Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment, June, 2017; Vol.

13(3):411-419
Copyright Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Print ISSN: 1596-2490, Electronic ISSN: 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

PHYTO-CHEMICAL SCREENING AND ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITIES OF

AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF DIOSPYROS MESPILIFORMIS, MITRAGYNA INERMIS,
PILIOSTIGMA RETICULATUM AND TAMARINDUS INDICA IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

S. G. Yadima*, M. Muhammad and B. Usman

(Department of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, University of Maiduguri, P.M.B.1069, Borno State, Nigeria)
*Corresponding authors email: sunday.yadima@gmail.com

Abstract
The phytochemical contents and antimicrobial activities of leaves and root bark extracts of Diospyros mespiliformis,
Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Tamarindus indica were investigated. The plant materials were
collected along River Kubwa in Damboa local Government area of Borno State, Nigeria. The crude extracts of these
plant materials were prepared based on soxhlet method using soxhlet extractor. About 400mg of each pulverized
sample was used for the extraction process. Three (3) liters of distilled water was used for the extraction process. All
the extracts showed the presence of carbohydrates, cardiac glocosides, saponins, tannins and flavonoids. Terpenoids
was detected in Diospyros mespiliformis, Tamarindus indica extracts and Piliostigma reticulatum root bark extract.
Disc sensitivity technique was conducted on eight bacteria isolates. These bacteria are: staphylococcus aureus, bacillus
subtilis, Escherichia coli, salmonella typhi streptococcus faecolis pseudomonas aeruginosa coreynebacteria species
and shigelladysenteriae. The growth inhibition studies on the test isolates indicated that most of the plant extracts had
significant effects against some of the isolates (microorganisms). The antimicrobial activities were subjected to Two-
way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and it indicated that there was statistically (P < 0.05) significant difference at
different concentrations. It is concluded that these plant materials have the potential of improving the bacteriological
quality of pond or surface water (which most rural communities in developing countries depend for many purposes)
that are heavily polluted with pathogenic microbes.

Keywords: Extracts, Antibacterial activities, Inhibition, Root bark, Leaves, Materials, Concentration, Microorganisms

1. Introduction
In many developing countries, water is collected from communal sources which are either unimproved such
as unprotected wells, springs and rivers or improved sources such as protected wells, boreholes and public
standpipes (WHO, 2000 and UNICEF, 2000). In most cases, the improved sources are malfunctioning or
completely broken down due to poor operation and maintenance, financial constraints, poor project
planning, inefficient management systems, etc. that cause villagers to lack commitment to maintenance of
facilities (Howard and Bartram, 2005; Mugabe et al., 2007; Marobhe, 2008b). Due to these chronic
problems that are associated with these sources of water supply, large population in rural areas of
developing countries in which Nigeria belongs, are forced to use traditional sources of water that are
polluted. If the millennium Development Goals and the target set by WHO submit on sustainable water and
sanitation development are to be met, there is the need to develop sustainable technologies to treat water for
the rural livelihoods. This is possible if the traditional water sources can be treated using water purification
methods which are inexpensive and suitable under local conditions. One area that holds a lot of prospects
for the future is the plant kingdom and particularly the use of these plant seeds, leaves, root barks, stem
barks and fruits as natural coagulants to remove turbidity and bacteria in surface water (Ebobganya et al.,
2013, Ghebremichael et al., 2005).
In rural areas of Maiduguri, Nigeria, people use wood ash as a natural water coagulant. Rural women in
semi-arid parts of Tanzania use parkinsonia aculeate, vigna, ungniculata, voandzeia and subteriancea as
natural coagulants (Marobhe et al., 2007 and Marobhe, 2008a). The use of these plant materials is attributed
to the presence of polyelectrolyte, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and alkaloids in the seeds of the plants
(Chitteti et al., 2012). Knowledge on natural coagulants is wide spread in many parts of the developing
world and therefore there is good potential for such knowledge to be used efficiently, provided a concerted
effort can be devoted to maximizing performances through research. This calls for a systematic study in
order to identify other natural coagulants that might be applicable for water treatment.
This work investigates the potentials of using root bark and leaves extracts of Diospyros mespiliformis,
Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Tamarindus indica as coagulants for improving the quality
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ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng

