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A Redefinition of Multicultural

Counseling

SUZETTE L. SPEIGHT, LINDA J. MYERS, CHIKAKO I. COX, and PAMELA S. HIGHLEN

Training multiculturally competent counselors has become a timely topic, but what underlying philosophical assumptions shape this issue? The
multicultural movement has indeed contributed to our greater and much needed understanding and appreciation of the real differences among racial,
ethnic, and cultural groups. The current focus on the influence of the cultural background of the individual, however, need n ot be at the expense of
the equally important influences of individual differences and human universal tenets. The new decade for multiculturalism calls for balance.
This article attempts to redefine multicultural counseling using an Afrocentric, holistic, optimal theory that views individuals as unique
manifestations of spirit, thus sharing a common core. From this perspective, all counseling is multicultural. Multicultural counseling competencies are
then reconceptualized as fundamental counseling skills achieved through self-knowledge and a shift in worldview. As the counselor brings into
conscious awareness the various aspects of himself or herself, he or she becomes aware of the universal interconnectedness and interdependence of all
life. With this new holistic worldview, the differences among people take on a new meaning.
This article explores the consequences of an alternate worldview on the way we conceptualize multiculturalism. The implications of this
redefinition of multicultural counseling for training, practice, and research are explored.

ulticulturalism has been called the most important new idea to shape the field of counseling in the last 20 years (Pedersen, in press).

M
To aid in our exploration of multiculturalism and counseling, in this article we offer a mechanism for synthesizing such a complex issue as
culture, broadly defined. Many factors influence our ways of perceiving the world around us. The most readily apparent factors may be race,
sex, ethnicity, and physical or mental challenges. Less easily discerned, but perhaps more basic, are our philosophical assumptions about the
world, ourselves, and life in general. These assumptions, which give structure to our way of perceiving, form the basis for our conceptual
systems and frequently cut across race, sex, and ethnicity. The aim of this article is to broaden and deepen our current understanding of
multiculturalism from an investigation of superficial differences among people to include an investigation of conceptual systems. This article
presents the following:
(a) a review of the current view of multicultural counseling, (b) a brief description of conceptual systems, (c) a redefinition of multicultural
counseling, and (d) the implications for training, practice, and research.

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CURRENT VIEW OF MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING
Cross-cultural counseling has been defined as any counseling relationship in which two or more of the participants differ in cultural
background, values, and lifestyle (Sue et al., 1982, p. 47). This definition represents a broad view in which all counseling becomes cross-
cultural in nature. All counseling is cross-cultural or multicultural because all humans differ in terms of cultural background, values, or life-
style. Cross-cultural counseling, however, usually has been conceptualized and discussed in much narrower terms, referring primarily to
the counseling relationship when the counselor is Caucasian and the client is a member of a racial or ethnic minority group. In the
multicultural counseling literature, discussions of racial or ethnic minority counselors with Caucasian clients are rare (e.g., a Japanese
counselor with a Caucasian client). Even rarer are discussions of counseling participants from two different groups (e.g., a Mexican
counselor with a Phillipino client). Rarer still are discussions of counseling participants from one group representing differences within that
group (e.g., an upper-middle-class male African American counselor with a poor female African American client; a Caucasian
A Redefinition of Multicultural Counseling

