7 Pipe PDF

Fluid Mechanics Chapter 7 Steady Flow in Pipes
7 STEADY FLOW IN PIPES

7.1 Reynolds Number
Reynolds, an engineering professor in early 1880 demonstrated two

different types of flow through an experiment:
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Reynolds apparatus
dye
dye filament
water
outlet
Laminar flow
at low velocity Dye injection
dye filament remained intact Dye filament

throughout the length of the tube
fluid particles move in a straight line
considered as moving in layers
P.7-1
Turbulent flow
at high velocity Dye injection
Dye filament
dye diffused over the whole cross-section
fluid particles do not move in a straight line
velocity in average sense
The transition of flow is due to change of velocity, size of pipe and

properties of fluid.
Reynolds explained the phenomena by considering the forces acting

on the fluid particle.
When the motion of a fluid particle in a stream is disturbed, its inertia

will tend to carry it on in the new direction, but the viscous forces due
to the surrounding fluid will tend to make it conform to the motion of
the rest of the stream.
The criterion that determines whether flow will be viscous or turbulent

is therefore the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force acting on
the particle. Hence, for a particular flow,
inertial force
i.e. = constant (7.1)
viscous force
By using dimensional analysis, Reynolds derived a criterion to

distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow.
inertial force vd
Reynolds Number, Re = = (7.2)
viscous force
where = density of the fluid, kg/m3

v = velocity of the flow, m/s
d = diameter of the pipe, m
= dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2
P.7-2

Since = (7.3)

where = kinematic viscosity, m2/s
vd
Hence Reynolds Number, Re = (7.4)

Reynolds Number is a dimensionless number
In general, the flow is

laminar when Re - small
transitional when Re - intermediate
turbulent when Re - large
The flow in pipe can be treated as

laminar when Re < 2000
transitional when 2000 < Re < 4000
turbulent when Re > 4000
P.7-3
Worked example:
What is the critical velocity of a water flow through a circular pipe of

diameter 2 cm so that the flow is laminar?
(dynamic viscosity of water is 0.89*10-3 Ns/m2, density of water = 1000
kg/m3)
Answer
As the Reynolds number is

vd
Re =

1000 * v * 0.02
= < 2000
0.89 *10 3
2000 * 089 *10 3
i.e. v =
1000 * 0.02
= 8.9 cm/s
Hence the critical velocity is 8.9 cm/s.
P.7-4
7.2 Laminar Flow in Pipes
7.2.1 Hagen - Poiseuille Equation
It was discovered independently by:

G.H.L. Hagen - a German engineer in 1893
J.L.M. Poiseuille - a French physician in 1840
It states that the head loss experienced by the water when it flows
through a pipe is
directly proportional to the rate of flow, (Q), and

inversely proportional to the fourth power of the diameter of the
pipe (d4).
Q
i.e. hf = k 4 where k is a constant (7.5)
d
For a laminar flow, the shear stress on the cylindrical surface is given
by
r dp
=
2 dx
For Newtonian fluid,

dv
=
dr
Equating the two equations,

dv r dp
=
dr 2 dx
When integrating the above equation with respect to r with the

boundary condition v = 0 when r = R (i.e. no slip condition), the result
is
1 dp 2 2
v=- (R r ) (7.6)
4 dx
From (7.10), we can see that the velocity distribution is in parabolic

form with maximum velocity at r = 0.
P.7-5
umax
The maximum velocity at centre (r = 0)

1 dp 2
vmax = R
4 dx
dp p
by putting =-
dx L
R 2 p
vmax = (7.7)
4L
The corresponding discharge, Q is
R
Q = 0 2 rvdr
R 1 dp 2
= 0 2 r[ ( R r 2 )]dr
4 dx
R 4 dp
=-
8 dx
dp p
by putting =- & R = d/2
dx L
d 4 p
Q = (7.8)
128L
- known as Hagen-Poiseuille equation
flow rate, Q
The mean velocity, v =
x sec tional area, A
d 2 p
= (7.9)
32L
1
When compare with vmax, v = v max (7.10)
2
From Hagen-Poiseuille law,
P.7-6
Q
hf = k *
d4
By substituting the expression of Q in (7.8) and consider the change of
pressure head as head loss, i.e.
p = ghf
128L
then k=
g
Therefore, k depends on the properties of fluid, and and pipe length,
L.
Hagen-Poiseuille equation can be expressed in terms of head loss, hf

and average velocity,
L v2
h f = 64 * * *
vd d 2g
vd
Since Re =

Therefore head loss in Hagen-Poiseuille equation
64 L v 2
hf = * * (7.11)
Re d 2g
L v
2
If hf can be expressed as h f = f * * (7.12)
d 2g
where f - friction factor
Then the friction factor in laminar flow is

