THE MARIA REGINA SERIES-NO. 3.

The Mystical Body of Christ

AND

The Reorganization of Society

by

REV. DENIS FAHEY, C.S.Sp., D.D., D.Ph.,

B.A. (Civil and Constitutional History, Political Economy
and General Jurisprudence),
Professor of Philosophy and Church History,
Holy Ghost Missionary College, Kimmayc, Dublin.

"About the ' r i g h t s of man,' as they are called, the people have heard
enough: it is time they should hear of the Rights of God."
(Encyclical Letter, Tanictsi, On Christ Our Redeemer,
Pope I^o X I I I , Nov. 1st, 1900).

1945
THE FORUM PRESS, CORK
Biblio!que Saint Libre

http://www.liberius.net
Bibliothque Saint Libre 2008.
Free to reproduce for any non-profit purpose.
 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
and
THE REORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY
Imprimi potest: D. MURPHY, C.S.Sp. ?

Praep. Prov. Hib.

Nihil obslat: PATRICIUS SJ3XT0N, D.D., V.G.,

Censor Deputatus.

Imprimatur: * DANIEL,
Episcopus Corcagiensis.
Corcagiae, Jan. 26, 1943.

Printed in Ireland.
 Dedication

To t h e I m m a c u l a t e H e a r t of t h e V i r g i n M a r y , M o t h e r of G o d ;
t o S t . J o s e p h , P r o t e c t o r of t h e U n i v e r s a l C h u r c h ; t o S t .
T h o m a s A q u i n a s , t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ' s C h o s e n T e a c h e r of
O r d e r ; to S t . T e r e s a of t h e Child J e s u s , t h e H e r a l d of t h e
l o v i n g F a t h e r h o o d of G o d t o a n u n g r a t e f u l w o r l d , t h i s b o o k
is h u m b l y a n d l o v i n g l y d e d i c a t e d b y t h e a u t h o r .

" Q u e e n of t h e M o s t H o l y R o s a r y , H e l p of C h r i s t i a n s , R e f u g e
of t h e H u m a n R a c e , W e h u m b l y p r o s t r a t e O u r s e l v e s b e f o r e t h e e ,
c o n f i d e n t of o b t a i n i n g m e r c y a n d of r e c e i v i n g g r a c e a n d b o u n t i
ful a s s i s t a n c e in t h e p r e s e n t c a l a m i t y , n o t b e c a u s e of O u r o w n
m e r i t s b u t s o l e l y t h r o u g h t h e g r e a t g o o d n e s s of i h y M a t e r n a l
Heart.

" W e , a s c o m m o n F a t h e r of t h e C h r i s t i a n f a m i l y , a s V i c a r of
H i m t o w h o m w a s g i v e n all p o w e r in h e a v e n a n d o n e a r t h a n d
f r o m w h o m W e h a v e r e c e i v e d t h e c a r e of all t h e s o u l s , r e d e e m e d
b y H i s P r e c i o u s Blood, t h a t people the entire world, to thy I m
m a c u l a t e H e a r t , in t h i s t r a g i c h o u r of h u m a n h i s t o r y , W e confide
Ourselves and consecrate not only Holy Church, the Mystical
1
B o d y of t h y S o n , w h i c h suffers a n d b l e e d s in s o m a n y p l a c e s ,
a n d is s o r e l y t r i e d i n s o m a n y w a y s , b u t a l s o t h e e n t i r e w o r l d ,
t o r n b y fierce s t r i f e a n d c o n s u m e d vyith a fire of h a t e , v i c t i m of
its o w n w i c k e d n e s s " ( E x t r a c t from P o p e Pius X I P s Broadcast to
P o r t u g a l , 31st O c t o b e r , 1942).
 Preface
T H E AIM OF THIS BOOK.

I n m y b o o k , The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modern World T

