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Chapter I: Electricity
INTRODUCTION
An invisible force that can produce heat, light, and motion. Electricity
The force for _________ is an attraction or repulsion between Motion
electric charges.
The basic form for a quantity of electricity. Electric Charge
The closed path for the movement of charges. Circuit
The smallest particle of the basic elements that form solid, liquids, Atom
gases we know as physical substances.
Central mass of an atom Nucleus
Proton is _______ times heavier than an electron. 1840
Electrons that can move freely from one atom to the next. Free electrons
Electrons that can move easily from atom to atom in a material. Conductor
The best conductor. Silver
A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their Insulator
own orbits.
An insulating material and also can store electric charges. Dielectric
A material that conducts less than the metal conductors but more Semiconductors
than the insulators.
Practically all transistors are made of _________. Silicon
Defined as a substance that cannot be decomposed any further Elements
by chemical action.
Greek word that means a particle too small to be subdivided. Atom
Semiconductors have _____ electrons in the outermost ring. 4
____ Electrons in the outside ring is a stable structure. 8
A group of two or more atoms. Molecule
A group of two or more elements. Compound
The smallest unit of a compound with the same chemical Molecule
characteristics.
Atomic number of oxygen. 8
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In 1913, ________ proposed our present planetary model of the Niels Bohr
atom
A new idea of nuclear atom was developed by _________. Lord Rutherford
Max Planck and
The quantum theory of radiation was developed by ________. Albert Einstein
This gives the number of protons or electrons required in the atom Atomic Number
for each element.
Atomic number of hydrogen is ______. 1
The planetary electrons are in successive shells. K, L, M, N, O, P, Q
Maximum electrons in Q shell. 8
____ Shell is the closest to the nucleus. K
The number of electrons in an incomplete outermost shell. Electron Valence
A completed outer shell has a valence of _______. Zero
Carbon has a valence of __. 4
The number of outer electrons is considered __________, as these Positive Valence
electrons are in addition to the stable shells.
__________ indicate magnetic properties of atom. Subshells
_________ is electrically neutral without any net charge. Neutron
Neutron has a mass same as a _______. Proton
_________ has a positive charge of a hydrogen nucleus. Proton
0.16 x 10-18 C,
Charge of electron, in orbital shells negative
0.16 x 10-18 C,
Charge of proton, in nucleus. positive
Charge of neutron, in nucleus. None
Mass of electron, orbital shells. 9.108 x 10-28 g
Mass of proton, in nucleus. 1.672 x 10-24 g
Mass of neutron, in nucleus. 1.675 x 10-24 g
Mechanical force of attraction or repulsion between charges is Static Electricity
the fundamental method by which electricity makes itself evident.
Value of a coulomb. 6.25 x 1018 C
The analysis of static charges and their forces. Electrostatics
The symbol of electric charge. Q or q
A French physicist who measured the force between charges Charles A. Coulomb
A dielectric with positive electric charge of 2C has 12.5 x 1018 0
electrons added. What is its charge then?
An American physicist who measured the extremely small force of Robert A. Millikan
electron and proton.
One coulomb is equivalent to __________ electrons. 6.25 x 1018
__________ refers to the possibility of doing work. Potential
The result of work done in separating electrons and protons. Charge
A measure of work needed to move an electric charge. Volt
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Chapter 2: Resistors
INTRODUCTION
Carbon-composition
The most often used construction of a resistor. type
The purpose of using a resistor in a circuit is to reduce Current (I)
__________ to a specific value.
True or false: the resistance has a common effect for DC and AC True
circuits.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Resistance and its
Two main characteristics of a resistor. power rating
It means the power is wasted. Dissipation
The power rating of carbon resistors. 1W or less
Resistors with higher resistance values usually have lower wattage They have less
ratings because __________. current
True or false: the lower the power rating, the smaller the physical True
size of the resistor.
A type of resistor that has a special type of wire called Wire-wound Resistor
resistance wire.
The power rating available in small wire-wound resistors. 3 to 4W
This type of resistor is made of finely divided carbon or graphite Carbon-composition
mixed with a powdered insulating material. Resistor
These are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire of resistor Axial leads
for soldering the connection into circuit.
Available values of carbon resistors. 1 to 20
The power rating of carbon resistor. 0.1 to 2W
Carbon film type and
Two kinds of film-type resistors. Metal-film
This type of resistor has a carbon coating fired onto a solid Chip resistors
ceramic substrate.
This type of resistor is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open
easily when the power rating is exceeded. It then serves the dual Fusible resistors
functions of a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.
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VARIABLE RESISTORS
It can be wire-wound or carbon-type resistor. Variable Resistor
Typical value of carbon controls of variable resistor. 1000 to 5M
Typical power rating of variable resistor. to 2W
The way resistor varies with the shaft control. Taper of the control
It is convenient unit for providing any one resistor within a wide Decade box
range of values.
RESISTORS TROUBLES
There is no current in
When the open resistor is a series component, ____________. the entire series path.
These are preferred in applications such as volume and tone
controls because the smoother change in resistance results in less Carbon controls
noise when the variable arm is rotated.
Resistance measurements are made with a _____________. Ohmmeter
A ____________ resistor reads infinitely high ohms. Open
A resistor can change in value beyond it tolerance caused by Heat over a long
__________. period of time
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Inversely
The resistance is ______________ to current and proportional;
_____________ to the voltage. proportional
PRACTICAL UNITS
It is the amount of current through a one-ohm resistance that has One ampere
one volt of potential difference applied across it.
It is the potential difference across a one-ohm resistance that has One volt
one ampere of current through it.
It is the amount of opposition in a resistance that has a V/I ratio One ohm
of 1, allowing one ampere of current with one volt applied.
MULTIPLE UNITS
The formula which states that V and I are directly proportional Ohms Law
for any value of R.
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ELECTRIC POWER
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POWER FORMULA
ELECTRIC SHOCK
It is useful for calculating I, V, and R in a closed circuit with normal Ohms Law
values.
The amount of current could be infinitely high with _________. No resistor
The purpose of this circuit is to connect different components that Series Circuits
need the same current.
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applied voltage.
The order in which components are connected in series does not Current
affect the ___________.
It is the same amount at the same time in all series components. Current
The free electrons moving away from one point are continuously
replaced by free electrons flowing from a ____________ in the Adjacent Point
series circuit.
When an IR voltage drop exists across a resistance, one end must More positive or
be either ________________ than the other end. more negative
The polarity of IR voltage can be associated with the direction of Current through a
___________. resistor
The top end of R in the diagrams is _______. Negative
True or false: The resistor does not know which direction of current True
we are thinking of.
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These are connected with polarities that allow current in the same Series-aiding
direction. Voltages
Voltages are connected ______ when the plus terminal of one is Series-aiding
connected to the negative terminal of the text.
Voltages are connected ______ when the negative terminal of Series-opposing
one is connected to the negative terminal of the text.
If the series-opposing voltages are equal, the net voltage is Zero
equal to __________.
We must know the _________ to calculate current because the Total Resistance
total applied voltage is given.
A common application of series circuits is to use a resistance to Drop
______ the voltage from the source to a lower value.
It allows voltage at the input to be passed through to the output Gate Circuit
only under certain conditions.
The _________ gate functions correspond to switches in series. AND gate
There have one common voltage across all the branches but Parallel Circuits
separate branch currents that can be different.
It is formed when two or more components are connected across Parallel Circuits
one voltage source.
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RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
In ohms law, divide the common voltage across the parallel Total current of all
resistances by the ___________. the branches
It is equal to the applied voltage divided by the total current of Required Resistance
all the branches. (REQ)
A combination of parallel branches. Bank
This applies to any number of parallel resistances of any value. Reciprocal Formula
On branch divided
If R is equal in all branches, the REQ is equal to the value of by the number of
__________ branches.
CONDUCTANCE IN PARALLEL
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It can alter the distribution of voltage or current, but power is the Series or parallel
rate at which energy is applied. connections
When you know the voltage across one branch, this voltage is Across all the
__________. branches
If you know IT and one of the branch currents I1, you can find I2 Subtracting I1 from IT
by _______________.
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To find the currents and voltages in this circuit, first find Total Resistance
__________ in order to calculate the main-line current.
With parallel string across the main line, the branch currents and Total Resistance
total current can be found without _______.
When parallel strings have series resistance in the main line,
______ must be calculated to find IT, assuming no branch current is Total Resistance
known.
It is applied across the RT of the entire circuit, producing an IT that Source Voltage
flows only in the main line.
Any individual series resistance has its own IR drop that must be Less than
_____ the total VT.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
It has four terminals, two for input voltage and two for output. Bridge Circuit
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Sir Charles
Inventor of the Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone (1802
1875)
In this circuit, an unknown resistance is balanced against a Wheatstone Bridge
standard accurate resistor for precise measurement of resistance.
It can be analyzed as simply series resistance strings in parallel Balanced Bridge
when the current is zero through the meter. Circuit
It is usually made by driving copper rods into the ground and Ground Connection
connecting the ground wire of the electrical system to these rods.
A chassis ground in which connected to earth ground. Cold side or low side
A chassis ground in which not connected to earth ground. Hot side or High side
Voltage Division
It gives the series voltages even when the current is not known. Formula
It gives the branch currents even when the branch voltage is not Current Division
known. Formula
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Current Division
It can be used only for two branch resistances. Formula
It is often used to tap off part of the applied voltage VT for a Voltage divider
load that needs less voltage than VT.
All the current in the circuit must come from the _______. Source Voltage
It is a steady drain of the source. Bleeder Current
This type of circuit is used for the output of a power supply in Loaded Voltage
electronic equipment to supply different voltages at the taps, with Divider
different load currents.
Meters with values printed on a scale and moving a pointer that Analog meters
indicates values on the scale.
Meters with numerical readouts that indicates values directly. Digital meters
To measure voltage, the test leads of the voltmeter are connected Parallel
in __________ across two points of potential difference.
To measure currents in units of amperes, milli-amperes, or micro- Series
amperes, the meter is a __________ component in the circuit.
A combinational meter, like the VOM and DMM will all three Multimeter or
functions. multitester
Volt-ohm-milli-
It can be used to measure voltage or resistance. ammeter
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The current meter must be in _________ in the circuit where the Series
current is to be measured.
True or false: in a series circuit, the current is the same through all True
series components.
METER SHUNTS
VOLTMETERS
The effect when the voltmeter resistance is not high enough, Loading down
connecting if across a circuit can reduce the measured voltage
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OHMMETERS
MULTIMETERS
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DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
This type of test instrument has become very popular because the
digital value of the measurement is displayed automatically with Digital multimeter
decimal point, polarity, and the unit for voltage, ampere, or
ohms.
These are generally easier to use because they eliminate the
human error that often occurs in reading different scales on an Digital meters
analog meter with a pointer.
The basis of the DMM operation is the use of a ____________ Analog to digital
circuit. circuit
It is a visual display with decimal values in which generally used Liquid-crystal display
to show the values processed by digital circuit. (LCD)
The input resistance of the DMM is in the range of _________. 10 to 20M
Internal diode
The DMM has a ____________ that serves as an AC converter. rectifier
A DMM ohmmeter usually has an open-circuit voltage across the 0.4V
meter leads of about __________.
To measure current in DMM, the ______ provide proportional IR Internal resistors
voltage.
It is supplied by the DMM for the diode to test the voltage across Current
it junction.
For diode test in DMM, the short-circuit junction will read 0V
_______.
It enough for practically all measurements made in 3 digit resolution
troubleshooting electronic equipment.
It is where the meter automatically shifts to a higher range as Auto-range function
soon as an overload is indicated.
Maximum diode test voltage in DMM. 2V
Maximum DC voltage range of DMM. 1000V
Test frequency used for audio equipment. 400Hz
Test frequency used for power-line equipment. 60Hz
The range of current measurements of DMM. 0 to 320mA
The bar at the bottom of the display is used only to show the
relative magnitude of the input compared to the full-scale value Analog display
of the range in use.
