Running head: READING LOGS

DUAL AXIs SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

BY

Date:
Contents
CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 5
BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................................... 7
TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKER SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 8
Single-axis trackers ................................................................................................................................ 8
Dual-axis tracker .................................................................................................................................... 9
Tracking system ................................................................................................................................... 10
Passive tracking ................................................................................................................................... 10
Active tracking ..................................................................................................................................... 10
GOAL STATEMENT ............................................................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................................... 12
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 12
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 12
Efficiency ............................................................................................................................................. 12
Reliability ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Feasibility ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................................ 14
SOLAR TRACKER SYSTEM ................................................................................................................ 14
Area of study........................................................................................................................................ 14
Experimental Model ............................................................................................................................ 14
Wind load analyses .............................................................................................................................. 14
Area ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
Forces ................................................................................................................................................... 17
Force coefficient .................................................................................................................................. 17
Analytical Approach ............................................................................................................................ 18
Wind Tunnel Testing ........................................................................................................................... 20
Scaling Methods .................................................................................................................................. 21
Scale model design and fabrication ..................................................................................................... 22
Wind tunnel ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Force probe system .............................................................................................................................. 23
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 25
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 25

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 Calibration of the force probe .............................................................................................................. 25
Drag and lift measurements ................................................................................................................. 27
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 28
Simulated approach ............................................................................................................................. 29
Results.................................................................................................................................................. 30
Reynolds number ................................................................................................................................. 33
Gear...................................................................................................................................................... 33
Discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 37
Snow load analysis .............................................................................................................................. 38
Model parts and assembly ................................................................................................................... 39
Mechanism analysis ............................................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................................... 41
Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER SIX .......................................................................................................................................... 43
FUNCTIONAL MODEL......................................................................................................................... 43
Support frame ...................................................................................................................................... 44
Concrete base ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Linear actuator ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Rotational motor .................................................................................................................................. 44
12 V battery ......................................................................................................................................... 45
Electronic Box ..................................................................................................................................... 45
NPV Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 46
Design specifications ........................................................................................................................... 48
Design Description .............................................................................................................................. 49
Linear actuator positioning .................................................................................................................. 49
System kinematics ............................................................................................................................... 50
Second design iteration ........................................................................................................................ 52
Third iteration design ........................................................................................................................... 54
Power analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 55
State equation for the system ............................................................................................................... 58
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 62

3
ABSTRACT

Photovoltaic projects are preferably carried out in large scale with thousands of the huge panels

laid out on flat surfaces facing the sun. However, the sun is constantly in motion across the sky

hence there is the need for a sun tracking system included in the photovoltaic panels. These systems

are subjected to some loads including the wind which contributes to both the aerodynamic cyclic

stresses and mechanical stresses.

In this paper, we will thus look into the designing process of a sun tracking system considering the

structural stresses and fatigue stresses which ultimately lead to shortening the systems lifetime.

These static pressures are obtained by determined using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) which is

carried out using static approach while fatigue is then performed using the stress life-method L.

From simulations, it is deduced that stress resistance of the most fragile material should be checked

with a safety factor higher than two.

4
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Whereas renewable energy has been preferred for the sake of environmental conservation, solar

power has been the fastest growing means of this energy globally. According to the National

Centre for Policy Analysis, grid-connected solar capacity has increased by 60% annually from

2004 to 2009. However, solar system does not contribute much to the total energy produced for

example in the US where it contributed to 0.18% of the total energy produced in 2011 .

The photovoltaic (PV) solar cell energy has become more competitive with other types of solar

energy thereby contributing to 0.10% of the total US energy contribution from 2010 to 2011. Its

continued use and growth have been promoted by continued federal tax subsidies one as well as

the renewable standard protocol which has resulted in the decrease in its cost. The PV solar power

is considered very active and is expected to reach the national grid very fast.

Tracking the sun is the major way of increasing the energy collected from the PV panels. It is

preferred to keep the solar panel perpendicular to the sunlight by precisely controlled polar azimuth

angle of the panel. The power output of four different trackers was compared to the power output

of a fixed panel and the result shown in figure 1. The trackers included a dual axis, North-South,

5
vertical and East-West. The dual axis trackers were found to produce maximum output compared

to the other trackers.

Figure 1. A graph of maximum output power for the various PV trackers used against time..

An STS 444 Dual-Axis solar system is currently being developed by French Development

Enterprises (FDE). The solar system apart from tracking the sun in two axes can also be transported

to other places (Two-axis tracker for solar panels and the like, 2013).

Carrying out a simulated analysis on the full-scale STS 444 tracker and design a small-scale

functional model of the same for demonstration purposes was the project's primary objective. The

first part of the report focuses on static and dynamic analysis while the second part concentrates

on the design and fabrication of the small-scale functional model.

6
BACKGROUND
The efficiency of the solar cell and the intensity of light falling on the cell determines the amount

of the power output of a solar system. The price of the solar panel is determined by the cell

technology as far as fabrication is concerned. The amount of solar power output also depends on

it.

Different types of cells available for use today includes crystalline silicon cell which is the most

common and widely used. It is 13%- 20% efficient. This means it can produce about 200W power

for use per square meter. One way to increase the power output of a solar system is by increasing

the amount of light falling on the panel. A PV panel, for example, is most useful when it receives

light from a source at the perfectly perpendicular angle. The interdependence of the power output

of a solar panel and the angle of incidence of the light is demonstrated in figure 2. The PV must

move with the sun to keep the angle of incidence at zero hence the importance of solar tracking.

Figure 2: A graph of measured output power against angle of incidence.

Although solar tracking system can provide more power output as compared to stationary PV

panel, it is however costly hence may not always be the best option for a particular application.

7
Using fixed PV panel means placing it facing the sun. For efficiency, the angle is put in a location

where it will receive the sunlight at most of the time and also at the optimal angle about the equator.