heterosexual female counselor with a Caucasian lesbian client). Furthermore, the use of the term cross-cultural implies a comparison between
two groups (i.e., the standard group and the culturally different group). To truly adopt a broader view of what constitutes cross-cultural
counseling, language and terminology must reflect this perspective. Consequently, the term multicultural is used because it seems to be more
reflective of this broad and inclusive view (Fukuyama, 1990).
The degree of counselor and client similarity or dissimilarity in terms of race, ethnicity, sex, and cultural background has been a key
consideration not only in the delivery of mental health services but also in the efficacy of those services. The critical question within the
multicultural counseling literature seems to have been, How can a counselor and client who differ from each other effectively work
together? Thus, the ever-burgeoning field of multicultural training was born to assist counselors in understanding those who are culturally
different from themselves. In recent years, textbooks, handbooks, review articles, conferences, professional seminars and workshops, and
graduate courses have begun to appear. The multicultural training movement has indeed contributed to a greater and much needed
understanding of the differences among various racial, ethnic, and cultural groups. If one uses the Sue et al. (1982) definition, the question
How can a counselor and client who differ from each other effectively work together? becomes important for all counselors with all clients,
not just for Caucasian counselors with racial or ethnic minority group clients. Female counselors with male clients, lesbian counselors with
straight clients, Jewish counselors with Buddhist clients, elderly counselors with teenaged clients all must answer the question of how to
effectively work together regardless of their differences.
The ability to work with another individual who by definition is a separate and distinct entity is a basic counseling skill, not reserved only
for those who choose to specialize in multicultural counseling. If a counselor is unable to work with those whom she or he is different from,
with whom will that counselor be able to work? The possible permutations of differences among counselors and clients are infinite. According
to Pedersen (1988), every counseling encounter is multicultural in some aspect and yet, multicultural counseling has been infrequently
discussed as an integral, fundamental skill that all professionals should possess. Multicultural counseling seems to occupy the status of an
extra skill area in which counselors can choose to concentrate or not and professional organizations debate its importance. It is as though
there is one entity called regular counseling (usually referred to as counseling) and another entity called multicultural counseling. It is
unclear exactly what differentiates between these allegedly different counseling activities. Does the process of multicultural counseling differ
from the process of regular counseling? Or do we just call these activities by different names because of certain cultural differences between
the participants? Perhaps the current status of multicultural counseling is a reflection of the philosophical assumptions underlying the field.
Multicultural training has emphasized the cultural, racial, and ethnic differences between people. This approach to multicultural training
can be called the emic approach. The assumption is that when counselors have mastered all of the characteristics of the variety of cultural,
racial, and ethnic groups they will possess the skills to be effective multicultural counselors. This assumption has resulted in a multicultural
cookbook with each group

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receiving a recipe that includes a checklist of the groups characteristics and some instructions regarding how the counseling should
proceed. For instance, characteristics of African Americans that can be found in the literature include poor eye contact, use of nonstandard
English, extended family network, and a flexible view of time. For African Americans, the literature suggests action-oriented counseling.
This cookbook approach on cultural differences can encourage within group generalizations and ignore within group differences.
Oftentimes these recipes with their list of characteristics are difficult to distinguish from stereotypes (Lloyd, 1987). What is the real
difference between the stereotype Asians are smart in math and the cultural characteristic Asians show emotions somatically?
Counselors-in-training have the insurmountable task of memorizing recipes for each of the cultural, racial, and ethnic groups (including
the exotics). How many pages would such a cookbook require to address each of these groups? No wonder Ponterotto and Benesch (1988)
reported that this approach has confused and intimidated a generation of counselors-in-training. This externally focused cookbook
approach is quite curious actually. Generally, when counselors are trained (excluding multicultural training), the focus is internal,
emphasizing skill acquisition (e.g., Egan, 1990). Counselors-in-training are rarely bombarded with the myriad of client issues that one is
likely to face in a career, told to memorize the characteristics of each of these client issues and the instructions on how to conduct the
counseling. Instead, the training is based internally on an increase in self-awareness. With regard to multicultural counseling, the training
has been primarily externally focused on the acquisition of knowledge about various groups.
Implicit usually and explicit occasionally is a matching model underlying much of the multicultural literature. Seemingly, the best
possible counseling scenario is one in which cultural differences between the participants are minimized, that is, when the counselor and
client are similar on a variety of important racial, ethnic, or cultural dimensions (Sue et al., 1982). The worst counseling scenario is one
in which the cultural differences between the participants are numerous. Counselors and clients who match one another on certain cultural
characteristics are believed to have better therapeutic outcomes. The matching model somehow reduces individuals into relevant cultural
characteristics. For instance, conventional wisdom is that the Asian counselors should work with the Asian clients and that the gay male
counselors should work with the gay male clients. Certainly, compelling arguments have been made in support of this cultural matching
(e.g., Vontress, 1971). The problem with the matching model, however, is that individuals cannot be categorized so simply. For instance,
who would be the best counselor match for a Puerto Rican lesbian, an African American gay man, or a multiracial woman? And what if age,
religion, language, physical/mental challenge, acculturation level, generational status, identity development, or socioeconomic status were
factored into the matching model? Perhaps the saliency or the weight of each of these factors could be determined to yield a hierarchy of
cultural characteristics so that we can appropriately match clients to counselors. Individuals are not discrete; they are continuous. Therefore,
the simplistic and reductionistic conceptualization of individuals reflected in the matching model is quite limited.
Furthermore, empirical investigations of the effects of racial or ethnic similarity and dissimilarity have failed to adequate ly

