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WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
1
Order-of-magnitude analysis
• Consider the problem of determining thickness of the hydrodynamic
boundary layer
The momentum equation
∂u ∂u ∂2u
u + v =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
u ~ u∞ and y ~ δ
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
∂u ∂u ∂2u u∞ u∞δ u∞ u
u + v =ν 2 u∞ + ≈ ν ∞2
∂x ∂y ∂y x x δ δ
u∞ u∞δ u∞ u u∞ ν νx
u∞ + ≈ ν ∞2 2 ≈ δ2 ~
x x δ δ x δ2 u∞
νx νx 1
δ2 ~ δ~ δ~
u∞ u∞ Rex
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
2
Order-of-magnitude analysis, cont’d
1
δ~
Rex
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
Solution methodology
ACES methodology
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
3
Empirical relations for pipe and tube flow
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
Bulk temperature
• Consider a flow in a tube/pipe
• The bulk temperature represents
energy average or “mixing cup”
conditions
• The total energy “exchange” in a
tube flow can be expressed in terms
of a bulk temperature difference as
Q=m (
& cp Tb2 −Tb1 )
• In some differential length dx the heat exchange dQ can be expressed
either in terms of dTb or as a function of h, i.e.,
dQ = m& c p dTb = hAc (Tw − Tb ) = h(2πrdx)(Tw − Tb )
• The total heat transfer can be expressed as Basic problem is
Q = hAc (Tw − Tb )avg determination of h
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
4
Traditional expression for calculation of h
• Traditional expression for calculation of h in fully developed turbulent
flow in smooth tubes was recommended by Dittus and Boelter in 1930
0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 100
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
(
Nud = 0.0214 Re0d.8 − 100 Pr 0.4 )
for 0.5 < Pr < 100 and 104 < Red < 5×106
or
(
Nud = 0.012 Re0d.87 − 280 Pr 0.4 )
for 1.5 < Pr < 500 and 300< Red < 106
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
5
The final correlation equation may
represent the data within ± 25%
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
• The deviations from the velocity profiles are a result of the fact that
• the viscosities of gases increase with an increase in temperature
• the viscosities of liquids decrease with an increase in temperature
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
6
Property variations, entrance region
• Taking into account the property variations, Sieder and Tate
recommended in 1936 that for fully developed flow
0.14
µ
Nud = 0.0214 Re Pr 0.8 1/ 3
µw
d
• At the entrance region the flow is not fully developed, and Nusselt
recommended in 1931 that
0.055
d L
Nud = 0.036 Re Pr
0.8
d
1/ 3
for 10 < < 400
L d
where all properties are evaluate at the mean Tb
WPI
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f
Red Pr n
8 µb
Nud =
µw
1/ 2
f
1.07 + 12.7 Pr 2 / 3 − 1 ( )
8
where
0.11 for Tw > Tb
n = 0.25 for Tw < Tb
0 for constant heat flux or for gases
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
7
Accurate and complicated expression, cont’d
f
Red Pr n
8 µb
Nud =
µw
1/ 2
f
1.07 + 12.7 Pr 2 / 3 − 1 ( )
8
where all properties are evaluate at Tf, except µb and µw which are
evaluated at Tb and Tw, respectively
The friction factor f may be either obtained from the figure of friction factors
(next slide) or form the following expression for smooth tubes
WPI
Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
Moody diagram
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
8
Accurate and complicated expression, cont’d
f
Red Pr n
8 µb
Nud =
µw
1/ 2
f
1.07 + 12.7 Pr 2 / 3 − 1 ( )
8
is applicable for the following range
d
0.0668 Red Pr
Nud = 3.66 + L
2/3
d 1/ 2
1 + 0.04 Red Pr
L
The h calculated from this relation is the average value over the entire length
of tube
9
Simpler empirical relation
• A somewhat simpler empirical relation was proposed by Sieder and
Tate in 1936 for laminar flow heat transfer in tubes
1/ 3 10.14
d µ d
Nud = 1.86(Red Pr )
1/ 3
for Red Pr > 10
L µw L
where the average h is based on arithmetic average of the inlet and outlet
temperature differences
In the above relation, all fluid properties are evaluated at mean Tb,
except µw which are evaluated at Tw
• The above relation cannot be used for very long tubes because it would
yield h = 0
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Peclet number
• The product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, which occurs in laminar
flow correlations, is called Peclet number Pe
µ
ρud ν ρud ρ ρudc p
Pe = Red Pr = = =
µ α µ k k
ρc
p
• Calculations of the laminar h are frequently complicated by the
presence of natural-convection, which is superimposed on the forced-
convection effects
• The treatment of combined forced- and free-convection problems will be
discussed shortly
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
10
Rough tubes
• All correlations, addressed so far, are for smooth tubes
• Correlations for rough tubes are based on Reynolds analogy between fluid
motion and heat transfer
• The friction coefficient can be expressed in terms of the Stanton number
as
f
= Stb Pr f2 / 3
8
Also
L um2
∆p = f ρ
d 2 gc
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
ε
for 10−6 < < 10−3 and 5000 < Re d < 108
d
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11
Hydraulic diameter
• If the channel through which the fluid flows is not of circular cross
section, the heat transfer correlations are based on the hydraulic diameter
DH defined as
cross sectional
4A
DH = area of the flow
P
wetted perimeter
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
12
Graetz number
• Local and average Nu
numbers for laminar
entrance regions of
circular tubes for fully
developed velocity
profile are shown in the
figure as a function of
inverse Graetz number
• Graetz number is
defined as
d
Gz = Re Pr
x
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Entrance effects
in turbulent flow
• Entrance effects for
turbulent flow in tubes are
more complicated than for
laminar flow and cannot be
expressed in terms of Gz
• A summary of turbulent
thermal entry Nu for several
values of Re and Pr is shown
in the figure
• The higher the Pr number
the shorter the entry length
•Thermal entry lengths for
turbulent flow are much
shorter than for the laminar
flow
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Mechanical Engineering/NEST - NanoEngineering, Science, and Technology
13