)

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¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
Date: / /200
(External Guide)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project bears the imprint of many people. The first and foremost I seek
the blessing of my parents who keep lot of expectations on me. The home
environment is a major factor which influences our work I am extremely
grateful to them for giving me all moral support.

I am proud privileges to show my gratitude to my project guide Prof Prerna


S. for all her valuable guidance and encouragement that helped me to
complete this project successfully in time.

I cannot ignore the help, which I got from my professors and talent and
abilities throughout my BMS course.

Also the support from college infrastructural facilities, the computer lab and
the library which updated my anxiety to study more on retail management.

Ultimately I would like to thank my friends who supported me and co-


operated with me. I have received valuable support from them and for that I
thank them again especially my close friends for I benefited greatly from their
guidance. This project is truly the fruit of the effort from these people.

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INDEX

SR.NO TOPICS Pg No.


1. What Is Leadership? 6-7
2. The Task of Leadership 7-9
3. Definitions of Leadership 10
4. Features of Leadership 10-11
5. Functions of Leadership 12-13
6. Authority & Power 13
7. Becoming A Leader 14
8. Steps To Leading 14-15
9. Duties & Responsibilities of A leader 16-18
10. Leadership Qualities 19-21
11. Other Qualities 22
12. Leadership Theories 23-25
13. Contingency Leadership Theory 26-28
14. How To Motivate & Inspire 29-32
15. Styles of Leadership 33-39
16. Specific Theories of Leadership 40-44
17. Managerial Grid 45-46
18. Functional Leadership Model 47-48
19. Ideal Leadership 48
20. Delegation 49-51
21. Practical Aspects of Directing Teams 52-53
22. The Difference Between Leadership & 54-56
Management
23. The Psychology of Leadership 57
24. Leadership associated with positions of authority 58
25. Leadership Cycles 59-61
26. Leadership Amongst Primates 62-63
27. Leadership As A Vanguard 63
28. Orthogonality & Leadership 64-65

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29. Determining What Makes “Effective Leadership” 65-67
30. Leadership & Vision 68
31. Leadership’s Relation With Management 69-71
32. Leadership by Group 72-75
What Is Leadership?

Leadership is a process of getting things done through people. The quarterback


moves the team toward a touchdown. The senior patrol leader guides the troop to a
high rating at the camporee. The mayor gets the people to support new policies to
make the city better.

These leaders are getting things done by working through people -- football
players, Scouts, and ordinary citizens. They have used the process of leadership to
reach certain goals.

Leadership is not a science. So being a leader is an adventure because you can


never be sure whether you will reach your goal -- at least this time. The touchdown
drive may end in a fumble. The troop may have a bad weekend during the
camporee. Or the city's citizens may not be convinced that the mayor's policies are
right. So these leaders have to try again, using other methods. But they still use the
same process the process of good leadership.

Leadership means responsibility. It's adventure and often fun, but it always means
responsibility. The leader is the guy the others look to get the job done. So don't
think your job as a troop leader or a staff member will be just an honor. It's more
than that. It means that the other Scouts expect you to take the responsibility of
getting the job done. If you lead, they will do the job. If you don't, they may expect
you to do the job all by yourself.

That's why it's important that you begin right now to learn what leadership is all
about.

Wear your badge of office proudly. It does not automatically make you a good
leader. But it identifies you as a Scout who others want to follow -- if you'll let
them by showing leadership.

You are not a finished leader. No one ever is not even a president or prime
minister. But you are an explorer of the human mind because now you are going to

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try to learn how to get things done through people. This is one of the keys to
leadership.

You are searching for the secrets of leadership. Many of them lie locked inside
you. As you discover them and practice them, you will join a special group of
people-skilled leaders.

Leadership is followership. A good leader leads but does not push. Effective
leadership can guide a group towards certain ideas without exerting much force.
Managers who possess the quality of guiding & directing the subordinates under
inspired impulse can be called business leaders. Leadership is concerned with
getting results through people & implies the organization of staff into productive
teams, groups & departments. Leadership entrails the creation of human structures,
their motivation & direction, the resolution of conflicts at the workplace, creating
vision for the entire business & providing resources in support of this.

The Tasks of Leaderships

In this section, we will consider several common statements about the people who
serve in leadership positions throughout our world. After you have read the
statement, decide for yourself whether you feel it is true or false and why you think
it is.

The only people who lead have some kind of leadership job, such as chairman,
coach, or king.

Do you think that's true? Don't you believe it? It's true that chairmen, coaches, and
kings lead, but people who hold no leadership position also lead. And you can find
some people who have a leader's title and ought to lead. But they don't.

In other words, you are not a leader because you wear the leader's hat Or because
you wear the patrol leader's insignia on your uniform. You are a leader only when
you are getting things done through other people.

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Leadership, then, is something people do. Some people inherit leadership
positions, such as kings, or nobles, or heads of family businesses. Some are
elected: chairman, governor, patrol leader. Some are appointed, such as a coach, a
city manager, or a den chief. Or they may just happen to be there when a situation
arises that demands leadership. A disaster occurs, or a teacher doesn't show up
when class begins, or a patrol leader becomes sick on a campout.

Leadership is a gift. If you are born with it, you can lead. If you are not, you
can't.

Some people will tell you that. Some really believe it. But it's not so.

Leadership does take skill. Not everyone can learn all the skills of leadership as
well as anyone else. But most people can learn some of them -- and thus develop
their own potential.

You don't have to be born with leadership. Chances are, you weren't. But you were
born with a brain. If you can learn to swim or play checkers or do math, you can
learn leadership skills.

"Leader" is another word for "boss."

Well, what do you mean by "boss"? A guy who pushes and orders other people
around? No, a leader is not one of those. (But some people try to lead this way.)

Or do you mean a boss is somebody who has a job to do and works with other
people to get it done? This is true. A leader is a boss in that sense.

Being a leader in a Scout troop is like being a leader anywhere else.

This one is true. When you lead in a Scout troop, you will do many of the same
things as any leader anywhere.

The important thing now is Scouting gives you a chance to lead. You can learn
how to lead in Scouting. You can practice leadership in Scouting. Then you can
lead other groups, too. The skills you will need are very much the same.

What Does a Leader Deal with?

Every leader deals with just two things. Here they are: the job and the group.

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The job is what's to be done. The "job" doesn't necessarily mean work. It could be
playing a game. It could be building a skyscraper. It could be getting across an
idea.

A leader is needed to get the job done. If there were no job, there would be no need
for a leader.

The group, such as a patrol, is the people who do the job. And in many cases, the
group continues after the job is done. This is where leading gets tough, as you'll see
later.

Think about this situation. Mark has a lot of firewood to split. There he is, all alone
with his ax. He's got a job to do. Is he a leader?

We have to say in this situation that Mark won't be leading. Why? No group.
There's nobody on the job but Mark.

Here's another example. Danny and three of his friends are on their bikes. They
have no place to go. They're just riding slowly, seeing how close they can get to
each other.

Is Danny -- or any one of the others -- a leader?

From what we know, we have to say no. Why? No job. There's a group of friends,
but nothing special to be done. You don't need a leader for that. (You don't need a
group, either.)

The Job of a Leader

A leader works with two things: a job and a group. You can always tell when a
leader succeeds, because:

1. The job gets done.

2. The group holds together.

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Definitions of Leadership

1) According to Koontz & O’Donnell, “Leadership is the ability of a manager to


induce subordinates (followers) to work with confidence & zeal.”

2) According to George Terry, “Leadership is the ability of influencing people to


strive willingly for mutual objectives.”

Features of Leadership

1) Involves guiding & motivating: Leadership is a managerial process of guiding


& motivating the subordinates for achieving organizational goals. For motivating,
communicating is necessary.

2) Existence of subordinates & common interest: It presupposes the existence of


subordinates. There must be common interest for the leader & his followers due to
which they cooperate & participate for achieving objectives.

3) Promotion of interest in work: The purpose of leadership is to influence,


motivate & encourage subordinates to take active interest in the work assigned &
give the best results.

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4) Support from all: The leader must recognize the presence of all employees
irrespective of their position. The leader cannot become successful unless he
obtains support from all.

5) Influences subordinates through personal qualities: A leader understands the


problems of his subordinates & influences them by his personal qualities.

6) Dynamic & continuous process: Leadership is a dynamic & continuous


process. It is a regular activity of guiding & motivating subordinates for improving
their performance & contribution towards organizational objectives.

7) Leadership is situational : An ideal leadership is always situational. A leader


has to study the prevailing situations & provide appropriate leadership to his
subordinates.

8) Assumes obligations: A leader always inspires followers. In the event of


failure, he does not shift the responsibility to his subordinates but accepts his
personal weakness in performance. A leader leads by setting good example.

9) Interaction with followers: The objective of the leader & his subordinates
should be the same. If the leader attempts for one purpose & his subordinates for
some other purpose, it is no leadership. The interest should be identical.

10) Achievement of objectives: The success of a leader largely depends on his


ability to achieve organizational objectives. When a leader fails to attain the
objectives, he is of no utility to the management.

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Functions of Leadership:

1) To build up confidence: A leader can stand tall before others. He is the father
figure. He installs self-confidence & enthusiasm among his followers. A leader is a
coach as well as counselor to his subordinates.

2) To motivate employees: A leader creates the desire to provide better


performance. Good leadership inspires people to work hard. Individual & group
performances improve. The leader adjusts his motivational plans to extract best
performances from his employees.

3) To introduce changes: Introduction of changes is an unpleasant & difficult


task. The leader must make provisions & gradually introduce changes. This is
because the change is resisted by the employees. Skilful leaders play with
employee psychology & introduce changes with their support.