64
f= (7.13)
Re
Noted that in UK publication, hf is often written as

L v
2
h f = 4f * *
d 2g
16
and hence f=
Re
P.7-7
Worked examples:
1. For a laminar flow,

d = 250 mm, P1 - P2 = 20 kN/m2
L = 200 m, = 10-3 Ns/m2
Determine the flow rate, Q in m3/s.
Answer
From Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

d 4 (P1 P2 )
Q =
128L
* (0.25) 4 * (20 *103 )
= m3/s
128 *10 3 * 200
= 9.59 m3/s
P.7-8
2. Oil of viscosity 0.101 Ns/m2 and specific gravity of 0.85 flows

through 3000 m of 300 mm-dia. pipe at the rate of 0.0444 m3/s. What
is the lost in head in the pipe?
Answer
d 4 (P1 P2 )
Since Q=
128L
Now, Q = 0.0444 m3/s, = 0.101 Ns/m2,
L = 3000 m, d = 0.3 m
(0.3) (P1 P2 )
4
then 0.0444 =
128 * 0.101* 3000
0.0444 *128 * 0.101* 3000

Hence P1 - P2 =
* (0.3) 4
= 67.67 kN/m2
= lost in pressure
P1 P2
Lost in head =
g
67.67
= m of oil
850 * 9.81
= 8.12 m of oil
P.7-9
7.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
7.3.1 Darcy - Weisbach Formula
Darcy, Weisbach and others found that a formula for pipe friction loss
could be expressed as
2
L v
hf = f (7.14)
d 2g
where f is friction factor
The above equation can be applied in both laminar (refer 7.2.2) and
turbulent flows and is known as Darcy - Weisbach formula.
It is found that friction factor depends on
density of the fluid,

velocity of the flow, v
diameter of the pipe, d
viscosity of the fluid,
wall roughness,

wall roughness
i.e. f = f(, v, d, , )
By dimensional analysis,
vd
f = f ,
d
= f ( Reynolds number, relative roughness)
vd
where Reynolds number = and

relative roughness = (7.15)
d
P.7-10
Once the Reynolds number and relative roughness have been

determined, the corresponding value of the friction factor can be
obtained from a graphical relationship known as the Moody diagram.
Typical values of surface roughness
New pipe surface Roughness, (m)

Glass, brass, copper and lead smooth
Wrought iron, steel 0.46*10-4
Cast iron 2.6*10-4
Concrete 3*10-4 to 30*10-4
7.3.2 Moody Diagram
Moody diagram has been used extensively in solving pipe flow

problems.
Two equations are related to the Moody diagram
for laminar flow, the friction factor is

64
f =
Re
This is the straight portion of the diagram when Re < 2000.
for a turbulent flow, friction factor is

1 d 2.51
= 2.0 * log +
(7.16)
f 3.7 Re f
This is known as Colebrook-White formula.
P.7-11
P.7-13
Worked examples:
1. Determine the head loss for flow of 140 L/s of oil, = 0.00001 m2/s,
through 400 m of a 200 mm diameter cast iron pipe.
Answer
Given Q = 140 L/s = 0.14 m3/s

d = 200 mm = 0.2 m
= 0.00001 m2/s = 10-5 m2/s
L = 400 m
= 0.26 mm (cast iron)
Q 014
.
v = = m/s = 4.456 m/s
d 2 4 * 0.2 2 4
vd 0.2 * 4.456
Re = = = 8.912*104
10 5
2.6 *10 4
= = 0.0013
d 0. 2
From the Moody diagram,
f(89120, 0.0013) = f = 0.0238
400 4.456 2
i.e. hf = 0.0238* * m of oil
0.2 2 * 9.81
= 48.17 m of oil
P.7-14
2. Solving the previous example by using Colebrook-White formula.
Answer
1 d 2.51
As = 2.0 log +
f 3.7 Re f