a f t e r h a v i n g t r e a t e d s u c c i n c t l y of t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r , I
s t r e s s e d especially the opposition to t h a t Divine P l a n o w i n g to
t h e e x i s t e n c e in t h e w o r l d of f o r c e s o r g a n i z e d for t h e diffusion of
Naturalism or Anti-Supernaturalisni. N a t u r a l i s m is in p r a c t i c e
t h e s a m e t h i n g a s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , t h e
Catholic C h u r c h , i n s t i t u t e d by O u r Divine L o r d J e s u s Christ as
t h e visible e x p r e s s i o n as well as the divinely-accredited e x p o n e n t
of t h e D i v i n e P l a n f o r o r d e r in t h e w o r l d . T o t h a t D i v i n e P l a n
f o r o r d e r t h e r e n e i t h e r is n o r c a n be a n y m a n - m a d e a l t e r n a t i v e .
M a n has n o t even g o t the r i g h t to p r o p o s e an a l t e r n a t i v e . His
d u t y is s i m p l y t o t r y t o g r a s p w h a t G o d h a s i n s t i t u t e d a n d t o
b o w d o w n h i s h e a d in h u m b l e a c c e p t a n c e . T h u s a l o n e c a n h e
fully a c k n o w l e d g e G o d ' s R i g h t s , l i e m a y d e b a t e o n h o w b e s t t o
a r r a n g e t h e s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s P l a n ,
i n t h e v a r y i n g c o n c r e t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of d i f f e r e n t e p o c h s , b u t n o t
a b o u t w h e t h e r h e o u g h t t o a c c e p t G o d ' s P l a n o r d r a w u p his o w n
s c h e m e . T h e w o r l d m u s t c o n f o r m to O u r L o r d , n o t H e t o it.
In this book I have m o r e especially stressed Christ's p r o g r a m m e
f o r o r d e r i n t h e w o r l d a s e l a b o r a t e d b y t h e C h u r c h . I t is t h e d u t y
of t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e in a n d l o v e O u r L o r d n o t t o w h i t t l e d o w n
His p r o g r a m m e but to preach the integral truth and to urge the
world to the one course befitting creatureshumble submission
t o o r d e r . " T h e g e n e r a l w e l l - b e i n g a n d t h e s e c u r i t y of S t a t e s / '
w r i t e s P o p e L e o X I I I in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Tametsi, " demand
t h a t m e n s h o u l d be b r o u g h t b a c k t o H i m f r o m w h o m t h e y o u g h t
n e v e r t o h a v e d e p a r t e d , t o H i m w h o is t h e w a y , t h e t r u t h a n d t h e
life, a n d n o t o n l y isolated individuals b u t h u m a n society as a whole.
C h r i s t O u r L o r d m u s t b e r e i n s t a t e d as t h e R u l e r of h u m a n s o c i e t y .
I t b e l o n g s t o H i m a s d o all its m e m b e r s . All t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e
c o m m o n w e a l t h l e g a l c o m m a n d s and prohibitions, p o p u l a r insti
tutions, schools, m a r r i a g e , home-life, the w o r k s h o p and the man
s i o n , all m u s t b e g o t t o c o m e t o t h a t f o u n t a i n a n d i m b i b e t h e life
t h a t comes from H i m . . . . T h o s e w h o s e minds refuse to ack
n o w l e d g e Christ, a r e o b s t i n a t e l y s t r i v i n g against God
T h e l a w of C h r i s t o u g h t t o h o l d s w a y in h u m a n s o c i e t y a n d in
c o m m u n i t i e s , s o a s t o be t h e t e a c h e r a n d g u i d e of p u b l i c n o less
 II THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t h a n p r i v a t e life. T h i s b e i n g d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d a n d p r o v i d e d , n o
one m a y resist with impunity. . .
" B y t h e l a w of C h r i s t w e m e a n n o t m e r e l y t h e p r e c e p t s of
n a t u r a l morality, or those t h a t the ancients received by revelation,
all of w h i c h J e s u s C h r i s t p e r f e c t e d a n d r a i s e d t o t h e h i g h e s t p l a n e ,
by His explanations, His interpretations and His sanctions. We
m e a n , b e s i d e s , all t h e r e s t of H i s d o c t r i n e a n d in p a r t i c u l a r all H i s
i n s t i t u t i o n s . Of t h e s e t h e C h u r c h is t h e chief. I n d e e d , w h a t i n s t i
t u t i o n of C h r i s t is t h e r e t h a t * h e d o e s n o t fully e m b r a c e a n d i n
clude? B y t h e m i n i s t r y of t h e C h u r c h , s o g l o r i o u s l y f o u n d e d b y
H i m , H e w i l l e d to p e r p e t u a t e t h e office a s s i g n e d t o H i m b y H i s
F a t h e r , a n d h a v i n g , o n t h e o n e h a n d , c o n f e r r e d u p o n h e r all effect
ual aids for h u m a n salvation, on t h e other, H e o r d a i n e d w i t h the
u t m o s t e m p h a s i s t h a t all m e n s h o u l d b e s u b j e c t to h e r as t o H i m
7
self, a n d z e a l o u s l y follow h e r g u i d a n c e in e v e r y d e p a r t m e n t of
life. ' H e that h c a r c t h you, h e a r c t h m e ; and he t h a t despiseth
y o u , d e p i s e t h m e ' ( S t . L u k e , x , 1 6 ) . S o t h e l a w of C h r i s t is a l w a y s
t o b e s o u g h t f r o m t h e C h u r c h , a n d t h e r e f o r e a s C h r i s t is f o r m e n
t h e W a y , s o l i k e w i s e t h e C h u r c h is t h e w a y . H e is so in H i m s e l f
a n d b y H i s o w n n a t u r e , s h e b y H i s c o m m i s s i o n a n d b y a s h a r e in
H i s p o w e r . O n this a c c o u n t t h o s e w h o w o u l d s t r i v e for s a l v a t i o n
apart from the Church, wander from the way and are struggling
i n v a i n . G o v e r n m e n t s a r e in m u c h t h e s a m e c a s e a s i n d i v i d u a l s :
t h e y a l s o w i l l i n e v i t a b l y r u n t o t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n if t h e y d e p a r t
from the W a y . "
N o w t h i s o n e n e s s of t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r s e t f o r t h b y
t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d t h e p a r a m o u n t n a t u r e of G o d ' s R i g h t s
a r e difficult i d e a s for t h e m o d e r n m i n d t o g r a s p , b e c a u s e of t h e
r a v a g e s of r e l i g i o u s i n d i ( T e r e n c e a n d t h e diffusion of F r e n c h r e v o
l u t i o n a r y i d e a s . T h e n a t u r a l i s t i c D e c l a r a t i o n of i h c r i g h t s of m a n
h a s o b s c u r e d in m a n y m i n d s t h e g r e a t i r u t h s t h a t m a n ' s t r u e
r i g h t s a r e b a s e d o n his d u t i e s t o G o d a n d t h a t his d u t i e s t o G o d
c a n o n l y b e fulfilled t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t . A g a i n , m a n y
a r e n o t a s f a m i l i a r a s t h e y o u g h t t o be w i t h t h e o u t l i n e s of t h e
D i v i n e P l a n s e t f o r t h in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r s of t h e l a s t f o u r
P o p e s . A f t e r P o p e P i u s I X h a d c a t a l o g u e d t h e chief e r r o r s of
m o d e r n t i m e s a g a i n s t G o d ' s R i g h t s a n d t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t ,
P o p e s Leo X I I I , Pius X, Benedict X V and Pius XI set o u t the
p o s i t i v e p r o g r a m m e b y w h i c h G o d ' s R i g h t s a n d t h e r u l e of C h r i s t
t h e K i n g in i t s i n t e g r i t y a r e a c k n o w l e d g e d .