of pond or surface water in rural areas of developing countries. These plants (trees) are widely distributed in
savanna, Sahelo-Sudanian region, tropical and semi-arid zones of Africa and India. There were no reported
studies on these plants with regard to their water clarification except for Tamarind seed (Phani and
Rajkumar, 2013). However, various parts of these plants such as the leaves, roots, stem barks, seeds, and
fruits, poses many beneficial qualities such as anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antifungal
activities, and are being employed for the treatment of different chronic and non-chronic ailments in the
indigenous system of medicine (Dangoggo et al., 2012; Mohammed et al, 2009; Belemtougri et al., 2005;
Chivandi et al., 2009; Lamieu-meda et al., 2008; Lako et al., 2007; Salawu et al., 2007; Wakirwa et al.,
2013; Adoun et al., 2012; Salawu et al., 2007; Noumi, 2010; Adeyanju et al., 2013; Falayemu and
Akinyemi, 2010; Doughari, 2006; De Caluwe et al., 2010; Mundi et al., 2012).
Field observation by the author had also showed that pond waters that are found under these plants in the
present study look clean which might be due to the roots, falling leaves or seeds of these plants into the
water bodies. The study examined the phytochemical constituents and antimicrobial activities of water
extracts of the root barks and leaves of the plant materials based on Reflux method using appropriate
weight of the sample materials.

2. Material and Methods

2.1 Collection of plant materials
The fresh root barks and matured leaves of Diospyros mespiliformis, Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma
reticulatum and Tamarindus indica were collected from bush along Kubwa riverside in Damboa local
Government area of Borno State, Nigeria. Damboa lies within the latitude 11 09 19.22 N and longitude
12 45 22.97 E. The fresh root barks and matured leaves of these plants were collected in the month of
April, 2013, when the leaves were green. They were removed, chopped into pieces using mortar and pestle
and shade dried at room temperature. Each dried sample was subjected to a size reduction using mechanical
grinding machine.

2.2 Preparation of Plant Extracts

The extraction process was conducted based on soxhlet method using soxhlet solvent extractor. About
400mg of each pulverized sample was used for the extraction process. Three liters of distilled water was
added to cover the sample into solution. The heating mantle on the extractor was switched on and allowed
to reflux the mixture for 2hrs. The dark and yellowish coloured solution was removed and filtered to
remove debris. The aqueous extracts were evaporated to dryness on rotary evaporator.
2.3 Phytochemical Screening
Phytochemical tests on freshly prepared aqueous extracts of the plant materials were carried out using
standard procedure described by Traece and Evan, (2002), Brain and Turner (1995), Vishnoi (1979), Silva
et al., (1998), Sofora (1993) and Markhan (1982).
2.4 Microorganisms
The microorganisms used for testing the antimicrobial effects of the plant extracts were isolated from the
raw pond water that was collected along Molai Road, Maiduguri, Nigeria, using the method described by
Cheesbrough (2006). The test organisms included both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. The
following microorganisms were recorded: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli,
Salmonella typhi, Streptococcus faecolis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Coreynebacteria species and
Shigelladysenteriae. The bacterial strains were grown in nutrient broth at 27C and maintained on nutrient
agar medium at 4C.

2.5 Antibacterial Sensitivity Tests

The antibacterial activities of the plant extracts were tested on some microorganisms using disc diffusion
technique as described by Cheesbrough (2006). The test was conducted once for each extract. A disc of
blotting paper was impregnated with a fixed volume (0.1ml) of the extract and appropriate concentration

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Yadima et al.: Phyto-Chemical Screening and Antibacterial Activities of Aqueous Extracts of Diospyros
mespiliformis, Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Tamarindus indica in Northern Nigeria;
AZOJETE, 13(3):411-419. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

ranging from 200mg/ml 1000mg/ml were then placed on a plate of sensitivity testing agar uniformly
inoculated with the test organisms. The plates were incubated at 370C for 24 hrs for the test bacteria. The
zone of growth inhibition for each extract was recorded in millimeter (mm). If the zone of inhibition was
greater or equals to 10mm, it was considered as having antibacterial activity (Reuben et al, 2009; Yagana et
al., 2012).

2.6 Statistical Analysis

Two way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the significant levels of antibacterial
activities of the aqueous leaves and root bark extracts of the plant materials on the test microorganisms