4) To improve employee morale: Job satisfaction helps morale building. The


leader maintains his administration objective & free from bias. Employees realize
that at the time of crisis the leader is always present to help them. Morale building
also reduces conflicts.

5) To prescribe performance goals: The leader is careful about prescribing such


goals that employees are able to achieve with little extra efforts. He does not
prescribe such goals that employees will struggle & finally not be able to achieve
them. This also improves their inter-personal relations.

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6) To act as employees’ representative: A good leader is always like a guardian.
He protects the interests of the group. Employees have full faith on leader. They
know, on his representation, many works will be completed.

7) To exercise coordination: A good leader improves mutual understanding &


maintains team spirit among his followers. He coordinates organizational goals &
individual goals. He acts as an arbitrator to resolve crisis & become a mediator
between the opposing factors. Sound leadership results in unifying individual
efforts.

Authority & Power:

Although the terms authority & power are commonly used but they are
different in their usage. Authority is the right to command another person to
perform a certain task. Power is the ability to influence a person to perform a
task. Quite likely manager may have formal authority without power just as it is
possible for a subordinate to have power without formal authority. Every manager
must know the distinction between authority & power. A manager must not
conclude that his formal authority automatically gives him power & overlooks
greater than his own. In such condition, the manager may find it difficult to get the
work done.

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Becoming a Leader:
A leader may not always be a manager, and one day you may see an opportunity to
lead a project or team within your group, but when do decide the time is right and
how do you go about becoming the leader?

Steps to Leading:
Look at the context of the situation and decide if your leadership is required and if
you can feasibly lead the team. Perhaps another group member would be better or,
even worse; the group would not accept your influence. If this is the case your
attempt to lead will be a failure.

1. Identify team members and resources willing to support your leadership.


Clearly, change may be resisted by some people or organizations, but if you
can find enough support this resistance can be overcome. Note that the
support of your team may not be enough if you do not have the support of
authority (the boss for example) or the physical/financial resources to
accomplish your goals.
2. A crucial step is to empathies with others and assesses their understanding of
the situation. This will help you understand how to influence these people.
Many ways of doing this are available: memos, phone calls and informal
chats are a few examples.
3. Now you should open a discussion which the members. Clearly, without
open discussion some people may feel neglected or excluded. By getting
everyone's views it is more likely that you will be able to alter them and get
what you want. Now you must convince the others that your view is the one
most likely to achieve a favorable outcome for everyone. This may be easy
if everyone shares the same goals, or it may be difficult. In the end some
form of 'payment' may be required, such as a promise of a favor, to convince

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certain members. This is easy if you are in a position of power, if not; make
sure the cost to yourself is not too high.
4. Having convinced the team of your leadership, encourage team
communication to build a team identity. You should also try to motivate the
team appropriately.
5. Plan and organize the team by setting realistic goals. However do not give
too much or too little guidance, experienced workers may resent you treating
them like new-recruits, and this can undermine your leadership.
6. When goals are achieved recognizes and rewards the team. Do not expect
the team to exceed them - this will undermine your leadership and the team
will lose trust in you. Of course you may decide that the goals are
unachievable or insufficient, but any re-definition of these goals should be
done carefully and with team co-operation.

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Duties & Responsibilities of a Leader:

1) Towards Management:

a) To transmit management policies to workers.

b) To accept full responsibilities for all the works in his department.

c) To transmit worker’s feelings towards management.

d) To keep management informed about the work progress.

e) To get the required production out in time.

f) Refer promptly the matters to management which need their attention.

g) To take up the cases of promotion, transfer & dismissal of workers with


the management.

h) To make plans & devise methods to boost up productive efficiency &


product quality.

i) Devise ways to minimize waste & scrap.

j) To keep records for future action.

k) To render reports to management as desired.

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2) Towards Workers:

a) To instruct workers about,

 Company policies & procedures.


 The right method of doing the job.
 The job ahead.

b) To listen patiently the workers, their suggestions & complaints.

c) To maintain discipline.

d) To develop a sense of belonging in the workers.

e) To maintain neat, safe & clean working conditions.

f) Divide work among the workers in accordance with their capacity &
skill.

g) To represent workers to management.

h) Encourage & train workers to take responsibilities.

i) To promote & transfer workers in an impartial manner.

j) Develop harmony, cooperation & team work.

k) To rate workers for determining their wage rates.

l) To train workers on the job.

m) Develop worker’s initiative & interest in the job & to motivate them.

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n) Setting good example in punctuality, temperament, leadership,
efficiency, etc.

3) Towards Fellow Leaders:

a) To cooperate with them in making company policies a success.

b) To give respect to suggestions of fellow supervisors.

c) To coordinate work with other departments.

d) Passing any information pertaining to other associates, to them.

e) Sitting together with other colleagues to solve common problems.

f) Encouraging interchange of good workers through promotion & transfer,


etc.

g) To avoid the creation of ill-feeling among fellow leaders.

4) Towards Work:

a) To plan the work.

b) To make sure that the materials, necessary equipment & tools are
available for the work.

c) To lay out each job.

d) To distribute work to workforce as per individual capabilities.

e) To see that the work is being accomplished as per the scheduled plan.

f) To ensure proper material handling.

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g) To ensure smooth flow of work.

h) To coordinate work of different sections.

i) To check the work as regards quantity & quality.

Leadership Qualities:
A leader needs sound health & physical capacity to perform his functions
in an efficient manner. In addition to physical qualities, an ideal leader needs
certain qualities of head & heart. The main qualities include personal traits &
managerial traits which are shown in following chart:

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES

PERSONAL TRAITS MANAGERIAL TRAITS

1) Self –confidence 1) Knowledge of human skills

2) Charisma 2) Administrative Ability

3) Intelligence 3) Technical Knowledge

4) Decisiveness 4) Ability to Deal with People

5) Dynamic personalities 5) Ability to Judge & Decide

6) Flexibility Quickly

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A) Personal Traits:

1) Self-confidence: Self-confidence is rare quality because of which a person feels


that he has capacity to solve his problems independently. This self-confidence
creates initiative to deal with all challenging situations effectively.

2) Charisma: The charisma of the leader arises from his person & personality. It is
generally enhanced by the success of the person in his position. It is enhanced also
by self belief & self confidence of the leader.

3) Intelligence: A leader should possess the ability to think rationally. He should


be intelligent to judge the situation around him.

4) Decisiveness: An ideal leader must possess decisiveness. This means ability to


think positively. He must be able to formulate appropriate line of action.

5) Dynamic personality: An ideal leader needs dynamic personality. He should be


able to face any change favorable or unfavorable with confidence.

6) Flexibility: An ideal leader needs flexibility in his approach. He should be able


to change his views, policies & methods as per the changes taking place around
him. He should be liberal & adjustable as per the needs of the situation.

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B) Managerial Traits:

1) Knowledge of human skills: An ideal leader should possess knowledge of


interpersonal skills to understand others. He can direct, motivate & coordinate
the efforts of subordinate only when he understands their mind & deals tactfully.

2) Administrative ability: A leader needs administrative capacity. This enables


him to have expected results from his followers.

3) Technical Knowledge: A manager as a leader has to discharge various duties.


He, therefore, needs technical knowledge relating to the area of his operation. It
will enable the leader to evaluate the performance of his subordinates.

4) Ability to deal with people: A manager has to deal with his subordinates of
various types. He must be able to satisfy his subordinates & create confidence in
their minds. For this he needs knowledge of human psychology.

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5) Ability to decide & judge quickly: Manager as a leader should be able to judge
people & situations. He has to take decisions quickly & also correctly as per his
judgment of the situation.

Other Qualities:

a) A sense of mission: A devotion to the people & the organization in


which one survives.

b) Accomplishment: Effective use of time in meeting company goals &


objectives.

c) Acceptability: From the subordinates; respect from & confidence of


others.

d) Acuteness: A leader remains mentally alert & readily comprehends


instructions, explanations & unusual circumstances.

e) Maturity: In coping with situations & making decisions, emotionally


stable & unlikely to breakdown with frustration.

f) Job Competence: A leader knows the job he supervises.

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Leadership Theories:

Over the years members of theories have been advanced to present the
concept of leadership from different angles. The following theories of leadership
are outstanding:

1) Traitist Leadership styles


2) Situational Theory
3) Group Theory
4) Behavior Theory of Leadership
5) Composite Leadership Theory

1) Traitist Leadership Theory:

Traits are characteristics which may be physical or intellectual & they


distinguish leaders from non- leaders. It considers leadership as a set of qualities
possessed by an individual. One who has the ability to lead will be a successful
leader in any situation or in any group of people.

There is no agreement on the list of traits essential for leadership.


Some authorities emphasize on intelligence, initiative, self-assurance, supervisory
abilities while others stress scholarship, dependability, social participation &
socioeconomic status.

2) Situational Theory:

Successful leadership occurs when the leader’s style matches with


situation. Situational leadership theories stress the need for flexibility. They reject

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the idea of a universally applicable style. Research is done to determine the
precisely when & where various styles of are appropriate.

Situational approach gives a good insight to the understanding of


leadership. It is based on the assumption that leadership behavior & style in one
setting may be altogether different from the leadership style & behavior in other
setting.

3) Group Theory:

The failure of traits theory to provide clear-cut set of traits has led the
writers to try the other approaches. One of these is the group approach. The
success of the leader is basically influenced by the characteristics of the followers.
In case of traits approach it is assumed that the leader is free to mould the activities
of the group. The group theory points out that the leader himself is bound by the
needs, desires & norms of his own followers. In group approach effective
leadership consists of organizing the group’s interactions in a way that fulfills the
articulated needs of the group norms. Each group tends to develop its own unique
pattern of interpersonal relationship. A person can become a successful leader only
if he accepts the convections, traditions & behavioral norms of the group.
Employees look forward to the leader to fulfill their personal & social needs. Only
when the needs of the followers are satisfied, they accept the person as their leader.