MAN'S RESPONSE T O GOD'S LOVING CONDESCENSION

or
THE THEOLOGY OF HISTORY.
T o r e m e d y the d i s o r d e r i n t r o d u c e d into the w o r l d by the sin
of t h e first A d a m , G o d c a m e o n e a r t h in t h e P e r s o n of O u r L o r d
 PREFACE in

Jesus Christ and put before the Jewish Nation, from which He
had taken His Sacred Humanity, the divine programme for the
ordered organization .of the world. At the same time, He asked
them to be its heralds. Our Lord's programme comprised the
establishment of a supernatural, supranational kingdom to safe
guard His teaching and diffuse the restored Supernatural Life of
Grace. Into this kingdom all men of all nations were called upon
to enter, while continuing to be subjects of the different natural
States and nations. The Jewish nation rejected the Divine Plan
for order. As a result of the growth of national self-centredness,
they refused to accept that there was any life higher than their
national life and they would not hear of the non-Jewish nations
coming in as members of the Messianic kingdom, on the same
level as themselves. In spite of their persistent opposition, how
ever, and notwithstanding the weakness of fallen human nature,
Western Europe in the 13th century had come to acknowledge
God's Rights, in accordance with the Divine Plan He had Him
self laid down, and had organized society on the basis that man's
supreme dignity is his .supernatural and supranational life as a
member of Christ. Since then until recently, there has been steady
decay, with disastrous consequences. Ilcforc entering upon the
consideration of that decay and its sad consequences and quoting
what the Popes say about them. let us examine what God dedres
to sec in human social organization.
All men are called by God to be members of Christ in the
supernatural, supranational kingdom of the Catholic Church, and
all arc meant to lead ordered lives in accordance with that dignity,
animating their activities with supernatural charity. Accordingly,
God desires harmony and collaboration, not separation and con
flict, between the two perfect societies, Church and State, to which
men are subject. "God has divided between the ecclesiastical and
the civil power the task of procuring the well-being of the human
race. He has appointed the former to divine, the latter to human
things. Each of them is supreme in its own sphere: each is en
closed within perfectly defined boundaries, delimited in exact con
formity with its nature and principle. Each is therefore circum
scribed within a sphere in which it can act and move by its own
native right. But, inasmuch as each of these two powers has
authority over the same subjects, and as it might come to pass
that one and the same thingrelated differently, but still remain
ing one and the same thingmight belong to the jurisdiction and
determination of both, therefore God, who foresees all things,
and who is the author of these two powers, has marked out the
course of each in right correlation to the other. ' For the powers
that are are ordained of God.'W Were this not so, deplorable coi

U> Bom.. X I I I , i.
 IV THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t e n t i o n s a n d conflicts w o u l d o f t e n a r i s e , a n d n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y m e n ,
l i k e t r a v e l l e r s at t h e m e e t i n g of t w o r o a d s , w o u l d h e s i t a t e in
a n x i e t y a n d doubt, not k n o w i n g w h a t c o u r s e to follow. Two
p o w e r s w o u l d be c o m m a n d i n g c o n t r a r y t h i n g s , a n d it w o u l d b e a
d e r e l i c t i o n of d u t y t o d i s o b e y e i t h e r of t h e t w o . B u t it w o u l d b e
m o s t r e p u g n a n t to h a v e s u c h a n o p i n i o n of t h e w i s d o m a n d g o o d
n e s s of G o d T h e r e m u s t , accordingly, exist b e t w e e n these
t w o p o w e r s , a certain o r d e r l y connection, which m a y be c o m p a r e d
t o t h e u n i o n of the soul a n d b o d y in m a n . T h e n a t u r e a n d s c o p e
of t h a t c o n n e c t i o n c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d o n l y , a s W e h a v e laid d o w n ,
b y h a v i n g r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e of e a c h p o w e r , a n d b y t a k i n g a c
c o u n t of t h e r e l a t i v e e x c e l l e n c e a n d n o b i l i t y of t h e i r p u r p o s e . O n e
o f t h e t w o h a s for p r o x i m a t e a n d chief o b j e c t t h e w e l l - b e i n g of
(2
t h i s m o r t a l l i f e ; the o t h e r t h e e v e r l a s t i n g j o y s of h e a v e n . " >
S t a t e s , of c o u r s e , a s w e l l a s p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e c a l l e d u p o n
t o a c k n o w l e d g e the o r d e r e s t a b l i s h e d by G o d . " I t is a sin for t h e
S t a t e n o t t o h a v e a c a r e f o r r e l i g i o n , a s if it w e r e b e y o n d i t s s c o p e
o r of n o p r a c t i c a l b e n e f i t ; o r o u t of m a n y f o r m s of r e l i g i o n t o
a d o p t t h a t o n e w h i c h c h i m e s w i t h i t s f a n c y ; (or tor arc bound
absolutely to )vorship God in that to aif which lie has shoum to he.
His will H e n c e civil s o c i e t y , e s t a b l i s h e d for t h e c o m m o n
w e l f a r e , s h o u l d n o t o n l y s a f e g u a r d t h e w e l l - b e i n g of t h e c o m
m u n i t y , b u t h a v e also a t h e a r t t h e i n t e r e s t s of its i n d i v i d u a l m e m
b e r s , in s u c h w i s e a s n o t in a n y w a y t o h i n d e r , b u t in e v e r y m a n
n e r t o r e n d e r a s e a s y a s p o s s i b l e , t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h a t h i g h e s t
a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e g o o d f o r w h i c h all s h o u l d s e e k . W h e r e f o r e , f o r
t h i s p u r p o s e , c a r e m u s t e s p e c i a l l y be t a k e n t<> p r e s e r v e u n h a r m e d
a n d u n i m p a i r e d t h e r e l i g i o n w h e r e o f t h e p r a c t i c e is t h e l i n k c o n
( 3 )
necting man with God." T h e r i g h t o r d e r of t h e w o r l d d e m a n d s
t h e r e c o g n i t i o n b y S t a t e s of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d s u p r a n a t i o n a l
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . It is c l e a r l y a n i n s u l t t o G o d t o p u t m a n - m a d e
r e l i g i o n s o n t h e s a m e l e v e l a s t h e r e l i g i o n i n s t i t u t e d by G o d . O t h e r
f o r m s of d i v i n e w o r s h i p m a y b e t o l e r a t e d . " T h e C h u r c h , i n d e e d / '
w r i t e s P o p e L e o XI 1.1, " d e e m s it u n l a w f u l t o p l a c e t h e v a r i o u s
f o r m s of d i v i n e w o r s h i p o n t h e s a m e f o o t i n g a s t h e t r u e r e l i g i o n ,
b u t docs not, o n that a c c o u n t , c o n d e m n t h o s e r u l e r s w h o , for t h e
s a k e of s e c u r i n g s o m e g r e a t go'ocl o r of h i n d e r i n g s o m e g r e a t evil,
p a t i e n t l y a l l o w c u s t o m o r u s a g e t o b e a k i n d of s a n c t i o n for e a c h
k i n d of r e l i g i o n h a v i n g i t s p l a c e in t h e S l a t e . A n d in fact t h e
C h u r c h is w o n t to t a k e e a r n e s t h e e d t h a t n o o n e s h a l l be f o r c e d
4)
to e m b r a c e the Catholic faith a g a i n s t his will."<
In p r o p o r t i o n as t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r l y c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e -
(2) Pope Leo X I I I , E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Immortal e Del, On the Chris
tian Constitution of States.
(3) Pope Leo X I I I , E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Immortale Dei, On the Chris
tian Constitution of States.
(4) Ibid.
 PREFACE v