where = 0.0013; Re = 89120
d
1 0.0013 2.51
i.e. = 2.0 log +
f 3.7 89120 f
1 0.0801
or + 2log(1 + ) 6.908 = 0
f f
Since this is a non-linear equation, it has to be solved by trial & error

or iterations.
f = 0.023365
400 4.4562
Hence hf = 0.023365* * m of oil
0.2 2 * 9.81
= 47.29 m of oil
P.7-15
7.4 Minor Losses
In section 7.3, the head loss in long, straight sections of pipe can be
calculated by use of the friction factor obtained from Moody diagram
or the Colebrook White equation. This is called friction loss or
major loss.
Most pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes.

These pipe fittings add to the overall head loss of the system. These
losses are called minor losses.
In some cases, the minor losses may be greater than the friction loss.
Since the flow pattern in fittings and valves is quite complex, the
theory is very week. The losses are commonly measured
experimentally and correlated with the pipe flow patterns.
7.4.1 Different Types of Minor Losses
Minor losses are losses due to the inclusion of a pipe fittings in a

pipeline.
Some examples are

entrances or exit of a pipe
expansions or contractions of a pipe
bends, elbow and tees
valves of open or partially closed
gradual expansions or contractions
Minor losses is given by
v2
hL = K* (7.17)
2g
where K is a constant
P.7-16
Component K
a. Elbows
Regular 90, flanged 0.3
Regular 90, threaded 1.5
Long radius 90, flanged 0.2
Long radius 90, threaded 0.7
Long radius 45, flanged 0.2
Regular 45, threaded 0.4
b. 180 return bends
180 return bends, flanged 0.2
180 return bends, threaded 1.5
c. Tees
Line flow, flanged 0.2
Line flow, threaded 0.9
Branch flow, flanged 1.0
Branch flow, threaded 2.0
d. Valves
Globe, fully open 10
Gate, fully open 0.15
Ball valve, fully open 0.05
e. Others
Entrance loss 0.5
Exit loss 1.0
7.4.2 Modified Bernoullis Equation
The original Bernoullis equation should be extended to include the

friction loss and minor losses.
i.e. total energy at 1 = total energy at 2 + energy loss on the way
fi Li v 2 2 v22
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + + K i
2g 2g d i 2g 2g
(7.18)
P.7-17
Worked examples:
1. Find the discharge through the pipe in the figure below. The minor loss
coefficient for entrance is 0.5. The pipe diameter is 15 mm and the pipe
roughness produces a friction factor of 0.025.
15m
150m
Answer
Applying Bernoullis equation between pt.1 and 2
fL v 2 2 v22
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + +K
2g 2g d 2g 2g
fL v 2 2
15 = (1 + K + )*
d 2g
v22
= (1+0.5+0.025*150/0.015) *
2g
v22
= 251.5
2g
or v2 = 1.082 m/s
Hence Q = A2*v2
= 1.082**0.0152/4 m3/s
= 0.1912 L/s
P.7-18
2. Find the discharge through the pipe in the figure below for H = 20 m.
The minor loss coefficients for entrance, elbows and globe valve are 0.5,
0.8 (each) and 10 respectively. The kinematic viscosity of water is
1.02*10-6 m2/s.
1 globe
valve 2
40m elbows dia. = 150mm

