Unit 1: Particles and Purification

Solid: particles in closely packed regular structure, vibrate around their fixed
positions, cannot move freely
Liquid: particles packed close together in random fashion but not as close as solid,
slide over one another, free to move around
Gas: particles very far apart, move very fast and randomly
Melting/Boiling: the heat is taken to overcome the intermolecular forces between
the particles
Freezing/Condensation: heat is released when the intermolecular forces are
formed
Separation methods:
-Filtration: insoluble solid in liquid (sand in water)
-Simple distillation: separation of liquid from a solution (alcohol from mixture of
alcohol and water, water from salt water)
-Fractional distillation: separation of liquid from a mixture of more than 2 miscible
liquids (petrol from crude oil)
-Crystallization: separation of salt which is soluble in water (magnesium sulphate
from its solution)
-Chromatography: separation of components from a complex mixture (dye, ink)
-Separating funnel: separation of 2 immiscible liquids (water and oil mixture)

Unit 2: Atoms, Elements, Compounds

Atoms: smallest unit of matter which cannot be divided into simpler particles,
consists of nucleus surrounded by electrons
Elements: substance which is made from only one type of atom which is defined by
its unique atomic number i.e. the number of protons
Compounds: atoms of 2 or more elements chemically combined
Mixtures: 2 or more substances physically combined

Unit 3: Structure and bonding

Giant metallic lattice: strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal
cations and a sea of valence electrons, requiring high amount of energy to break
these forces
Simple covalent molecule: weak intermolecular forces between covalent
molecules, requiring small amount of energy to break these forces
Giant covalent molecules: strong covalent bonds between atoms in regular giant
structure, requiring high amount of energy to break these bonds
Giant ionic lattice: strong electrostatic forces of attraction between cations and
anions, requiring high amount of energy to break these forces

Unit 4 and 5: Formula and equation, chemical calculations

Mol = mass (g)/molecular weight
Concentration = mol/volume (dm3)
Mol of gas = volume of gas (dm3)/24
How to balance the equations: balance metal followed by non-metal followed by
hydrogen followed by hydrogen

Unit 8: Speed of reaction

Factors affect speed of reaction:
Particle size: reduced particle size increases surface area, leading to greater
frequency of effective collisions and faster rate of reaction
Concentration: higher concentration leads to more particles per unit volume,
leading to greater frequency of effective collisions and faster rate of reaction
Temperature: higher temperature leads to greater kinetic energy and faster speed
of particles, leading to greater frequency of effective collisions and faster rate of
reaction
Pressure: higher pressure leads to more gas particles per unit volume, leading to
greater frequency of effective collisions and faster rate of reaction
Catalyst: present in small amount, remain chemically unchanged after the reaction,
lower activation energy by taking the reaction through alternative pathway, hence
increasing the speed of reaction

Unit 10: Acids and bases

Acid: donate H+ to base
Strong acid: when dissolved in water dissociate completely to form H+ ions.
Example: H2SO4 (sulfuric acid), HNO3 (nitric acid), HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Weak acid: when dissolved in water dissociate partially to form small amount of H+
ions. Example: CH3COOH (ethanoic acid)
Acid + base = salt + water
Acid + metal = salt + hydrogen gas
Acid + carbonate salt = salt + water + carbon dioxide
Base: accept H+ from acid
Alkali: soluble base which dissociates in water to form OH-. Example: NaOH, KOH,
NH3 (ammonia)
Insoluble base: Fe(OH)2, Fe(OH)3
Alkali + ammonium salt = salt + ammonia gas + water

Unit 11: Salts

Solubility:
All sodium (Na), potassium (K), ammonium (NH4), nitrate (NO3) salts are
soluble
All sulfate salts are soluble except BaSO4 (barium sulfate), PbSO4 (lead (II)
sulfate), CaSO4 calcium sulfate.
All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium carbonate Na2CO3, potassium
carbonate K2CO3, ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3
All chloride salts are soluble except silver chloride AgCl, lead (II) chloride PbCl2

Common cations: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Al3+, Cu2+, Mg2+, NH4+, Ba2+, H+
Common anions: O2-, OH-, Cl-, Br-, SO42-, SO32-, CO32-, NO3-, PO43-