Stationary solar panel orientation is shown in figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Orientation of stationary PV panel.

Due to the tilted axis and elliptical rotation of the earth, a stationary PV panel's output will vary

throughout the day thereby resulting in less power output as compared to the tracking system.

A solar tracking PV panel is more efficient with the potential of doubling the stationary panel

under ideal conditions regarding power output.

TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKER SYSTEM

Solar tracker systems can be classified into two main groups including single-axis trackers and

dual-axis trackers.

Single-axis trackers

8
They can have either a horizontal or a polar axis and follow the sun's East-West or even north-

south movement. The flat types are majorly used in areas near the equator where the sun is

scorching at midday hence does not require much adjustment to the vertical axis (Poulek, Khudysh

& Libra, 2016). The horizontal type is shown in figure 4 below.

Figure 4: A horizontal tracker type.

In very high altitudes where the sun does not get high very, a polar type single axis trackers are

used where vertical compensation is not as much as horizontal position.

Dual-axis tracker

It follows the sun's movement irrespective of the axis of rotation. They have both vertical and

horizontal axes hence can track the sun's apparent motion in the sky. Dual-axis motion has the

advantage of maximizing the total power output by keeping the panel in the direction of the

sunlight longer. A standard dual-axis tracker is shown in figure 6 below.

9
Figure 5: Standard dual-axis tracker.

Tracking system

The main types of solar tracking systems classifications are passive tracking and activity

monitoring.

Passive tracking

Passive trackers in most cases use compressed gases to move the tracker. The movement is aided

by the creation of gas pressure depending on the angle of sunlight and the gas containers. The

tracker is transferred to an equilibrium position as a result of the pressure. The major disadvantage

of passive trackers is that they do not use a controller and are slow and vulnerable to external

effects such as the wind.

Active tracking

Uses an electromechanical system to position the solar tracker to keep the panel in the

perpendicular angle to the sun. It also has a controller which drives the motors and actuators to

position the tractor (Poulek, Khudysh & Libra, 2016). The trackers may use a solar map, sensors

10
or both. For example, during sunny, whether the sensors would be used to track the sun while

during cloudy conditions the information from the solar map would be utilized.

GOAL STATEMENT
The two primary targets and objectives of this project were;

To conduct wind and snow load analyses on the STS 444 to determine the maximum force and

stress acting on the system at different panel polar angles.

To design and build a small-scale functional prototype to demonstrate tracking abilities of the STS

444. The sponsor would be using this model to showcase to its future customers.

11
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Solar energy was developed to compensate for the insufficient energy from other sources as well

as improve the green technology. Solar tracking is a technology aimed at improving power output

for photovoltaic solar panels. A dual-axis solar tracking system 444(STS 444) has been developed

and patented by the French Development Enterprises (FDE). The tracker is capable of

withstanding wind and snow loads of up to 89.4m/s and 200kg/m2.

About the future expansion of solar energy, various governments and institutions have spearheaded

research in the area as the alternative to the natural gas which has been considered as unclean.

Efficiency

Under ideal conditions, the effectiveness of a dual-axis PV solar system is 20-35% higher than

fixed PV solar systems which are said to double with tracking solar system. The average electrical

power obtained from solar systems depends on the day whether such as clouds and sunlight

variations.

Solar cells have a lifespan of approximately 20-25 years. Output power, however, is reported to

decline by 0.5% annually. This means that the solar panels are expected to produce about 80% of

their rated capacity by 20 years of function.

Reliability

Parallel connection of solar systems is the most efficient connection so that the defective panel

may not affect the functionality of the other solar cells and also replacing it is made comfortable

12
without interfering with the whole system. The significant disadvantage associated with solar

energy is the low power generation and energy storage ability.

Feasibility

A major concern in solar electricity generation is the time required for the subsidies to remain in

place for these systems to be autonomously profitable. The amount of power produced depends on

the amount of sunlight received in a particular area, the orientation of the solar array, whether the

solar arrays are fixed or track the sun, construction costs and financing options.

Despite this economic factors as well as practical concerns, solar power could become the primary

source of energy if the technology catches up to increase the efficiency of the photovoltaic

collection and the means by which the energy is harvested.

13
 Chapter Three
SOLAR TRACKER SYSTEM

Area of study

This project is to be conducted in two stages

Laboratory (simulation and analysis)

Field (prototyping)

Experimental Model

The solar tracker system 444 falls under second generation dual-axis solar tracker with regards to

the development by the FDE. This report includes analyses which were accomplished using

preliminary blueprints of the STS 444 which again is provided by the FDE with approximate

dimensional estimations. The following sections will thus contain a detailed discussion of the

snow load and wind analyses using the STS 444 model. The Data obtained were then compared

concerning non-dimensional values to make it easy application in similar systems.

Wind load analyses

Wind load is the most important load on the solar tracker system compared to all the other

loads, and it is responsible for very strong forces which again vary in direction and can also

cause mechanical damage in the process due to the resonance. Thus this report will analyze

14
 only the most important configurations of the solar tracking system while comparing it to a

wind velocity of 200mph under a specific direction.

1. The STS experiences forces which were calculated using three approaches namely;

2. Analytical

3. Simulation

4. Experimental method

An estimate of the forces was then obtained using the full-scale tracker system then the

obtained forces were then used to obtain the scaling factor for the third approach which is the

experimental analysis approach. The boundary conditions set for the experimental approach

while analyzing the wind tunnel were then used to conduct a simulation, and the values

obtained were compared to those obtained in the previous. Upon data validation, necessary

corrections were made on the simulation model to achieve desired results. The data obtained

from these three approaches is from the force of wind acting on the system at different angles

of tilt on the system.