4) Behavior Theory:

This theory tries to establish leadership by considering leaders in


terms of what they do. Effectiveness of leader is determined in terms of individual
subordinate outcome. Research studies conducted by Katz, Maccoby & Morse
suggested that leadership behavior be defined along employee-centered dimension
& production-centered dimension, both complementing each other. This was
expected to improve productivity.
In depth investigation into this approach was conducted at Ohio State
University that isolated two factors influencing leadership dimension which are:

1) Consideration (of employees): It tends to establish relationship between the


leader & the group. An atmosphere of trust & concern for the work group prevails.
Encouragement to participative management, maintaining two-way communication
& respecting employee feedback are practiced.
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2) Initiating Structure: Maintaining transparent administration so that employees
know exactly what is to be done & how it is to be done. The leader defines the role
of every employee. The leader need not necessarily have to rate high both on
consideration as well as structure. He would be high on one & low on the other &
lead the group successfully.

5) Composite Theory:

No one theory is considered complete in all respects. Each approach


contributes something to our understanding of leadership. It is felt by many writers
that an integration of the three approaches will present better understanding of
leadership. Strictly speaking, leadership is neither a quality possessed by an
individual nor a product of situation alone or of the group. Effective leadership is a
function of several factors i.e. the leader, the led & the situation as shown below:

The
Leader

The
Situation The Led

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Leadership as shown in figure is affected by all the three factors. The
leaders, the led & the situation are the three pillars; based on which an appropriate
leadership style can be worked out.

Contingency Leadership Theory:

1) Fiedler’s Contingency Theory:

While discussing leadership theories, Fiedler’s contingency theory is


the most thoroughly tested because it is the result more than thirty years of
research. Contingency theory assumes that the performance of the leader depends
upon the two interrelated factors:

Firstly, the degree to which the situation gives the leader control &
influence i.e. the likelihood that a leader can successfully attain the job, &

Secondly, the leader’s basic motivation i.e. whether the leader’s self-
esteem depends primarily on attaining the task or on having close relations with
others.

Fiedler believes that leaders are either task motivated or


relationship-motivated. These two motivational factors are almost equal to
concern for production or concern for people. Task motivated leaders seem to be
effective in extreme situations when they have either very little control or a great
deal of control over situational variables. Relationship-motivated leaders are found
to be effective in moderately favorable situations. In the words of Fiedler
“everything points to the conclusion that there is no such thing as an ideal leader.”
Instead, there are leaders & there are situations. Fiedler points out that it is
comparatively easy to move leaders to a suitable situation than to tamper with their
personalities by trying to get task- motivated leaders to become relationship-
motivated or vice – versa.

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2) Path- Goal Theory:

Path- Goal theory gets it name from the assumption that effective
leaders can increase subordinate motivation by:

a) Explaining the subordinate’s perception of work goals.

b) Providing rewards for goal attainment.

c) Clarifying how goals & desired rewards can be achieved.

Path-goal theory stress that motivation is essential to effective


leadership. According to R. J. House & T. R. Mitchell leaders can enhance
motivation by “increasing the number & kinds of personal payoff to subordinates
for work-goal attainment & making paths to these payoffs easier to travel by
clarifying paths, reducing road blocks & pay falls & increasing the opportunities
for personal satisfaction en route.”

Personal characteristic of sub-ordinates, environmental pressure &


demand on subordinates will vary from situation to situation. The advocates of
path-goal theory emphasize that managers need to rely on four different leadership
styles:

a) Participative c) Directive

b) Supportive d) Achievement-oriented.

One major contribution of path-goal theory is its identification on the


achievement-oriented leadership style. Achievement –oriented leaders set
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challenging goals. They are confident that subordinates will meet the difficult
challenges in a responsible manner. Path-goal theory states that employees are
educated & self-motivated & the managers are expected to be skilled facilitators
rather than just order givers or hand holders.

Characteristics
Of

Functions Of a Leader Motivated Effective


leader Behavior Subordinates Organization

Work
Environment

Path – Goal Approach to Leadership

3) Transactional & Transformational Leadership:

Managing involves carrying out the managerial functions effectively &


efficiently. One of these functions relates to leading in general & to
leadership in particular. A distinction can be made between transactional &
transformational leaders. Transactional leaders identify what subordinate
need to do to achieve objectives, clarify organizational goals & roles, set up
an organization structure, reward performance, & are considerate for the
social needs of its followers.

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Transformational leaders articulate a vision & inspire followers. They also
have the capacity to motivate, shape the organizational culture, & create a
climate favorable for organizational change. Companies such as IBM &
AT&T have program to promote transformational leadership designed to
transform their organizations quickly in order to be more responsive to the
rapid changes in the environment. There are many similarities between
transformational leaders & charismatic leaders with the former being noted
for initiating innovation & change. When one thinks of charismatic leaders,
one thinks of people such as Winston Churchill, Martin Luther King &
Mother Theresa who inspired people through their selfless service.

How to Motivate and Inspire:


How do you increase the business value of the people who work for you? Above
all, remember that they are people, each one an important part of your business
family-not just a cog in a human machine that goes through certain muscular
motions every day with time out for refueling and maintenance. Remember that
your staff has heart and brains, feelings and ideas-and is made of the same raw
materials as you. Their energies are there to be used for their own good and for
yours.

Some ways of harnessing these energies:

1. Seeking and using your employee's own ideas.

2. Keeping employees informed.

3. Expressing personal interest in employees.

4. Instilling pride in work well done.

5. Providing effective supervision.

These techniques are discussed in detail below. They concern various methods of
directing your employees toward your main objective building a profitable
business by satisfying guests and customers. As you put these techniques to use,
you will find the job only half begun. The employee still needs more answers to
this very important personal question: "What is there in it for me?" This is not a
cynical question. It is another way of asking: "How much am I worth?" As owner
or manager, you ask yourself the same question. So do your workers. Moreover,
you must provide answers for them as well as for yourself.
29
Seeking and Using Employee's Ideas:

To feel very much a part of the hospitality service business and to be given an
incentive, each employee must understand that he is free to contribute ideas.
Management must encourage employee ideas and provide the necessary
mechanism for obtaining them. Suggestion boxes and idea-discussion employee
meetings are a couple of possibilities. Encourage employees to think about
problems of the business. Some excellent ideas for their solution may be
forthcoming. As manager, carefully consider all ideas, and if adopted, commend or
reward the giver.

Keeping Employees Informed:

Successful service industry managers build good attitudes in their employees by


keeping them well informed of affairs of the business.

Important methods of informing employees include personal communication, use


of a bulletin board, regular employee newsletter or newspaper, individual written
notices and meetings.

For example: meetings are one of the best forms of management-employee


communication. They should be kept short and purposeful. There are two types of
meetings; they regular stop meeting and the problem or opportunity meeting. Staff
meetings are usually held for supervisors and department heads. However, all
employees should be invited to a staff meeting, probably once a month or perhaps
once each quarter. Topics could include coming events, business trends, notable
achievements, and employee recognition.

The problem or opportunity meeting is called when someone has a problem or an


idea worthy of consideration and assistance by others in the organization. After the
first meeting, the manager usually sets a period of time for considering the problem
or idea. The parties get back together for a follow-up meeting to resolve the matter,
having had time to think it over and reach some conclusions. This form of
communication and mutual effort contributes importantly to the organization's
spirit of teamwork.

These procedures make each person feel important to the success of the business.
The employee recognizes his value and sees how his efforts help create success.

30
Holding regular meetings for the employees are one of the best means of
motivating your staff and building self-esteem. The manager can write up the
minutes of the meeting and distribute these to all concerned on the same day the
meeting was held. This practice summarizes the most important points and makes
them readily available for future referral and use.

Expressing Personal Interest :

Another way to create motivation is the personal conference held in private with
each employee. For example: managers or supervisors should find time at least
once each year to sit down in private with each employee. In a friendly manner,
discuss both business and personal matters. Such talks smooth out problems and
difficulties, which may be blocking the motivation of the employee.The talks, are
also helpful to you, the supervisor or manager, as you may receive information
which would come to you in no other way.

Instilling Pride in Work :

One definite advantage of employment in the service industries is that much of it is


still of a "craft" nature. Craft work with the hands produces a complete finished
product that can be admired (with accompanying satisfactions. Examples: When
the salad girl completes a beautiful and tempting salad, she can take justifiable
pride in her accomplishment. The same can be said for the waitress serving a
delicious meal and the housekeeper who turns out a clean and attractive room.
These are tangible products of work and thus the old-fashioned pride of skilled
accomplishment can still flourish in this industry. Management should show public
satisfaction with accomplishment by occasionally complimenting and expressing
appreciation to the employee for work well done.

Furthermore, increased automation in manufacturing will force a growing number


of persons to look for jobs, as the labor supply exceeds the demand. Many will find
their way into the service industries.

A job in tourism is often seen as a privilege, since most jobs in this industry have a
measure of glamour and excitement. Managers can build pride, and this should be

31
done to keep good workers and attract new ones. Employee status can be elevated
by following the suggestions in this bulletin. Respect and pride for all employees is
the foundation for increasing status.