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support the speculated superiority of similarity effect on either the process or the outcome of multicultural counseling. Atkinson (1985)
stated, The effects of race and ethnicity on counseling outcome remain unclear because of the conflicting results (p. 149). Casas (1985)
suggested that caution be exercised in drawing any definitive conclusion about the effect of race/ethnicity similarity between counselor and
client on counseling effectiveness (p. 586).
Several authors have criticized the multicultural literature as lacking in a conceptual or theoretical framework, overrelying on experimental
analogue research, and disregarding within-group differences (Atkinson & Schein, 1986; Casas, 1985; Ibrahim, 1985; Ponterotto, 1988; Sue,
1988). Of particular note is Sues (1988) criticism that the problems within the professional literature are a result of misconceptualizing the
issues of ethnicity, race, and culture. According to Sue, distal variables such as race or ethnicity provide very little information regarding the
attitudes, emotions, values, experiences, or behaviors of individuals. Sue and Zane (1987) have noted that this emphasis on culturally specific
differences and therapeutic techniques has been only minimally successful. Margolis and Rungta (1986) in their criticism of the emic approach
to multicultural training recommended a more integrated approach to training counselors to work with a variety of special populations.
Recently, within the multicultural literature, there exists a growing trend toward adopting a more universal or etic approach to
multicultural training. Vontress (1979, 1985, 1988) has pioneered an existential approach to multicultural counseling emphasizing the
commonalities rather than the differences between people. The current multicultural training emphasis on culturally specific techniques runs
the risk that by focusing on the cultural characteristics of the client, the counselor may lose the personal characteristics, the humaness
of the client. According to Vontress (1988), only by attending to the humaness that connects all individuals can counselors foster the
development of the counseling relationship. The cultural differences between the counselor and client can be acknowledged and transcended
because human experience can be understood within the framework of a universal existential philosophy. Fukuyama (1990) promoted a
transcultural approach that recognizes universal processes that transcend cultural variations (p. 7). Ibrahim (1985) has claimed that an
understanding of individual and group worldviews within an existential framework is necessary for effective multicultural counseling.
The universalists or transcendentalists are reacting to the shortcomings of the current approach to understanding multicultural issues.
Draguns (1989) said that it is neither desirable nor practical to focus exclusively on cultural differences [since] to some degree all humans
are cut of the same cloth (p. 13). The best approach to multiculturalism is bound to lie somewhere between the emic and etic approaches to
a blending between the particular and the universal. We must move beyond a dichotomous, either-or view of the etic and emic approaches
to an integrated synthesis including both-and. The new decade of multiculturalism calls for balance.

TWO CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS


The difficulties in the literature and with our training focus arise directly from interpreting multiculturalism through a Eurocentric conceptual
system dominant in this culture that fosters an either-