= 0.0003 20m
30m 40m
Answer
fi Li v 2 2 v22
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
Using + + z1 = + + z2 + + K i
2g 2g d i 2g 2g
fi Li v 2 2 f v22
= L i
d i 2g d 2g
f v22
= (30 + 20 + 40)
. 2 * 9.81
015
= 30.58 f v22
v22 v22
K i = K i
2g 2g
v22
= (0.5 + 2 * 0.8 + 10)
2 * 9.81
= 0.617 v22
As P1-P2 = 0, v1 = 0, z1-z2 = 20 m,
v22 fi Li v 2 2 v22
i.e. 20 = + + K i
2g d i 2g 2g
= (0.051+30.58f + 0.617)v22
= (0.668+30.58f) v22
P.7-19
5.47
or v2 =
1 + 45.78f
Since Re = 1.47*105 v2 ; /D = 0.002
f v2 (m/s) Re fcal.
0.030 3.551 5.2*105 0.0230
0.0230 3.818 5.6*105 0.0235
0.0235 3.797 5.6*105 0.0235 (ok)
v2 = 3.797 m/s
Since Q = A2*v2
= *0.152/4 * 3.797 m3/s
= 0.067 m3/s
P.7-20
7.5 Pipe Systems
In many pipe systems, there is more than one pipe involved.
The governing mechanisms for the flow in multiple pipe systems are
the same as for the single pipe system discussed previously.
7.5.1 Resistance Coefficients for Pipelines in Series and Parallel
In general, the equation of head loss can be expressed as
hf = k*Q2 (7.19)
Pipes are in series if they are connected end to end so the fluid flow in
a continuous line is a constant.
h1 Q
h2 Q
h3 Q
hn
Q
By continuity of flow, Q is same for each pipe.
The total loss of the system is given as
hf = h1 + h2 + h3 ++ hn
= k1*Q2 + k2*Q2 + k3*Q2 + + kn*Q2
= (k1 + k2 + k3 + + kn)*Q2 (7.20)
The effective resistance coefficient is
keff = k1 + k2 + k3 + + kn (7.21)
i.e. the total head loss is the summation of the individual pipe.
P.7-21
For pipes connected in parallel, the fluid can flow from one to the
other by a number of alternative routines.
Q1
Q2
Q Q3 Q
Qn
hf
The head loss for individual pipe is the same as the total head loss.
The total flow rate is the summation of the individual pipe.
Since hf = ki*Qi2
hf
or Qi =
ki
Total Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + + Qn (7.22)
hf h h h
= + f + f ++ f
k1 k2 k3 kn
1 1 1 1
=( + + ++ ) hf
k1 k2 k3 kn
hf
=
k eff
1 1 1 1 1
Hence = + + ++ (7.23)
k eff k1 k2 k3 kn
P.7-22
Worked examples:
1. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline which is 150 mm in

diameter for the first 6 m and 225 mm in diameter for the remaining
15 m. The water surface in the upper reservoir is 6 m above that in
the lower. By neglecting any minor losses, calculate the rate of flow
in m3/s. Friction coefficient f is 0.04 for both pipes.
Answer
The velocities v1 and v2 are related by the continuity equation.

i.e. A1v1 = A2v2
2
A d
v1 = v2 2 = v2 2
A1 d1
2
225
= v2 = 2.25 v2
150
Friction in the 150 mm pipe
0.04 * 6 v12
2
f 1 L1 v 1
hf1 = =
d1 2g 0.15 2g
v12 2 v2
2
v22
= 1.6 = 1.6*2.25 * = 8.1
2g 2g 2g
Similarly, friction in the 225 mm pipe
0.04 * 15 v 2 2
2
f2L2 v2
hf2 = =
d 2 2g 0.225 2g
v22
= 2.67
2g
v22
Hence, total head loss = hf1 + hf2 = 10.77
2g
Applying Bernoullis equation between the two top water surfaces,
p1 = p2 = 0 (Patm)
v1 = v2 = 0 (water surfaces)
z1 = 6 m; z2 = 0
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
+ + z1 = + + z 2 +hL
2g 2g
P.7-23
or z1 z2 = hL
v22
6 = 10.77
2g
6 * 2 * 9.81
or v2 = = 3.31 m/s
10.77
Hence Q = A2v2
* 0.2252
= * 3.31 m3/s
4
= 0.132 m3/s
P.7-24
2. Two reservoirs have a difference of level of 6 m and are connected by

two pipes laid in parallel. The first pipe is 600 mm diameter of 3000
m long and the second one is 300 mm diameter of 2000 m long. By
neglecting all the minor losses, calculate the total discharge if f = 0.04
for both pipes.
Answer
2 2
fL v f L v
For parallel pipes, hf = 1 1 1 = 2 2 2
d1 2g d 2 2g
Apply Bernoullis equation to the points on the free surfaces and from
the result of the previous worked example,
level difference = head loss