Pride in work well done also builds morale. Morale can be defined as an emotional
attachment to the business itself. It is the end product of skilled management and is
reflected in each individual and in the general tone of all employees toward their
employer and towards each guest. When employee satisfactions and needs are
being met, excellent morale is the certain result. Morale thus Extrinsic and
Intrinsic becomes an important indicator of the quality of employee management
and should be carefully watched and measured as an integral part of the total
management process. Any weaknesses which may appear should promptly receive
attention and correction by the manager.

Providing Effective Supervision :

The supervisor is the basic managerial element in the business organization. He


forms the essential link between the general manager and the workers. The entire
organization is dependent on him. He must follow the fundamentals of good
management- planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling. Actually, his
functions in the latter two are more important than the former, but he does operate
within all of the management procedures.

Usually, the supervisor is responsible for the training needed within his
department. He owes each person under him the opportunity for training and self-
improvement and should be entitled to similar opportunities himself.

The worker must have good and effective supervision to perform to the best of his
ability. Poor supervision brings about the opposite results. According to an
authoritative source, one-third of all employee job changes can be attributed to
poor supervision. Thus, quality of supervision will largely determine the level of
employee performance. Since much personal motivation is derived from a
competent supervisor, your efforts as manager to improve the quality of
supervision will reflect directly in higher employee motivation, achievement, and
morale.

Supervisors should be given the opportunity to occasionally "brush up" on


improved techniques of leadership. Special courses in supervision and technical
aspects of the public hospitality business are offered by the Educational Institute of
the American Hotel and Motel Association, Stephen S. Nisbet Building. Michigan
State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824. Write for free catalog of courses.
32
Review Extension Bulletin E-484, Recruiting and Training Employees in the
Service Industries.

Styles of Leadership:
Edwin Flippo has defined leadership style as, “a pattern of behavior of
behavior designed to integrate organizational & personal interest in pursuit of some
objective.”

Important styles of leadership:

1) Autocratic Style:

a) Autocratic leadership directs the followers but does not allow the
subordinates to question “why”.

b) The autocratic leader takes decision & expects other to execute them
without any questions.

c) There is no communication with the subordinates while taking the


decisions.

d) Such leaders only orders & even threaten.

e) Workers work out of fear.

f) Autocratic leader does not delegate authority.

g) Autocratic leadership has no place in the professional management.

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Autocratic leadership style is suitable when:

a) The leader centralizes authority & dominates decision making.


b) The leader practices punishment to discipline the subordinates.
c) The subordinates are not familiar with objectives of the business.
d) The subordinates are not adequately trained.
e) The size of business unit is small.

2) Democratic style of leadership:

a) Democratic leadership is constructive & sympathetic towards


subordinates.

b) This leadership style is liberal & willing to consider the suggestions of


subordinates.

c) Democratic leadership style gets support & respect from subordinates &
is normally treated as the best type of leadership.

d) Democratic leadership creates participative management.

e) The leader maintains effective & purposeful communication with his


subordinates.

f) The democratic leader acts as a good listener.

g) The subordinates are loyal to democratic leader.

h) A democratic leader practices delegation of authority.

Democratic leadership style is suitable when:

a) Purposeful participation of employees is required.

b) Subordinates are matured & enlightened.

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c) Group decisions are required for achieving objectives.

d) Subordinates are well – organized.

e) Business unit is large with professional management style.

3) Laissez – faire or Free – rein style of leadership:

a) This leader is rather passive.

b) The subordinates are given full freedom to take decisions & actions,
independently.

c) Guidance from the leadership is limited & many matters are left for the
consideration & decisions by subordinates.

d) The leader does not motivate or guide or even encourage the subordinates
to take initiative & interest in the work.

e) The leader is rather indifferent to his responsibilities.

Laissez – faire leadership style is suitable when:

a) Leadership is given only for a short period.

b) Subordinates are capable, mature & responsible.

c) Subordinates are educated & have capacity to function independently.

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4) Intellectual Leadership:

a) Functional leader is usually a professional expert with technical


knowledge & practical experience.

b) Subordinates respect his guidance & opinion, intellectual caliber &


capacity to give correct advice.

c) His knowledge makes him popular & he is able to divert energies of


employees for achieving objectives.

d) Such leaders do not disturb his subordinates unnecessarily & do not


like to be disturbed by them.

e) He considers various problems purely on merit.

f) Such leaders has soft corner for his subordinates & also for the
organization.

Intellectual leadership style is suitable when:

a) Management has full faith on the ability & loyalty of the leader.

b) Subordinates are highly educated & matured.

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c) Organizations are concerned with research & development activities.

5) Bureaucratic Style of Leadership:

a) Bureaucratic leadership is noticed in the case of government departments,


public bodies & public sector enterprises. It is not effective in the business
world.

b) He fails to introduce innovations & flexibilities in the organization as per


the need of situation.

c) Such leaders do not use their discreation. They function within the
framework prepared by rules & regulations.

d) Human element is also lacking in such leadership.

e) A bureaucrat wants his subordinates to follow his orders & instruction in


total.

f) Delays in decision making are not taken seriously. The overall approach
of leadership is mechanical.

Bureaucratic style is suitable when:

a) Business unit operates like a government department.

b) Importance is not given to the motivation of subordinates.

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c) Greater importance is given to the rules, procedures & formalities.

6) Situational Leadership style:

a) Situational leadership is new addition to the existing leadership styles.

b) An ideal leader studies the overall situations, draws conclusion & adopts
the leadership style which is most appropriate to the prevailing situations.
This is the essence of situational leadership.

c) The best leadership style is situational.

d) An ideal leader is one who can adjust his styles of functioning as per the
situations within which he has to operate. This means the internal & external
environment.

e) A leader may act as a director at one time & also as a democratic leader
on some other occasions. A good leader is one who studies situations around
him & adopts the most suitable style of leadership.

f) A situational leadership is a combination of all types of leaderships.

g) A situational leader knows different leadership styles but selects one


particular style, which is most, appropriate to a given situation.

h) He adopts flexible approach in his style of functioning. This makes his


leadership effective & result-oriented. A situational leader knows when to
use a particular style. He makes corresponding adjustments in his styles.

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Merits of Situational Leadership:

a) The situational leadership is a practical one & is based on real facts of


life. The best leadership style is situational.

b) The situational theory has universal acceptance.

c) It focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, but on the


personality of the organization as a whole.

d) The situational leadership is flexible & acceptable. It can operate in any


style as per the need of the situation.

Limitations of Situational Theory:

a) In this leadership, more importance is given to the situation & the


importance of the traits has been given less importance. Leadership should
involve both situation & traits.

b) It offers an incomplete explanation of the leadership process.

39
Specific theories of leadership:

Giorgio Agamben:

In State of Exception (2005), Agamben reads Carl Schmitt's theory of sovereignty


in the light of Walter Benjamin. Agamben traces Schmitt's definition of
sovereignty as the power to decide the state of exception to the Roman concept of
auctoritas - the power to declare justitium. In chapter 6 §8, Agamben writes:

"It is significative that modern specialists were so inclined to admit that


auctoritas was inherent to the living person of the pater or the princeps.
What was evidently an ideology or a fictio aiming to be the groundwork of
auctoritas ' preeminence or, at least, specific rank compared to potestas thus
became a figure of right's immanence to life. (...) Although it is evident that
there can't be an eternal human type that would incarnate itself each time in
Augustus, Napoleon, Hitler, but only more or less similar mechanisms
{"dispositif", a term often used by Foucault} - the state of exception,
justitium, the auctoritas principis, the Führertum - put in use in more or less
different circumstances, in the 1930s - overall, but not only - in Germany,
the power that Weber had defined as "charismatic" is related to the concept
of auctoritas and elaborated in a Führertum doctrine as the original and
personal power of a leader. In 1933, in a short article intending to define the
fundamental concepts of national-socialism, Schmitt defines the Führung
principal by the "root identity between the leader and his entourage"
{"identité de souche entre le chef et son entourage"} (we shall note the use
of Weberian concepts)." [10]

40
James McGregor Burns:

James MacGregor Burns (1978, p. 2) wrote that a study of the definition of the
word leadership revealed 130 definitions. However, several generally-accepted
variations on the definition appear in the management and leadership literature.

Burns concluded by presenting five characteristics of leadership, namely:

1. Leadership is collective (p. 452). James Burns regards the notion of one-
person leadership as “a contradiction in terms”, because both leaders and
followers must exist. Also, an organization may have multiple leaders all
acting in consort with one another.
2. Leadership is dissension (p. 453). Burns claims that leadership coexists with
dissent. Indeed, much of the growth of any organization centers on the
management/leadership of dissent – except in times of war.
3. Leadership is causative (p. 454). True Burnsian leadership affects the
motives of individuals and groups of peoples and alters the course of the
organizational history. It causes positive change.
4. Leadership is morally purposeful (p. 455). Burns sees leadership as goal-
oriented, with leaders and followers pointing the way to some future state of
the organization with plans about how those goals might be met.
5. Transforming leadership is elevating (p. 455). Engagement between leaders
and followers takes place on a moral – but not a moralistic - plane, as both
leaders and followers rise to live more principled lives.