15
 1. The parameters used for this analysis include

2. the force of wind,

3. area and

4. Force coefficient.

Area

To determine the force coefficient the reference area is first obtained since the wind is often in

direct contact with the system, in this analysis the references area is the surfaces of the

16
Photovoltaic panels installed on the system. However, there are certain times that blockage

occurred due to a change in the projection area, this error was later accounted for using a

correction on wind velocity blockage. Having the fixed reference area will eventually aid in the

comparison between drag and lift forces caused by the wind.

Forces

The vertical and horizontal forces acting on the STS 444 accounted for the lift and drag forces

due to the horizontal wind blowing on the system. Comparison between the three approaches of

analyses invoked the use of the lift and drag forces and upon verification an absolute value is

obtained the value is used for the calculation of the von Mises stresses that are acting on the

structure based on a few assumptions made such as the exclusion of small components and

setting of some boundaries.

Force coefficient

The drag and lift forces are once again used to calculate the lift and drag coefficient. Force

coefficient is thus calculated by using the force of the wind, fluid density and the collector area.

= (1)
0.5 2

From the above formula then there is a three step procedure for calculating the drag and lift

coefficients using all the three approaches, at this point the tilt angle of the system is kept at zero

degrees.

17
Analytical Approach

The following equation (equation 2) is used to obtain the Reynolds number of the fluid flow in

which V is the velocity of the fluid v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and d is the panel

length.

= (2)

V = 89.4 ms-1,

d = 22.86m

v=1.57 x10-5

The photovoltaic collector was thus calculated to be 1.3 x 10x thus indicating that there was a

fully turbulent flow. The following table is showing the drag forces subdivided into parts which

are considered to influence the drag forces calculation.

To calculate the lift forces it is required that one solves the boundary layer differential equation

as shown in the following equation

FL = (3)

On the other hand the calculated drag force could vary from positive to negative ten Kilo-

newtons (10kN) hence the final drag force could vary by 0.01 on both negative and positive

margins.

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Table 1: drag coefficient with reference to area and drag force for the STS parts at zero

degrees

part Drag as per Drag FD

value CD

collector Platform 0.00215 0..3827

area

horizontal Frontal 2.1 0.00657

area

Frame support Frontal 1.786 0.1320

area

rectangular Platform 0.00736 0.0049

area

base Frontal 2.170 0.15117

area

gear Circular 1.170 0.77068

cylinder

Total Analytical Force 1.104

Drag and lift forces in the procedure are calculated with an increase in the angle of tilt by ten

degrees per simulation, from zero to eighty degrees (0 -80 degrees).

19
Table 2: analytical drag and lift coefficients for different tilt angles on the panel

Deg CD CL

0 0.195 0.000

10 0.421 2.400

0 0.887 2.460

30 1.450 2.510

40 1.721 2.048

0 1.944 1.620

60 2.110 1.220

70 2.200 0.780

80 2.341 0.410

Wind Tunnel Testing

The reproduction process of wind drag on a full scale is costly especially at high speed winds

and also time consuming when it comes to building the model. It is imperative to take note that

using an appropriate scaling model it is possible to simulate all the forces under research on full

scale just like in the wind tunnel. To get accurate results in the three procedures then scaling and

an experimental set-up while an estimate in magnitude of the forces is obtained from the

analytical approach. Thus using the first equation (equation 1) then the ratio obtained from this

20
formula can then be used in designing the force probe fixtures and also in choosing the

appropriate type of force sensors.

Scaling Methods

To determine the scaling factor then force ratio, Reynolds number and blockage factor.

I. Reynolds number:
It is difficult to keep the Reynolds number for the scaled consistent being that the Reynolds

number along both the width and the length are considered turbulent hence the scaled model

would be impractical to reproduce it is thus imperative to ensure that the final flow of the for the

miniature prototype is turbulent enough.

II. Force ratio:

Both the drag and lift forces can be calculated using equation 2 using the analytical and

simulated analysis to get both drag and moment experienced at the base of the model.

III. Blockage factor

Calculations related to blockage factor include the scaling factor and aspect ratio. The aspect

ratio of the model surface area which is perpendicular to the wind flow thus having no tilt angle.

With regards to the blockage correction the scaling factor was then obtained using the following

formula.

= (90 (4)

21
When we take into consideration the standard dynamics of manufacturing then and also the wind

tunnels setup then with a scaling factor of 90 and taking wind speeds of approximately forty five

meters per second creates an optimum condition under which the Reynolds was still turbulent at

7.28x 105. Under these conditions the drag and lift reached a maximum of 65 and 70 Newton

respectively.

Scale model design and fabrication

Reduced scale models

The reduced scale prototype was based mostly on the design model used for the analytical analysis.

The first one was that of a rigid prototyped body with no degrees of freedom and with the panel in

the horizontal position. The support beams were replaced by a flat sheet through which the board

could be fixed by screws. Another support was added at the bottom of the base to secure the force

probe. This is shown in the figure below.

Figure 6: End view of prototyped reduced scale model.

The next was made entirely from a combination of aluminum sheet for the panel, acrylic for frame

support and rapid prototyping for more complex parts. The main aim of this second prototype was

22
to vary the polar angle of the panel and find the corresponding drag and lift at the base. The

prototype is shown below.

Figure 7: Second demonstration of the prototype with modified parts to allow rotation and

reinforcement of the model.

Wind tunnel

For the testing purposes, the WPI wind tunnel with cross-sectional dimensions of 0.61m by 0.61m

and a maximum wind speed of 60m/s. The frequency of the blades at 62.5 Hz corresponded to a

wind speed of approximately 55m/s.

Force probe system

A force probe system was designed to find drag and lift on the prototype simultaneously. A method

of moments measured by a force transducer was used to determine the drag force on the prototype.

The original design was iterated from a shorter arm to a longer arm about 0.4m since the maximum

force was exceeded on the force transducer. With a maximum force of 65 N, the force balance

system would produce a maximum voltage value of 1.2V.