METER APPLICATIONS
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voltmeter.
A wire conductor that is continuous without a break has practically Zero ohms
_________ of resistance.
It can be useful in testing for the continuity. Ohmmeter
Infinite resistance means that the wire element is ________. Open
The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops in Zero
any closed path must total ________.
At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents directed Zero
in and out must total ________.
Creator of Kirchoffs Law Gustav R. Kirchoff
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any point Kirchoffs Current
in a circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents out of that Law (KCL)
point.
It means combining positive and negative values. Algebraic Sum
Consider all currents into a branch point as __________ and all Positive; Negative
current directed away from that point as ____________.
It is really the basis for the practical rule in parallel circuits that Kirchoffs Current
the total line current must equal the sum of the branch currents. Law (KCL)
Using the Kirchoffs law, first indicate the ___________ and mark Current Directions
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NODE-VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
These currents are used for specifying the voltage drops around Branch Current
the loops.
A branch point in which the voltage drops specify the currents. Node
Solving the __________, we can calculate the unknown branch Loop Equations
currents.
SUPERPOSITION
This theorem is very useful because it extends the use of Ohms Superposition
Law to circuits that have more than one source.
In a network with two or more sources, the current or voltage for Superposition
any components is the algebraic sum of the effects produced by Theorems
each source acting separately.
Each __________ can have any number of series resistances. Voltage Divider
It means that current is proportional to the applied voltage Linear
It means that the current is the same amount for opposite Bilateral
polarities of the source voltage.
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THEVENINS THEOREM
It says that any network can be represented by a voltage source Thevenins Theorem
and series resistance.
It says that any network can be represented by a current source Nortons Theorem
and shunt resistance.
The resistance RN always has the same value as _____. RTH
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MILLMANS THEOREM
T OR Y AND OR CONNECTIONS
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It specifies the size of the round wire in terms of its diameter and Gage Number
cross sectional area.
As the gage numbers increases from __________, the diameter
and circular area decrease. Higher gage numbers indicate 1 40
thinner wire sizes.
The circular area ________ for every three gage sizes. Doubles
The higher the gage number and thinner the wire, the _______ Greater
the resistance of the wire for any given length.
In typical applications, hookup wire for electronic circuits with No. 22 gage
current in the order of mill amperes is generally about ________.
House wiring for circuits where the current is 5 15A is usually No. 14 gage
________.
Minimum sizes for house wiring are set by ____________. Local Electrical Code
The cross sectional area of round wire is measured in _________. Circular Mil
It is one thousandth of an inch. Mil
It is the cross sectional area of a wire with a diameter of 1 mil. Circular Mil
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CONNECTORS
PRINTED WIRING
Most electronic circuits are mounted on a plastic insulating board Printed Circuit Board
with printed wiring. (PCB)
Pins at end terminals, usually with multiple connections. Stakes
SWITCHES
FUSES
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nickel
This type of fuse has a coiled construction. They are designed to Slow Blow Fuse
open only on a continued overload.
These have a thermal element in the form of a spring. Circuit Breaker
Short length of bare
It is sometimes used as a fuse in television receivers. wire
It can be mounted between two terminal strips on the chassis. Wire link
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The method of converting chemical energy into electric energy. Voltaic Cell
Voltaic cell is also called a _______, named after Luigi Galvani. Galvanic Cell
It gives relative activity in forming ion charges for some of the Electromotive Series
chemical elements.
This is probably the most common type of dry cell. It is also called Carbon Zinc Dry
the Leclanche cell. Cell
It consists of a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode in a Electrochemical
moist electrolyte. System
It is a combination of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride Electrolyte
dissolved in water.
The reaction in which the ammonia releases hydrogen gas which Polarization
collects around the carbon electrode.
Carbon zinc dry cells are generally designed for an operating 70F
temperature of _______.
ALKALINE CELL
Manganese Zinc
Type of cell which has an alkaline electrolyte. Cell
It consists of a powered zinc anode and a manganese dioxide Electrochemical
cathode in an alkaline electrolyte. System
The outstanding performance of the alkaline cell is due to its Low Internal
_________. Resistance
This type is actually a modified carbon zinc cell but the Zinc Chloride Cells
electrolyte contains only zinc chloride.
Carbon-zinc, zinc
Types of dry cells. chloride, and
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alkaline
Which is better for heavy duty use; alkaline or zinc chloride Alkaline Cell
type?
LITHIUM CELL
Where high values of load current are necessary, it is the type Lead Acid Wet Cells
most commonly used.
It is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid. Electrolyte
It is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged. Lead Acid Wet Cells
It is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. Sulfuric Acid
These are generally rated in terms of how discharge current they Lead Acid Batteries
can supply for a specified period of time.
Typical values of automobile batteries. 100 300 AH
It is a ratio comparing the weight of a substance with the weight Specific Gravity
of water.
It refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are Float Charging
always connected to each other for supplying current to the load.
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The cell delivers ________ for a higher resistance in the load Less Current
circuits.
The cell can deliver a ________ load current for a longer time. Smaller
The full generated voltage is available across the output Open Circuit Voltage
terminals.
The ______ the internal resistance of a generator, the better it is
in terms of being able to produce full output voltage when Lower
supplying current for a load.
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a __________. Source
It has very high resistance, compared with the external load Constant Current
resistance, resulting in constant current, although the output Generator
voltage varies.
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It is the number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a section Flux Density (B)
perpendicular to the direction of flux.
In the CGS system, this unit is one line per square centimeter, or 1 Gauss
Mx/cm2.
The unit Gauss is named for ____________, a German Karl F. Gauss (1777
mathematician. 1855)
As typical values, flux density for the earths magnetic field can 2G
be about __________.
In SI, the unit of flux density is weber per square meter. One Tesla (T)
weber per square meter is called ___.
The unit tesla is named for ___________, a Yugoslav-born Nikola Tesla (1857
American Inventor in electricity and magnetism. 1943)
The air space between poles of a magnet is its _______. Air Gap
When it is desired to concentrate magnetic lines within a magnet, Closed Magnetic
however, the magnet can be formed as ___________. Loop
Toroid or Ring
It is made in the form of a doughnut. Magnet
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TYPES OF MAGNET
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motion.
In terms of molecular structure, iron atoms are grouped in Domains
microscopically small arrangements called ____.
Each domain is an elementary ________, with two opposite Dipole magnet
poles.
In crystal form, the iron atoms have domains that are _______ to Parallel
the axes of the crystal.
FERRITES
This is the name for nonmetallic materials that have the Ferrites
ferromagnetic properties of iron.
The ferrites have __________ permeability. Very high
The permeability of ferrites. 50 3000
The specific resistance is ________, which makes the ferrite an
105.cm
insulator.
Ferrite core in the
A common application of ferrite. coils of RF
transformers
It is used in small coils and transformers for signal frequencies up Ferrite Core
to 20MHz.
It is used as a string for one or more beads of ferrite beads. Bare wire
The purpose of this is to reduce the current just for an undesired choke
radio frequency.
MAGNETIC SHIELDING
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With a coil magnet, the ________ depends on how many current Strength of the
flows in the turns of the coil. Magnetic Field
The more current, the ___________ the magnetic field Stronger
It specifies the amount of magnetizing force or magnetic Quantity IN
potential.
The SI abbreviation for ampere turn is ____, since the number A
of turns in a coil usually is constant but the current can be varied.
With thinner wire, _______ turns can be used in a given space. More
The CGS unit of mmf is _________. Gilbert (Gb)
William Gilbert
An English scientist who investigated the magnetism of the Earth. (1540 1603)
One ampere-turn is equal to __________. 1.26 Gb
The number is approximately _________, derived from the 4/10
surface area of a sphere.
PERMEABILITY ()
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B H MAGNETIZATION CURVE
It is often used to show how much flux density (B) results from B H Curve
increasing the amount of field intensity (H).
The current in the coil equals to ________. V/R
The __________ of magnetizing force increase with more current. Ampere turns IN
The field intensity (H) increases with _________. Higher IN
The __________ depends on the field intensity (H) and Flux Density (B)
permeability of the iron.
The effects of little change in flux density when the field intensity Saturation
increases.
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
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Electrostatic Flux
The entire group of electric lines of force of the static charges.
It is associated with the voltage between static charges. Electric Field
It is associated with moving charges or current. Magnetic Field
It states that the force increases with the amount of charge. Coulombs Law
System International
MKS unit were standardized in 1960 by International Agreement. (SI)
The reciprocal of reluctance. Permeance
The SI unit for conductance. Siemens (S)
It is the ability of a magnetic material to concentrate magnetic Permeability
flux.
It is the ability of an insulator to concentrate electric flux. Permittivity
The magnetic lines are ________, as the field is symmetrical with Circular
respect to the wire in the center.
The magnetic field with circular lines of force is in a Plane Perpendicular
_____________ to the current in the wire.
If you look along the wire in the direction of electron flow, the Counterclockwise
magnetic field is ___________.
The opposite direction of electron flow produces a ___________. Reversed Field
When the magnetic lines of two fields are in the same direction, The lines of force aid
_______________. each other.
With the magnetic lines in opposite directions, ___________. The fields cancel.
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A coil of a wire conductor with more than one turn is generally Solenoid
called _________.
An ideal solenoid has a length much greater than its Diameter
___________.
If the coil is grasped with the fingers of the left hand curled North Pole of the
around the coil in the direction of electron flow, the thumb points coil.
to the ______________.
It is used here because the current is electron flow. Left Hand Rule
Direction of the
current and the
The magnetic polarity depends on the ______________. direction of the
winding
It can be over and under, starting from one end of the coil, or Direction of winding
under and over with respect to the same starting point.
The physical motion resulting from the force of magnetic fields. Motor Action
The direction of motion of the net force is always toward the Weaker Field
_________.
Current in a
It has an associated magnetic field. Conductor
The conductor must be ____________ to the magnetic field. Perpendicular
With the conductor at 90, or perpendicular to the external field, Maximum
the action between the two magnetic fields is _________.
With the conductor at 0, or parallel to the external field, there is No effect between
___________. them.
Only the
When the conductor is at an angle between 0 and 90, perpendicular
______________. component is
effective.
The effect of a force in producing motion in which the resulting
forces are upward on one side of the loop and downward on the Torque
other side, making it rotate.
It is proportional to the current; the amount of rotation indicates Torque
how many current flows through the coil.
INDUCED CURRENT
The action in which the motion of magnetic lines cutting across a Induction
conductor forces free electrons in the conductor to move.
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LENZ LAW
The more magnetic lines of force that cut across the conductor, the Higher
_________ the amount of induced voltage.
The more turns in a coil, the ___________ the induced voltage Higher
It is the sum of all individual voltages generated in each turn in vind
series.
The __________ the flux cuts a conductor, the higher the induced Faster
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voltage.
The amount of induced voltage can be calculated by Faradays Law
___________.
It means a change in the flux . d
It means a change in time. dt
Lower value of
A smaller value of d/dt, results in a _______________. induced voltage.
If the external flux increases, the magnetic field of the induced Opposite Direction
current will be in the ____________.
The induced voltage has the polarity the __________ the change. Opposes
The number of cycles per second is the frequency whose unit is Hertz (Hz)
________.
It is equal to one cycle per second. One Hertz
In alternating current, it reverses polarity at a specific rate. Voltage
For either polarity, it varies in amplitude. AC Voltage
Characteristics of
It is the reason why AC circuits have so many applications. Varying Values
The changing magnetic flux of a varying current can produce Induced Voltage
____________.
It is important with the changing electric field of a varying Capacitance (C)
voltage.
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The amount of induced voltage is proportional to the sine of the Sine Wave or
angle of rotation in the circular motion producing the voltage. Sinusoid
The sine wave has a sharper slope of changing values when the Near Zero Axis
wave is __________.