Ronald Heifetz:

Ronald Heifetz (Heifetz 1994) described the difference between a descriptive view
and a prescriptive view of leadership. A descriptive view describes leadership and
41
how it occurs, and a prescriptive view suggests how it should occur. The notion of
"adaptive work" forms a central concept of Heifetz’s prescriptive view. Heifetz
pointed out (p. 37) that people fail to adapt to new and unsettling situations through
six avoidance mechanisms:

1. blaming others
2. finding scapegoats (to the extent that this differs from blaming)
3. externalizing the enemy
4. denying that a problem exists
5. jumping to conclusions
6. finding a distracting issue

In a prescriptive view, the leader would squarely face the problem and avoid the
six surface-level solutions of the non-leader. A true leader would help a
community face reality and deal with the issues: finding solutions where none
previously existed. Using the 1950s television character, the Lone Ranger, as an
example, we see the Ranger in a weekly episode, moving from frontier town to
frontier town, discovering problems wherever he goes, fixing the problems and
riding off into the sunset. In this metaphor, the Ranger fixes the symptom, but not
the problem. A Lone Ranger non-leader would catch fish to feed the poor while a
true leader would teach the poor how to catch fish and would motivate them to do
so. The true leader finds a way to help the community engage the problem and
collectively find a solution. For more detail, see Heifetz, R. (1994). Leadership
without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

George Terry:

George Terry (Terry, G. 1960) has defined leadership as: "the activity of
influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives". If we define leadership
simply as "influencing others to some purpose" and we define followership as
"becoming influenced by others to accept (willingly or unwillingly) some
purpose", then leadership and followership emerge as two sides of the same coin.
In this scenario, leadership - whether successful or not - has not occurred until at
least one follower joins in. Likewise, no followership exists without someone or
something (not necessarily a leader) to follow. However, in this latter case, a

42
"leader" need not exercise deliberate or even conscious leadership - that is,
followers can follow someone who is not trying to lead. Some see "unconscious
leadership" as a dubious concept, however. Many, using a different definition of
leadership, would claim that it does not classify as leadership at all - simply
because no deliberate intention to lead exists. Unconscious "leading by example"
(as the phrase has it) may nevertheless exemplify such "leadership".

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton:

Rachel K. McKee and Bruce Carlson's book The power to change ©1999 (ISBN 0-
9679981-0-7) describes "The Leadership Grid" or the "9,9 Style" of leadership
developed by Drs. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964. The theory/model
allows the comparison of leadership styles.

Conscious Leadership:

Dr. James Farr (1918 - 2000) argued not for any one "correct leadership style" but
for the style that each situation requires. Great leaders require the use of nearly
every leadership style: one must apply the correct style to meet the situation. Farr
terms this "Conscious Leadership".

"Conscious Leadership" consists of the art and science of leading change from a
self-aware perspective, with clarity of purpose and an acute insight into others'
perspectives and state of mind. This fully-aware state uniquely allows leaders to
properly inspire motivation in others and to choose the most appropriate course of
action both to solve pressing problems and to effectively achieve long-term
organizational goals. Bold text Italic text leaders know how to manage the
population! Futurist John Renesch has written extensively on conscious leadership,
which he advocates for everyone — not only those in positions of authority or
holding designated titles. As he wrote in early 2001:

43
Conscious leaders don't tolerate conditions or processes where people feel the need
to compromise their values — to "sell their souls" for the task at hand. Conscious
leadership includes conscious discernment, a principle that demands performance,
integrity, competence and a noncalloused form of spiritual toughness. The
conscious leader does not sit with his or her head in the clouds, dreaming of
utopian schemes and professing New Age idealism. The conscious leader walks in
the spiritual and physical domains concurrently, remaining simultaneously
grounded and comfortable in both.

Renesch also writes about "The Conscious Organization" which he defines as "one
which continually examines itself, committed to becoming as conscious as it can.
In other words, it has very low tolerance for unconsciousness. It possesses the
collective will to be vigilant, the collective commitment to continuous evolution,
and the collective courage to act."

Managerial Grid:

Robert R. Blake & Jane S. Mouton have made detailed study of leader
behavior & its impact on the group. Various leadership styles with reference to
such behavior are presented by Blake & Mouton, in what is popularly known as
Managerial Grid. They have considered two important factors: a) concern for
production & b) concern for people. These are shown respectively on horizontal
& vertical axis of the graph on a 1 to 9 scale. A leader’s style is combination of
both the dimensions as shown in figure:
1.9 9.9

High 9 9

7 5.5
Concern 6
For 5
People 5

44

1.1 1.9
4
3

1 High
Low
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for Production

Blake & Mouton have identified five combinations out of 81possible


combinations, which are illustrated below:

1) Impoverished (1.1): Impoverished leader will have low concern for both
production & people. The leader avoids controversy & conformation.
2) Country Club (1.9): This leader shows concern to employee satisfaction. The
conflict between the work output & employee satisfaction is resolved in favor of
the employee. The country club manager achieves control via personal
relationship. He shows maximum concern for people & minimum concern for
production.

3) Middle of the Road (5.5): This leader shows moderate concern for both
production & people. He strives for compromise. The leader sees himself as being
firm in the sense of job demands & fair in terms of people’s desires. Extracting
good performance is possible by balancing output with maintaining high morale of
employees.

4) Task Management (9.1): This leader has high concern for production & low
concern for people. Planers plan & doers do. This is elaborate use of rules,
regulations, policies, procedures & control system. Winning is highly important &
losing must be avoided. The authority of the leader is well – defined & he can be
harsh on the employees.

45
5) Team Management (9.9): This leader has maximum concern for both
production & people. This leader assumes that people want to be productive &
involved in their work. This productive involvement can be achieved through the
creation of the work environment that encourages creativity & participation. This
is considered to be the best leadership style.

Managerial grid is highly controversial. It is a conceptual description of


leaders because it measures the values of managers. It does not explain why a
manager fails on a count & fares well in another. In practice, the extreme form of
9.9 is not easy to find.

Functional leadership model:


In the functional leadership model, one conceives of leadership not as a person
but rather as a set of behaviors that help a group perform their task or reach their
goal. The model says that the leadership function meets needs in areas:

• Task
• Team
• Individuals

46
These three areas are derived from John Adair's "three circles" model of leadership
that has been used with some success in the British military. Although it is
considered to be too much of an over simplification by many.

Leadership behaviors can be divided roughly into three types that meet needs in the
above three areas:

• Substantive, or behaviors directly relevant to performing the group's task,


such as proposing possible solutions or providing important information;

• Procedural, or behaviors that help direct the group's discussion, such as


developing group procedure or testing the degree of agreement among
members; and

• Maintenance, or behaviors that improve the relationships among the


members, such as encouraging silent members or facilitating open
discussion.

Any member can perform these behaviors, and so any member can participate in
leadership. It was once thought that members always specialized in one type or
another, but while that can happen it is not necessarily the case.

The functional leadership model places more emphasis on how an organization is


being led rather than who has been formally assigned a leadership role. This allows
the analysis to spend less time looking at the person who has formally assigned
authority and instead focus on how the leadership function is actually taking place.

47
Ideal leadership:
Inter-Disciplinary Leadership -- or IDEAL Leadership -- is a scientific
leadership theory developed in 2001 by Larry Stout, a professor at the Stockholm
School of Economics in Riga (Latvia). The model identifies six critical capabilities
that are grouped under Leadership Capital and four capacities termed Leadership
conditions. The six critical Leadership Capital capacities are the (1) vision and (2)
values that constitute the leader's philosophy; the (3) wisdom and (4) courage that
compose the leader's personal composition; and the (5) trust and (6) voice that
enable them to influence others. The four vital Leadership Conditions necessary
for these capacities to make a difference are (1) a place where the leader can hold
sway, (2) a period that calls for his or her leadership, (3) a position that conveys
leadership authority, and (4) people who are ready for leadership.

Ideal Leadership defines a leader as one who moves his or her organization
forward in a positive direction. Given the right conditions, combined with adequate
capital, the result is favorable not only to the particular organization, but also to the
society at large. The theory postulates that failure in leadership is related to
unfavorable conditions, or inadequate capital (termed anti-leadership).

The scientific nature of the Ideal Leadership Model is reflected in that it that it is a
descriptive, prescriptive, and predictive theory. It fully describes all the divergent
elements that compose the leadership phenomenon. It prescribes adjustments to a
leader's capital in relation to the theory in order to make a leader more effective,
based on a leadership assessment measured by leadership metrics. It also can
accurately predict who would be effective in leadership and under what
circumstances they would be effective.

Delegation
A key aspect of leadership is delegation. Unless you delegate tasks to your
subordinates, your team will become inefficient and demoralized.

48
Poor Delegation:
Signs that you are not borrowing enough brains or that your delegation is failing
include:

• Team Motivation / Morale is down


• You are always working late
• Your team is confused / conflicting / tense
• You get questions about delegated tasks too often

Not delegating a task because you think that you would do it better than anyone
else is a poor excuse. Doing this will just make life difficult for yourself.

Advantages of Delegation:
Positive aspects of delegation include:

• Higher efficiency
• Increased motivation
• Develops the skills of your team
• Better distribution of work through the group

How to Delegate:
1. Identify a suitable person for the task.
2. Prepare the person. Explain the task clearly. Make sure that you are
understood. Leave room in the task description for ingenuity / initiative.
3. Make sure the person has the necessary authority to do the job properly.

49
4. Keep in touch with the person for support and monitoring progress. Do not
get to close. Accept alternative approaches.
5. Praise / Acknowledge a job well done.

Responsibility:
Even though you have delegated a task to someone else, you are still responsible
for making sure the task is done on time and correctly. If the task fails, you can not
point the finger. You delegated. It is your fault. You may have picked the wrong
person for the job.

Authority:
The amount of authority you delegate is up to you, although it should be enough to
complete the task. It is no good giving Bob the task of opening the safe every
morning at 10am if you do not give him the authority required to do it. Bob needs
the key to open the safe with.

Tasks you should not delegate:


Obviously some aspects of leadership are sensitive and should not be delegated.
For example:

• Hiring

50
• Firing
• Pay issues
• Policy

Your Task after Delegating:


After delegating:

• Plan - goals, meeting, tasks


• Direct - your team, keep them on track
• Encourage - boost morale

Practical Aspects of Directing Teams:


When directing a small team it is important to structure the tasks to be performed.
Goals should be easily understood by everyone and tasks broken down so that they
appear achievable.