23
The lift force on the prototype was measured directly using a dual-range force transducer and data

was collected using a Vernier Lab Pro device. Analytical study at all polar angles yielded lift

direction pointing downwards so that the measured force will be compressive if the sensor is placed

beneath the force probe.

Figure 8: A setup for the prototype to measure drag and lift in the wind tunnel.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR
METHODOLOGY
The prototype was fixed onto the lid and inserted into the wind tunnel with the force probe firmly

screwed to the base. The position was such that the angle of attack of the wind was directed onto

the top of the panel which made the force probe arm to be in contact with both force sensors as

shown in the figure below.

Figure 9: A section of the prototype in the wind tunnel.

Calibration of the force probe

A combination of 100g masses from 100g to 500g were used I the calibration of the two forces

transducers. The force probe system was set up in a configuration of drag and lift measurements

as demonstrated in the below diagrams.

25
The horizontal configuration measured the resulting drag by measuring the moment produced by

the drag. The pulley was placed on a stable surface to ensure that the surface was in parallel to the

ground. An initial mass reading was recorded with no load while the other reading has been

registered with varying loads. The weight and the force probe were attached to a string which was

in turn passed over a frictionless pulley so that the mass pulling on the force probe in a direction

perpendicular to the force probe stand to simulate the required drag. The corresponding voltage

readings were recorded after which no load was retaken to confirm the presence of any hysteresis

error.

Figure 10: A setup for the calibration of the force transducer with mass pulling perpendicular to

the pivot so as to simulate the drag.

The vertical configuration shown below allowed for lift measurement alone since drag produced a

moment and raised created a translational displacement which was assumed to pass through the

pivot. By restricting the rotation of the arm while allowing the other one for translation, the lift

component could be measured. Since the distances moved were minimal, the rotational motion

could be neglected so that translational motion made possible.

26
Figure 11: A setup for the calibration of the force transducer with mass pulling perpendicular to

the pivot so as to simulate the lift.

To calibrate the lift configuration, the masses were made to push parallel to the force probe pivot

in a downward direction. The force probe was initially in contact with the force transducer while

the axis was found slightly in the middle of the slot to allow for downward displacement. This

meant that the initial no-load error reading on the force sensor for the lift was that of the weight of

the prototype.

Drag and lift measurements

After calibration, the polar angle of the panel was adjusted, and an initial no-load reading was

recorded for both of the force sensors. The wind tunnel was tuned at a frequency of 52. 1 Hz

corresponding to approximately 45 m/s based on the wind tunnel calibration. The wind flow,

however, took about 1 minute to stabilize. The real drag and lift were found from the calibration

curve drawn. By increasing the polar angle by 10 degrees from 0-80 degrees, the corresponding

drag and lift were measured for each angle. Hysteresis error was checked by taking a final no-load

voltage.

27
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Typical experimental drag and lift values for incremental polar angles were as shown in the table

below.

Table 3: Corresponding experimental drag and lift coefficients as the polar angles increase

drag lift

0 0.202 0.113

10 0.408 0.489

20 0.694 0.723

30 0.985 O.793

40 1.14 0.818

50 1.47 0.940

60 1.64 0.942

70 1.82 0.947

80 2.42 0.956

From the table, it can be deduced that the corresponding experimental drift increased as the angle

increased. This relation was much expected because the surface area facing the wind increased

28
hence resulting in increasing the resultant force acting on the panel. The corresponding lift, on the

other hand, increased at a decreasing rate of angle to reach almost a constant value.

The setup had got various limitations such as a gap between the base and the bottom floor with

spaces where the pivoting probe passed through which resulted to escape of air thereby leading to

high forces bending in some of the features components causing the whole prototype system to be

slightly tilted. The tilting produced an error in almost all the reading of the respective angles.

Simulated approach

The two steps involved in the simulation were:

i. Conduct simulation based on the reduced prototype with the same set-up and conditions as

the wind tunnel experiment. The simulated data was validated with the experimental data.

ii. Conduct simulation on the full-scale STS 444 with real-life conditions and obtain realistic

values of the forces acting on the system.

The resultant force acting on the prototype was simulated using ANSYS workbench while the

wind flow was modelled using fluent with uni-directional wind speed in Z-direction. On the other

hand, the flow type was modelled using a simple standard turbulent model. In both cases, the wind

pressure was imported onto the structure, and a static structural analysis was carried out on the

prototype. For time and computation considerations, all simulations were conducted on the model

symmetry. Therefore, drag and lift forces obtained were half of their actual value.

The corrected simulation was then carried out using a wind flow of 89.4 m/s (200 mph) with

modified Turbulence intensity and Intensity scale length characteristics. Correction made between

29
the prototype and the full-scale STS 444 were based on location, type of grounds, weather

conditions, materials selection and geometrical modifications as listed in the table below.

Table 4: Parameters for the full scale model and reduced prototype in the CFD modeling

Parameters Reduced prototype Full scale model

Ratio 1 90

Turbulent intensity 2% 3%

Intensity scale 0.028 0.49

Results

Wind speeds from 0m/s to 12.01m/s.

X(m) Y(m) Z(m) Volume(m3) Surface(m2) Density

(fluid)

0.162637923 0.751624854 -7.69616811 0.1328125 1.2032869 101300.195

0.693887923 0.751624854 -7.69616811 0.1328125 1.20351161 101305.149

1.22513792 0.251624854 -8.19616811 0.1328125 1.20348017 101313.332

1.75638792 0.251624854 -8.19616811 0.1328125 1.20346689 101314.076

30
Figure 12: flow simulation (fluid at 12m/s)

The graphs of drag coefficient with polar angle were plotted for the three approaches that are

analytical, experimental and simulated. A linear increase with the increase in polar angle was

shown in all the three methods. The endpoints for all three methods coincided with some deviation

occurring in between depending on the way they were approximated. Graph of drag coefficient

against polar angle for analytical (blue), experimental (red) and simulated (green) showing

corresponding drag increased almost linearly with the polar angle. The graph is shown below.