3. Results and Discussions

The preliminary phytochemical contents of the plant extracts are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Phytochemical screening of extracts of root barks and leaves of Diospyros mespiliformis,
Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Tamarindus indica
S/N Tests DL PL ML TL DR PR MR TR
1 Test for Carbohydrate
Molish;s Test + + + + + + + +
Test for monosaccharide (Barfoeds test) - - - - - - - -
Free reducing sugar (Fehlings test) + + + + + + + +
Combined reducing sugar + + + + + + + +
Test for pentose + + + - + + + +
Test for kentose - - + + - + - -
2 Test for Cardiac Glocoside
Liebermann-Burchards test + - + + + + + +
Salkowslis test + + - + + + - +
3 Borntragers Test for Anthraquinone
Free anthraquinone - - - - - - - -
Combimedanthraquinone - - - - - - - -
4 Test for Terpenoid + - - + + + - +
5 Test for Saponin
Frothing test + + + + + + + +
6 Test for Tannins
Ferric chloride test + + + + + + - +
Lead acetate test + + + + + + + +
7 Test for Flavonoids
Shinodas test + + + + + + + +
Ferric chloride test + + + + + + - +
Lead acetate test + + + + + + + +
Sodium hydroxide test - - - - - - - -
8 Test for Soluble Starch - - - - - - - -
9 Test for Phlobatannin - - - - - - - -
10 Test for Alkaloids
Dragenoffs reagent test - - - - - - - -
Mayers reagent test - - - - - -
Key: DL=Diospyros mespiliformis leave ML=Mitragyna inermis leave PL=Piliostigma reticulatum leave TL=Tamarindus indica
leave DR=Diospyros mespiliformis root bark MR=Mitragyna inermis root bark PR=Piliostigma reticulatum root bark
TR=Tamarindus indica root bark - Absent + Present

Carbohydrates, cardiac glocosides, saponins, tannins and flavonoids were present in the entire extracts
while anthraquinones, soluble starch, phlobatannins and alkaloids were absent in every extract. Terpenoids
was noticed to be absent in mitragynainermis extracts and piliostigmareticulatum root extract.
The antimicrobial activities of the root bark extracts of the plants (at varying concentrations) on
growth of test microorganisms are shown in table 2

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ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818; www.azojete.com.ng

Table 2: Antimicrobial activities of the root bark extracts (at varying concentrations) on growth of test
microorganisms
Diospyrosmespiliformis root bark extract
Conc. of extracts Microorganisms
(mg/ml) S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 11.00 16.00 NI 12.00 NI 11.00 NI NI
800 9.00 14.00 NI 8.00 NI 8.00 NI NI
600 NI 13.00 NI 7.00 NI 7.00 NI NI
400 NI 12.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
200 NI 10.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
AI 4.0 13.0 0 5.4 0 5.2 0 0
Mitragynainermis root bark extract
Conc. of extracts Microorganisms
(mg/ml) S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 11.00 15.00 9.00 9.00 10.00 NI 8.00 NI
800 8.00 13.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 NI NI NI
600 NI 12.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
400 NI 11.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
200 NI 11.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
AI 3.8 12.4 3.2 3.2 3.6 0 1.6 0
Piliostigmareticulatum
Conc. of extracts Microorganisms
(mg/ml) S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 10.00 14.00 9.00 NI 8.00 NI NI NI
800 8.00 12.00 7.00 NI 7.00 NI NI NI
600 NI 10.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
400 NI 8.00 NI NI NI NI NI NI
200 NI NI NI NI NI NI NI NI
AI 3.6 8.8 3.2 0 3.0 0 0 0
Tamarindusindica root bark extract
Microorganisms
Conc. of extracts S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
(mg/ml) Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 9.00 24.00 9.00 18.00 NI NI NI NI
800 7.00 23.00 7.00 16.00 NI NI NI NI
600 6.00 19.00 NI 14.00 NI NI NI NI
400 NI 16.00 NI 12.00 NI NI NI NI
200 NI 14.00 NI 10.00 NI NI NI NI
AI 4.4 19.2 3.2 14.0 0 0 0 0
Diameters of zones of inhibition>10mm were considered active
Key: NI = No inhibition, AI = Activity Index

From Table 2, aqueous Diospyros mespiliformis root bark extract exhibited the highest zone of inhibition of
16mm at 1000mg/ml concentration against Bacillus subtilis with activity index (AI) of 13.00. The lowest
zone of growth inhibition of 7mm was observed at 600mg/ml concentration of the same extract against
salmonella typhi and pseudomonas. Mitragyna inermis root bark extract exhibited the highest growth
inhibition of 15mm at 1000mg/ml concentration of the extract against Bacillus subtilis with AI of 12.4. The
lowest activities were observed at 200mg/ml concentration against Escherichia coli and salmonella typhi
which had zones of inhibition of 7mm. Piliostigma reticulatum root bark extract had inhibited the growth of
staphylococcus aureus, streptococcus faecolis and Escherichia coli within the range of 7mm and 10mm.
The highest activity of 8.8 was delivered against Bacillus subtilis with growth inhibition zone that ranged
between 14mm8mm. The root bark extract of Tamarindus indica had recorded the highest growth
inhibition of 24.0 against Bacillus subtilis with AI of 19.2 while the lowest activity growth of inhibition of
6.00mm was observed against staphylococcus aureus.
The antimicrobial activities of the leaves extracts of the plants (at varying concentrations) on growth of test
Microorganisms are shown in table 3