The angle of sine wave in which the amplitudes of a sine wave 0 to 90
increase exactly as the sine value for the angle of rotation.
The angle of sine wave in which the values decreases as a mirror 90 to 180
image of the first 90
The angle of sine wave in which the amplitudes of a sine wave 180 to 360
increase exactly opposite of the first and second.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
FREQUENCY
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sound.
High audio frequencies, about 3000Hz and above, can be Treble
considered to provide ______ tone.
Low audio frequencies, about 300Hz and below, can be Bass
considered to provide ______ tone.
It is determined by amplitude. Loudness
Sound waves above the audible range of frequencies. Ultrasonic Waves
Sound waves in the audible range of frequencies below Sonic or Sound
16,000Hz can be considered __________. Frequencies
PERIOD
WAVELENGTH
PHASE ANGLE
In order to compare the phase angle between two waves, they Same Frequency
must have the ___________.
The sine and cosine waveforms really have the same variations,
Sinusoids
but displaced by 90.
The 90 angle in sinusoids. Quadrature Phase
These are used for a quantity that has direction, requiring an Phasor or Vector
angle to specify the value completely.
A phase angle of 0 means the two waves are _______. In Phase
An angle of 180 means _________. Out of Phase
The angle of 360 represents the time for _______. One cycle or Period
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
The voltage across the _______ is the same as the applied Parallel Branches
voltage.
NON-SINUSIODAL AC WAVEFORMS
It is the basic waveform for AC variations for several reasons. Sine Wave
Non-Sinusoidal
Any waveform that is not sine or cosine wave. Waveform
It is measured between two points having the same amplitude Cycle
and varying in the same direction.
It is measured from the zero axes to the maximum positive or Peak Amplitude
negative value.
The RMS values of 0.707 of maximum apply only to _________. Sine Wave
It is applied only to sine wave, as angular measures are used Phase Angles
only for sine waves.
All the waveforms represent ____________. AC Voltage
It represents a voltage that slowly increases, with a uniform or
linear rate of change, to its peak value, and then drops sharply Sawtooth Wave
to its starting value.
Waveform of the sawtooth. Ramp Voltage
HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Harmonic
Exact multiples of the fundamental frequency. Frequencies
These are useful in analyzing distorted sine waves or non- Harmonics
sinusoidal waveforms.
Unit for frequencies multiples which is a range of 2:1. Octave
The 120 V source of commercial electricity is the _________, 60Hz Power Lines or
indicating it is the main line for all the parallel branches. the Mains
The incoming electric service to residences is normally given as 120VRMS
________.
The advantage of AC over DC power is ___________. Greater Efficiency
Frequency of the AC power line in the United States. 60Hz
Frequency of the AC power mains in the England and most 50Hz
European countries is __________..
The 60 Hz power line frequency is maintained accurate to 0.333%
_________.
The color coding for the grounded neutral wiring. White
The color coding for the high side wiring Black or Red
The color coding for the grounded wiring Green
The three wire service with a grounded neutral. Edison System
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
In an alternator with three generator windings equally spaced 120 out of phase
around the circle, the windings will produce output voltages
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
SELF INDUCTANCE L
The ability of a conductor to induce voltage in itself when the Self inductance or
current changes. Inductance
The unit of inductance in which named after ______. Joseph Henry
It is the amount of inductance that allows one volt to be induced One Henry
when the current changes at the rate of one ampere per second.
A greater number of turn _____ the inductance. Increases
More area enclosed by each turn ____ the inductance. Increases
The inductance increases with __________ of the core. Permeability
The permeability of an air core 1
A typical air core RF inductor is called ________. Choke
Inductance values for iron core inductors for the 60Hz power line. 1 25H
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE LM
When the current in an inductor changes, the varying flux can cut
across any other inductor nearby, producing _____ in both Induced Voltage
inductors.
Two coils have ______ of 1H when a current change of 1A/s in Mutual Inductance
one coil induces 1V in the other coil.
Any magnetic lines that do not link the two coils result in Leakage Flux
________.
Coefficient of
The fraction of total flux. Coupling
A high value of coefficient of coupling Tight Coupling
It allows the current in one coil to induce less voltage in the other Loose Coupling
coil.
It increases with higher values for the primary and secondary Mutual Impedance
inductances and tighter coupling.
TRANSFORMERS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
These are used often because they are compact, efficient, and
usually cost less since they have only one winding.
The secondary is not connected directly to the AC power line in Reducing the chance
the primary produces _________. of the electric shock.
Transformer
It is defined as the ratio of power out to power in. Efficiency
For the RF transformer, the color code of the output electrode of Blue
transistor amplifier.
For the RF transformer, the color code of the DC supply voltage Red
for this electrode.
For the RF transformer, the color code of the input electrode of Green
next amplifier.
For the RF transformer, the color code of the return line of Black or White
secondary winding.
For the power transformer, the color code of the primary leads Black
without tap.
For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on primary Black with Yellow
For the power transformer, the color code of the high voltage Red
secondary to rectifier in power supply.
For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on high Red with Yellow
voltage secondary.
For the power transformer, the color code of the low voltage Green - Yellow
secondary.
CORE LOSSES
It flows in a circular path through the cross section of the core. It Eddy Current
represents wasted power dissipated as heat in the core.
It not only isolates the coil from external varying magnetic fields,
but also minimizes the effect of the coils RF current for external RF Shield Cover
circuits.
It is the result from the additional power needed to reserve the
magnetic field in magnetic materials in the presence of Hysteresis Losses
alternating current.
Inductance for small
It is limited to low values in the microhenry or millihenry range. coils with an air core
TYPES OF CORE
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
VARIABLE INDUCTANCE
It is an arrangement for varying the position of one coil within the Variometer
other.
It is an autotransformer with a variable tap to change the turn Variac
ratio.
This case depends on the amount of mutual coupling and on Series Coil
whether the coils are connected series aiding or series opposing.
It means that the common current produces the same direction of Series Aiding
magnetic field for two coils.
It is the connection in opposing fields. Series Opposing
STRAY INDUCTANCE
The inductance of any wiring not included in the conventional Stray Inductance
inductors.
TROUBLE IN COILS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
XL = 2FL
This formula includes the effect of frequency and inductance for
XL = 2fL
calculating the inductive reactance.
Inductive reactance has a unit of ______. Ohms
The induced voltage curve has its zero values the induced current Maximum
cure is _________.
The ratio of vL/iL actually specifies the inductive reactance in Ohms
_____.
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
It can be measured between any two points having the same 90 Difference
value on the iL and vL values.
Because the vL
Why the phase angle is 90? depends on the rate
of the change of iL.
XL AND R IN SERIES
When a coil has series resistance, the current is limited by Both XL and R
_______.
Voltage VL is _______ with I. 90 out of phase
It just shows the 90 angle without any addition. Phasor
IMPEDANCE Z TRIANGLE
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
SERIES RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
RESONANT FREQUENCY
Reactance at
It changes with different combination of L and C. resonance
With more inductance, then less __________ can be used for the Capacitance
same resonant frequency.
The test instrument for measuring inductance or capacitance. Q meter
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
For parallel circuit, the bandwidth is measured between the two Maximum
frequencies producing 70.7% of the ___________ at resonant Impedance
frequency.
Sharp resonance with high Q means ____________. Narrow Bandwidth
The _________ the resonant frequency, the greater is the range
of frequency values included in the bandwidth for a given Higher
sharpness of resonance.
The slope is the sharper for the sides is called __________. Skirts
The total impedance of the series reactance ad resistance is 1.4
_________ times greater than R.
TUNING
MISTUNING
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
EXAMPLES OF FILTERING
Pulsating or
Current that varies in amplitude but does not reverse in polarity. Fluctuating DC
The effect in which the DC component has been inserted into the DC Insertion
AC variations.
The AC component that consists of the variations above and AC Ripple
below the DC axis.
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
CAPACITOR COUPLING
This method is probably the most common type of coupling in Capacitor Coupling
amplifier circuits.
It means connecting the output of one circuit to the input of the Coupling
next.
It is effectively a high pass filter for pulsating direct current. RC Coupling Circuit
It blocks the steady DC voltage but passes the AC component. Capacitance
It is the steady DC component of the input voltage in the RC Voltage across CC
coupling circuit.
In RC coupling circuit, when vin decreases below the average The capacitor loses
level, __________. charge
BYPASS CAPACITORS
FILTER CIRCUITS
It allows the lower frequency components of the applied voltage Low Pass Filters
to develop output voltage across the load resistance.
It allows the higher frequency components of the applied voltage High Pass Filters
to develop voltage across the output load resistance.
The case of RC coupling circuit is an example of _________. High Pass Filters
More AC voltage is
With higher frequencies in the AC components, ____________. coupled.
Most common types of filters. L, T, and
The _____________uses coupling capacitance in series with the High Pass Filters
load or choke inductance in parallel in the load
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
The __________ uses inductance in series or bypass capacitance Low Pass Filters
in parallel with the load.
It passes to the load all frequencies higher than the cutoff High Pass Filter
frequency.
Filter that allows a band of frequencies to be coupled to the Bandpass Filter
load.
Its purpose is to have the filter present constant impedance at the Constant K Filter
input and output terminals.
The design is based on the ratio of the filter cutoff frequency to The m-derived Filter
the frequency of infinite attenuation.
RESONANT FILTERS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
INTERFERENCE FILTERS
INTRODUCTION
SEMICONDUCTORS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
Arsenic, Antimony,
Doping elements for N-type. or Phosphorus
Boron, Aluminum,
Doping elements for P-type. Gallium, or Indium
The one missing electron in such a covalent bond that is Hole
considered as a free positive charge.
The charge that is same amount as a proton, equal to that of an Hole Charge
electron but with opposite polarity.
Electron flow in P-type semiconductor. Hole Current
When the majority charges are made to move in a semiconductor Forward Current or
by an applied voltage, the result is a relatively large amount of Easy Current
___________.
Reverse Current or
Very small current of minority charges. Leakage Current
________ is an atom, with it nucleus, where the atom has a net Ion
charge, either positive or negative.
THE PN JUNCTION
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
This is the terminal where the charge carriers enter the channel Source
bar to provide current through the channel.
This is the terminal where current leaves the channel. Drain
This terminal controls the conductance of the channel between the
source and drain. The input voltage is generally applied to this Gate
terminal.
Terminals that has no polarity since they are just ohmic contacts. Source and drain
________ Voltage at the gate induces negative charges in the positive
channel.
It consists of a metal electrode for the gate separated from the Insulated-Gate FET
channel by a thin layer of silicon oxide. (IGFET)
In IGFET, _________ is used to apply a voltage to the gate to Electrostatic
induce charges in the channel. induction
Depletion and
Two type of IGFET. enhancement mode
The depletion type of IGFET is a normally _____-device. On
In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type C requires _______. Positive gate bias
In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type A takes _______for a Negative gate bias
middle value of drain current.
In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type B can operate with Zero gate current
_______.
Junction Field-Effect
JFET means ___________. Transistor
THYRISTORS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
The minimum value of anode current needed to sustain conduction. Holding Current
The value needed to switch the anode circuit on from the off Latching Current
condition.
The latching current is typically _______ times more than the Three
holding current.
The thyristor device which is equivalent to a bidirectional SCR. Triac
Half-cycles of the AC
The triac can supply power to the load for both _________. input
This thyristor is a two-terminal device without a gate electrode. It Diac
is used as a bidirectional trigger diode.
The typical value of firing potential of the diac. 30V
True or false, unijunction transistor not a transistor amplifier. True
A negative resistance characteristic of UJT means that the current Increases
_________ with less voltage.
The power rating of UJT is __________. Less than 1 W.