tween the two powers is realized, there flourishes that relative

peace and happiness that can be ours on the way to heaven. When,
on the other hand, the Divine Plan is combated and opposed, the
world inevitably suffers. The Sovereign Pontiffs insist upon this.
" There was once a time," writes Pope Leo XIII, " when States
were governed by the principles of the Gospel teaching. Then it
was that the power and divine virtue of Christian wisdom had
diffused itself throughout the laws, institutions, and morals of the
people, permeating all ranks and relations of civil society. Then,
too, the religion instituted by Jesus Christ, established firmly in
befitting dignity, flourished everywhere, by the favour of
princes and the legitimate protection of magistrates: and
Church and State were happily united in concord and
friendly interchange of good offices. The State, constitu
ted in this wise, bore fruits beyond all expectation, whose
remembrance is still, and always will be, in renown.
A similar state of things would certainly have continued
had the agreement of the two powers been lasting. Even greater
results might have been justly looked for, had obedience been
given to the authority, teaching and counsels of the Church, and
especially had this submission been marked by greater and more
unswerving loyalty. For that should be regarded in the light of
an ever-changeless law which Tvo of Chartres wrote to Pope Pas
chal I I : ' When the kingdom and priesthood are at one, in complete
concord, the world is well ruled, and the Church flourishes, and
brings forth abundant fruit. But when they are at variance, not
only smaller interests prosper not, but even things of greatest
r t ( 5 )
moment fall into deplorable deca} 7
Pope Pius XI proclaims the same great truth when he quotes
the following passage from Pope Leo XIII: "It is generally
agreed that the Founder of the Church, Our Lord Jesus Christ,
wished the spiritual power to be distinct from the civil, and each
to be free and unhampered in doing its own work, not forgetting,
however, that it is expedient to both, and in the interest of every
body, that there be a harmonious relationship If the
civil power combines in a friendly manner with the spiritual power
of the Church, it necessarily follows that both parties will greatly
benefit. The dignity of the State will be enhanced, and with reli
gion as its guide, there will be at hand a safeguard and defence
which will operate to the public good of the faithful.

<6) Encyclical Letter, Immortale Dei, On the OvrtHtiam, Constitution

of States.
(6) Quoted by Pope Pins XI in the Encyclical, Gasti Govnubii* On
Christian Marriage, from the Encyclical Letter of Pope Leo XIII,
Arcanum Divinae Sapiential, On Christian Marriage. (Cf. the passage
from Cardinal Antoniano quoted with the highest approval by Pope
Pius X I : " The more closely the temporal power of a nation allies itself
 VI THR MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Pope Leo XI.11 outlines the disastrous consequences of the so-