31
Figure 13: A graph of drag coefficient against polar angle for the three methods that is analytical

(blue), experimental (red) and simulated (green). The end points coincide since most of the

approximation occurred in between the end points.

Figure 14: flow simulation with a considering the lower part of PV.

32
The graph of lift coefficient against the polar angle for the three methods was plotted as shown

below. Comparison between the three approaches revealed that all the methods followed different

trends about how they were approximated.

Reynolds number

Re = which is equivalent to

89.4 59.6
1.57105
= 339378343.9

0.031 0.031
CD = 1 = 339378343.917 = 1.874 x10-3
7

Drag on both sides of the photovoltaic collector is given by the following equation

1
D = 2(2CDV2A)

= 480N

Gear

Internal diameter = 36.6mm

Outer diameter = 296.56mm

1
CD 2.1 D = ( CDV2A)
2

= 17204N

Total 17684N

33
Figure 15: simulation

parameter Quantity
Weight/N
Pv collector 160
Linear actuator 12
beam 1

34
 pinion 4
Angle
Theta Angle between the 10 - 90
vertical axis and the
panel

Figure 13: A graph of lift coefficient against polar angle for analytical (blue), experimental (red)

and simulated (green) showing all three approaches with different trend for different angles. Due

to the different ways in which the values were approximated, they tend to converge at the endpoints

but diverge in between.

A graph of corrected drag and lift against polar angle plotted showed no much significant

discrepancy between the experimental drag and the adjusted drag. The trend was also found to be

relatively linear. A similar result was observed between the simulated lift and the fixed simulated

lift with a concave down shape, reaching the peak at around 40 45 degrees.

35
Figure 14: Graph of corrected drag and lift against polar angle for full scale STS444

Maximum Von Mises stresses were applied to the simulated system with the appropriate material

assigned to the different parts: concrete to the base, steel to the frame and aluminum to the panel.

Maximum stresses were observed to occur on the steel beams at the horizontal and vertical beam

junctions. Maximum weights for different polar angles were listed in the table below, and they

followed an increasing trend as the polar angle was increased. For a tensile strength of 250 MPa

for steel, all the maximum stresses exceed this value by far which indicated failure of the beams

at those locations of maximum stresses.

A contour plot of safety factor of 80 degrees was plotted with a safety factor of more than 1.5

being acceptable. The safety factor was zero at places where the maximum stresses exceeded the

tensile strength of the respective material as it was expected. Based on this model, only the

horizontal and vertical beams would be subject to failure at the junctions.

36
Discussion

According to the results, drag coefficient was directly proportional to polar angle as was expected.

As the angle was increased, the surface in contact with the wind increased which increased the

resistance of flow opposing the wind load. Corresponding drag is directly proportional to drag for

constant variables. This expected trend was confirmed by all three approaches with deviation

observed in between the endpoints. The surface areas of contact with the wind are clear-cut, and it

is easier to approximate without introducing too much error at the endpoints.

For example, at 80 degrees, for instance, the panel consisted of mostly two rectangular shapes: the

base and the panel as seen from the frontal area which introduced minimum error in the analytical

approach. Whereas in between the endpoints, the systematic approach assumed the flow to be

blocked entirely by the surfaces lying in the path of the horizontal wind flow. This resulted to an

overestimation of the drag. In both the experimental and simulated, however, the flow continued

past the panel as expected to happen in reality. The shapes of the parts are also very crucial in

estimating the analytical drag coefficient for the system. This explains why the analytical drag

coefficient was much higher than the simulated and experimental.

Consider the resultant force as the force perpendicular to the panel surface. The horizontal and

Vertical components would be taken as the drag and lift. When the angle is zero, the force

perpendicular to the panel surface is at its minimum so that the lift which is in the same direction

as the resultant force would be at its minimum. As the angle is increased, the resultant force acting

on the panel would increase and so will the lift. When the angle is 45, the resultant force is at its

maximum. As the angle is increased the vertical component will decrease to almost zero. The

parabolic trend for the lift, therefore, would be expected to be concave down. The general trend

37
yield by lifts in all the three approaches was an increase in CL as the angle is increased. The

analytical approach, for example, was bound to introduce significant discrepancies since it was

calculated from the sinusoidal component of the drag. It was expected to follow an inverse tangent

curve as expected with an undefined value at zero angles.

To prove the effectiveness of the turbulence on the simulated values, the same set-up conditions

were simulated one with laminar and the other with turbulent flow at zero angles. The pressure

distribution for laminar flow resulted in the greater pressure difference between the top and bottom

pressure on the panel than for turbulent flow.

It is hard to achieve the three approaches regarding geometry, surface roughness, and turbulence

model and measurement standards. The beams of the model were modified to a flat plate to prevent

the prototype from breaking.

The nature of flow was found to be affected significantly by surface roughness. The roughness of

the walls was assumed to be negligible to keep the data as generalized as possible. Other sources

of error included bending in the fixture and prototype frame support, human error and other

measurement inaccuracies and limitation.

Snow load analysis

Although snow loads are not as dangerous as compared to the wind loads, they contribute a lot to

factors affecting the linear actuator kinetics. Modelling of a snow sliding profile was crucial in

finding the time taken for the snow to be completely stowed and the maximum polar angle

required. The snow sliding pattern was also significant in determining the torque applied to the

linear actuator shaft by the sliding snow.

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A linear actuator enables the panel to rotate hence towing the snow. The mechanical speed and

electrical power of the linear actuator depend on the maximum torque exerted by the snow load.

Therefore, driving a snow torque profile to determine maximum torque exerted by the snow load

while sliding off was significant in selecting the right linear actuator.