2 2
f 1 L1 v 1 f2L2 v2
H = =
d1 2g d 2 2g
0.04 * 3000 v12 0.04 * 2000 v 2 2
6 = =
0.6 2 * 9.81 0.3 2 * 9.81
Therefore, v1 = 0.767 m/s

v2 = 0.664 m/s
* 0.6 2
Hence Q1 = A1v1 = * 0.767 = 0.217 m3/s
4
* 0.32
Q2 = A2v2 = * 0.664 = 0.047 m3/s
4
Total discharge, Q = Q1 + Q2
= 0.217 + 0.047 m3/s
= 0.264 m3/s
P.7-25
7.5.2 Branched-pipe Problem
reservoir 1
pipe1, k1
reservoir 2
Q1
h1 J Q2
pipe2, k2
Q3 h2
reservoir 3
h3 pipe 3, k3
Assume h1 > h2 > h3 and the 3 pipes intersect at junction J.
As h1 is the highest head, the flow in pipe 1 must be toward J.
As h3 is the lowest head, Q3 is flowing from J to the reservoir 3.
The flow Q2s direction is unknown because it depends on the head at

junction J.
If hJ be the head at junction J. There are two possible cases

(i) h1 > hJ > h2,
or (ii) h2 > hJ > h3
For case (i), h1 > hJ > h2, Q2 is from J to reservoir 2.
Q1 - Q2 - Q3 =0
h1 hJ = k1*Q12
hJ - h2 = k2*Q22 (7.24)
hJ - h3 = k3*Q32
For case (ii), h2 > hJ > h3, Q2 is from reservoir 2 to J.
Q 1 + Q 2 - Q3 =0
h1 hJ = k1*Q12
h2 hJ = k2*Q22 (7.25)
hJ - h3 = k3*Q32
P.7-26
Both sets of equations have 4 unknowns Q1, Q2, Q3 and hJ. We have
to determine which case controls the problem.
It is determined by assuming hJ = h2, i.e. no flow from J to reservoir 2.
h1 h 2
Therefore Q1 = (7.26)
k1
h2 h3
Q3 = (7.27)
k3
If Q1 > Q3, Q2 is from J to reservoir 2 - case (i).
If Q1 < Q3, Q2 is from reservoir 2 to J - case (ii).
P.7-27
Worked example:
Three reservoirs are connected as the figure below. Determine the flow,
Q1, Q2 and Q3 with k1 = 3.058, k2 = 8.860 and k3 = 0.403 s2/m5 and hf =
ki*Qi2.
reservoir 1
reservoir 2
Q1
200m J Q2
Q3 180m
reservoir 3
140m
Answer
Step 1
Pipe hi (m) ki (s2/m5)
1 200 3.058
2 180 8.860
3 140 0.403
Step 2 - calculate Q1 and Q3

h1 h 2 200 180
Q1 = = = 2.557 m3/s
k1 3.058
h2 h3 180 140
Q3 = = = 9.963 m3/s
k3 0.403
Q1 < Q3 case (ii) i.e. h2 > h > h3
P.7-28
Step 3 - set up the equations
For case (ii), we have
200 - h = 3.058Q12
200 h
or Q1 = m3/s
3.058
180 - h = 8.860Q22
180 h
or Q2 = m3/s
8.860
h - 140 = 0.403Q32
h 140
or Q3 = m3/s
0.403
Since Q1 + Q 2 - Q3 = 0
200 h 180 h h 140
therefore + - =0
3.058 8.860 0.403
Step 4 - solve for h (180 < h < 140) by iterations
h (m) Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (m3/s) Error

180 2.557 + 0 9.963 -7.406
160 3.617 + 1.502 7.045 -1.926
150 4.044 + 1.840 - 4.981 +0.903
153 3.920 + 1.746 - 5.680 -0.014
152.9 3.925 + 1.749 - 5.658 +0.016
152.95 3.922 + 1.747 - 5.669 +0.000
Therefore, the head h at the junction is 152.95 m and

Q1 = 3.922 m3/s (towards J)
Q2 = 1.747 m3/s (towards J)
Q3 = 5.669 m3/s (towards reservoir C)
P.7-29
7.5.3 Hardy-Cross Method (Reference only)
water water
in out
loop 1 loop 2 loop 3
loop 4 loop 5 loop 6
The supply of water system to a city is a complicated network of

pipelines. The commonly used technique is the Hardy-Cross method.
The two assumptions made by Hardy-Cross method are:
The algebraic sum of head loss around each loop must be zero.
1 4
+ve
2 3
h14 + h43 - h23 - h21 = 0 (7.28)
The net flow out of each junction must be equal to zero.
6
1 5
7
2 4
3
Q17 + Q47 - Q76 - Q75 - Q72 - Q73 = 0 (7.29)
P.7-30
Method of Analysis
Assume hi = ki*Qi2
The sign convention is clockwise positive for the discharge and