called Reformation and of the French Revolution. " Sad it is to
call to mind," he writes, "how the harmful and lamentable rage
for innovation which rose to a climax in the sixteenth century,
threw first of all into confusion the Christian religion, and next,
by natural consequence, invaded the precincts of philosophy,
whence it spread amongst all classes of society. From this source,
as from a fountain-head, burst forth all those later tenets of un
bridled licence which, in the midst of the terrible upheaval of the
last century [the 18th|, were wildly conceived and boldly pro
claimed as the principles and foundation of that mnv jitris/rrudvnce
which was not merely previously unknown, but was at variance on
many points with not only the Christian, but even with the na
(7
tural law." J lie stigmatizes in particular the rejection by the
Stale of its duty to worship God in the way He has laid down and
the putting of all religions on the same level, as well as the turning
against the One Infallible Teacher of morality, the Catholic
Church. "The State does not consider itself bound by any duty
towards God. Moreover, ii believes that it is not obliged to make
public profession of any religion; or to inquire which of the very
many religions is the only true one: or to prefer one religion to
all the rest; or to show to any form of religion special favour; but,
on the contrary, is bound to grant equal rights to every creed pro
vided public order be not disturbed by any particular form of reli
gious belief To exclude the Church, founded by God
Himself, from the business of life, from the power of making laws,
from the training of youth, from domestic society, is a grave and
fatal error. A State from which religion is banished can never
be well regulated; and already perhaps more than is desirable is
known of the nature and tendency of the so-called riril philosophy
of life and morals. The Church of Christ is the true and sole
teacher of virtue and guardian of morals. She it is who preserves
(8)
in their purity the principles from which duties llow."
The rupture of the unity of the Divine Plan was followed by

with the spiritual, and the more it fosters and promotes the latter, by
so much the more it contributes to the conservation of the common
wealth. . . . How grave therefore is the error of those who separate
things so closely united, and who think that they can produce good
citizens by ways and methods other than those which make for the
formation of good Christiana! For hb human prudence say what it
will and reason as it pleases, it is impossible to produce true temporal
peace and tranquillity by things repugnant or opposed to the peace and
happiness of eternity " (Encyclical Letter, On the Christian Educa
tion of Youth).
Encyclical Letter, Imtnortaie
(7) Dei, On the Christian Constitution
of States.
(8) Encyclical Letter, Imtnortaie Dei, On the Christian Constitution
of States.
 PREFACE VII

the disastrous effects of liberalistic or independent morality, con

demned by Leo XIII in the Encyclical just quoted and in the one
on Human Liberty, in regard to economics and finance. Pope Pius
XI alludes to the failure of State authorites, bereft of
sure guidance in the moral sphere, to cope with these
effects. " A stern insistence on the moral law, enforced
with vigour by civil authority, could have dispelled or per
haps averted these enormous evils [injustices of Limited
Liability Companies. Fraudulent Speculations, etc., etc.] This,
however, was too often lamentably wanting. For at the time
when the new social order was beginning, the doctrines of ration
alism had already taken firm hold of large numbers, and an econo
mic science alien to the true moral law had soon arisen, whence
it followed that free rein was given to human avarice. As a result,
a much greater number than ever before, solely concerned with
adding to their wealth by any means whatsoever, sought their
own selfish interests above all things; they had no scruple in com
mitting the gravest injustices against others With the
leaders of business abandoning the true path it is not surprising
that multitudes of workingmen, too, sank in the same morass; all
the more so, because very many employers treated their work
men as mere tools, without any concern for the welfare of their
9
souls, indeed without the slightest thought of higher interests."* *
In the place of the right order in human affairs, by which money
or token wealth is subordinated to the production, distribution
and exchange of material goods or real wealth, and the production
of material goods is made to subserve family life and the develop
ment of human personality, the revolt against the Divine Plan has
substituted the subordination of family life and human personality
to the production of material goods and the domination of pro
duction by money. Pope Leo XI LI has spoken of the return of
usury under another guise as one of the factors contributing to
the quasi-enslavement of the proletariat. Those who control
money have come to occupy a dominant position in States and
their decisions have practically taken the place of those of the
guardians of the moral law.
This reversal of order with regard to economics, family life
and human personality, has partly resulted from, and in part con
tributed to, the domination of States by naturalistic anti-super
natural forces. The so-called Reformation sectioned off the
Christian life from the life of the citizen, so that political and
economic organization left membership of Christ out of account,
but it did not set up a supranational organization in the place of
the Catholic Church. That was reserved for the French Revolu
tion, in which was witnessed the first appearance in public of the
9
<> Encyclical Letter, Quadragesima Anno, On the Social Order.
 VIII THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