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or type of reasoning. Myers (1988) has identified another set of assumptions forming a different conceptual system with a more holistic
frame of reference. Myers first identified the parameters of these conceptual systems in her search to understand the basis of racism. She
has defined the conceptual system yielding societal -isms such as racism, classism, sexism, and heterosexism as suboptimal. The antithesis
of this conceptual system she described as optimal as it yields maximally positive interpersonal relationships and a positive sense of self.
From a suboptimal worldview, reality is segmented into spirit and matter, with matter being preeminent. This fragmentation results in
individuals being alienated from their spiritual essence. Because worth is not intrinsic, individuals are left to rely on external realities for
feelings of self-worth. Hence, ones skin color, class, sex, age, physical or mental abilities, income, education, occupation, and ethnicity all
become critical factors in defining individuals. Counting and measuring the material information provided by the five senses is the primary
way to knowledge according to the suboptimal worldview. According to Myers, optimal theory emerges from an Afrocentric vantage point
and can be found in Native American, feminist, Eastern, and Christian spiritualities, for instance. Optimal theory assumes the unity of spirit
and matter, with spirit being preeminent. The world is conceptualized as a manifestation of spiritual energy. Individuals are unique
manifestations of spirit; therefore, self-worth is intrinsic and independent of external criteria. Self-knowledge is the source of all knowledge
according to optimal theory (Myers, 1988).
The segmentation, external focus and alienation characteristic of a suboptimal perspective are evident within the multicultural training
movement. For instance, clients are categorized and classified according to their cultural difference, and counselors are trained to work
with clients by learning a set of cultural characteristics. The current approach to multiculturalism lacks a unifying framework in which to
understand culture (Ponterotto & Benesch, 1988).

REDEFINITION OF MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING

Consistent with the transpersonal school of thought, optimal psychology expands the field of psychological inquiry to include optimal
health and well-being and alternate states of consciousness to go beyond the limits of individual ego and personality (Myers, 1985). Optimal
theory provides a cultural and historic basis for breaking through the barriers of superficial differences (based on appearance) to understand
the more salient issues of values, attitudes, emotions, and experiences. The conceptual framework of optimal theory provides a more
integrated approach to training counselors to work with a variety of populations. Accordingly, multicultural counseling is redefined as
basic to all forms of helping relationships. All counseling is multicultural in nature. There is no such entity titled regular counseling in
this redefinition. This redefinition does not naively imply that cultural differences are not important; rather, optimal theory encourages us
to look concurrently at our individual uniqueness and our commonalities. Similar to Eastern philosophies of yinyang, optimal theory
considers a harmony of differences. The concept of yin-yang refers to being same and different simultaneously. The suboptimal conceptual
framework has led to the artificial dichotomization and ranking of sameness and differentness. In western social science, differentness often
denotes deficiency (Sue et al., 1982). Optimal theory distills the essential

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differences among people to worldviews based on philosophical assumptions. This optimal redefinition would allow us to move from a
fragmented and segmented view of individuals to a more holistic view of individuals.
Cox (1982) diagrammed a tripartite model of worldview in which cultural specificity, individual uniqueness, and hum an
universality interact to influence individuals. Figure 1 demonstrates the optimal redefinition of multiculturalism. The figur e illustrates
Kluckhohn and Murrays (1953) basic principle: Every person is like all persons, like some persons, and like no other persons. Each
counseling encounter possesses this mixture of sameness and differentness. To gain a full understanding of individuals, it is necessary
to explore the unique and simultaneous influences of cultural specificity, individual uniqueness, and human universality. Neglecting
any one of these influences may result in an incomplete picture of individuals. This model provides a coherent and practical
conceptualization for understanding the complex blending of influences on individuals worldviews that Ibrahim (1985) said is
requisite for effectiveness in counseling.
Within this framework, one can see that the current approach to multiculturalism has focused almost exclusively on the culturally specific
sphere. Conversely, the recent transcendental movement (e.g., Fukuyama, 1990) has focused on the universality sphere. The emphasis on
one sphere or another is an understandable attempt to simplify and untangle the complex blending of influences on individuals. It is the
complexity, the interrelatedness of the three broadly defined spheres, however, that is most illuminating. For instance, what can be said
about the portion of Figure 1 where each of the circles overlap? Although the unique contributions of each of the three spheres is important,
only in combination can they begin to capture the richness of individuals. Cox has provided a heuristic model for understanding the complex
blending of factors influencing individuals worldviews and for balancing between the etic and emic approaches to multicultural training.
Optimal theory offers another holistic view of individuals. Optimal theory has its roots in ancient, traditional African culture (Mbiti, 1970;
Nobles, 1980) from which all other cultures emerged, at least according to current archaeological and anthropological evidence (Cann,
Stoneking, & Wilson, 1987). Hence, all people are Alkebulan (African) people if they go far enough back