head loss.
Initially a flow rate, Q is assumed. A correction for discharge, Q

is then evaluated and the new flow rate is Q + Q.
the head loss for each member can be approximated as
hi = ki*(Qi + Q)2
= ki*[Qi2 + 2QiQ + (Q)2]
ki*Qi2 + 2 ki*Qi*Q
Summation around the loop
hi= [ki*Qi2 + 2ki*Qi* Q]

=0 (by assumption 1)
i.e. hi + 2Q*(hi / Qi) = 0
1 h i
hence Q = (7.30)
2 ( hi )
Qi
hi is the sum of head loss around a loop which can be +ve or -ve.
(hi / Qi) is the sum of the ratio (head loss/flow) for each member of
the loop. The ratio is a magnitude and therefore is +ve only.
Q is the correction flow for a loop. Each pipe within the loop will
have this correction. Any pipe belonging to 2 or more loops, the
correction for that particular pipe will contribute from every loop.
P.7-31
Worked examples:
1. Determine the flow in each branch of the loop as shown below by

using (i) equivalent pipe method, and
(ii) Hardy-Cross method.
3 3
2m /s pipe 1, k 2m /s
Q1
Q2
pipe 2, 2k
Answer
(i) As a parallel system

hf1 = hf2
k*Q12 = 2k*Q22
or Q1 = 2 Q2
As Q = 2m3/s,
= Q1 + Q2
2 = 2 Q2 + Q2
(1+ 2 )Q2 =2
Q2 = 0.8284 m3/s
Q1 = 2 Q2
= 2 *0.8284
= 1.1716 m3/s
P.7-32
(ii) Assume Q1 = 1.5 m3/s

Q2 = 0.5 m3/s
3 3
2m /s 3
1.5m /s 2m /s
+ve
3
-0.5m /s
1st iteration
Pipe ki Qi hi abs(hi/Qi)
1 1 1.5 2.25 1.5
2 2 -0.5 -0.5 1.0
= 1.75 2.5
1 h i
Q =
2 ( hi )
Qi
175
.
=- m3/s
2 * 2.5
= -0.35 m3/s
2nd iteration
1 1 1.15 1.3225 1.15
2 2 -0.85 -1.445 1.70
= -0.1225 2.85
01225
.
Q = - m3/s
2 * 2.85
= 0.0215 m3/s
P.7-33
3rd iteration
1 1 1.1715 1.3724 1.1715
2 2 -0.8285 -1.3728 1.655
= -0.0004 2.8265
0.0004
Q = - m3/s
2 * 2.8265
= 0.000071 m3/s
Q1 = 1.1715 m3/s
Q2 = 0.8285 m3/s (after 3 iterations)
P.7-34
2. Find the flow in the pipeline using Hardy Cross Method. K for
vertical members are 3 and horizontals are 5.
0.5m3/s
500m 500m
A 200mm B 200mm C
300m 300m 300m
200mm 200mm 200mm
D 500m E 500m F
200mm 200mm
3
0.1m /s 0.2m3/s 0.2m3/s
Answer
Assume the flow rates are
0.5m3/s
0.2 m3/s 0.05m3/s
A B C
0.3 m3/s 0.15 m3/s 0.05 m3/s
3
D 0.2 m /s E 0.15 m3/s F
0.1m3/s 0.2m3/s 0.2m3/s