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Yadima et al.: Phyto-Chemical Screening and Antibacterial Activities of Aqueous Extracts of Diospyros
mespiliformis, Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Tamarindus indica in Northern Nigeria;
AZOJETE, 13(3):411-419. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

Table 3: Antimicrobial activities of the leaves extracts (at varying concentrations) on growth of test
microorganisms
Diospyrosmespiliformis leave extract
Conc.of extracts Microorganisms
(mg/ml) S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 24.00 16.00 18.00 11.00 NI 17.00 NI 20.00
800 21.00 15.00 17.00 8.00 NI 15.00 NI 17.00
600 18.00 15.00 15.00 NI NI 14.00 NI 16.00
400 17.00 13.00 13.00 NI NI 12.00 NI 14.00
200 14.00 11.00 12.00 NI NI 11.00 NI 13.00
AI 18.00 14.0 15.0 3.8 0 13.8 0 16.00
Mitragynainermis leave extract
Conc.of extracts Microorganisms
(mg/ml)
S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 10.00 13.00 8.00 8.00 NI 8.00 10.00 NI
800 8.00 10.00 NI 8.00 NI 7.00 8.00 NI
600 NI 8.00 NI 7.00 NI NI 7.00 NI
400 NI NI NI NI NI NI NI NI
200 NI NI NI NI NI NI NI NI
AI 3.6 6.2 1.6 4.6 0 3.0 5.0 0
Piliostigmareticulatum leave extract
Conc.of extracts Microorganisms
(mg/ml) S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 16.00 11.00 11.00 11.00 9.00 18.00 10.0 8.00
800 15.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 7.00 16.00 8.00 NI
600 13.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 NI 15.00 NI NI
400 12.00 NI NI NI NI 13.00 NI NI
200 11.00 NI NI NI NI 11.00 NI NI
AI 13.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 3.2 14.6 3.6 1.6
Tamarindusindica leave extract
Microorganisms
Conc.of extracts S.aureus B. subtilis E.coli S. typhi S. faecolis P.aeruginosa C.species S. dysenteriae
(mg/ml) Zones of inhibition (mm)
1000 17.00 18.00 12.00 19.00 11.00 13.00 12.00 NI
800 15.00 15.00 9.00 17.00 9.00 11.00 10.00 NI
600 14.00 14.00 7.00 15.00 7.00 8.00 7.00 NI
400 14.00 12.00 NI 14.00 NI NI NI NI
200 12.00 10.00 NI 12.00 NI NI NI NI
AI 14.4 13.80 5.60 15.4 5.4 6.4 5.8 0
Diameters of zones of inhibition>10mm were considered active (Reuben et al; 2009, Yagana et al; 2012)
Key: NI = No inhibition, AI = Activity Index

From Table 3, aqueous leaves extract of Diospyros mespiliformis showed highest activity index of 18.8
against Staphylococcus aureus while the lowest activity index of 3.8 was observed against Salmonella typhi
for the same extract. The highest activity index of 6.2 for Mitragyna inermis was observed against Bacillus
subtilis while the lowest activity index of 1.6 was demonstrated against Escherichia coli. Aqueous leaves
extract of Piliostigma reticulatum had exhibited activity against the entire test isolates, however, not at all
the concentrations used. The highest AI was 14.00 against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The zones of growth
inhibition of 19 mm was demonstrated by 1000 mg/ml concentration of the aqueous leaves extract of
Tamarindus indica against Salmonella typhi while the lowest activity of 7mm at concentration of 600
mg/ml was observed against Streptococcus faecolis, Corynebacteria species and Escherichia coli with
highest AI of 15.4.
The Two-way analysis of variance for antimicrobial activities of the root barks extracts of the plants are
shown in table 4.

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Table 4: Two-way Analysis of variance for antimicrobial activities of the root bark extracts
Diospyros mespiliformis root bark extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 296.3 74.0750 15.96 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 3 253.8 84.6000 18.23 0.000 Reject Ho
Error 12 55.7 4.6417
Total 19 605.8
Mitragyna inermis root bark extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 369.133 92.2833 29.36 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 5 376.967 75.3933 23.99 0.000 Reject Ho
Error 20 62.867 3.1433
Total 29 808.967
Piliostigma reticulatum root bark extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 317.80 79.4500 21.19 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 3 115.75 38.5833 10.29 0.001 Reject Ho
Error 12 45.00 3.7500
Total 19 478.55
Tamarindus indica root bark extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 241.7 60.425 34.36 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 3 890.4 296.800 168.80 0.000 Reject Ho
Error 12 21.1 1.758
Total 19 1153.2
Ho = There is no significant difference in concentration of the extract on the test isolates

The result of the Two -Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for antimicrobial activities of the aqueous root
bark extracts of the plant materials (Table 4) showed that the extracts had significant differences on the test
organisms at varying concentrations.