Model parts and assembly

The package required knowledge of the snow sliding profile needed for the simulation set-up. The

biggest problem in this analysis was to simplify the snow sliding profile. Therefore, assumptions

were required for the snow unloading simulation with detailed simulation parameters as given.

i. Snow was assumed to be a discrete load and was modelled as a part to capture both the

change in load direction and load magnitude.

ii. Snow was taken as fresh new snow with the density of 50-70kg/m3.

iii. The static and dynamic friction of snow on PV panel was approximated as 0.1 and 0.03

respectively.

iv. All other connections and contact surfaces were assumed to be frictionless

v. Linear actuator was assigned a constant speed

The solar tracker system subassembly consisted of 4 parts: panel, linear actuator motor housing,

linear actuator shaft and frame support. The frame was assembled with a rigid connection while

the linear actuator motor housing was the constraint with a pin connection at the axis of rotation

with the frame support.

Mechanism analysis

After assembling the various components, a defined linear servo motor was added to the linear

actuator shaft slider connection at a constant speed to control the rotation of the panel as well as

39
gravity. The angular position, velocity, acceleration and torque measurements were defined at the

pin connection between the panel and the frame support while another torque measurement was

defined on the linear actuator shaft.

Material for snow at the maximum weight was applied to the snow part and aluminum applied to

the panel and linear actuator parts. The simulation was run for the servo motor acting downwards

with constant velocity at zero degrees with gravity taken into consideration. The distance between

the edge of the snow relative to the side of the panel was the only parameter needed for this

simulation to obtain the distance slid by the snow along the panel.

Figure 16: Separation measurement taken between the edge of the snow and that of the panel

to obtain step-wise value of the respective distance with time

40
 CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusions and recommendations
According to the results, the snow load was not as crucial as compared to the wind pressure by at

least a factor of 10. The wind pressure, however, can cause an enormous amount of mechanical

damage if the frequency of the wind is equal to that of the mechanical system. This requires

optimization of the beams supporting the panel and the base based on the wind force and stress

analyses while the snow load analysis will be mostly geared towards selecting the right linear

actuator.

Increase in wind velocity results to increase in the angular position of the solar panel as well as the

stress. However, the simulations show that we mustn't only focus on the largest angles since some

moderate angles can cause high stress which may lead to failure due to fatigue.

Based on the stress analysis of the solar tracker, it was recommended that the vertical beams

supporting the panel should be increased and reinforced further to prevent failure. Weights of

41
beams and panel parts need to be included in the selection of the linear actuator because it helps

in predicting the maximum torque of the snow.

Both the wind and the snow load are considered critical to optimizing the design of the STS 444.

Work will focus on optimization of structural design, and how parameters lie energy power to the

driving actuators and gears affect the STS 444 depending on the speed of the cycles, the amount

of tracking, type of monitoring and configurations depending on the required conditions.

42
 CHAPTER SIX
FUNCTIONAL MODEL
The functional model in this chapter is supposed to demonstrate to customers how the STS 444

which is a large-scale dual axis solar tracker works. And thus it is imperative to note that I do not

take credit in any findings and design of the STS 444 as my project findings and is mainly for

aiding in my research in the solar tracking system construction and workability and highlighting

on the modelling and simulation process of design which will equip me with scientific skills of

design.

There are two main constraints in the design process of this design namely that the design must

have an optimal efficiency and have a rotation of eighty degrees around the horizontal axis.

Secondly, the solar panel should be 2m by 2m.

On a light note most designs on the market have been patented, or in the process of acquiring

patents, it was difficult to obtain detailed measurements and design charts to aid in this project.

Design challenges were however reduced through referring to a similar project by four students

in the Worcester Polytechnic Institute which detailed the structure and performance of STS 444

tracker in which they performed the relevant wind loading analyses through wind tunnel testing

technique, simulation, and analytical approaches. The design of this solar tracker is thus based on

the STS 444 solar tracker design specification in which the panel I installed on a dual axis

tracking structure equipped with a linear actuator fixed on brackets and a couple of sensors to aid

with the tracking mechanism.

Power generated will increase by averagely thirty-five percent. Factoring in the lifetime of the

system say it is twenty years with a reduction of five percent in efficiency every year then the

solar panel will have to be replaced within ten to fifteen years for maximum output.

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Support frame

The metallic frame of the dual axis tower consists of several rectangular cylinders which are

welded and together form a compact structure made from tough steel metal for maximum

stability. With the assumption that the complete system is made from steel then the total mass

would be equal to 81 Kg

Concrete base

The reinforced concrete base is not included in the system though it forms the substructure upon

which the system is installed and thus holding the total weight of the system. In this project

reinforced concrete is to be used at the base for system support

Linear actuator

The motor controlling the panels rotation to cause the desired tilt from zero to eighty degrees

angle forms the actuator. The movement required should be smooth and accurate with regards to

the triggering circuit hence a sophisticated motor control system will be required. In this project

rotary encoders that reduce noise through the smoothening of the sign wave of the voltage

applied to the actuator will be used as the motor controller. With regards to installing the linear

actuator are much easier to install as compared to hydraulic and pneumatic systems since they

are easier to install and additionally take up less space. They also provide precise position

feedback which is desired to keep the tracking system in real time, the linear actuator also

controls the motion and with regards to acceleration and velocity.

Rotational motor

The rotational motor is installed at the base of the tracker and is thus used for the azimuthal

angle adaption, and it thus rotates the panel around a vertical axis which runs through the middle

44
of the motor consequentially allowing the panel to track the sun from the east to west direction in

real-time. For increased efficiency, it is imperative to custom makes a motor or customizes an

already existing motor. The motor rotary motion and response will thus act as per the user

specification and thus more efficient though this approach is costly.

12 V battery

The solar tracking system is power consuming since the solar beams have to stay at 90 degrees

with the CPV tracker. Hence power has to be available and stable throughout the time of

operation of the system. This battery can, however, be recharged by the solar panel during the

day hence self-running cost efficient.

