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LECTURE: 22 - Tu, 27 November 2001

ES-3003 Heat Transfer


Today’s topics
• Forced convection heat transfer
• Order-of-magnitude analysis
• ACES methodology
• Empirical relations for pipe and tube flow
• Bulk temperature
• Smooth and rough tubes
• Friction factors for pipes
• Moody diagram
• Peclet number
• Graetz number
• Hydraulic diameter
• Entrance effects in turbulent flow
Term B’2001

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Solutions to convection problems

• Analytical solutions to convection problems are not always possible


• Experimental methods are required to obtain the desired information
• Results of experiments are usually expressed in the form of
• Empirical relationships
• Constants and/or exponents for specific parameters (e.g., Re,
Pr, etc.
• Graphical charts
• Order-of-magnitude analysis of differential equations

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Order-of-magnitude analysis
• Consider the problem of determining thickness of the hydrodynamic
boundary layer
The momentum equation
∂u ∂u ∂2u
u + v =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y

The continuity equation


∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
Within the boundary layer u is on the order of u∞ and y-coordinate is on the
order of boundary layer thickness δ, i.e.,

u ~ u∞ and y ~ δ
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Order-of-magnitude analysis, cont’d


∂u ∂v u∞ v u∞δ
+ =0 + ≈0 v~
∂x ∂y x δ x

∂u ∂u ∂2u u∞  u∞δ  u∞ u
u + v =ν 2 u∞ +  ≈ ν ∞2
∂x ∂y ∂y x  x δ δ

u∞  u∞δ  u∞ u u∞ ν νx
u∞ +  ≈ ν ∞2 2 ≈ δ2 ~
x  x δ δ x δ2 u∞

νx νx 1
δ2 ~ δ~ δ~
u∞ u∞ Rex

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Order-of-magnitude analysis, cont’d

1
δ~
Rex

• Performing order-of-magnitude analysis is not always simple


• It may be possible, however, to determine the significant
dimensionless variables for correlating experimental data
• In a number of flow and heat-transfer problems, a clear physical
model of the process may not be available
• Attempt to establish this model must be made before the
experimental data can be correlated
• It is necessary to use any and all information that may be available
• One of such processes is based on ACES methodology

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Solution methodology

• Analytical exact, closed form


• Computational approximate, FEM, BEM, FDM
• Experimental SOTA laser fiber OE based

ACES methodology

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Empirical relations for pipe and tube flow

• Until now, we have addressed problems of heat transfer in fully


developed laminar tube flow
• Of great practical interest and considerably more complicated are
• undeveloped laminar flows, characterized by fluid properties varying
widely with temperature
• fully turbulent flows
• Analytical solutions of these flows are very tedious
• Empirical relations, however, are usually of greatest practical utility
• All solutions of tube of pipe flow, i.e., flow inside closed channels, are
based on bulk temperature

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Bulk temperature
• Consider a flow in a tube/pipe
• The bulk temperature represents
energy average or “mixing cup”
conditions
• The total energy “exchange” in a
tube flow can be expressed in terms
of a bulk temperature difference as

Q=m (
& cp Tb2 −Tb1 )
• In some differential length dx the heat exchange dQ can be expressed
either in terms of dTb or as a function of h, i.e.,
dQ = m& c p dTb = hAc (Tw − Tb ) = h(2πrdx)(Tw − Tb )
• The total heat transfer can be expressed as Basic problem is
Q = hAc (Tw − Tb )avg determination of h

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Traditional expression for calculation of h
• Traditional expression for calculation of h in fully developed turbulent
flow in smooth tubes was recommended by Dittus and Boelter in 1930

Nud = 0.23Re0d.8 Prn


where the properties are evaluated at the average fluid bulk temperature and

 0 .4 for heating of the fluid


n=
 0 .3 for cooling of the fluid

This expression is valid for fluids with

0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 100

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More recent expression for calculation of h


• More recently, in 1976, Gnielinski suggested that better results for
turbulent flow in smooth pipes can be obtained using

(
Nud = 0.0214 Re0d.8 − 100 Pr 0.4 )
for 0.5 < Pr < 100 and 104 < Red < 5×106

or

(
Nud = 0.012 Re0d.87 − 280 Pr 0.4 )
for 1.5 < Pr < 500 and 300< Red < 106

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The final correlation equation may
represent the data within ± 25%

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Velocity profile in tube flow


• If wide temperature differences are present in the flow, there may be an
appreciable change in fluid properties between the wall of the tube and the
central flow
• These property variations may be evidenced by a change in the velocity
profiles

• The deviations from the velocity profiles are a result of the fact that
• the viscosities of gases increase with an increase in temperature
• the viscosities of liquids decrease with an increase in temperature

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Property variations, entrance region
• Taking into account the property variations, Sieder and Tate
recommended in 1936 that for fully developed flow
0.14
 µ 
Nud = 0.0214 Re Pr   0.8 1/ 3