The name ______________ is sometimes used for UJT. Double-base diode
Maximum emitter current of UJT is ______. 8-20mA
SPECIAL-PURPOSE DIODES
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
The ________________ has more elements of display than the Dot Matrix
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
VACUUM TUBES
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
For small triode amplifier tubes, typical values of positive plate 90 to 300 V
voltage are ______.
This tube has an additional grid, resulting in four electrodes. Tetrode
The ___________ purpose is to screen the plate from the control
gird, in order to reduce the amount of capacitance between the Screen Grid
two electrodes.
The screen grid must have _________ applied. Positive DC voltage
This tube has one more electrode which is placed between the Pentode
plate and the screen grid.
The _________ purpose is to suppress secondary emission form Suppressor Grid
the plate.
It can be used to check either for an open circuit or a short circuit. Ohmmeter
In an ohmmeter, short indicated practically in ________. Zero Ohms
In an ohmmeter, open circuit indicated practically in ________. Infinite Ohms
When the ratio of reverse to forward resistance is _______, the Very High
diode is probably good.
When both the forward and reverse resistances are very low, Short Circuit
close to zero, the diode junction is ___________.
When _____________ are very high, close to infinite, the diode Forward and reverse
probably has an open at the terminal. resistance
When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.6 to 0.7 V, the transistor is Silicon
_________.
When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.2 to 0.3 V, the transistor is Germanium
_________.
INTRODUCTION
Two common types of semiconductor devices that make it possible Transistor and
to have so many applications of electronics. Diodes
One of the main applications of transistors. Amplifier Circuit
A device that increases the magnitude or amplitude of signal Amplifier
variations to make the desired signal stronger.
Integrated Circuit (IC)
_________ combines transistors and diodes in one unit. chip
Transistor or diode that not in an IC chip because the part is Discrete Component
complete itself.
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
AMPLIFIER GAIN
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
Transistors are called a _________ because it can amplify the Active device
signal.
Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are considered _________. Passive device
The ________ reduces the amount of current. Resistance
Resistance provides a __________ which is equal to IR. Voltage drop
A ________ can charge and discharge with changes in voltage. Capacitor
Capacitive reactance _________ for higher frequencies. Decreases
Capacitor is practically a __________ circuit. Open
To block dc voltage,
couple ac signal, and
The functions of capacitors in amplifier circuits are; bypass the ac signal
around the
components
Typical value that is commonly used for a coupling or bypass 5F
capacitor in audio amplifiers.
Typical value that is commonly used for RF circuits. 100pF
A ___________ allows direct current with dc voltage applied. Inductor
The amount of inductive reactance _______ with higher Increases
frequencies and more inductive.
Inductors are used where it is desired to have _________ for High impedance
alternating current.
Both inductor and capacitor can be used in _________. Resonant circuits
The range of audio frequency. 20 to 20,000 Hz
The frequency range for high-fidelity audio equipment. 50 to 15,000 Hz
The range of audio frequencies in telephone. 100 to 3,000 Hz
MF, HF, VHF, and
Four bands that included in RF range. UHF
Range of AM radio broadcast service. 635 to 1605 kHz
Range of FM commercial radio service. 88 to 108 MHz
Range of TV broadcast stations. 6 MHz
RF amplifiers are usually tuned with _______ resonant at the LC circuits
desired frequency.
A ___________ is a special case for amplifying audio and radio Wideband Amplifier
frequencies.
The amount of gain in a tuned RF amplifier is its ________. Sensitivity
__________ is how narrow the response is in terms of the band Selectivity
of frequencies that are amplified.
OSCILLATORS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
MULTIVIBRATORS
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MODULATION
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
Modulation
____________ means that the output amplitudes are not exactly Nonlinear
proportional to the input signal. Amplification
In the AM output signal, the _________ have variations that RF peak-to-peak
correspond to the audio modulation. amplitude
The outline of varying amplitudes. Modulation envelope
True or false: the RF amplitude variations are symmetrical around True
the zero axis.
Frequency spacing of AM radio broadcasting. 10kHz
Frequency spacing is needed in AM radio broadcast for the 5kHz
bandwidth of __________ with an AF baseband signal.
AF baseband signal of AM radio broadcast. 50 to 5000 Hz
In television service, _________ channels are used for 6MHz
broadcasting.
Frequency bandwidth of channel 2. 54-60MHz
Frequency bandwidth in television service is needed for a video 0 to 4 MHz
baseband signal of _______.
To allow for the
A modulated signal needs more bandwidth than the carrier wave variations produced
itself because ___________. by the modulation
The necessary bandwidth is at least ________ to the frequencies Equal
in the baseband signal.
The part of the
baseband signal
More than 100% modulation cannot be used in an AM signal would be missing
because ______________________. and the carrier
amplitude is zero.
In this method, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is Frequency
made to vary in step with the variation of voltage in the Modulation
baseband signal.
The FM radio broadcast band. 88-108 MHz
Frequency spacing of FM radio broadcast band. 200kHz or 0.2MHz
In this method, the instantaneous phase angle of the RF carrier Phase Modulation
wave is made to vary in step with the modulating voltage.
Equivalent FM or
Phase modulation produces ____________. Indirect FM
Phase angle produces a larger change in the ___________ for RF carrier frequency
higher audio modulating frequencies.
Many FM transmitters use a phase-modulator circuit because Good frequency
__________________. stability.
This method is necessary with the pulses representing digital Pulse Modulation
information.
PAM, PFM, PWM,
Typical systems of pulse modulation. PCM
The carrier power is
Pulse modulation is efficient because ______________. on for only the time
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
of the pulses.
Pulse modulation needs ___________ for the harmonic frequency Greater bandwidth
components of sharp pulses.
DIODE RECTIFIERS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
The effect when the filters in a power supply do not have enough
capacitance and the result is too much of the AC ripple Hum
component in the DC output voltage.
No DC output and
Troubles in a power supply are generally __________. Insufficient DC
output
CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS
This description specifies which electrodes in the amplifier are Circuit Configuration
used for input and output signals.
The ___________ usually is the one that does not have any signal Common Electrode
in the circuit configuration.
True or false: all the circuit configurations of the transistor have
reverse voltage for the collector and forward bias for the True
emitter-base junction.
The _________________ circuit is the one generally used for
amplifiers because it has the best combination of current gain Common-Emitter
and voltage gain.
The only advantage of __________ is that it has the best Common-Base
stability with an increase in temperature.
Collector current
The common-base circuit has no current gain from the input to must be less than
output because ______________. emitter current.
A transistor circuit which input voltage is applied to the base with Common-Emitter
respect to the grounded emitter.
Collector current is
The common-emitter has current gain because _____________. much larger than
base current.
The disadvantage of common-emitter circuit is that Reverse leakage
_______________ is amplified in the circuit. current
Common-emitter
The only amplifier that inverts the polarity of signal voltage. amplifier
A circuit configuration of the transistor which input voltage is Common-collector
applied to the base with respect to the grounded collector.
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
CLASS A, B, OR C OPERATION
The amplifier class of operation is defined by the ________ that Percentage of the
is able to produce output signal. input signal
DC bias compared to
cutoff value and the
The class of operation depends on this two amplitudes: peak AC signal
compare with DC
bias.
The class of operation determines the ____________ of the Power efficiency and
signal may be produced by the amplifier. distortion
In this type of operation, the DC bias allows an average output Class A
current of about one-half the maximum value.
True of false: output current of class A operation can cut-off. False, It never cut-off
In this type of operation, the output current flows 180, or Class B
approximately one-half of the input cycle.
In class B operation, the negative half-cycles of input signal are Output current then
cut-off in the output because _____________. is zero.
True or false: class b operation requires more DC bias and more True
AC signal drive than the class A.
Class B operation with a single stage corresponds to Half-wave
___________ of the AC signal input. rectification
In this type of operation, the output current flows for less than
one-half the input cycle. Typical operation is 120 of output Class C
current during the positive half-cycle of input.
Class C operation is used for ______________ because of its Tuned RF power
high efficiency. amplifiers
In class A operation, distortion is ______, but also are AC power Lowest
output and efficiency.
Typical values of percent distortion of class A operation. 5 to 10
Typical values of efficiency of class A operation. 20 to 40%
Typical values of efficiency of class C operation. 80%
The ___________ operation allows the greatest AC power output Class C
but with the most distortion.
With audio amplifiers, _________ must be used in a single stage Class A
for minimum distortion.
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Typical values of VBE are in _________ for junction transistor. Tenths of a volt
The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is 0.6 to 0.7 V
_________ for silicon.
The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is 0.2 to 0.3 V
_________ for germanium.
A __________ means that the amplifier conducts current of 360 Class A operation
of the signal cycle for minimum distortion.
The maximum AC input signal without overload distortion. 0.1 V
Without any forward bias, a junction transistor is cut off by Barrier potential
__________.
The __________ is the lowest VBE that allows appreciable Cut-in voltage
collector current.
The __________ is the highest VBE that allows it to produce Saturation voltage
proportional changes in collector current.
True or false: at saturation, the maximum collector current does False, it doesnt
increase with an increase of forward voltage. increase
The transistor amplifier itself is usually labeled ________. Q
True or false: one supply voltage is used for both collector and True
base in the common-emitter circuit.
The signal changes in _________ produce variations in the Collector current (iC)
voltage drop across the collector load for the output circuit.
In signal analysis of the common-emitter circuit, positive signal Increase
voltage in the forward direction __________ the base current.
True or false: the base bias produces the required collector True
current with the specified RL.
Each of the cascaded amplifiers increases the __________ Signal current
enough to drive the next stage.
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
Symbols in capital letters and subscripts are used for _________. Average DC values
The supply voltage
Double subscripts that are repeated in VCC indicate __________. that does not
change.
The symbol _________ is used to denote the DC supply voltage VEE
for the emitter.
Instantaneous value
that vary with
The small letters are used for ___________. fluctuating DC
waveform
A small letter in the subscript indicates the _____________. AC waveform
A capital letter with a small in the subscript indicates the RMS value of the AC
_____________ component
The symbol ____________ denotes reverse leakage current. ICBO
Small letter h stands for ___________. Hybrid parameters
FET AMPLIFIERS
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
INTRODUCTION
It involves circuits that operate using only two voltage levels for Digital Electronics
all input and output signals.
The two voltage levels most commonly used in digital electronics. 0 and 5 v
Modern calculators and computers that process binary numbers Logic Gates
use decision-making elements called _______.
Combinational logic
circuits and
Two broad categories of digital logic circuits. sequential logic
circuits
A circuit is considered a ___________ if its output goes either low Combinational logic
or high with a specified combination input signals. circuits
This circuit must have a definite order or sequence for its inputs Sequential logic
before the desired output is obtained. circuits
The basic building block of combinational logic circuits. Logic gates
The basic building block of sequential logic circuits. Flip-flop
True or false, in binary number system, there are only two digits, True
0 and 1.
All number systems have a _________ which specifies how many Base or radix
digits can be used in each place count.
In the decimal number system, the base is _____. 10
In the binary number system, the base is ____. 2
The most commonly used number system. Decimal
A number system that is used in digital electronics. Binary
True or false: typical binary numbers are often written in groups True
of four or eight digits.
Each digit of binary numbers is referred to as a _______. Bit
A string of four bits are called _________. Nibble
Eight bits makes a __________. Byte
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
For either binary or decimal numbers, the digit at the right is Least significant digit
referred to as a _________. (LSD)
Most significant digit
The digit at the left-most is referred to as a _________. (MSD)
HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS
Binary coded
Commonly used number system in the field of digital electronics in decimal system
which expresses each decimal digit as a 4-bit nibble. (BCD)
The highest BCD value that a 4-bit nibble could represent. 9
It is used when it is necessary to transfer decimal information into BCD number system
or out of a digital machine.
True or false: when using the BCD number system, all zeros can False, zeros must be
be dropped. retained.
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
It is a circuit that has one or more input signals but only one Logic Gate
output signal.