Electronic Box

The electronic box of this system has a microprocessor and some sensors. The sophistication of

this circuit is of different level as to the level of production. Similarly, the microcontrollers will

also differ with this regard. During the modeling stage, it is possible to use a microcontroller

such as ATMEGA 328 which is programmed using the AVR software or with a microcomputer

such as the Raspberry pie. These systems are however not cost effective in the case of production

hence the use of other chips such as PIC is highly recommended. Additionally, the pic chips are

chip and also machine friendly hence it is recommended for the modeling stage. Additionally the

circuit contains sensors that will bring the rotational requirement of the system into a reality.

Again, in this case, the robustness of the system is important. At low levels one could use a

simple photo sensor such as the TSL2561 (Penella-Lopez & Gasulla Forner, 2011) though when

it comes to the installation of large solar panel systems then more accurate sensors will be

required since the hobby photo sensors often tend to be unstable. And at times might either be

45
slow or fail to sense the light with regards to the point of high intensity. Another important

sensor is the included in the design of an anemometer, it takes in the speed of wind and strength

and thus gives a reading to the circuit to calculate the loading factor. If the conditions do not lie

within the specification of operation of the system, then the system adjusts itself to a safe

position until the required conditions are back.

The electric circuit design process is less time to consume and also easy since there are several

simulation software available on the internet that one can use to measure all the necessary

parameters before circuit production.

NPV Analysis

With regards to the size of the solar panel and power generation specifications then it can be

assumed that the panel will produce 0.7kW of power ("Fuel Cells 5/2015", 2015). Hence total

power per system will depend on the number of functioning solar panels installed. The annual

power generation of in the machine says the panel works efficiently for nine hours per day then it

will produce a total of 2212kW when the efficiency of the tracker is added as a factor in the

power production. CAD design

The Cad design of the tracker has a hydraulic provision for shock and vibration s from the wind

loading and turbulence

46
The photovoltaic panels are mounted on

Figure 17:

Figure 17:

47
Design specifications

1. The total system weight should be thirty six kilograms or less

2. The panel degree of freedom should enable it to rotate at 360 degrees around the azimuth

axis and also have a maximum tilt angle of eighty degrees with the polar axis.

3. It should also have a snow removal simulation and an accuracy of five degrees in solar

tracking

4. The model should be based on a three piece architecture in which the panel, base and

supporting frame can be disassembled, this assembly should also fit in an envelope of 62

by 32 by 12 inches for ease of transportation.

5. The assembly should also be easily be disassembled within two minutes.

6. This model should also contain a 12V battery that will be running the electrical circuit

and the liner actuator

7. The parts for the project should also be easy to acquire and compatible and lastly easy to

trouble shoot in the case of mechanical malfunction by a trained mechanic.

48
Design Description

The photovoltaic panel achieves a rotary motion from a system of linear actuator and a slew

gear. The altitude angles are controlled by the linear actuator while the polar motion is controlled

by the slew gear. The following assembles are an extension of the parts already listed above.

Linear actuator positioning

The linear actuator position has its attachment points defined by the stroke length and size of the

actuator. The transmission angle and maximum angle of tilt of the panel also form the design

considerations for the linear actuator. To find the location of the linear actuator graphing and

detailed analysis is applied and by extension, holonomic constraints are considered.

In this design, a small crack is not alarming since it is a small prototype, and thus damage is least

likely to occur. While in the large STS 444 structures a crack will lead to creeping of the

structure and eventually cause it to experience damages that at times are irreparable hence it is

imperative to compress the linear actuator (Two-axis tracking solar collector mechanism, 1990).

Linear actuator selection

The election process of the linear actuator falls under the dilemma of equipment procurement in

which cost plays a great role while availability, specifications, and performance weigh on the

other side. Online electronic sites such as hobby king eBay and ServoCity offer a diverse range

of actuators that fall within the budgetary allocations of this project. They have a maximum load

capacity of five hundred and twelve Newton, and the maximum speed is 0.05 m/s.

Linear actuator Dimensional limitation

49
Dimensional specifications of the linear actuator create a critical limitation when considering the

size of the solar panel and the loading effects on the assembly. Thus this parts were modeled

with strict adherence to standard dimensions of the available materials and also with regards to

the additional limitations explained in the following sections.

System kinematics

Kinematic systems are based on the number of link and constraints since they will determine the

degrees of freedom of the system. The system in this design is a four bar linkage with the links

at the ends grounded and link three having two degrees of freedom since its a crankshaft.

Additional, the latter is considered as the input link. Link 4 and link 1 are pivoted to ground

hence when link 3 is assumed to be frictionless and to move at a constant velocity. Link 4 which

is the output (panel) will move in a clockwise direction following an arc of up to eighty degrees

along the polar axis. The mechanism should thus exhibit angular accuracy as the servo motor

inputs rotary motion concerning the rotation of the earth about the position of the overhead sun.

Figure 18: four linkage equivalent of the linear actuator

Design: first iteration

50
Design positioning iteration of the linear actuator is in this project assumed to have its bottom

base psssing through the center line of the pin connection between the frame support at point B

and the panel at the point O as shown in the following figure

Figure 19: First Iteration side view.

12
xy =
2 cos

a graph of y (f(x), g(x), h(x).k(x)0 against the distance x from the center 0 where the

functions are the y distances for the linear actuator 1- 6 respectively which are available from

actuator manufacture gives the strokes length range and also the products of x and

Table 5: Product of XY and Stroke lengths.

51
The values of x and y entered for the analysis are chosen with reference to the rule of thumb such

that low values of y are desirable since it reduces the amount of material size while on the other

hand high values of x will produce lower torque coupled with greater sensitivity. However, the

actuator will be protruding from the sides of the design in the case of high values of x and this

might make the linear actuator design to be cumbersome. Additionally from the set values of x

and y, the lower stroke lengths turned out to be shorter than expected thus requiring greater

torque while the higher strokes lengths led to a heavier linear actuator

From the tabulations and results from the graphing the desirable actuator type was type 3.