FIGURE 1
Influences on Worldview

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into their ancestry, back to the beginnings of human culture and civilization in the Lake Victoria region of East Africa. In this vein, optimal
theory is truly holistic and unifying.
The transcendental movement attempts to understand multicultural issues by going beyond or rising above differences to unify
individuals at some universal level. With optimal theory, there is no need to go beyond cultural differences. Differences are fully integrated
into a holistic picture of the individual. Individuals are seen as a configuration of spiritual energy that is manifest in an endless variety of
ways (e.g., skin color, ethnicity, size, and sex). These external realities, however, do not detract from the spiritual essence that is the core of
all life. Thus, individuals are united at a deep spiritual level regardless of the more apparent differences. The essential commonality of
people becomes a way of viewing the world in which each one is valued for his or her uniqueness as a necessary part of the whole. Triandis
(1976) called this positive multiculturalism in which differences are perceived as beneficial to the society as a whole. Interconnectedness
and interrelatedness are values that emerge from this perspective.
Implications for Training
A redefinition of multicultural counseling using optimal theory would result in changes in our current approach to training counselors.
Optimal theory emphasizes self-knowledge. The counselors pursuit of self-knowledge enables him or her to understand and appreciate
others. Counselors must come to appreciate their own uniqueness. As counselors come to understand fully who they are and how they are
the manifestation of spiritual energy, they will be capable of valuing the richness of who their clients are. The counselor training program
would require considerable introspection as counselors bring into conscious awareness their feelings, thoughts, assumptions, and biases.
Basically, counselors would explore their conceptual systems and subsequent worldviews. Unexamined, ones own sense of reality or
worldview is frequently perceived as universal and just (Tyler, Sussewell, & Williams-McCoy, 1985). Ibrahim (1985) asserted that
effectiveness in cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapeutic encounters is determined by how well the helper is aware of his or her
world view and can understand and accept the world view of the client (p. 633). Bringing into awareness ones worldview would allow
counselors to explore their perceptions and interpretations of their clients. Furthermore, counselors would be encouraged to explore their
feelings, thoughts, and experiences regarding their own apparent differences as a way of focusing on identity development issues.
According to Christensen (1989), A major developmental task for all involves the discovery and integration of the personal and
sociopolitical meaning of ones ethnicity, culture, and race as these affect oneself and others (p. 274). Optimal theorys emphasis on
selfknowledge emergesfrom the epistemological position that selfknowledge is the basis of all knowledge. Consequently, external
information of cultural group differences would not be enough to adequately inform counselors as to how to assist their clients. Optimal
theory can provide a balanced perspective that would assist counselors in navigating the endless variety of cultural differences with
confidence.
With this redefinition multicultural counseling courses would be organized around themes that seem to cut across various racial, ethnic,
and cultural groups (Margolis & Rungta, 1986). Rather than having each identified group as a class topic, theoretical issues relevant to all
groups would be addressed, includ-