The ______________ list all input possibilities and the Truth table
corresponding output for each input.
True or false: logic gates can be analyzed by constructing a truth True
table.
It has only one input and one output, where the output is the Inverters
opposite of the input.
The small bubble on inverter diagram represents __________. Inversion
The number of possibilities listed in the truth table is __________. 2N
A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The
output is high if any or all inputs are high. The output is low only OR Gate
when all inputs are low.
A logic circuit with two or more inputs. The output is low if any or AND Gate
all inputs are low. The output is high only when all inputs are high.
A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The
output is low if any or all inputs are high. The output is low only NOR Gate
when all inputs are low.
A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The
output is high if any or all inputs are low. The output is low only NAND Gate
when all inputs are high.
A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The
output is high when an odd number of 1s is applied to its inputs. XOR Gate
The output is low when an even number of 1s is applied to its
inputs.
A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The
output is high when an even number of 1s is applied to its inputs. XNOR Gate
The output is low when an odd number of 1s is applied to its
inputs.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
DEMORGANS THEOREM
When an input or output line on a logic gate symbol does not Active high
show a bubble, it indicates that these lines are _________.
When an input or output line on a logic gate symbol does show a Active low
bubble, these lines are said to be _________.
The presence or absence of _________ on the inputs and output
of logic gates indicates whether a line is considered to be high or Bubble
low.
When an input variable or output in a Boolean expression has no Active high
over-bar, it means that the input variables or outputs are ______.
If an input variable or output in a Boolean expression does have
an over-bar, it means that the input variables or outputs are Active low
______.
True or false: unused inputs on logic gates should never be left True
disconnected or floating.
Unused inputs on AND and NAND gates should be connected
directly to __________ or tied to another input that is being VCC (+5V)
used.
Unused inputs are always ________. High
The unused input should never be tied to ground for an AND gate The output would
because ______________. always be low.
Unused inputs on OR and NOR gates should be tied to ________. Ground
The unused inputs on OR gates should never be tied to VCC The output will
because ___________. remain high.
NAND OR NOR gates can be used as __________ if all inputs Inverters
are tied together.
Transistor-transistor
It is the most popular family of digital devices. Logic (TTL)
It is a group of compatible devices with the same logic voltage Digital family
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MITRC BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
CMOS DEVICES
The basic logic gates such as inverter, AND, OR, NAND, and NOR MOSFET
gates are manufactured using ____________.
Slower switching
Disadvantages of MOS. speed and extreme
sensitivity to ESD
Complementary metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor CMOS
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BINARY ADDERS
FLIP-FLOPS
It is a digital circuit that has two stable states. It can hold or store Flip-flop
digital data.
True or false: the flip-flop can remain in either stable state True
indefinitely.
Flip-flops are used to store ____________. Binary information
The __________________ that can store bits of data are an Digital memory
essential part of any computer system. circuits
The most basic type of flip-flop that can be built using either two RS flip-flop
NOR gates or two NAND gates.
The flip-flop is said to be set when __________. Q=1 and Q=0
The flip-flop is said to be reset when __________. Q=0 and Q=1
These can pull TTL inputs to ground for binary 0. Pull-down resistors
The maximum resistance of pull-down resistors should not exceed
500
______.
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These pulls the TTL inputs up to +VCC for a binary 1. Pull-up resistors
It is a RS flip-flop that has a clock (CLK) input. Clocked RS flip-flop
It is a square wave that has a maximum value of +5V and Clock voltage
minimum value of 0V.
It prevents the flip-flop outputs from changing until exactly right Clock input signal
time.
Type of flip-flop in which the flip-flop can edge-triggered. D-type flip-flop
The flip-flop is edge-triggered because the flip-flop only Clock
responds when the _____ is changing states.
This flip-flop will respond only to a negative-going clock pulse. JK flip-flop
In JK flip-flop, the flip-flop is ______ when the clock is low, high, Inactive
or on its positive- going edge.
In 1984, a new set of standard symbols was introduced by the IIEE and ANSI
_______________.
The _______ inside the inverter gate rectangle denotes a gate 1
with only one input.
The _______ symbol inside the AND gate rectangle means the &
output will go active high only when the all inputs are active high.
The symbol inside the OR gate rectangle means that the output
will go active high when one or more inputs are active high.
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INTRODUCTION
Operational
It is a high-gain, direct-coupled, differential amplifier. Amplifier (Op amp)
True or false: operational amplifiers are the most commonly used True
type of linear integrated circuit (IC).
Common op amp which different manufacturers produce. 741
The output of op amp is taken at the emitters of transistors which Push-pull
are connected in a _____________ configuration.
The push-pull configuration in the output of op amp allows the op Very low output
amp to have a ____________. impedance
The ___________ affects the operation of the op amp at higher Compensating
frequencies and it is used to prevent undesirable oscillations from capacitor
occurring within the op amp.
Typical value of compensating capacitor of the op amp. 30pF
Figure of schematic symbol of an op amp. Triangle
Pin 7 of 741 op amp connects to ________. +VCC
Pin __ of 741 op amp connects to -VCC. Pin 4
Pin ___ of 741 op amp connects to the op amp input. Pin 2 and 3
Pin 6 of 741 op amp connects to the ________. Op amp output
The _____________ of an op amp is its voltage gain when there Open-loop voltage
is no negative feedback. gain AVOL
Output voltage to its
The open-loop voltage gain of an op amp is the ratio of differential input
_________. voltage
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OP AMP CIRCUITS
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input terminal.
It provides the negative feedback of inverting amplifier, which in Resistors RF and Ri
turn controls the circuits overall voltage gain.
Type of op amp circuit in which the input signal drives the non- Non-inverting
inverting input terminal of the op amp. amplifier
For the non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input and output signals In phase
are always ___________.
The op amp circuit connected to provide a voltage gain of one, Voltage follower
or unity.
Voltage follower provides no voltage gain because op amp Buffer
circuits will ______ the voltage source for the load.
555 TIMERS
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Additional Lecture:
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An electron tube with two- electrodes (anode and cathode). Vacuum Tube Diode
Used primarily as a rectifier. (Fleming Valve)
The cloud stream of electrons formed on the space between
cathode and plate that introduce repelling effects thus reducing Space charge
plate current.
A thermo-ionic vacuum tube with three electrodes; anode,
cathode and control grid. Triode
Used to amplify signals and eliminate space charge that is (Audion Tube)
present in a vacuum tube diode.
Consist of a five mesh placed very close to the cathode where the
plate is held at some positive potential with respect to cathode Control Grid
while control grid is placed at negative potential with respect to
cathode.
A four electrode tube containing an anode, cathode, control grid, Tetrode
and screen grid.
A thermoionic valve which has five electrodes (anode, cathode, Pentode
control grid, screen grid, and suppressor grid).
And electron-beam tube built so that directed electron becomes
contribute substantially to its power handling capability special Beam Power Tube
deflecting electrodes are used to concentrate the electrons into
beams, also known as tetrode.
The ratio of the charge in anode voltage of an electron tube to a
charge in control electrode (grid ) voltage that produces the Amplification Factor
same change in anode current when other voltages and currents ()
are held constant.
The equivalent resistance of the interval plate to cathode circuit. Plate Resistance (rp)
It is the ratio of a change in anode current with respect to a Transconductance
change in control grid voltage. (gm)
Semiconductor Fundamentals
The smallest particle of an element that still retains the Atom
characteristics of that element.
Positively charged particles. Proton
Uncharged particle Neutrons
Basic particles of negative charge. Electrons
An atom or molecule that has been electrically unbalanced by the Ion
loss or gain of one or more electrons.
An atom that has lost an electron Positive Ion
An atom that has gained an electron. Negative Ion
It is formed when the electron in the outer shell of an atom gains
sufficient energy from the surrounding media and break away Free Electrons
from the parent atom.
Capable of moving from one atom to another in the material. Free Electrons
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Any material that will support a generous flow of charge when a Conductor
voltage source at limited magnitude is applied across its terminal.
A material that offers a very low level of conductivity under Insulator
pressure from an applied voltage source.
A material that has a conductivity level somewhere between an Semiconductor
insulator and a conductor.
Class of material whose electrical properties lie between the
extremes of conductors and insulators that exhibits relatively high Semiconductor
resistance in a pure state and much lower resistance when it
contains small amounts of certain impurities.
Semiconductors that have been carefully refined to reduce the Intrinsic
impurities to a very low level. Semiconductor
Semiconductor whose electrical properties are dependent in Extrinsic
impurities added to the semiconductor crystals. Semiconductor
Process of adding impurity elements to increase the number of
free charges that can be moved by an externally applied Doping
voltage.
Impurity that gives up electrons. Donor Impurity
Impurity that accepts electrons. Acceptor Impurity
Semiconductor whose density of hole concentration in the volume
bond is exceeded by the density of electrons in the conduction N-type Material
bond.
Form of semiconductor material whose electron density in
conductor bond is exceeded by the density of holes in the P-type Material
valence bond.
The tendency of an atom to share electrons with their neighboring Covalent Bonding
atoms to achieve stable condition.
The merging of free moving and spatially separated electrons
and holes, stopping their movement and current carrying Recombination
capability.
The amount of time between the creations and disappearance of Lifetime
free electrons.
A two-terminal semiconductor device that exhibit a nonlinear Semiconductor
current voltage characteristics. Diodes
The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can with stands Peak Inverse Voltage
destroying the junction. (PIV)
Current that flows through a Reverse Bias Diode caused by Reverse Saturation
thermally produced minority carriers. Current
Caused by surface impurities and imperfection in the crystal Surface Leakage
structure. Current
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A complete electronic circuit in which both the active passive Integrated Circuit
components are fabricated on an extremely tiny clip of silicon.
A phenomenon that is associated with the presence of motion of Electricity
electrons and other charged particles.
Composed of atoms which are made up of nucleus around which Matter
an infinitesimal charge revolves.
A substance consisting of electrons, protons and neutrons Atom
A substance consisting of atoms of only one kind. Element
A combination of 2 or more different atoms or elements. Compound
Smallest part of a compound that retains the properties of the Molecule
compound.
Basic quantity for negative charge; can be valence electron
being the electrons of the outermost shell; can be bound electrons Electron
of the innermost; can be free or conduction electrons that are free
to move.
Basic quantity for positive charge; neutral particle in atom. Proton
Materials with less than 4 valence electrons; allows electrical Conductors
current to flow easily; Example Cu, Al, Au and Ag.
Materials with more than 4 valence electrons; prevents the flow
of electrical current; conductor insulation serves as physical shield Insulators
of wire against heat or moisture. Example: plastics, glass, rubber
and etc.
With exactly 4 valence electrons; have electrical characteristic in Semiconductor
between conductor and insulator.
Energy difference between that valence and conduction band; Energy Gap
1.1.eV for Si, 0.67eV for Ge.
Region of the valence shell and valence electrons. Valence Band
Region where free electrons are said to be present. Conduction Band
Region where no electron exist. Forbidden Band
Static electricity at rest with any motion; the result of work done
in separating electrons of its atoms; coulomb (C0, unit for Charge
electrical charge named after Charles Coulomb.
Unlike or dissimilar charges attract each other Law of Electrical
Like or similar charges repel each other. Charges
The force between charges is proportional to the amount of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance Coulombs Law
between charges.
It is a rate charge in motion; a continuous flow of free electrons; Current
I= Q/t: Example: 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/ second.
It is the base unit of current; named in honor to the French Ampere (A)
physicist Andre Marie Ampere.
Current flows only in one direction. Direct Current (DC)
Alternating Current
Current flows in alternate direction periodically. (AC)
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Electromotive Force
Force that is used to move the charges particles such as electrons. (emf or e)
The ability to charges body to do work on charges particles such Electric Potential
as electrons.
A potential energy difference (or simply P.D) that exists across
two points which tend to cause a flow of electrons.