Table 5: Two-way Analysis of variance for antimicrobial activity of the leaves tracts extracts
Diospyros mespiliformis leave extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 220.200 55.050 23.83 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 5 654.967 130.993 56.71 0.000 Reject Ho
Error 20 55.7 2.310
Total 29 921.367
Mitragynainermis leave extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 422.333 105.583 21.98 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 5 65.600 13.120 2.73 0.049 Reject Ho
Error 20 96.067 4.803
Total 29 584.000
Piliostigmareticulatum leave extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 395.35 98.838 24.92 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 7 945.58 135.082 34.06 0.000 Reject Ho
Error 28 111.05 3.966
Total 39 1451.97
Tamarindusindica leave extract
Source of variation Df Ss Ms F P-value Decision
Concentration of extract 4 489.83 122.457 34.27 0.000 Reject Ho
Bacterias 6 663.09 110.514 30.92 0.000 Reject Ho
Error 24 85.77 3.574
Total 34 1238.69

There Ho = There was significant difference in concentration of the extract on the test isolates

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Yadima et al.: Phyto-Chemical Screening and Antibacterial Activities of Aqueous Extracts of Diospyros
mespiliformis, Mitragyna inermis, Piliostigma reticulatum and Tamarindus indica in Northern Nigeria;
AZOJETE, 13(3):411-419. ISSN 1596-2490; e-ISSN 2545-5818, www.azojete.com.ng

The result of the Two -Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for antimicrobial activities of the aqueous
leaves extracts of the plant materials (Table 5) showed that all the extracts had significant difference on the
test organisms at varying concentrations.

The plant extracts were found to contain six of the phytochemical components. The phytochemical
components observed in this study were secondary metabolites of plants that serve as defense mechanism
against predation by many microorganisms (Doughari, 2006). This could probably explain the
demonstration of antimicrobial activities by the extracts. Glycosides on hydrolysis yield non-sugar
compound and pose strong antibacterial activities (Dangoggo et al., 2012). Saponins have different
antimicrobial activities due to the alkaloids on them and their presence serve as an indicator towards
possible antibacterial activities (Dangoggo et al., 2012). Tannins are compounds that have the ability to
react with proteins to form stable water insoluble components and since bacterial cells are made up of
proteins, tannins are seen as active detoxifying agents by precipitating the proteins compounds and hence
inhibiting their growth (Dangoggo et al., 2012). Flavonoids are also hydroxylated phenols that are found to
be effective antimicrobial agent; their activities are probably due to their ability to complex with
intracellular and soluble proteins and to complex with bacterial cell walls (Yagana et al., 2012). The
observed antimicrobial effects of these extracts on the test isolates is believed to be due to the presence of
these secondary metabolites: tannins, saponins and flavonoids which were reported to pose antimicrobial
properties (Yagana et al., 2012; Doughari, 2006; Wakirwa et al., 2013; Dangoggo et al., 2012; Mshelia et
al., 2010). All the aqueous extracts of the plants had significance difference on the test organisms. This
indicates that the extracts have varying effects on the test organisms since the observed P-values of all the
extracts were less than 0.05, which was the pre-determined significance level at which the null hypothesis
should be accepted or rejected.

4. Conclusion
All the extracts were found to contain various compounds and some of these extracts exhibited a broad
spectrum activity. The result further indicated that the activities were concentration dependent as higher
concentrations revealed broader zones of inhibition. This investigation has opened up the possibility of
using these plant materials as natural coagulants in improving the quality of pond or surface water (on
which most rural communities in developing countries depend for drinking and other purposes) that are
highly turbid and polluted with pathogenic microbes that have potential effect on human health.
The following is therefore recommended:
(i) The use of these plant materials should be encouraged among rural communities to improve the quality
of pond or surface water,
(ii) The effect of these extracts on other pathogenic organisms need to be carried out,
(iii) Toxicity test should be carried out on these plant extracts so that safe application concentrations can
then be determined, and
(iv) Further diversification of these plant extracts towards treating some common chemicals such as
calcium, potassium, fluoride, phosphorus and heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel,
arsenic, copper, mercury and other related contaminants in surface water is also recommended.

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