n e w ideal of a p u r e l y n a t u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y s t r i v i n g f o r t h e u n i v e r s
a l i t y of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . M o d e r n H i s t o r y s i n c e 1789 h a s b e e n ,
t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , t h e a c c o u n t of t h e d o m i n a t i o n of S t a t e a f t e r
S t a t e by t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y , b e
h i n d w h i c h h a s b e e n s t e a d i l y l o o m i n g up t h e still m o r e s t r o n g l y
o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n .
T h a t is w h y t h e p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y e p o c h h a s w i t n e s s e d , in c o u n
t r y a f t e r c o u n t r y , p e r s i s t e n t a t t a c k s on t h e p r o g r a m m e of C h r i s t
t h e K i n g in r e g a r d t o t h e C h u r c h , ilie S l a t e , t h e F a m i l y , E d u c a t i o n ,
the Religious Orders, ihe Press and Private Property. Soon after
e v e r y s u c c e s s f u l J u d a e o - M a s o n i c Rev<>lution, s i n c e t h e first in
1789 d o w n t o a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e S p a n i s h R e v o l u t i o n of 1931, t h e
w o r l d h a s b e g u n to h e a r of t h e c o u n t r y ' s e n t e r i n g u p o n t h e p a t h
of " p r o g r e s s " b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of " e n l i g h t e n e d " r e f o r m s , s u c h
a s , t h e s e p a r a t i o n of C h u r c h a n d S t a t e , the l e g a l i z a t i o n of d i v o r c e ,
t h e s u p p r e s s i o n a n d b a n i s h m e n t <>f r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s a n d c o n g r e g a
t i o n s , t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n of F r e e m a s o n r y , t h e s e c u l a r i z a t i o n of t h e
s c h o o l s , t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of p r o p e r t y a n d t h e u n r e s t r a i n e d lic
e n c e of t h e p r e s s .
A s t h e r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r in t h e w o r l d
a n d t h e d e n i a l of G o d ' s R i g h t s h a v e s p r e a d , r e s p e c t for m a n ' s p e r
10
sonal r i g h t s has diminished.* * T h e s e r i g h t s are b e i n g denied a n d
t h e w o r l d is t h r e a t e n e d w i t h t h e r e t u r n of a s l a v e r y w o r s e t h a n
t h a t of A n c i e n t R o m e , in p r o p o r t i o n a s r u l e r s of S t a t e s n o l o n g e r
s e e in t h e i r s u b j e c t s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . A s t h e social o r g a n i z a
t i o n of t h e w o r l d h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e r u l e
of C h r i s t t h e K i n g , h u m a n b e i n g s a r e b e i n g t r e a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e
a s m e r e i n d i v i d u a l s c o m p l e t e l y s u b j e c t to t h e S t a l e , j u s t a s in t h e
d a y s before Christ.
P o p e E e o X I I I s h o w s h o w i n e v i i a b l e all thi> w a s . " N e v e r t o
h a v e k n o w n J e s u s C h r i s t in a n y Avav," h e w r i t e s , " i s t h e g r e a t
e s t of m i s f o r t u n e s , b u t it i n v o l v e s n o p e r v e r s i t y ' o r i n g r a t i t u d e .
B u t , a f t e r h a v i n g k n o w n H i m . to r e j e c t o r f o r g e t H i m , is s u c h a
h o r r i b l e a n d m a d c r i m e a s to be s c a r c e l y c r e d i b l e . F o r H e is t h e
o r i g i n a n d s o u r c e of all g o o d , a n d j u s t a s m a n k i n d c o u l d n o t b e
f r e e d f r o m s l a v e r y but b y i h c s a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t , s o n e i t h e r c a n i t
b e p r e s e r v e d b u t b y J lis p o w e r T h e c a s e of g o v e r n
m e n t s is m u c h t h e s a m e a s t h a t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e y a l s o m u s t
r u n i n t o fatal i s s u e s if t h e y d e p a r t f r o m t h e W a y I^et
J e s u s be e x c l u d e d , a n d h u m a n r e a s o n is left w i t h o u t i t s g r e a t e s t
p r o t e c t i o n a n d i l l u m i n a t i o n ; t h e v e r y n o t i o n is e a s i l y l o s t of t h e

(it)) The chief of these r i g h t s will he e n u m e r a t e d in the t e x t of P o p e

P i u s X I quoted in C h a p t e r F: " T h e r i g h t to life, to bodily i n t e g r i t y ,
to o b t a i n the necessary m e a n s of e x i s t e n c e ; the r i g h t to tend t o w a r d s
h i s u l t i m a t e goal iu the p a t h m a r k e d o u t for him Ivy O w l : the r i g h t of
association a n d the r i g h t to possess a n d use p r o p e r t y " ( E n c y c l i c a l
L e t t e r , Vitnni Redan pterin. On A theiatic Communism).
 PREFACE IX

end for which God created human society, namely, that by the
help of their civil union the citizens should attain their natural
good, but nevertheless in a way not to conflict with that highest
and most perfect and enduring good which is above nature. Their
minds busy with a hundred confused projects, rulers and sub
jects alike travel a devious road, bereft, as they are, of safe guid
11
ance and fixed principle."* *
M. Maritain has some apposite remarks in this connection.
"The terrestrial State being ordained by nature." he writes, "to
the moral good of the human being, and therefore necessarily
ordained in fact to eternal life as to its last end and to the good of
the heavenly city, it is a metaphysical impossibility for the terres
trial State to attain its peculiar end and true prosperity in opposi
tion to the good of the Church. Yet it believed that it could. The
history of the modern world is the history of that illusion. The
12)
results arc before our eyes."<
We may look at the decay of social acknowledgment of the
Kingship of Christ in Europe in another way. We have seen that
Pope Leo XIII stigmatized the rejection by the Stale of the one
true religion and the putting of all religions on the same level.
Xow all the countries of Western Europe once worshipped the
Blessed Trinity in union with Christ as Priest in Holy Mass and
strove to organize iheir social life under Christ the King in accord
ance with thai protestation of homage. Satan succeeded first in
getting the countries we now call Protestant to break away from
that unity and reject the Mass. Then since the French Revolution, in
one Catholic country after another, Satan has succeeded in setting
up a native government hostile to the Mass and to the rule of
Christ the King. There are still two exceptionsPoland and Ire
land. It is true that the Mass has been attacked in both these
countries and Catholic education has been persecuted, but Satan
cannot yet boast that he has got a 'ttalivr Polish or a nafiw Irish
Government to insult the Mass and attack the formation of child
ren as members of Christ. P>ut, as I point out in Chapter XV 1. those
two countries, so remarkable for their traditional loyalty to God
the Father and Our Lord Jesus Christ, whom He has sent, are
weakening in their grasp of order. While other countries that
had succumbed to the wiles of Satan and his emissaries in the
past, have begun to react and arc returning to Our Lord and His
Church, those two countries, in the wake of so many others in the
past, have declared themselves indifferent to Him.
Article 114 of the Polish Constitutional Law of March 17th,
1921, re-enacted by the Constitutional Law of April 23rd, 1935,
states: " The Roman Catholic Faith, being the religion of the great

(ID Encyclical Letter, Tametsi, On Christ Our Redeemer.