A unit of potential difference and named after Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta. 1 volt will push 1 ampere of current through 1 Voltage
ohm resistance.
V= W/Q
Example: Volt= 1 Joule/Coulomb or 1 Newton-meter/
Coulomb
A property pf electric circuit, material and substance that tend to Resistance
limit the amount of current that can be produced by the applied (R or r)
voltage and converts electrical energy into heat energy.
The basic unit of resistance named after George Simon Ohm. Ohm ()
The resistance of conducting material is directly proportional to its
length (R directly proportional to L and inversely proportional to Resistance Law
its across-sectional area (R directly proportional to I/A).
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. Conductance
Unit of conductance formerly known as mho Siemens (S)
Combination of resistance and reactance in AC circuit Impedance (Z)
Reciprocal of impedance. Admittance (Y)
Opposition to current offered by capacitive and inductive Reactance (X)
elements.
Reciprocal of reactance. Susceptance (B)
The accomplishment of motion against the action of a force which Work
tends to oppose the motion.
SI unit of work energy. Joule
1 Joule= 1 Newton-meter= 1 Coulomb/Volt
Unit of energy for single electron Electronvolt
1eV= 1.6x10-19 (eV)
Rate of producing work or consuming energy. Power
P= W/t = VI= I2R=V2/R
The SI unit of electric power named after James Watt. Watts
Power rating of electric rating motor. Horsepower
1 Hp= 746 Watts or 0.746 KW
It is the ability to do work. Energy
For heat energy: 1 Kcal= 4180 J. 1BTU= 778.16 ft-lb
A device having known specific values of resistance in ohms ()
that limits the amount of current flowing through it.
Can divide the voltage in a circuit. Resistor
With power rating that show how much power can be safely
dissipated.
The resistor in an incandescent lamp. Fine Tungsten Wire
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Used as heating elements in toasters, flat irons, and other heating Nickel-chromium
resistance heating elements. alloy
It offers few Ohms of resistance. Nichrome Wire
1/8W to 2W in rating, and its Ohmic rating can be determined Carbon composition
by its color code.
They are very accurate and its ohmic and wattage (above 2W)
is painted on its covering. Can be made from a Nichrome wire Wire Wound
wound ranges from 5W to 100 W.
It uses a thin film of metal particle mixture to achieve various Metal Film
resistances.
Two terminal variable resistors. Rheostat
Three terminal variable resistor; connected in a circuit to vary the
voltage; taper of a potentiometer refers to the way in which the Potentiometer
resistance changes in relation to the position of its slider.
A potentiometer equipped with a plastic thumbwheel or a slot for Trimmer/ Trimpots
a screwdriver for occasional adjustment.
Thermistor Varistors
Temperature sensitive resistor; uses: protective device, or Voltage
temperature measurement or control. Dependent Resistor
(VDR)
Light sensitive resistors; use: sensing light, sense people or items Photoresistor, or
passing a point, adjust television picture brightness to match room Light Dependent
light. Resistor (LDR)
Opposes change in current
Allows DC but blocks AC
Stores energy by concentrating the magnetic field of current Inductor
Also know as choke
Termed as solenoid for coil with more than one turn
Property of a circuit that opposes the change in current
expressed in Henries (H).
Inductance (L)
For a N-turn coil wound around certain core, it is defined as the
amount of flux linkage of the coil per unit current through the coil.
One time constant is the amount of time for an inductor to Time Constant
energized and de-energized up to 63.2%.
Instantaneous
The amount of current flowing through the inductor at certain time Current of an
constant. Inductor
Used for radio frequency applications; inductance in H to mH; Air-core inductor
typical coefficient of coupling from 0.05 to 0.3.
Used for 60Hz and audio frequency applications; inductance Iron-core conductor
from 1H to 25H typical coefficient of coupling equals 1.
It stores electric energy
Preciously called as condenser (deprecated) Capacitor
Essentially consist of two conducting plates called electrodes
separated by a layer called dielectric.
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ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
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It is the speed with which the effect of emf is experienced at all Velocity of
parts of a conductor resulting in the flow of current propagation of
It is approximately equal to 3 x 108 m/s. electric field
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
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High Voltage
For HV applications up to 10kV requiring high levels of stability. Cement Film Resistor
For high stability, low temperature coefficient and low noise level Metal Film
requirement. Precision Resistors
Surface Mount power
Ideal for printed circuit boards. Resistor
Thick Film Chip
For design flexibility with hybrid circuitry. Resistors
Used to vary the resistance. Rheostat
Used to control potential levels. Potentiometer
Resistors whose VI characteristic curve is nonlinear.
Examples are filaments of incandescent lamps, diodes, Non linear Resistor
thermistors, varistors, etc.
When work is done, _______ is expended. Energy
When energy is converted from one form to another, _______ is Work
done.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed Law of Conservation
It is only converted from one form to another. of Energy
It is the energy converted to a form that is not useful to a system. Energy Loss
It is the ratio of the output power (or energy) to the input power Efficiency
(or energy).
Product of all individual efficiencies. Overall Efficiency
DC RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
It states that the algebraic sum of all currents at a junction or Kirchoffs Current
node is equal to zero. Law (KCL)
It states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed Kirchoffs Voltage
path or loop is zero. Law (KVL)
It states that in a series circuit, the ratio of any two voltages (or Voltage Division
combination of voltages) is equal to the ratio of the respective Principle (or Voltage
resistance (or group of resistance in series). Divider Rule)
It states that in a parallel circuit, the ratio of any two branch Current Division
currents is equal to the reverse ratio of the respective resistance Principle (or Current
(or equal to the ratio of the respective conductances). Divider Rule)
It states that maximum power is delivered to the load when the Maximum Power
load resistance matches the internal resistance of the source. Transfer Theorem
It involves series connected resistive elements whose values are
designed in order that specified or desired smaller voltages may Voltage Dividers
be provided fro ma single voltage source.
It is used to limit the source current and to reduce or drop the Series Dropping
available source voltage to the required load voltage. Resistance
It is used to regulate the load voltage. Bleeder Resistance
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NETWORK THEOREMS
These are stable linear circuits operating in the steady state with Alternating Current
sinusoidal excitation. (AC) Circuits
It involves finding the steady state response forced by a
Sinusoidal excitation after the natural or transient response has AC Circuit Analysis
elapsed.
Generation of AC voltage by means of rotating machines (AC Electromagnetic
generator or alternator).
Generation of AC voltage by means of oscillator circuits in signal
generators whereby alternating current is produced from a DC Electronic
source (inverters).
Time required for the waveform to complete one cycle (in seconds Period (T)
or radians).
Number of cycles the waveform completes per second (cps or Frequency (f)
Hz).
Angular or Radian
2f = 2/T rad/s
Frequency ()
Amplitude or Peak
The maximum positive or negative instantaneous value. Value
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COMPLEX ALGEBRA
In circuit analysis, j acts as a ________. 90 operator
Rectangular Form
Forms of complex quantities Polar Form
Exponential Form
It represents the total opposition to the flow of alternating
current, expressed in ohms ().
Impedance (Z)
It represents the passive elements R, L, C and their combination in
the frequency domain.
The reciprocal of impedance, expressed in siemens (G). Admittance (Y)
Fro the resistive element, the current through it is ________ with In Phase
the voltage across it.
For the purely inductive element, the current through it _______ Leads
the voltage across it by 90.
For the inductive circuit (series RL or parallel RL), the current
______ the voltage by an angle less than 90 (equal to the Lags
angle of the equivalent impedance).
For the capacitive circuit (series RC or parallel RC), the current
______ the voltage by an angle less than 90 (equal to the Leads
angle of the equivalent impedance).
In a series circuit, the ratio of any two voltages is also the ratio of Voltage Division
the corresponding impedances. Rule
In a parallel circuit, the ratio of any two currents is also the ratio
of the corresponding admittance or the inverse ratio of the Current Division Rule
corresponding impedances.
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
It represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any Reactive Power (Q)
of the energy storing elements (the inductor or the capacitor).
It represents the rate at which total energy is supplied to the Apparent Power (S)
system.
P/S = cos Power Factor (pf)
Q/S = sin Reactive Factor (rf)
It shows the relationship of P, Q, and S derived from the power Power Triangle
vector diagram (using the current as reference).
It involves the use of a power measuring instrument such as the
wattmeter to obtain the average power delivered to a system Power Measurement
connected after the meter.
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It is the condition where the current is in phase with the voltage. Resonance
During resonance, the circuit power factor is _______. Unity
Circuits that achieves resonant condition by varying the source Resonant Circuit
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frequency.
A circuit that achieves resonant condition by varying a circuit Tuned Circuit
parameter. (either L or C)
Resonant Condition:
a. The current is in phase with the applied voltage in an RLC
circuit. Resonant Condition
b. The magnitude of the equivalent (or admittance) is either
i. Minimum- for series resonance
ii. Maximum- for parallel or anti-resonance
At resonance the circuit acts as a low impedance and frequency Series Resonance
selective network.
It refers to the goodness of a reactive component. I series circuit: Quality Factor
the voltage magnification factor at the time of resonance.
A range of frequencies taken between two-half power points Bandwidth
which operation is satisfactory.
At resonance, the circuit acts as high impedance and a frequency Parallel Resonance
selective network.
A circuit designed to pass desired frequencies and reject or
attenuate undesired frequencies.
Filter
Basic filter network needs to have frequency dependent devices
like inductor or capacitor.
It shows the output or gain of the network with respect to the Frequency Response
signal; frequency
The frequency that divides the response curve into either pass Cut-off Frequency
band or stop band.
Rate of change in voltage gain (dB) for every frequency interval Roll-off Rate
(octave or decade).
It is the ability of a circuit to respond more readily to signals of a
particular frequency to which it is tuned than to signals of other Selectivity
frequencies.
Consist of passive elements, R,L, and C
Can generate a maximum gain of 1.
May require bulky and expensive inductors. Passive Filter
Perform poorly at frequencies below the audio frequency range
(300 to 3000 Hz); useful at high frequencies
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ENERGY CONVERSIONS
Rotating electrical machines that convert mechanical energy Generators
input to usable electrical energy.
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value signal.
A semiconductor PN junction that when forward biased, emits
Light Emitting
light at a wavelength that is a function of its material and do
Diode (LED)
pants.
Typical Average Forward Current of LED. 10-20mA
Typical Forward Voltage of LED. 2.2-3V
A semiconductor that can be used to establish a fixed reference
Zener Diode
voltage for biasing and comparison purposes.
A semiconductor diode formed by contact between a
semiconductor layer and metal contact; it has a non-linear Schottky Diode
rectifying characteristic.
A semiconductor PN junction device whose region of operation is
Photodiode
limited to the RB region.
Plancks Constant 6.624 x 10-24 J-s
____________ is a measure of the amount of luminous flux
Light Intensity
falling in a particular surface area.
1 lumens = ________ watts 1.496 x 10-10 W
A solid state device that provide high electrical isolation by
Optoisolator
converting the input signal to light emission and reconverting it
(Optocoupler)
to an electrical signal.
A heavily doped junction diode that has negative resistance in
Tunnel Diode
the forward direction over a portion of its operating range.
A PN semiconductor diode whose capacitance varies with the
Varactor Diode
applied voltage.
______________ acts as a variable capacitor under reverse-
Varactor Diode
bias conditions.
The PIV for each diode in a full wave center-tapped rectifier is
Twice
________ the peak output voltage plus one diode drop.
Ripple factor of a rectifier is equal to the ratio of RMS value of average value of
AC component of signal and ______________. signal
If one of the diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier opens, the A half-wave
output is ____________. rectified voltage
TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
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PNP transistor
Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor
NPN transistor
TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION
In this circuit, the input signal is applied at the emitter, the output
is taken at the collector and the base is the common remind. This
Common Base
has very low input impedance. This circuit is seldom used for
Configuration
amplifiers.