51
1) Break down the task:
Nothing will be more demoralizing for your team than setting them a task which
seems impossible (the brick wall approach). Therefore it is important to define a
task as a series of small but significant steps which seem realistic. As the person
performs these broken-down steps he/she will still feel that something tangible has
been accomplished, and the next step toward finishing will become clear. The
brick wall approach will usually result in the task not being accomplished.

2) Goal analysis:
It is probable that as a team leader you will want to set goals for your team or
project. One such goal may be "to improve communications amongst the team".
Clearly there will be many different interpretations of this goal by different team
members. Goal analysis seeks to remove this ambiguity.

Goal analysis should define an abstract goal in terms of concrete criteria, which
when met will clearly demonstrate that the goal has been achieved. The criteria
should be expressed in terms of actions or results rather than abstractions (which
may be ambiguous). There are 5 steps:

1) Write down the goal.

At this stage the goal is an abstract thing, and it is important not to worry too much
about how the goal is written down - a rough definition or idea will suffice.

52
2) Without editing or judging - describe the goal.

Get team members to quickly describe what they understand by the goal. At this
stage all suggestions should be noted down - no ideas are wrong or stupid. This is
similar to the technique of brainstorming.

3) Sort.

Sort out the ideas generated by 2 into an ordered or prioritized list which defines
the goal. At this stage it may become apparent that some ideas are abstractions but
are still important. If this is the case use steps 1 and 2 to clearly define these.

4) State each action or result obtained from 3.

Make the team read and try to understand the list from step 3.

5) Test the statements.

Ask the question - "When these all statements have been demonstrated to be true,
will the goal have been achieved?" Test each statement in turn for relevance. If the
answer is yes then the goal has been defined.

The Difference between Management and Leadership:


Leadership and management are two notions that are often used interchangeably.
However, these words actually describe two different concepts. In this section, we
shall discuss these differences and explain why both terms are thought to be
similar.

53
Leadership is a facet of management:

Leadership is just one of the many assets a successful manager must possess. Care
must be taken in distinguishing between the two concepts. The main aim of a
manager is to maximize the output of the organization through administrative
implementation. To achieve this, managers must undertake the following
functions:

• organization
• planning
• staffing
• directing
• controlling

Leadership is just one important component of the directing function. A manager


cannot just be a leader; he also needs formal authority to be effective. "For any
quality initiative to take hold, senior management must be involved and act as a
role model. This involvement cannot be delegated." [1]

In some circumstances, leadership is not required. For example, self motivated


groups may not require a single leader and may find leaders dominating. The fact
that a leader is not always required proves that leadership is just an asset and is not
essential.

Differences in Perspectives:

Managers think incrementally, whilst leaders think radically. "Managers do things


right, while leaders do the right thing." [2]. This means that managers do things by
the book and follow company policy, while leaders follow their own intuition,
which may in turn be of more benefit to the company. A leader is more emotional
than a manager. "Men are governed by their emotions rather than their
intelligence" [3]. This quotation illustrates why teams choose to follow leaders.

54
"Leaders stand out by being different. They question assumption and are
suspicious of tradition. They seek out the truth and make decisions based on fact,
not prejudice. They have a preference for innovation." [4]

Subordinate As a Leader:

Often with small groups, it is not the manager who emerges as the leader. In many
cases it is a subordinate member with specific talents who leads the group in a
certain direction. "Leaders must let vision, strategies, goals, and values are the
guide-post for action and behavior rather than attempting to control others." [5]

When a natural leader emerges in a group containing a manager, conflict may arise
if they have different views. When a manager sees the group looking towards
someone else for leadership he may feel his authority is being questioned.

Loyalty:

Groups are often more loyal to a leader than a manager. This loyalty is created by
the leader taking responsibility in areas such as:

• Taking the blame when things go wrong.


• Celebrating group achievements, even minor ones.
• Giving credit where it is due.

"The leader must take a point of highlighting the successes within a team, using
charts or graphs, with little presentations and fun ideas" [6]

"Leaders are observant and sensitive people. They know their team and develop
mutual confidence within it." [7]

The Leader Is Followed. The Manager Rules:

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A leader is someone who people naturally follow through their own choice,
whereas a manager must be obeyed. A manager may only have obtained his
position of authority through time and loyalty given to the company, not as a result
of his leadership qualities. A leader may have no organizational skills, but his
vision unites people behind him.

Management Knows How It Works:

Management usually consists of people who are experienced in their field, and who
have worked their way up the company. A manager knows how each layer of the
system works and may also possess a good technical knowledge. A leader can be a
new arrival to a company who has bold, fresh, new ideas but might not have
experience or wisdom.

Conclusion:

Managing and leading are two different ways of organizing people. The manager
uses a formal, rational method whilst the leader uses passion and stirs emotions.
William Wallace is one excellent example of a brilliant leader but could never be
thought of as the manager of the Scots

56
The Psychology of Leadership:
Analyzing the inspirational leader (one who can instill passion and direction into a
group of individuals) requires an understanding of how the psychology of a group
can affect the members of the group.

Different approaches to group dynamics (for example: Arthur F Carmazzi's


Directive Communication Methodology; and Sigal Barsade's theory of The Ripple
Effect, see leadership as a product of awareness and command of the reactions and
influences of a group on the emotions of the individual.

According to Arthur F Carmazzi, leadership does not involve changing the mindset
of the group, but the cultivation of an environment that brings out the best
(inspires) the individuals in that group… Each individual has various environments
that bring out different facets from their own identity, and emotionally charged
perceptions drive each facet within each environment. To lead, Carmazzi says, one
must build a platform through education and awareness where individuals fill each
others needs. Leaders accomplish this by knowing why people may react favorably
to a situation in environment A, but get frustrated or disillusioned in environment
B.

When leaders change their actions in accordance with their awareness of what
those actions really mean, they affect the emotional and perceptive affects on a
group. By taking control of the “standard” reactions to the actions of the group, a
leader can in effect change the psychology of the group and change the culture of
an organization.'

Leadership associated with positions of authority:


In On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, Thomas Carlyle
demonstrated the concept of leadership associated with a position of authority
(auctoritas in Latin). In praising Oliver Cromwell's use of power to bring King
Charles I to trial and eventual beheading, he wrote the following: "Let us remark,

57
meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a King is, in all movements of men. It
is strikingly shown, in this very War, what becomes of men when they cannot find
a Chief Man, and their enemies can." [2]

From this viewpoint, leadership emerges when an entity as "leader" contrives to


receive deference from other entities who become "followers". And as the passage
from Carlyle demonstrates, the process of getting deference can become
competitive in that the emerging "leader" draws "followers" from the factions of
the prior or alternative "leaders".

In representative democracies the people retain sovereignty (popular sovereignty)


but delegate day-to-day administration and leadership to elected officials. In the
United States, for example, the Constitution provides an example of recycling
authority. In the Constitutional Convention of 1787, the American Founders
rejected the idea of a monarch. But they still proposed leadership by people in
positions of authority, with the authority split into three powers: in this case the
legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. Under the American theory, the
authority of the leadership derives from the power of the voters as conveyed
through the electoral college. Many individuals share authority, including the many
legislators in the Senate and the House of Representatives. [3]

Leadership cycles:
If a group or an organization wants or expects identifiable leadership, it will
require processes for appointing/acquiring and replacing leaders.

Traditional closed groups rely on bloodlines or seniority to select leaders and/or


leadership candidates: monarchies, tribal chiefdoms, oligarchies and aristocratic
societies rely on (and often define their institutions by) such methods.

58
Competence or perceived competence provides a possible basis for selecting
leadership elites from a broader pool of potential talent. Political lobbying may
prove necessary in electoral systems, but immediately demonstrated skill and
character may secure leadership in smaller groups such as gangs.

Many organizations and groups aim to identify, foster and promote what they see
as leadership potential or ability - especially among younger members of society.
See for example the Scouting movement. For a specific environment, see
leadership development.

The issues of succession planning or of legitimation become important at times


when leadership (particularly individual leadership) might or must change due to
term-expiry, accident or senescence.

Leadership as a phase in human life-cycles:


Some cultures, especially those with a reverence for age and wisdom, see
leadership as a standard part of the life-cycle of a person. Just as a youth becomes
initiated into adulthood, so an adult may gain initiation as a leader. Such societies
may require special reinforcement of the respect and kudos due to such senior
members in order to maintain their position. If aged adults can no longer hunt or
fight or play a full part in physical labor, for example, those adults' positions in
society must rest on respect and implied wisdom and teaching roles, whether or not
they show identified "leadership traits".

Titles emphasizing authority:


At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied
different degrees or ranks of leadership in society. Thus a knight led fewer men in
general than did a duke; a baronet might in theory control less land than an earl.
See peerage for a systematization of this hierarchy, and order of precedence for
links to various systems.