2
d ) The Things that are not Caesar's, p. 4 1 .
X TUK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

majority of the nation, occupies a leading position in the State

among other religions, which, however, enjoy equal rights/' In
Ireland, by Article 44 of the Constitution in operation from De
cember 29th. 1937, "The State recognizes the special position of
the Holy Catholic Apostolic and Roman Church as the guardian
of the Faith professed by the great majority of the citizens " and
recognizes equally the Protestant Sects and the Jewish Congre
gations as the Churches of minorities. Thus the Polish State and
the Irish State, to put the matter succinctly, declare themselves,
as such, indifferent to the struggle between the True Supernatural
.Messias and the Natural Messias.
" Since the Catholic religion is the only true religion," writes
Pope Leo XIIT, " to put the other religions on the same level with
it is to treat it with the gravest injustice and offer it the worst
(1:J)
form of insult." This phrase of Pope Leo XITT occurs in an
Encyclical Letter dealing with Satan's efforts, through secret
societies, to undermine the Kingship of Christ in.the world. It is
the considered judgement of the great Pontiff on what has been
proclaimed, in country after country, to be one of the marks of
modern " progress."
Pope Pius XI insists upon the same point in the Letter
Qiws Priwtts (1925), On the Kinr/ship of Christ. There the Sov
ereign Pontiff declares that the naturalistic spirit gradually came
to infect society and thus "by degrees the religion of Christ was
put on the same level as false religions and placed ignominiously
in the same category with them." The insult to Christ the King
involved in that attitude should make every Catholic resolve to
undo it. That it does not is proof of how low we have fallen and
of how sadly we have been influenced by our environment. We
shall have a clearer understanding of these things at the "last
judgement when Christ, who has been cast out of public life,
14
neglected and ignored, will severely avenge such insults."< >

ORGANIZED OPPOSITION TO OUR SUPER

NATURAL LIFE.
In this book, as in The Mystical Body of Christ in the .Modern
World, 1 have treated at some length of the organized opposition
to Our Lord Jesus Christ and to His work of permeating the world
with the influence of the Supernatural Life of the Blessed Trinity.
The steady decay in social acknowledgment of the Kingship of
Christ, which the world has witnessed for the past ISO years, is
in great part due to the action of the visible naturalistic forces of
the Jewish Nation and Freemasonry, acting under the anti-super-

(13) Encyclical Letter, Hunumum genus. On Freemasonry.

(14) Encyclical Letter, Qua ft Primes, On the King ship of Christ.
 PREFACE XI

n a t u r a l i n s p i r a t i o n of S a t a n . T h a t a c t i o n o w e s its s u c c e s s in l a r g e
m e a s u r e t o s e c r e t o r g a n i z a t i o n . Needless to say, the plotting of
secret societies does not suffice to account for everything in his
tory, for the causes of historical events are very complex. But if
these forces are left out of account, modern history becomes a
puzzle. T h e a r t of m a n o e u v r i n g h u m a n b e i n g s t o w a r d s a c e r t a i n
g o a l , w i t h o u t their b e i n g a w a r e t h a t t h e y are being so m a n o e u v r e d ,
h a s b e e n b r o u g h t t o a p i t c h of p e r f e c t i o n n e v e r b e f o r e a t t a i n e d .
T h e c o n t r o l of m o n e y f a c i l i t a t e s t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e p o w e r t o
i n f l u e n c e all t h e t e c h n i c a l a g e n c i e s for t h e f o r m a t i o n of p u b l i c
opinionthe Press, the Radio and the Cinema.
I t is c e r t a i n l y t r u e , a s h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d , t h a t it is in g r e a t
m e a s u r e b e c a u s e C a t h o l i c s fail to live fully as m e m b e r s of C h r i s t
t h a t O u r L o r d ' s e n e m i e s s u c c e e d in t h e i r d e s i g n s . " If J e w s c o n
t r o l t h e f a s h i o n s / ' t h e q u e s t i o n is a s k e d , " w h o w e a r t h e m ? "
B u t it is a l s o t r u e t h a t C a t h o l i c s s u c c u m b t o t h e m a c h i n a t i o n s of
O u r L o r d ' s e n e m i e s l a r g e l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o t t r a i n e d for t h e
r e a l s t r u g g l e in t h e w o r l d . T h e y l e a v e s c h o o l w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e
k n o w l e d g e of t h e o r g a n i z e d o p p o s i t i o n t h e y will h a v e to m e e t
a n d w i t h t h e i r m i n d s h a z y a b o u t t h e p o i n t s of social o r g a n i z a t i o n
for which they m u s t s t a n d and against which a t t a c k s are b e i n g
d i r e c t e d . T h e y do n o t r e a l i z e t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n ' s u l t i m a t e a i m
is t h e d i s r u p t i o n of C h r i s t ' s o r d e r a n d t h e y a r e n o t a c c u s t o m e d
to think that they m u s t co-operate with other y o u n g Catholics
f o r O u r L o r d ' s p r o g r a m m e , t h a t t h e y m u s t , for e x a m p l e , m a s t e r
t h e c i n e m a a n d p r e v e n t it f r o m u n d e r m i n i n g C h r i s t i a n m a r r i a g e ,
t h e f o u n d a t i o n of f a m i l y life in t h e i r c o u n t r y . T h u s t h e y d i s p l a y
a l a m e n t a b l e l a c k of c o h e s i o n a n d a p i t i a b l e w a n t of e n t h u s i a s m
for Christ's i n t e r e s t s , w i t h the result that Catholics w h o stand for
i n t e g r a l C h r i s t i a n i t y c a n a l w a y s c o u n t o n finding o t h e r C a t h o l i c s
i n t h e s e r v i c e of t h e e n e m y . " M a n y t i m e s , " w r o t e P o p e P i u s X I
i n t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Divini Rrdnnptoris, " Our paternal heart
h a s b e e n s a d d e n e d b y t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s . . . . w h i c h a r r a y in o p
p o s i n g c a m p s t h e s o n s of t h e s a m e M o t h e r C h u r c h . T h u s it is
t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , w h o a r e n o t so v e r y n u m e r o u s . . . e n d
by pitting Catholics one against the other."