st
1 Iteration
Pipe ki Qi hi Abs(hi/Qi)
AB 5 0.20 0.2000 1.00
BE 3 0.15 0.0675 0.45
DE 5 -0.20 -0.2000 1.00
AD 3 -0.30 -0.2700 0.90
-0.2025 3.35
BC 5 0.05 0.0125 0.25
CF 3 0.05 0.0075 0.15
EF 5 -0.15 -0.1125 0.75
BE 3 -0.15 -0.0675 0.45
-0.16 1.6
0.2025
Q1 = = 0.03 m3/s
2 * 3.35
0.16
Q2 = = 0.05 m3/s
2 * 1.6
P.7-35
2nd Iteration
AB 5 0.230 0.2650 1.15
BE 3 0.130 0.0509 0.39
DE 5 -0.170 -0.1441 0.85
AD 3 -0.270 -0.2183 0.81
-0.04657 3.2
BC 5 0.100 0.05 0.5
CF 3 0.100 0.03 0.3
EF 5 -0.100 -0.05 0.5
BE 3 -0.130 -0.05087 0.390672
-0.02087 1.690672
0.4657
Q1 = = 0.0071 m3/s
2 * 3.2
0.2087
Q2 = = 0.0062 m3/s
2 * 16907
.
3rd Iteration
AB 5 0.238 0.2820 1.19
BE 3 0.131 0.0517 0.39
DE 5 -0.163 -0.1320 0.81
AD 3 -0.263 -0.2067 0.79
-0.00498 3.181479
BC 5 0.106 0.056364 0.530868
CF 3 0.106 0.033818 0.318521
EF 5 -0.094 -0.04402 0.469132
BE 3 -0.131 -0.05174 0.393979
-0.00557 1.7125
0.498
Q1 = = 0.00078 m3/s
2 * 31815
.
0.0557
Q2 = = 0.00163 m3/s
2 * 17125
.
P.7-36
4th Iteration
AB 5 0.238 0.2839 1.19
BE 3 0.130 0.0511 0.39
DE 5 -0.162 -0.1308 0.81
AD 3 -0.262 -0.2055 0.79
-0.00128 3.176597
BC 5 0.108 0.058105 0.539005
CF 3 0.108 0.034863 0.323403
EF 5 -0.092 -0.0425 0.460995
BE 3 -0.130 -0.05108 0.391444
-0.00061 1.714847
0.0128
Q1 = = 0.00020 m3/s
2 * 31766
.
0.0061
Q2 = = 0.00018 m3/s
2 * 17148
.
5th Iteration
AB 5 0.238 0.2844 1.19
BE 3 0.131 0.0511 0.39
DE 5 -0.162 -0.1304 0.81
AD 3 -0.262 -0.2052 0.78
-0.00014 3.176062
BC 5 0.108 0.058298 0.539896
CF 3 0.108 0.034979 0.323938
EF 5 -0.092 -0.04234 0.460104
BE 3 -0.131 -0.05109 0.391515
-0.00016 1.715453
0.00014
Q1 = = 2.2*10-5 m3/s
2 * 31761
.
0.00016
Q2 = = 4.6*10-5 m3/s
2 * 17155
.
Therefore OK
P.7-37
Therefore, the flow rates after five iterations will be given by
0.5m3/s
0.238m3/s 0.108 m3/s
A B C
3
0.262 m /s 0.131 m3/s 0.108 m3/s
3
D 0.162 m /s E 0.092 m3/s F
0.1m3/s 0.2m3/s 0.2m3/s
P.7-38
Class Exercise 7.1:
A steady push on the piston causes a flow rate of 0.4 cm3/s through the
needle. The fluid has S.G. = 0.9 and = 0.002 Ns/m2. Determine the head
loss at the needle and hence the force F required to maintain the flow.
Neglect the head loss in the piston only. (F = 0.012 kN)
D= 1cm
D=0.25mm F
Q
1.5cm 3cm
P.7-39
Class Exercise 7.2:
Oil, with density = 900 kg/m3 and = 1*10-5 m2/s, flows at 0.2 m3/s
through a 20-cm diameter pipe 500 m long cast-iron pipe. The roughness
of iron is 0.26 mm. Determine the head loss in the pipe. (hf = 117 m)
P.7-40
Class Exercise 7.3:
Water flows at a velocity of 1 m/s in a 150 mm new ductile iron pipe.