In the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, several political operators took non-
traditional paths to become dominant in their societies. They or their systems often
expressed a belief in strong individual leadership, but existing titles and labels

59
("King", "Emperor", "President" and so on) often seemed inappropriate,
insufficient or downright inaccurate in some circumstances. The formal or informal
titles or descriptions they or their flunkies employed express and foster a general
veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. The definite article
when used as part of the title (in languages which use definite articles) emphasizes
the existence of a sole "true" leader. Cases include:

• Caudillos in Spanish-speaking countries, notably Spain's Francisco Franco,


Chile's Augusto Pinochet or the Dominican Republic's Rafael Trujillo
• Conducător in Romania - Nicolae Ceauşescu
• Il Duce in Italy - Benito Mussolini
• Der Führer in Germany - Adolf Hitler
• The Dear Leader in North Korea - Kim Jong-il
• The Great Helmsman in China - Mao Zedong
• The Great Leader in North Korea - Kim Il-sung
• Vozd in Serbia - Karadjordje
• Poglavnik in Croatia - Ante Pavelić
• Vozhd in the Soviet Union - Joseph Stalin

The different etymologies of these titles suggest various images of leadership: that
of a "driver" (Führer, Vozhd), of a "head" (Caudillo, Poglavnik), or of someone
followed (Duce, Conducător).

Such titles, and even the personal names associated with them, may also appear
with reference -- often jocular -- to heirs and would-be imitators. Thus people may
continue to speak of little Hitlers in a workplace or refer to a non-collegial prime
minister ironically as The Great Helmsman. Compare the way in which the
personal family name Caesar and the adopted by-name Augustus became
effectively titles or designations for successive heads of the Roman Empire.

The whole structure of military hierarchies and the idea and the titles of an officer
corps tend to reinforce the importance attached to leadership and to the chain of
command in the military. Thus (for example) other ranks defer to Lieutenants who
defer to Majors who defer to Colonels who defer to Generals who defer to
Marshals. Similar elaborate structures of hierarchical leadership titles can occur in
Christian churches (Deacon - Priest - Bishop - Archbishop - Cardinal) or in
commercial enterprises (team leader - supervisor - line manager/middle manager -
staff manager/senior manager - vice president etc).

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Informal, often spontaneously-generated titles or descriptions can provide
informative insights. The use of "boss" in work-places and crime-syndicates may
suggest a relatively loose hierarchy, while dubbing someone "chief" can express
either instantaneous readiness to follow of an acknowledgment of collegiality.

Some titles can outstay their use. "Divine Augustus" fell prey to religious changes
in the later Roman Empire. "Master" (or "Massa") has fallen out of general use in
the American South, and "Baas" has new connotations in the new South Africa
since the late 20th century.

Other honorifics can also change in accordance with social circumstances. Britons
whose remote ancestors paid due deference to the local "lord" will now find that
title more concentrated in the areas of politics and the law. Their American cousins
have virtually confined the word "lord" to religious usage.

Leadership amongst primates:


Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of
Human Violence present empirical evidence that only humans and chimpanzees,
among all the animals living on earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of
behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief
male of the land. [4] (Note the status of chimpanzees as humans' closest species-

61
relatives: humans inherited 98% of their genes from the ancestors of the
chimpanzees.

By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of man, do not unite


behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-
ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as
strong as the strongest male in the land. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the
greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always
exerts the strongest and most effective leadership.

Some have argued that, since the bonobo pattern inverts the dominant pattern
among chimpanzees and men with regard to whether a female can get more
followers than a male, humans and chimpanzees both likely inherited gender-bias
against women from the ancestors of the chimpanzees; gender-bias features as a
genetic condition of men. And the bias against women having leadership as a
position of authority occurs in most cultures in the world. As of 2002, Sweden had
the highest percentage of women in the legislature: but only 43%. And the United
States, Andorra, Israel, Sierra Leone, and Ireland tied for 57th place with less than
15% of the legislature women.[5] Admittedly, those percentages significantly
outclass the occurrence of female chimpanzees becoming alpha of the community
by getting the most followers, but similar trends exist in manifesting a general
gender-bias across cultures against females gaining leadership as a position of
authority over followers.

An alternative explanation suggests that those individuals best suited to lead the a
group will somehow rise to the occasion and that followers (for some reason) will
accept them as leaders or as proto-leaders. In this scenario, the traits of the leaders
(such as gender, aggressiveness, etc.) will depend on the requirements of a given
situation, and ongoing leadership may become extrapolated from a series of such
situations.

In cultural anthropology, much speculation on the origins of human leadership


relates to the perceived increasing need for dispute resolution in increasingly
densely-populated and increasingly complex societies.

Leadership as a vanguard:
Sometimes followership can occur without intentional leadership. Despite (or
because of) its mythical origin, the image of swarms of lemmings which follow the
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first lemming off a cliff appears frequently in characterizing followers. The animal
kingdom also provides the actual model of the bellwether function in a mob of
sheep. And human society also offers many examples of emulation. The fashion
industry, for example, depends on it. Fashion marketers design clothing for
celebrities, then offer less expensive variations/imitations for those who emulate
the celebrities.

Unintentional leadership can also occur from more pro-active forms follower ship.
For example, in organizations which punish both leadership inaction and mistakes,
and in which a predicament has no good solution, a common tendency involves
declaring oneself a follower of someone else — metaphorically passing the buck.

Another example of followership without intentional leadership comes with the


market leadership of a pioneering company, or the price leadership of a
monopolist. Other companies will emulate a successful strategy, product, or price,
but originators may certainly not desire this — in fact they often do all they can
legally do to prevent such direct competition.

The term "leadership" sometimes applies (confusingly) to a winning position in a


race. One can speak of a front-runner in a sprint or of the "leader" in an election or
poll as in a position of leadership. But such "leadership" does not involve any
influence processes, and the "leader" will have followers who may not willingly
choose to function as followers. Once again: one can make an important distinction
between "in the lead" and the process of leadership. Once again, leadership implies
a relationship of power - the power to guide others.

Leading from the front, in a military sense, may imply foolhardiness and
unnecessary self-exposure to danger: these do not necessarily make for successful
long-term leadership strategies.

Orthogonality and leadership:


Those who sing the praises of leadership or of certain types of leadership may
encounter problems in implementing consistent leadership structures. For example,
a pyramidal structure in which authority consistently emanates from the summit
can stifle initiative and leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ranks of
subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal direct democracy may become

63
unwieldy, and a system consisting of nothing but representative leaders may well
become stymied in committees.

Thus many leadership systems promote different rules for different levels of
leadership. Hereditary autocrats meet in the United Nations on equal representative
terms with elected governments in a collegial leadership. Or individual local
democracies may assign some of their powers to temporary dictators in
emergencies, as in ancient Rome. Hierarchies intermingle with equality of
opportunity at different levels.

Support-structures for leadership:


Though advocates of the "big man" school of visionary leadership would have us
believe that charisma and personality alone can work miracles, most leaders
operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and
monitor the expressed or filtered-down will of the leader. This undercutting of the
importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower:
compare followership. A more or less formal bureaucracy (in the Weberian sense)
can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: this phenomenon
may occur (for example) in a politburo environment. Bureaucratic organizations
can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership (see Peter Principle).

In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to


become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing
circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government
departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified
potential leaders with promotions. According to B. Nanus, the forces that shape
today's leading-edge organizations and their implications provide the key to
visionary leadership[citation needed]. To underline his point we can examine the success-
story of Bill Gates: in brief he built Microsoft from the start as a twenty-first-
century organization, and he allegedly runs it with a highly-developed sense of
visionary leadership.

In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision


leader may foster another sort of hierarchy: a fetish of leadership amongst
subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires
and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate arbitration.
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Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: political parties abound with this type
of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-
floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example.

Determining what makes "effective leadership":


In comparing various leadership styles in many cultures, academic studies have
examined the patterns in which leadership emerges and then fades, other ways in
which it maintains its effectiveness, sometimes by natural succession according to
established rules, and sometimes by the imposition of brute force.

The simplest way to measure the effectiveness of leadership involves evaluating


the size of the following that the leader can muster. By this standard, Adolf Hitler
became a very effective leader for a period — even if through delusional promises
and coercive techniques. [6] However, this approach may measure power rather than
leadership. To measure leadership more specifically, one may assess the extent of
influence on the followers, that is, the amount of leading. Within an organizational
context this means financially valuing productivity. Effective leaders generate
higher productivity, lower costs, and more opportunities than ineffective leaders.
Effective leaders create results, attain goal, realize vision, and other objectives
more quickly and at a higher level of quality than ineffective leaders.

James MacGregor Burns introduced a normative element: an effective Burnsian


leader will unite followers in a shared vision that will improve an organization and
society at large. Burns calls leadership that delivers "true" value, integrity, and
trust transformational leadership. He distinguishes such leadership from "mere"
transactional leadership that builds power by doing whatever will get more
followers. [7] But problems arise in quantifying the transformational quality of
leadership - evaluation of that quality seems more difficult to quantify than merely
counting the followers that the straw man of transactional leadership James
MacGregor Burns has set as a primary standard for effectiveness. Thus
transformational leadership requires an evaluation of quality, independent of the
market demand that exhibits in the number of followers.

Current assessments of transformational and transactional leadership commonly


make use of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed by Bass

65
and Avolio in 1990 and revised in 1995. It measures five dimensions of
transformational leadership:

1. idealized influence - attributions


2. idealized influence - behaviors
3. inspirational motivation
4. individualized consideration
5. intellectual stimulation

The three dimensions of transactional leadership measured by the MLQ[citation needed]


cover:

1. contingent reward
2. management by exception (active)
3. management by exception (passive)

The functional leadership model conceives leadership as a set of behaviours that


helps a group perform a task, reach their goal, or perform their function. In this
model, effective leaders encourage functional behaviors and discourage
dysfunctional ones.

In the path-goal model of leadership, developed jointly by Martin Evans and


Robert House and based on the "Expectancy Theory of Motivation", a leader has
the function of clearing the path toward the goal(s) of the group, by meeting the
needs of subordinates.