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ing identity development, oppression, worldview, ethics, and spirituality. Using experiential and didactic approaches would further the
objective of increasing the self-knowledge of counselors-in-training. A variety of instructional methods and materials could be used, such as
novels, videotape, role-plays, movies, personal stories, lectures, psychodrama, discussion, and student presentations. By first introducing
students to an underlying framework in which to structure the role of culture in counseling, this approach would not overwhelm or intimidate
students with the myriad of betweenand within-group differences (e.g., Taiwanese, Korean, Cambodian, Japanese, sex, generational status,
socioeconomic status, sexual/affectional preference).
At The Ohio State University, a new graduate seminar employing this redefinition was recently offered. This experimental course in
multiculturalism was offered in concert with a more traditional multicultural counseling course that is organized around cultural groups and
is more clinically applied than is the new seminar. Readings for a course with this redefinition of multicultural counseling could reflect the
common themes across cultural groups. To illustrate, for the topic worldview, readings could focus on exploring the variety in worldviews.
Articles by Ibrahim (1985) and Katz (1985), books by Highwater (1981) and Myers (1988), and novels by Carter (1976), Ellison (1972), and Tan
(1989) would assist counselors in identifying and articulating their own view of the world. Additionally, a classroom exercise asking students
to discuss in small groups some factors influencing their worldview, such as sex, sociopolitical milieu, race, ethnicity, sexuality, family
background, and spirituality would foster self-awareness.
The redefinition of multicultural counseling would have profound implications for the entire counseling program. Because all counseling
is considered multicultural, consideration of cultural specificity, individual uniqueness, and human universality would be common threads
through all counselor education courses. For example, in a beginning counseling skills laboratory or pre-practicum course, students would
be introduced to the definition of counseling as illustrated by the three interlocking circles of Figure 1. Through the use of role-plays and
confederate

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process that clients will undergo. This process will necessitate bringing into conscious awareness ones assumptions, biases, thoughts, and
feelings regarding oneself and others. As one engages in this process and comes to accept himself or herself, the way will be cleared for
accepting and valuing others without the projection of ones own baggage. Once unconscious assumptions and biases are identified,
acknowledged, and worked through, counselors-in-training should be ready to engage clients and grow with them through the
optimalization process.
The optimalization process, emphasized in both training and practice, is one of moving from a suboptimal view of the world that
fosters societal -isms to an optimal view of the world that values diversity. This process is illustrated by Figure 2. As one attempts
to experience the world from an optimal perspective, the suboptimal environment will frequently intervene resulting in a sense of self
as separate. Within this cycle, the suboptimal environment provides opportunities for continual edification. The optimalizati on
process is cumulative and self-corrective (Myers, 1988).
Optimal theorys corollary psychotherapeutic approach, Belief Systems Analysis (BSA; Myers, 1988), integrates psychodynamic,
cognitive-behavioral, and humanistic-existential aspects. BSA attends to early experiences and socialization, cognitions, feelings, and
behaviors to foster self-awareness, understanding, and acceptance. Much like Frankls (1970) logotherapy, which assumes the search for
meaning and existential substance are primary human forces, BSA posits the search for self-knowledge and understanding as a primary
human force. In this light, as self-knowledge increases, acceptance of others increases. Conversely, the less self-knowledge one possesses,
the more unaccepting one is of others. BSA requires exploration of the nature of ones conceptual system and its relationship to ones percep-

Maximizing positivity in experience toward the achievement of understanding self and others

Environment influences a sense of self as separate


clients representing both sameness and differentness, in terms of race, ethnicity, age, sexual/affectional preference, physically challenged,
and social class, counselors-in-training would begin to experience clients as holistic individuals. In theories courses the major schools of
thought would be explicitly explored in terms of the worldview and zeitgeist they reflect and their applicability and generalizability to other
cultural realities. Also, theories would be examined from alternate perspectives. For exam-
ple, in a course on existential and phenomenological theories,

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Optimal Worldview

Material and spiritual unification


Spiritknown in an extrasensory fashion
Matterspirit/energy
manifest

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Suboptimal Worldview

Material and spiritual segmentation


Matterinformed via five
senses
Spiritsecondary and unknowable
contributions from Western psychology (Yalom, 1980), Eastern philosophy (Bolen, 1979), Afrocentric psychology (Mbiti, 1970), and
Transpersonal psychology (Wilber, Engler, & Brown, 1986) would be considered. Incorporating multicultural issues into existing graduate
curriculum is not a new idea (e.g., Sue et al., 1982); these examples simply serve to highlight the process using

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Experience self as Experience self as:
infinite and multidimensional separate and alienated
divinity negativity
peace/harmony anger/anxiety

Modes: feeling/sensing Modes: thought


thought/feeling feeling
knowing analysis
the redefinition of multicultural counseling.