Estimate the head loss over 500 m using Darcy-Weisbach equation. ( =
0.26 mm and = 10-3 Ns/m2 ). (hf = 4.04 m)
P.7-41
Class Exercise 7.4:
The distance between two sections A and B of a 300 mm diameter pipe is

300 m. The elevations of A and B are 90 m and 75 m and the pressures are
280 kPa and 350 kPa respectively. Find the direction of flow of water and
calculate the head loss due to friction and the value of the friction factor for
the pipe if the flow is 142 L/s. (A to B, h = 7.87 m, f = 0.0386)
P.7-42
Class Exercise 7.5:
Three pipes A, B & C are interconnected and discharge water from a

reservoir as shown below. With the provided pipe characteristics,
determine the flow rate in each pipe. Neglect all the minor loss.
Pipe Diameter, Length, f
mm m
A 150 600 0.02
B 100 500 0.032
C 200 1250 0.024
(QA = 0.0752 m3/s, QB = 0.0236 m3/s, Qc = 0.0988 m3/s)
P.7-43
Tutorial: Steady Pipe Flow
1. Glycerine of viscosity 0.9 Ns/m2 and density 1260 kg/m3 is pumped

along a horizontal pipe 6.5 m long of diameter d = 0.01 m at a flow
rate of Q = 1.8 L/min. Determine the flow Reynolds number and
verify whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Calculate the pressure
loss in the pipe due to frictional effects.
2. If oil ( = 4*10-5 m2/s, S.G. = 0.9) flows from the upper to the lower
reservoir at a rate of 0.028 m3/s in the 15-cm smooth pipe, determine
the elevation of the oil surface in the upper reservoir. (K for entrance,
exit and bend are 0.5, 1 and 0.19 respectively)
60m 130mPD
7m 130m
3. Two reservoirs having a difference of surface level of 24 m are

connected by two parallel pipes each 1600 m long and of diameters
450 mm and 300 mm. To repair a length of 120 m of the 450 mm
diameter pipe midway between the reservoirs, the total flow is
diverted over this length to the 300 mm pipe. Calculate the
percentage reduction in discharge resulting from the diversion.
Consider only the friction losses and take f = 0.04.
300mm 24m
1600m
450mm
300mm 24m
120m 300mm
450mm
450mm
300mm
P.7-44

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 7 Steady Flow in Pipes

7 STEADY FLOW IN PIPES

Reynolds, an engineering professor in early 1880 demonstrated two

at low velocity Dye injection

dye filament remained intact Dye filament

fluid particles move in a straight line

considered as moving in layers

at high velocity Dye injection

The transition of flow is due to change of velocity, size of pipe and

Reynolds explained the phenomena by considering the forces acting

When the motion of a fluid particle in a stream is disturbed, its inertia

The criterion that determines whether flow will be viscous or turbulent

By using dimensional analysis, Reynolds derived a criterion to

where = density of the fluid, kg/m3

Reynolds Number is a dimensionless number

In general, the flow is

The flow in pipe can be treated as

What is the critical velocity of a water flow through a circular pipe of

As the Reynolds number is

Hence the critical velocity is 8.9 cm/s.

7.2 Laminar Flow in Pipes

7.2.1 Hagen - Poiseuille Equation

It was discovered independently by:

directly proportional to the rate of flow, (Q), and

For Newtonian fluid,

Equating the two equations,

When integrating the above equation with respect to r with the

From (7.10), we can see that the velocity distribution is in parabolic

The maximum velocity at centre (r = 0)

- known as Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Hagen-Poiseuille equation can be expressed in terms of head loss, hf

Then the friction factor in laminar flow is

Noted that in UK publication, hf is often written as

1. For a laminar flow,

From Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

2. Oil of viscosity 0.101 Ns/m2 and specific gravity of 0.85 flows

0.0444 *128 * 0.101* 3000

7.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes

7.3.1 Darcy - Weisbach Formula

It is found that friction factor depends on

density of the fluid,

Once the Reynolds number and relative roughness have been

Typical values of surface roughness

New pipe surface Roughness, (m)

7.3.2 Moody Diagram

Moody diagram has been used extensively in solving pipe flow

Two equations are related to the Moody diagram

for laminar flow, the friction factor is

for a turbulent flow, friction factor is

This is known as Colebrook-White formula.

Given Q = 140 L/s = 0.14 m3/s

From the Moody diagram,

f(89120, 0.0013) = f = 0.0238

2. Solving the previous example by using Colebrook-White formula.

Since this is a non-linear equation, it has to be solved by trial & error

7.4 Minor Losses

Most pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes.

7.4.1 Different Types of Minor Losses

Minor losses are losses due to the inclusion of a pipe fittings in a

Some examples are

Minor losses is given by

7.4.2 Modified Bernoullis Equation

The original Bernoullis equation should be extended to include the

0.0444 128 0.101* 3000

hi= [kiQi2 + 2kiQi* Q]