Grounded base
The input is applied at the base, the amplified output is taken
from the collector & the emitter is the common terminal. This
Common Emitter
circuit is the one generally used for transistors because the CE
Configuration
amplifier has the best combination of current and voltage gains.
Grounded emitter.
The circuit has the input applied at the base, the output taken at Common Collector
the emitter terminal and the collector is the common terminal. This Configuration
is often used for impedance matching.
TRANSISTOR BIASING
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AMPLIFIERS
COMPOUND CONFIGURATIONS
A series with the output of one stage then applied as input to the
second stage. The cascade connection provides a multiplication of Cascade Connection
the gain of each stage for a larges gain.
Has one transistor on top (in series with) another. This arrangement is Cascode Connection
designed to provide high impendence with low voltage gain to
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Gives relation between ID & VDS for different values of VGS. Drain Characteristic
(Running variable)
Transfer
Gives relation between ID & VGS for different values of VDS. Characteristic
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The AC resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is AC Drain Resistance
operating in the pinch-off region. (rd)
Forward transconductance forward trans-admittance slope of
Transconductance
transfer character.
(gm)
Similar to gm characteristic of vacuum tubes
Ratio of total voltage of drain to source and the total voltage of Amplification Factor
gate to source ()
DC drain resistance
Also called static or ohmic resistance of the channel (RDS)
Neutrally or lightly doped silicon
IGFET or MOSFET
Serves as a platform on which the other electrodes are diffused
Either void of free carrier or therefore unable to support conductors. Depletion Region
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The term describing the change in output voltage resulting from Drift
change in temperature.
The reduction of op amps gain due to increasing operating Roll-off
frequency.
Receives input of a linear voltage, comparing it to a reference
input voltage to determine which is greater.
The output is a digital signal that stays at a high level when the Comparator circuit
non-inverting input is greater than the inverting input and switches
to a lower voltage level when the non inverting input voltage
goes below the input reference voltage level.
Vary continuously over some range of values. Analog signals
At one of two levels representing the binary values of one or Digital signals
zero.
Uses a network of resistors
Accepts inputs of binary values at typically 0V or VREF and Ladder network
provides an output voltage proportional to the binary input
value.
Analog to digital conversion. Dual slope method
Used to interconnect different type of signals, both linear and
digital.
Interfacing circuit
May be used to drive a load or to obtain a signal as a receiver
circuit.
Used in the generation of pulse signals that are triggered by an
input signals.
Timer circuit
Generation of a clock signal that operates at a frequency set by
external resistor and capacitor.
Made of a combination of linear comparators and digital flip
flops.
555 timer
The entire circuit is usually housed in an 8-pin DIP package with
pin numbers.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
A complete electronic circuit in which both the active passive Integrated Circuit
components are fabricated on an extremely tiny clip of silicon.
Develop an IC in 1958. J.S Kilby
Built by connecting separate components. Discrete
Small Scale
The number of circuits contained in an IC package is less than 30. Integration (SSI)
The number of circuit per package is 30 - 100. Medium Scale
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Integration (MSI)
Large Scale
Circuit density is from 100-100,000 Integration (LSI)
Very Large Scale
Circuit density is from 100,000 10M Integration (VLSI)
Ultra Large Scale
Circuit density is from 10M-1B Integration (ULSI)
Super Large Scale
Circuit density is more than 1B Integration (SLSI)
Single stone
Monolithic
Single solid structure
All circuit components (both active and passive) are fabricated Monolithic Integrated
inseparably within a single continuous piece of Si crystalline Circuits
material.
Only passive components are formed through thick and thin film
techniques on the insulating surface such as glass or a ceramic
Thick and thin Film
material.
IC
The active elements are added externally as discrete elements to
complete a functional circuit.
Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and
thickness of the film and by using materials of different Resistivity.
Capacitors are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film Thin film IC
between two conducting films.
Small inductors can be made by depositing a spiral formation of
film.
Transistors and diodes are externally added and interconnected Wire bonds
by _________.
Constructed by depositing films of conducting material through a Glass or ceramic
mask on the surface of a substrate made of ___________.
Printed thin film circuits.
Silk screen printing techniques are employed to create the Thick film IC
desired circuit pattern on the surface of a substrate.
Fine stainless steel
Screens are made of ______________. wire mesh
Pulverized glass and
Inks are pastes of _________. Aluminum
Are formed either by interconnecting a number of individual chips Hybrid or Multichip
or by a combination of film or monolithic IC techniques. IC
The inputs and outputs can take on a continuous range of values Linear IC (Analog)
and the outputs are generally proportional to the inputs.
Switching circuits.
Monolithic integration because a computer uses a large number
of identical circuits.
Digital IC
Employ relatively few capacitors and values of resistance,
voltage and current are low
Contain circuits whose input and output voltages are limited to 2
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INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
In 1890, he demonstrates the use of electronics for the remote Nicola Tesla
control of a model boat.
He develops the Fleming valve, which is the first vacuum tube Sir John Fleming
used for rectifying AC to DC.
He discovers the vacuum tube amplifier. Lee De Forest
In what year the electronic control of a DC motor is accomplished 1928
using vacuum tubes.
It is year where the first commercially made variable-speed AC
motor control system is developed. This system varies the 1941
frequency of the motor by using vacuum-tube technology.
In what year three American scientist John Bardeen, Walter 1947
Brattain, and William Shockley invent the transistor.
In what year the first solid-state variable speed motor control 1957
system becomes commercially available.
In what year the development of the laser for material processing 1960
and communications implemented.
In 1968, the first _______ is developed by engineers at General Programmable
Motors Hydromantic division. controller
In what year the first commercial fiber optic cable is installed. 1970
He invents the microprocessor. Ted Hoff
In 1979, the __________ are developed providing vision to Optical sensors
industrial condolers.
In what year the robots with artificial intelligence become 1986
commercially available.
In what year the 64-bit microprocessor commercially available. 1994
It is an automatic control system that controls the physical motion
or position of an object. One example is the industrial robot arm Motion control
which performs welding operations and assembly procedures. system
One or more variables are regulated during the manufacturing Process control
of a product.
It is a sequence of timed operations executed on the product Batch processing
being manufactured.
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One or more operations are being performed as the product is Continuous process
being passed through a process.
It is the simplest way to control a system. It is a system without a Open-loop system
feedback.
A system that provides continuous monitoring and self correcting
action of the operation for long period of time without Closed-loop system
interruption. It is a control system that uses feedback to control an
output variable.
Includes all semiconductor devices which shown inherent on-off
behavior as opposed to allowing gradual change in conduction;
are regenerative switching devices and they cannot operate in a
linear manner. Thyristor
Derived from the thyratron gas-tube predecessor with the same
characteristics. It is applied to a family of semiconductor devices
that are used extensively in electronic switching circuits.
Small thyristor which do not switch the main load current; useful in
the gate triggering circuit of large load power switching thyristor. Silicon Controlled
It is a three-terminal, three junctions, four-layer semiconductor Rectifier
device that is designed to perform switching functions.
Conduction Angle
The number of an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned ON (CA)
The number of degrees of Ac cycle that elapses before the SCR is Firing Delay Angle
turned ON.
Amount of gate current needed to fire a particular SCR 0.1 20mA
Gate current trigger for most medium sized SCR. 10mA
It is that voltage above which the SCR enter the conduction Forward break over
region. voltage
It is that value of current below which the SCR switches from the
conduction state to the forward blocking region under stated Holding Current
condition.
These are the regions corresponding to the open circuit condition Forward and reverse
for the controlled rectifier which block the flow of charge (current) blocking regions
from the anode to cathode.
It is equivalent to the Zener or avalanche regions of the Reverse break over
fundamental two layer semiconductor diode. voltage
It is determined by the setting of R2. Firing Delay Angle
Low, the gate current will be sufficiently large to fire the SCR R2
when the supply voltage is low FDA is small.
High, the supply voltage must climb higher to deliver enough gate R2
current to fire the SCR FDA is increased.
Unilateral
Break over in only one direction Breakdown Device
It is a solid-state device that uses break over voltage to go into Silicon Unilateral
conduction and provide a positive pulse. Switch
A three terminal used to control the average current in either Triac (Triode AC)
direction when it is turned on.
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It is a solid-state device that acts like two SCR that have been
connected in parallel with each other inversely so that the one
SCR will conduct the positive half-cycle and the other will conduct
the negative half cycle.
It is the amount of current the triac gate needs to stay in Latching Current
conduction after it has been initially turned on.
It is the main terminal current required after the triac has been Holding Current
initially turned on.
It is the amount of current that is necessary to go into conduction Gate Trigger Current
initially.
Main terminal RMS
It is the maximum amount of current that the triac can control. current rating
It can be turn ON by a single pulse of positive gate current, but in Gate Turn-off Switch
addition it can be turned off by a pulse of negative gate current. (GTO)
A break-over type switching device.
A solid state device that has been specifically designed to Unijunction
provide a sharp pulse when its breakover voltage level is Transistor (UJT)
reached.
Has effectively the same operating characteristic with as
standard UJT and is used in similar application. It is determined PUT (Programmable
by external circuiting rather than an intrinsic stand-off ratio. Unijunction
It is similar to the UJT in that it has the ability to provide a pulse Transistor)
that is used to trigger SCR and other thyristors.
A bilateral trigger diode; symmetrical trigger diode. Diac (Diode AC)
Popular in low voltage for diacs trigger circuits; has lower Silicon Bilateral
breakdown voltages than diacs. Switch
The higher the anode current, the lower the required anode to
cathode voltage to turn the device ON. To turn ON the device, a
negative pulse must be applied to the anode terminal, while a Silicon Controlled
positive pulse is required to turn OFF the device. A negative pulse Switch
at the anode gate will RB the BE junction of GI turning it OFF,
resulting in the open circuit state of device.
An SCR whose state is controlled by the light falling upon a LASCR
semiconductor layer of the device.
It is similar to the silicon bilateral switch. The major difference is Silicon Asymmetrical
that it has a different firing voltage in the positive quadrant that Switch (SAS)
nit does in the negative quadrant.
Asymmetrical Silicon
It is similar to silicon bilateral switch except it has two different Bilateral Switch
firing levels. (ASBS)
It also called the four layer diode.
It is a unidirectional diac, which is basically an SUS without a gate Shockley diode
terminal.
The most common electrical transducer. It can be used alone, or
they can be attached to a mechanical sensor to convert a Potentiometer
mechanical motion into an electrical variation. It consists of a
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INSTRUMENTATION
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inclined coil.
Arises the fact the meter face is not accurately marked. Calibration Error
Ammeter Loading
Error caused by the internal resistance of the ammeter. Effect
This is the resistor connected in parallel with meter to increase the DC Ammeter Shunt
measuring capability of the ammeter. Resistance (Rsh)
A basic but versatile meters movement consisting of a fixed coil
divided into two equal halves and a moving coil between the Electrodynamometer
field coils. Used as a standard meter, transfer instrument, Movement
wattmeter and frequency meter.
Consist of a fixed coil of many turns and two iron vanes planes in Iron Vane Meter
the fixed coil. Widely used in industry for applications such as in Movement
automobiles.
An indicating mechanism resembling a variable capacitor. Used
for measurement of high voltage capacitor. Used for Electrostatic Meter
measurement of high voltage when very little current can be Movement
supplied by the circuit being measured.
Consist of a heater element usually made of fine wire, two
dissimilar metals and a D' Arsonval meter movement. Used for Thermocouple Meter
measurement of radio frequency AC signals.
Consist of a permanent magnet and a moving coil. D Arsonval Meter
D Arsonval meter used with half-wave rectification; to measure
alternating current with the D Arsonval meter, first rectify the AC Half - Wave
by the use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current
flow.
D Arsonval meter with full-wave rectifier; to improve the
sensibility of a rectifier type of voltmeter, full wave rectification is Full - Wave
used.