Some commentators use the metaphor of an orchestral conductor to describe the


quality of the leadership process. An effective leader resembles an orchestra
conductor in some ways. He/she has to somehow get a group of potentially diverse
and talented people - many of whom have strong personalities - to work together
toward a common output. Will the conductor harness and blend all the gifts his or
her players possess? Will the players accept the degree of creative expression they
have? Will the audience enjoy the sound they make? The conductor may have a
clear determining influence on all of these questions.

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Leadership and vision:
Many definitions of leadership involve an element of vision — except in cases of
involuntary leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A vision
provides direction to the influence process. A leader (or group of leaders) can have
one or more visions of the future to aid them to move a group successfully towards
this goal. A vision, for effectiveness, should allegedly:

• appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader

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• describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state
• act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state
• appear desirable enough to energize followers
• succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level (logical
appeals by themselves seldom muster a following)

For leadership to occur, according to this theory, some people ("leaders") must
communicate the vision to others ("followers") in such a way that the followers
adopt the vision as their own. Leaders must not just see the vision themselves, they
must have the ability to get others to see it also. Numerous techniques aid in this
process, including: narratives, metaphors, symbolic actions, leading by example,
incentives, and penalties.

Stacey (1992) has suggested that the emphasis on vision puts an unrealistic burden
on the leader. Such emphasis appears to perpetuate the myth that an organization
must depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to decide what to do.
Stacey claims that this fosters a culture of dependency and conformity in which
followers take no pro-active incentives and do not think independently.

kanungo's charismatic leadership model describes the role of the vision in three
stages that are continuously ongoing, overlapping one another. Assessing the status
quo, formulation and articulation of the vision, and implementation of the vision.
This model suggests effective leadership needs these behaviors.

Leadership's relation with management:


Some commentators link leadership closely with the idea of management. Some
regard the two as synonymous, and others consider management a subset of
leadership. If one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as:

• centralized or decentralized
• broad or focused
• decision-oriented or morale-centred
• intrinsic or derived from some authority

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Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also
apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that
management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in
other words: management forms a sub-set of the broader process of leadership.
They put it this way: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the
behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. . . . Management is a
kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount."
(Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. : 1982 : page 3)

However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may


nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between
leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess
leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills.
One clear distinction could provide the following definition:

• Management involves power by position.


• Leadership involves power by influence.

Abraham Zaleznik (1977), for example, delineated differences between leadership


and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about
substance; while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process.
Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and
leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:

• Managers administer, leaders innovate


• Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why
• Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people
• Managers do things right, leaders do the right things
• Managers maintain, leaders develop
• Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust
• Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term
perspective
• Managers accept the status-quo, leaders challenge the status-quo
• Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon
• Managers imitate, leaders originate
• Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person
• Managers copy, leaders show originality

Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He
observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with

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tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that
leaders do not focus on "the task." Indeed, the things that characterise a great
leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain
competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue
leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership. Managers typically a
leader's vision. The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of
the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while
the manager may not.

This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as
another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has
the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these
resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another
interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path
he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task.
Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an
organization might have the overall task of generating profit, but a good leader
may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision
differentiates their company from the competition.

Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a business phenomenon. Many
people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing
whatever to do with business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout
or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a
purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we
have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisations. Non-
business organizations should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven
inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not
occur.

Differences in the mix of leadership and management can define various


management styles. Some management styles tend to de-emphasize leadership.
Included in this group one could include participatory management, democratic
management, and collaborative management styles. Other management styles, such
as authoritarian management, micro-management, and top-down management,
depend more on a leader to provide direction. Note, however, that just because an
organisation has no single leader giving it direction, does not mean it necessarily
has weak leadership. In many cases group leadership (multiple leaders) can prove
effective. Having a single leader (as in dictatorship) allows for quick and decisive
decision-making when needed as well as when not needed. Group decision-making

70
sometimes earns the derisive label "committee-itis" because of the longer times
required to make decisions, but group leadership can bring more expertise,
experience, and perspectives through a democratic process.

Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers.
She used a factor analysis technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded
that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles.
She characterises one group as imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial,
intuitive, daring, and emotional, and calls them "artists". In a second grouping she
places "craftsmen" as well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and
trustworthy. Finally she identifies "technocrats" as cerebral, detail-oriented,
fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed. She speculates that no one profile
offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should
find an "artist leader"; if we want to solidify our position, we should find a
"craftsman leader"; and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done (like
downsizing), we should find a "technocratic leader." Pitcher also observed that a
balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found
none in her study.

Leadership by a group:
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group
leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group
as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing
creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership
of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the
maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources
of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even
unintentionally.

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A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional teams. A team
of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead
a project. A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but
more commonly uses rotating leadership. The team member(s) best able to handle
any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s).

For example, the Orpheus orchestra has performed for over thirty years without a
conductor -- that is, without a sole leader. As a team of over 25 members, it has
drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche
Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class orchestras.[8]

Rather than an autocratic or charismatic conductor deciding the overall conception


of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks,
the Orpheus team generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of
music. The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece,
and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then
participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including
checking from various places in the auditorium how the sound balances and
verifying the quality of the final recording.

At times the entire Orpheus team may follow a single leader, but whom the team
follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members.

The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the
Orpheus Process to business.[9]

Co-leadership:
As a compromise between individual leadership and an open group, leadership
structures of two or three people or entities occur commonly. Ancient Rome
preferred two consuls to a single king, and the Roman Empire grew to
accommodate two Emperors - those of the East and of the West - simultaneously.
The Middle Ages saw leadership divided between the secular and spiritual realms -
between Emperor and Pope. Some groups - often left-wing or Green in orientation
- employ a co-leader structure today.

Triumvirates have long served to balance leadership ambitions - notably in Rome


in the first century BC, but also as recently as in the Soviet Union troikas of the
20th century. Compare the separation of powers (legislative, judicial and

72
executive) formalised (for example) in the constitution of the United States of
America.

Divided leadership:
Whereas sometimes one can readily and definitively identify the locus of
leadership, in other circumstances the situation remains obscured. Pre-modern
Japan offers a classical example: the emperors provided symbolic and religious
leadership, but the shoguns embodied virtually all political and administrative
leadership.

Similar dichotomies appear in many places and in many periods. Any


constitutional monarch has a potentially confusing relationship with the day-to-day
leader (typically a prime minister) who remains (at least theoretically) subordinate
- socially as well as politically. Regents may stand against monarchs (and their
supporters) during the minority or absence of those monarchs. Heads of state may
operate at cross-purposes with heads of government (see governmental co-
habitation). Political leaders may or may not align closely with religious leaders.
And in federal-type systems, regional leadership and its potentially different
systems may cross swords with national leaders. Not to mention the potentially
conflicting leadership manifestations of boards of directors and of Chief
Executives.

Leader relationships with followers:


Greiner’s study of the language of U.S. Presidents examined the relationship
between leader and followers and observed that changes have taken place in the
presidential use of words that define the leader and the community as one. Modern
US presidents have an observed tendency to make more use of inclusive words like
we, us and our in their inaugural speeches. The use of inclusive words may suggest
an effort by these democratically selected leaders to make the community work
together to solve problems collectively.

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Historical views on leadership:
Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or
genes: monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its
assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction: see
the divine right of kings. Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have
pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals
profiting from careers open to talent.

In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of


leadership of the Roman pater familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may
damn such models as patriarchal and posit against them emotionally-attuned,
responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance and matriarchies.

Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on "right living"


relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule,
buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.

Within the context of Islam, views on the nature, scope and inheritance of
leadership have played a major role in shaping sects and their history. See
caliphate.

In the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept
of leadership into question. (Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the
word "leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One response to
this denial of élitism came with Leninism, which demanded an élite group of
disciplined cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution, bringing into
existence the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between
secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred
and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has
often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources - human and material
- and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare servant
leadership.

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For a more general take on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the
statesman.

Alternatives to leadership:
Within groups, alternatives to the cult of leadership include using decision-making
structures such as co-operative ventures, collegiality, consensus, anarchism and
applied democracy. One can down play the ubiquitous idea of leadership by using
structures such as information clearing houses or stressing functions such as
administration. Note the different implications and connotations of the two phrases
"coalition of the willing" and "US-led coalition". The Orpheus Chamber Orchestra,
which practices a form of distributed leadership, provides a textbook example of
alternative leadership.

Leadership development:

Leader development focuses on the development of the leader, such as the


personal attributes desired in a leader, desired ways of behaving, ways of thinking
or feeling.

In contrast, leadership development focuses on the development of leadership as


a process. This will include the interpersonal relationships, social influence

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process, and the team dynamics between the leader and his/her team at the dyad
level, the contextual factors surrounding the team such as the perception of the
organizational climate and the social network linkages between the team and other
groups in the organization.

Both forms of development may mutually influence each other, as exemplified in


the concept of "Deep Change" in Robert E. Quinn's 1996 book of the same title.

Typically, leader development has focused on 3 main areas - providing the


opportunities for development, stimulating the ability to develop (including
motivation, skills and knowledge for change), and providing a supportive context
for change to occur (see Cynthia D. McCauley, 2001).

Leadership development can build on the development of individuals (including


followers) to become leaders. In addition, it also needs to focus on the
interpersonal linkages between the individuals in the team.

In the belief that the most important resource that an organization possesses is the
people that comprise the organization, some organizations address the
development of these resources (even including the leadership).

Leadership development can encompass any number of developmental processes


including:

• talent identification and management


• individual development planning
• management development
• 360-degree feedback
• succession planning
• mentoring
• coaching

BIBLOGRAPHY

1) www.google.com
2) www.wikipedia.com
3) www.search.com
4) www.rediff.com
5) www.answers.com

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