Implications for Practitioners

In terms of practice, optimal theory emphasizes process. The optimalization process is one of moving from a suboptimal view of the world to
an optimal view of the world. Much of the training process that counselors will undergo parallels the therapeutic

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sharing conflict
cooperating competing

Opportunity to grow into greater knowledge of the true nature of the self

FIGURE 2
The Optimalization Process

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tions, thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and subsequent experiences. As clients identify the optimal and suboptimal conceptual systems, they
will see the probable consequences of their choices and will become empowered to begin changing their experience of life.
Implications for Researchers
Within a suboptimal framework, multicultural research has been conceptualized and operationalized to investigate either human universality
or cultural specificity. These two major separate emphases are prevalent within the multicultural empirical literature. First, the etic perspective
refers to the universal approach in multicultural theory, practice, and research. In research, the etic approach emphasizes the development
of explanatory constructs applicable to all cultures (Lonner, 1985). The etic approach has merit, but a problem of imposed etics arises when
explanatory constructs in a particular culture are assumed to be universal and are applied to other cultures without establishing a cross-
cultural equivalent (Lonner, 1985; Price-Williams, 1975; Sue, 1981). Specifically, Sue (1981) categorized imposed etics as yielding (a) a
pathological view of ethnic group members, (b) a genetic deficiency view of ethnic group members, (c) a culturally deficient view of ethnic
group members, and (d) a culturally different view of ethnic group members. Pathological views of racial and ethnic minority groups can
still be found in the current psychological literature. For example, Rushtons (1988) study of race differences in behavior has been criticized
for representing racist science (Zuckerman, 1990). Most current research is not so obviously deleterious to the culturally specific group under
investigation. For instance, a number of studies (e.g., Atkinson, Ponterotto, & Sanchez, 1984; Westermeyer, Neider, & Vang, 1984) have
considered issues associated with the mental health help-seeking behaviors of Southeast Asian refugees. Results of such studies typically
conclude that Southeast Asian refugees have less positive attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help (Atkinson et al., 1984,
p. 451); rated themselves as experiencing very high levels of depression, anxiety, hostility. . . and feelings of inadequacy as compared to
other populations (Westermeyer et al., 1984, p. 87); and will be less likely than Anglo-American students to seek professional
psychological help (Atkinson et al., 1984, p. 452). The Southeast Asian refugees are defined only by the differences and/or similarities to the
Caucasian norm group. The suboptimal perspective allows this comparison approach in which members of exotic populations are compared
against normal or generic universal standards. The subject groups are not self-defined but, instead, are dependent on the contrast to the
standard group and are understood only with the limitation of the experiences of the standard group. The subject groups appear as mere
shadows of the real thing. From a suboptimal perspective, because difference frequently denotes deficiency, it is rarely valued for its
uniqueness. Therefore, when the etic approach is used to conceptualize and operationalize constructs, it is likely that etic results, such as
pathology, deviancy, genetic deficiency, and cultural deficiency, will be obtained (Cox, 1982).
Second, on the other hand, the emic perspective refers to the culturally specific approach in multicultural theory, practice, and research
(Lonner, 1985; Price-Williams, 1975; Sue, 1981). This approach has been prevalent within anthropological literature and attempts to
understand ethnic groups in their own terms rather than contrast them to other reference groups (Brislin,