Design limitations

Points of attachment of the linear actuator on the beam and panel are considered to be lying right

on the mid- axis.

In reality the rotational point is found slightly offset along the y axis while in the modelling

process it is assumed to be at the center.

Dynamic motions are not taken into consideration while calculating the dimensional since only

the extreme positions are considered.

Second design iteration

When the constraint at point B is removed then this iterations addresses the maximum tilt angle

which in this case is eighty degrees, this analysis is possible since the removed constraint was at

the point of attachment between the bottom of the linear actuator and the reference frame in the

design.

52
Figure 20: iteration 1 side view with an offset on O to O

From the diagram we can then obtain the optimum value of was derived using both geometrical

and analytical approaches. From the analytical approach, two possible solutions were obtained

for each specific length the linear actuator that had been graphically checked and then their

transmission angles were subsequently compared with both solutions. From the deductions made

from the latter solutions, we observe that the linear actuator is more stable when its center is

closer to the center of gravity of the support frame. Take note that as for the second solution the

values of x and y result in a larger distance from the two centers of gravity. The large difference

results in instability that is already being caused by the momentum of the moving parts.

53
Third iteration design

Figure 21: six bar linkage mechanism

In the first linear actuator diagram, a four-bar linkage was used to archive a rotary motion of

eighty degrees. Similarly, this six-bar linkage can be broken down to two four-bar linkage

mechanisms as shown in the above figure where the links 5, 7 and 8 form one mechanism and

the other links 4, 3 and 2 form the second mechanism.

From the design, the linear actuator length was limited by the extension and retraction lengths.

These lengths made it possible to optimize the system to the maximum polar angle. In this case,

both transmission angles 1 and 2 each accounted for 400 degrees thus making up the desired

800 degrees, and this four-bar linkage optimized design was achieved using the linkages

software. The size of the optimum mechanism design dimensions was then scaled to depending

on the size of the chosen linear actuators stroking length which in this case is 15cm.

54
Power analysis

Linear actuator
The linear actuator power estimation process is of importance since it brings forth the feasibility

estimate of linear actuator motor and the amount of power required for it to follow the assigned

kinematic motion. During the simulation process to ensure the validity of the simulation

additionally, it is preferable to execute the azimuth rotation for less than fifteen seconds which is

the half cycle. It was also assumed the acceleration of the model only lasted for a quarter of a

second only. Calculations involved include mass moment of inertia, power required to run the

actuator was analytically found to be 0.16W. During the simulation process when the linear

actuator was assigned a constant velocity a varying angular velocity of between 4.5rad/s and

6.4rad/s occurred. Then as the simulation power increased to a maximum of 0.7W there was an

increase in the angular velocity while a deceleration of 0.9rad/s 2 occurred.

terms definition value

t Half cycle time 15

p Panels angular acceleration 0.37

p Panels angular velocity 0.093

Ip Inertia mass moment of panel (kgm2) 4.67

Pla Panel rotation power (W) 0.16

Pla is the power that the linear actuator needs to rotate the panel initially.

Pla Ip

55
Figure 22: Graph of power against polar angle.

From the graph the maximum power reached is approximately 0.73 at a polar angle of 80

degrees. In this analysis the half cycle lasted for sixteen seconds.

Gear
Using a spur gear and a motor it is possible to create the tracking motion of the functional model.

This motion is about the azimuth axis. For optimal motion of the system then the motor needs to

have a low rpm while the spur gear should have a high pitch for a smoother motion. Using the

equation used to calculate power the power needed to power the tracker can be calculated, this is

in consideration that the polar rotation should be less than thirty minutes and also that the

acceleration time for the model was one second. The torque required by the motor to rotate the

system is given by the formula: =

56
Figure 23: spur gear

The torque required was 67.2 Nm although this torque was more than the torque required by the

tracker, thus using PWM the signal to the motor would be modulated to achieve an effective

torque that will saves on the battery power usage.

57
State equation for the system

To get the state equation of this systems motion the Lagrangian method played an important

role and through it the equations of motion of the linear actuator and gear driving motion were

obtained. During the derivation process three assumptions were made.

1. All the parts in the assembly are rigid thus only changes in the CGs will change the

systems energy.

2. Pin jointed linages are assumed to be frictionless, this is because they have low friction

bearings that have an efficiency of approximately ninety five percent.

3. The presence of dynamic forces in members moving at a moderate high speed often

cancels out the effect of gravity on the system. However, on this assembly, motion is

relatively low hence less dynamic forces and consequently a greater effect of gravity on

the system.

58
Assembly

Figure 24: gear system assembly

59
Figure 25: beam and gear assembly

Figure 26: panel mount assembly

60
Figure 27: panel mount and beam assembly

Figure 28: panel assembly

61
Figure 29: final assembly

Conclusion

The functional model for this project met all the design requirements for a standard solar

tracking system with a final weight of approximately 62lb with the three sensors integrated. It

could easily be assembled and disassembled by one or two people at most. Finally as for the

efficiency of the model the polar resolution was 0.4 degrees for the polar and axis.

62
 References

Two-axis tracker for solar panels and the like. (2013). Washington, D.C.

Poulek, V., Khudysh, A., & Libra, M. (2016). Self powered solar tracker for Low Concentration

PV (LCPV) systems. Solar Energy, 127, 109-112.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.12.054

Fuel Cells 5/2015. (2015). Fuel Cells, 15(5), 648-649. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fuce.201590015

Penella-Lopez, M., & Gasulla Forner, M. (2011). Powering autonomous sensors. Dordrecht

[Netherlands]: Springer.

Two-axis tracking solar collector mechanism. (1990). Berkeley, Calif.

63