 µw 
d

where all properties are evaluate at Tb, except µw which is evaluated at Tw

• At the entrance region the flow is not fully developed, and Nusselt
recommended in 1931 that
0.055
d L
Nud = 0.036 Re Pr  
0.8
d
1/ 3
for 10 < < 400
 L d
where all properties are evaluate at the mean Tb

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Accurate and complicated expression


• In 1970, Petukhov has developed a more accurate, although more
complicated, expression for fully developed flow in smooth tubes

f
  Red Pr n
8  µb 
Nud =  
 µw 
1/ 2
f
1.07 + 12.7  Pr 2 / 3 − 1 ( )
8
where
0.11 for Tw > Tb

n = 0.25 for Tw < Tb
0 for constant heat flux or for gases

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Accurate and complicated expression, cont’d
f
  Red Pr n
8  µb 
Nud =  
 µw 
1/ 2
f
1.07 + 12.7  Pr 2 / 3 − 1 ( )
8
where all properties are evaluate at Tf, except µb and µw which are
evaluated at Tb and Tw, respectively

The friction factor f may be either obtained from the figure of friction factors
(next slide) or form the following expression for smooth tubes

f = (1.82 log10 Re d − 1.64)


−2

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Moody diagram

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Accurate and complicated expression, cont’d
f
  Red Pr n
8  µb 
Nud =  
 µw 
1/ 2
f
1.07 + 12.7  Pr 2 / 3 − 1 ( )
8
is applicable for the following range

0.5 < Pr < 200 for 6% accuracy versus 25%


by traditional
200 < Pr < 200 for 10% accuracy expressions

104 < Red < 5 ×106


µ 
0.8 <  b  < 40
 µw 
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Average value of h over the entire length of tube


• In 1943, Hausen presented the following empirical relation for fully
developed laminar flow in tubes at constant wall temperature

d
0.0668  Red Pr
Nud = 3.66 +  L
2/3
 d 1/ 2 
1 + 0.04  Red Pr 
 L  
The h calculated from this relation is the average value over the entire length
of tube

The value of h approaches a constant value of 3.66 when the tube is


sufficiently long

The temperature profile is fully developed when Nud approaches a constant


value
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Simpler empirical relation
• A somewhat simpler empirical relation was proposed by Sieder and
Tate in 1936 for laminar flow heat transfer in tubes
1/ 3 10.14
d  µ  d
Nud = 1.86(Red Pr )  
1/ 3
  for Red Pr  > 10
 L  µw   L
where the average h is based on arithmetic average of the inlet and outlet
temperature differences

In the above relation, all fluid properties are evaluated at mean Tb,
except µw which are evaluated at Tw

• The above relation cannot be used for very long tubes because it would
yield h = 0

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Peclet number
• The product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, which occurs in laminar
flow correlations, is called Peclet number Pe

µ
 
ρud ν ρud  ρ  ρudc p
Pe = Red Pr = = =
µ α µ  k  k
 
 ρc 
 p
• Calculations of the laminar h are frequently complicated by the
presence of natural-convection, which is superimposed on the forced-
convection effects
• The treatment of combined forced- and free-convection problems will be
discussed shortly

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Rough tubes
• All correlations, addressed so far, are for smooth tubes
• Correlations for rough tubes are based on Reynolds analogy between fluid
motion and heat transfer
• The friction coefficient can be expressed in terms of the Stanton number
as

f
= Stb Pr f2 / 3
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Also

L um2
∆p = f ρ
d 2 gc

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Empirical relation for f for rough tubes


• An empirical relation for the friction factor for rough tubes is given as
1.325
f = 2
  ε  5.74 
ln 3.7d  + Re0.9 
   d 

ε
for 10−6 < < 10−3 and 5000 < Re d < 108
d

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Hydraulic diameter
• If the channel through which the fluid flows is not of circular cross
section, the heat transfer correlations are based on the hydraulic diameter
DH defined as
cross sectional
4A
DH = area of the flow
P

wetted perimeter

• Heat-transfer and fluid-friction information for fully developed laminar


flow in ducts with a variety of flow cross sections, and some of the
resulting relations, are summarized on the next slide

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Graetz number
• Local and average Nu
numbers for laminar
entrance regions of
circular tubes for fully
developed velocity
profile are shown in the
figure as a function of
inverse Graetz number

• Graetz number is
defined as

d
Gz = Re Pr
x

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Entrance effects
in turbulent flow
• Entrance effects for
turbulent flow in tubes are
more complicated than for
laminar flow and cannot be
expressed in terms of Gz
• A summary of turbulent
thermal entry Nu for several
values of Re and Pr is shown
in the figure
• The higher the Pr number
the shorter the entry length
•Thermal entry lengths for
turbulent flow are much
shorter than for the laminar
flow

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