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1983). An emic approach to research emphasizes the importance of viewing behavior from the cultural framework or context in which it
occurs. In her decision to use the life history approach to investigate the experiences of Japanese women in the United States, Kikumura
(1981) stated that the emic approach portrays the relationship of the individual to society without abstract statistics, which lack the humanity
of life experiences. The benefits of the emic approach, however, can limit its generalizability and application. An exclusive culturally specific
approach tends to overemphasize the influence of culture and consequently reduces individuals into one culturally specific dimension.
Ethnic and racial identity development models have been criticized for this oversimplification (Poston, 1990; Speight et al., 1991). For
instance, many of the racial or ethnic identity development models reflect an emic perspective emphasizing the notion of specific ethnic-
cultural-racial pride (Avery, 1977; Cass, 1979; Cross, 1971; Keefe & Padilla, 1987). There are few models (Poston, 1990; Speight et al., 1991)
that address the identity development process of individuals with multiple oppressions (e.g., Mexican American lesbian) or of individuals
from biracial-bicultural backgrounds (e.g., Amerasian). Because the emic approach emphasizes culturally specific factors, individual
uniqueness and human universality are easily ignored, perpetuating the assumption that demographic matching produces the most
effective counseling.
In summary, both universal and culturally specific approaches are limited in their exclusivity when researching the complex nature of
humans, in that they either underestimate or overestimate the influence of culture. As stated earlier, the dichotomy between etic and emic
is an artificial one. Sundberg and Sue (1989) stated that the intermixture of universality, group similarity, and individual uniqueness is not
easily untangled. Their statement is based on the assumption that the purpose of multicultural research is to untangle, compartmentalize,
reduce, and separate, rather than to integrate these three factors of human experience. In our current approach to science in psychology,
scholarly inquiry has been narrowly defined from the positivistic tradition of reductive experimentation. This approach to knowledge
typically reduces human phenomena to quantifiable mechanistic laws and principles resulting in a narrowing of the subject matter and the
range of questions posited (Tsoi Hoshmand, 1989).
Many authors have questioned and criticized the fundamental epistomological and ideological assumptions underlying the current
approach to research and have suggested a broadening of psychologys scientific worldview ( e.g., Goldman, 1976; Howard, 1984;
Polkinghorne, 1984; Rychlak, 1983). An expansion of psychologys scientific worldview would affect the basic research processes of
conceptualization, operationalization, and analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Morgan & Smirnich, 1980). We would ask different questions,
use alternate research paradigms, and employ a variety of analytical strategies.
The redefinition of multicultural counseling described in this article requires a change in our current definition of true scientific inquiry
and the goals of science. Within optimal theory, the goal of science is understanding rather than controlling or predicting. To understand
the fullness of an individuals experience, the influences of human universal tenets, cultural specificity, and individual uniqueness must all
be investigated. As individuals respond and create their cultural realities, researchers must

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explore objective and subjective components of experience. Naturalistic-ethnographic, phenomenological, and cybernetic research paradigms
could be used to illuminate meaning and subjective experience. According to Tsoi Hoshmand (1989), these alternate paradigms emphasize
description, discovery, and context, which would make them well suited for the theory building and theory testing necessary in this
redefinition of multicultural counseling.

CONCLUSION

Multiculturalism is a fact of life. Depending upon ones conceptual system, this fact may be viewed either as a problem in need of a solution
or a gift to enjoy. To truly value and appreciate the diversity of human expression and experience, one must adopt an optimal worldview
and see the interrelatedness and interconnectedness of all life. This shift in worldview requires considerable introspection. Accordingly, the
assumptions underlying our current conceptualization of multicultural counseling require reflection and deliberation.
The redefinition of multicultural counseling described in this article is an attempt to address some of the limitations in the current approach
to multiculturalism. The difficulties encountered in the understanding of multicultural issues, the training of counselors, practice, and research
arise from the values inherent in a suboptimal conceptual system. By making the values and assumptions underlying the current approach to
multicultural counseling explicit and offering an alternate conceptual system, we hope to stimulate thought and discussion that will improve
scholarship within the field.

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Suzette L. Speight is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at Loyola University of Chicago. Linda J. Myers is an
associate professor in the Departments of Black Studies and Psychology at The Ohio State University, Columbus. Chikako I. Cox is a stuff psychologist at the
Counseling and Consultation Service at The Ohio State University, Columbus. Pamela S. Highlen is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at
The Ohio State University, Columbus. The authors express their gratitude to the many students who shared both their ideas and their enthusiasm. Correspondence
regarding this article should be sent to Suzette L. Speight, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, Loyola University of Chicago, 820 North Michigan
Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611.

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