These are instruments for making a comparison, measurement are
widely used to measure resistance, inductance, capacitance, and DC - Bridge Circuit
impedances. Balance Dc Bridges of DC voltage or resistance.
It consists of two parallel resistance branches containing two
series element, usually resistors. A DC voltage source connected The Wheatstone
across the resistance network to provide a source of current. A Bridges
galvanometer is connected between the parallel branches to
detect a condition of balance.
It is modified version of the Wheatstone bridge. It contains and
additional set of radio arms to compensate for the lead and The Kelvin Bridge
contact resistor of ohm or loss.
The best known and simplest of loop test used principally to
locate ground faults in short sections of communications and Murray Loop
power cables
One of the most accurate methods of locating ground fault and a Varley Loop
short circuit in high loop such as long communication lines.
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MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
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ROBOTICS
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Provides necessary motion to move the tool or part into the proper
position for an operation. The sole function of the arm is to provide Arm
motion for the end tooling.
It is the engine that drives the links (the sections between the joints Drive
into their desired position.
Every robot is connected in a computer which keeps the pieces of the
arm working together. Its function also allows the robot to be Controller
networked to other system, so that it may work together with other
machines, processes, or robot.
It is the tool that performs the actual work. We tend to think of robot
arm in a griper mechanism, but most robots in the industry have more
specialized end-of-the-arm tooling. Because robots themselves are End Effector
so flexible, there is an almost infinite variety of end effectors, special
tools, tool holders or manipulators assembles designed specially for
attachment to the robot arm itself.
It is the hand connected to the robots arm. It is often different from
a human hand. It could be a tool such as a gripper, a vacuum pump End- Effector or
tweezers, scalpel, and blowtorch. Just about anything that helps it do Hand
its jobs.
Provides the necessary power for moving the robot arm through its
range of motion. Most industrial robots use electric motors or stopper
motors for their motion. The only disadvantages are the increasing Power Supply
cost of electrical power. Some are use hydraulic or pneumatic power.
The power source for hydraulic or pneumatic arms is generally much
large than their electrical equivalents, as well.
Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. It can provide some
limited feedback to robot so it can do its job. Compared to the senses Sensor
and abilities of even the simplest living things, robots have a very
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degrees of freedom and the type of articulation that the arm has.
It can move its end effectors in only 3 directions; up and down; left to
right along a track; and front to back. The work envelope of this
robot is box shaped. Rectilinear robots have a smaller range of Rectilinear
motion than the other types, but they are the easiest to program
because if the rectangular coordinate system they use.
It has a greater range of motion than the rectilinear robots because
the arm can swing around its base in a circular or polar motion. The
up-and-down and front-to-rear motion of this robot is rectilinear the Cylindrical
work envelope is a cylindrical or cylinder with a core at the center
that cannot be reached.
It has polar articulation at the waist and the shoulder, but uses
rectilinear motion for reach. The work envelope is roughly spherical, Spherical
minus a pie-shaped wedge
It uses polar articulation for all degrees of freedom. This is the most
flexible scheme of articulation. It is also the most difficult to program.
The fully-articulated arm is the most popular arm in industry because Fully- Articulated
of its extended range of motion. Its work envelop is usually pie-
shaped crescent in the horizontal plane and an irregular spheroid in
the vertical plane.
It produces only two position motion about any individual robot axis Positive- stop
by this we mean that there are only two positions that the waist can Program Robots
stop in, there are only two possible positions that the shoulder can
stop in, and so on, for each axis of motion.
The essential feature that distinguishes a point-point program is its
range, rather than the two limit position. Thus if the mechanics of our
robot give it an inherent range of movements of 0 to 128 on its
shoulder, a point-to-point program with 8-bit resolution could position Point- to-point
the shoulder at 0.0 at 0.5 at 1.0 at 1.5 at 2.0 and so on up to Programs Robots
127.5
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These are known for robots for their quiet operation and the
relatively small size of their power supplies. The growth of robotics in Electric Drives
the past few years has led to major advances in electrical motor Systems
design
It is the backbone of industrial electrically powered robots. Torque,
acceleration, position and speed are easily controlled with a new
type of DC motor. The latest innovation in DC motor in the brushless
permanent magnet excited DC motor. At first glace, this motor looks DC motor
lie a PM stepper motor. A closer inspection may give the motor the
appearance of synchronous AC motors. In design it is a sort of inside
out permanent magnet DC motor.
Hydraulic powered robots are used to handle heavy loads in todays
industrial applications, such robot design utilize the mechanical Hydraulic Drive
advantage that can be gained with fluid power. In addition, in the Systems
linear and vane type fluid motors, rotary actuators and hydraulic
gear motors are widely used in industrial robotics
Lower initial cost than a hydraulic system
The lower operating cost than a hydraulic system
Clean- no oil leaks to wipe up
Quick response
Programming of accurate positioning and velocity control are Pneumatic
impossible; use mechanical stops.
Weak force capability
Not so much holding strength when stopped as hydraulic system-
allows a heavy load
The working volume of robots obviously needs to be sufficient so that Working Volume
all the parts of working area can be reached.
The speed and acceleration of the robots must be large enough so Speed and
that task can be accomplished within an acceptable time. Acceleration
The resolution of the robot is the smallest step move that can be made Resolution
at a given position.
Accuracy of the robots ids different from that of repeatability. In this
case, the robot may have been programmed off line to move a given Accuracy
location 10 millimeters above a reference point. The accuracy maybe
improved by additional sensory feedback.
Economics. In addition to technical factors, cost and benefit
consideration are significant aspects at robot selection and their use.
The increasing availability, reliability, and reduced of sophisticated Economics
intelligent robot are having a major economic impact on
manufacturing operation and gradually replacing human labor.
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COMPUTERS
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Said to be base 10 because it uses 10 digits and the coefficient Decimal System
a are multiplied by power of 10
2 possible value 0 and 1 Binary System
Conversation of
Multiplication is DY r and the coefficient found from the integers Decimal fraction to
may range in value from 0 to r-1 base r
Used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction Complements
operation and for logical manipulations.
To represent a group of 2n distinct elements in a binary code
requires a minimum of n bits. Bit-binary Digit
It is possible to arrange n bits in 2n distinct ways.
BCD- Binary Coded
A straight assignment of the binary equivalent. Decimal
An extra bit included with a message to make the total number of Parity Bit
1s either odd or even.
A number in the reflected code changes by only one bit as its Reflected Code- Gray
provides from one number to the text. Code
Binary code of a group of elements consisting of the 10 decimal
digits, the 2b letters of the alphabet and a certain number of Alphanumeric Codes
special symbols such as $.
American standard code for information interchange ASCII
Extended binary coded decimal interchange code EBCDIC
Circuit whose input and output signals are 2-state, low or high Logic Circuit
voltage
Deals with variables that take on 2 discrete values and with Binary Logic
operation that assume logical meaning
A logic circuit with one or more input signal but only one output Gate
signal
Represent by a dot or by the absence of an operator AND (Intersection)
A table that shows all input and possibilities for a logic circuit Truth table
Represented by a plug sign OR (Union)
Represented by a prime (sometimes by a bar) NOT (inversion)
Electronic digital circuits, logic circuits, digital and switching circuits Logic Gates
Complement of AND; abbreviation of Not- AND NAND
Similar to OR but excludes the combination of both X and Y Exclusive or (XOR or
equal to 1 EOR)
A function that is 1 when the 2 binary variables are equal. Equivalent or
Example: when both are 0 or both are 1. exclusive or NOT
Produces the transfer function but does not produce any
particular logic operation since the binary value of the output is Buffer
equal to the binary value input.
Set elements, a set of operators and a number of unproved Boolean Algebra
axioms or postulates. (Symbolic Logic)
Introduces a systematic treatment to logic and developed for this George Bode (1854)
purpose an algebraic system.
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Employ memory elements (binary cells) in addition to logic gates Sequential Circuits
A system whose behavior can be defined from the knowledge of Synchronous
its signals at discrete instant of time. Sequential Circuit
A two state circuit that can be remain in either state indefinitely,
Also called a Bistable Multivibrator. Flip Flop
An external trigger can change the output.
To eliminate the possibility of race condition. D flip-flop (D-latch)
Change of the output to the opposite state in a JK Flip-Flop Toggle
Ideal memory element when it comes to circuits that count. JK flip-flop
Preset-direct set/clean-direct reset. Preset and clear
Changing the output state of a flip-flop on the rising and falling Edge triggering
edge of a clock pulse.
Changing the output state of the input signals must be held Hold Time
constant after the clock edge has struck.
The minimum amount of the time the input to a flip-must be preset Set-up Time
before the clock edge arrives.
The time it takes for the output of a gate or flip-flop to change Propagation delay
after the inputs have changed. time
The time it takes for the output of an F/F responds to the level Level Clocking
(high or low) of the clock signal.
The simplest type of F/F, consisting of 2 cross couples NAND and Latch
NOR latches
Type of triggering using 2 cascade latches
Master- slave
Master + half cycle Triggering
Slave - half cycle
An undesirable condition which may exist in a system when 2 or Race Condition
more inputs change simultaneously
A group of memory elements that work together as a unit Register
A register that temporarily stores a word during data processing. Buffer register
A register that can shift the stored bits one position to the left or Shift Register
right
Has control inputs that determined what it does on the next clock Controlled Shift
pulse Register
Means storing a word in the shift register by entering 1 bit per Serial Loading
CP
A register capable of counting the member of clock pulses that
have arrived at its clock input; Electronic equivalent of a binary Counter
odometer
Counts clock pulses only when commanded to do so Controlled Counter
A counter in which the clock drives each F/F to eliminate the Synchronous
ripple delay Counters
A counter producing words with 1 high bit which shift one position Ring Counter
per clock pulse.
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sequence.
It contains the microprocessor data processing logic. Arithmetic Logic Unit
Prominent part of microprocessor wherein the data is being stores Register
Refers to all programs which can assist users to a particular type Software
of computer.
A very detailed list of steps which must be followed to accomplish Program
task.
A diagrammatic representation of sequence of events. Flow Chart
A section of program which repeat over and over again. Loop
Without any alternate routes or patches. Straight-line program
Allow us to write one program that can do different things at Branching
different times
A section of program which causes different actions to be taken Branch
based on condition
A portion of the program which is called upon to perform specific
tasks. When the tasks are furnished, the main part of the Sub Routine
program is returned to.
Only language the computer actually understands; consists of 1s Machine Language
and 0s
A low level language which uses mnemonics in place of binary Assembly Language
patterns.
Abbreviations for machine language instructions. Fortran (Formula
Something that aids memory. Translation)
Used advanced commands High level Language
Tailored to the needs of business.
Cobol
Common Business Oriented Language.
Beginners all-purpose symbolic instruction code.
Designed to be easy for non professional programmers to learn BASIC
and use.
Named after French math. Blaire Pascal.
Designed to encourage the programmer to adhere to what Pascal
considered correct programming practices.
In-between
Between high level and low-level languages C and Forth Language
When we write in assembly language we use abbreviations Assembly Language
mnemonics for certain operations or functions.
More like English than machine language Source code
You must look up the codes yourself. Manual assembly
A program (usually stored in ROM) which gives the programmer
access to the microprocessors stack, accumulator, registers, and Monitor
so forth.
A program which translates assembly language mnemonics into Assembler
binary patterns (machine language).
Program which translates binary patterns into assembly language Disassembler
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mnemonics.
A complex program which convert computer instructions written in Complier
a source language.
A tool which helps you stays organized as you write programs.
Worksheet
Simply a form on which you can write your program.
Simple as possible SAP
A computer because it stores a program data before calculation
begin, and then it automatically carries out the program SAP-1
instructions without human intervention.
Next step in the evolution toward modern computers because it SAP- 2
includes jump instructions.
8 bit microcomputers that are upward compatible with the 8080 SAP-3
microprocessors.
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