MEMBERS OF ONE BODY UNDER CHRIST

OUR HEAD.

T h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e o r g a n i z e d p r o p a g a t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m
w i l l d e m a n d an i n t e g r a l g r a s p of o u r c o r p o r a t e o n e n e s s w i t h
Christ. W e c o m e into union w i t h O u r L o r d not as isolated in
d i v i d u a l s b u t a s m e m b e r s of a s u p e r n a t u r a l o r g a n i s m , t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of C h r i s t . E a c h b a p t i z e d C h r i s t i a n e n t e r s i n t o an i n t e r i o r
vital relation with Christ through being incorporated into the
o r g a n i s m of w h i c h C h r i s t is t h e i n v i s i b l e H e a d . O r , t o e x p r e s s it
6
XII TIIK MYSTICAL P.ODY OF CHRIST

more in accordance with reality, Christ unites each baptized

Christian with Himself by incorporating him or her into a living
organism, of which He is the invisible Head. That organism,
supernatural and supranational, is desiined lo permeate the whole
social life of States and Nations with the spirit of supernatural
solidarity in Christ. Of course, the end aimed at by this super
natural organism in its permeation of Society is the development
of the individual member's personality through interior union with
Christ. Hut the individual member will develop his interior per
sonal life only in proportion as he forgets self for the sake of the
Head and the whole Iiody. All of us. as members of Christ, must
strive lo realize the fulness of St. Paul's expression: " I live, now
not I ; but Christ liveth in me " (Gal., II. 20).
\n the physical body an individual member can attain its full
development only by fulfilling its function in perfect subjection to
the head and in complete harmony with the other members, thus
co-operating for the good of the whole body, so analogously in the
Mystical Hody of Christ, an individual member must, as it were,
lose himself in order to find himself really. Many Catholics, un
consciously influenced by Protestant individualism, not only con
sider themselves as imitating Christ, our Model, from outside, so
to say, but regard themselves as having an isolated individual rela
tion with Christ. They do not bring home to themselves suffici
ently that all Christ's members form one organism under Christ,
battling for the divine order of the world, and that they can grow
up in Christ, only by supplying their quotas of self-sacrifice in their
places in the supernatural organism of 1 lis Mystical I>ody.
Other Catholics seem to be unconsciously iniluenced by the
Lutheran separation of the Christian and the Citizen and consider
their spiritual life as a purely interior relation with Christ. The
spiritual life is, as it were, sectioned off from ordinary everyday
life. They are in danger of allowing the world around them to be
organized against Our Lord's programme for order, while they
continue to practise their religion more or less unconcernedly.
Thev do not sufhcicntlv realize that we enter into vital relation
with Christ through being incorporated into a visible organism
and that wc must take as the starting-point of our spiritual life
the objective fact of this incorporation. We must not. initiate our
spiritual life by the soul's looking at itself somewhat after the
subjective fashion in which Descartes started intellectual life. The
spiritual life is not the life of a *' soul," but the life of a member
of Christ, composed of soul and body, occupying a place in an
organic unity destined to mould the world for Christ.
The whole body grows in charity and union with Christ, when
each part supplies what it is destined to give, according to its
position and function. In Chapter IV of the Kpistle to the Ephes-
 PREFACE XIII

i a n s , e s p e c i a l l y in v e r s e s 11, 12, 15, 16, St. P a u l i n s i s t s u p o n t h i s

p o s i t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . W e h a v e g r o w n a c c u s t o m e d to c o n s i d e r
ing ourselves as s e p a r a t e individuals looking at Christ from out
s i d e , e a c h o n e l i v i n g h i s o r h e r i n d i v i d u a l life w i t h C h r i s t . W e
m u s t c o n s i d e r o u r s e l v e s a s w e r e a l l y a r e , t h a t is, a s o n e w i t h
C h r i s t a n d a s b e i n g m o v e d b y H i m a s a b o d y for t h e m o u l d i n g
a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of s o c i e t y . In t h i s w a y did t h e e a r l y C h r i s t
i a n s t r a n s f o r m t h e s o c i e t y of I m p e r i a l R o m e . A n d in t h e s a m e
w a y all C a t h o l i c s will b e m a d e r e a d y t o r e s p o n d t o a call s u c h
a s w a s m a d e b y P o p e P i u s X t o t h e F r e n c h H i e r a r c h y , in h i s L e t
ter on the S H I o n , " A s in t h e conflict of i n t e r e s t s / ' w r o t e t h e
P o p e , " a n d m o s t of all in t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t u n j u s t f o r c e s , a
man's v i r t u e d o e s n o t a l w a y s suffice t o a s s u r e h i m h i s d a i l y b r e a d ,
a n d a s t h e s o c i a l m a c h i n e r y o u g h t t o be so o r g a n i z e d a s b y i t s
n a t u r a l a c t i o n t o p a r a l y s e t h e e f f o r t s of t h e w i c k e d , a n d t o r e n d e r
a c c e s s i b l e t o e v e r y m a n of g o o d w i l l h i s l e g i t i m a t e s h a r e of t e m
poral happiness, W e earnestly desire that you should take an
a c t i v e s h a r e in o r g a n i z i n g s o c i e t y f o r t h a t p u r p o s e . "
T h e r e t u r n of t h e w o r l d t o o r d e r m e a n s i t s r e t u r n t o t h e
i n t e g r a l t r u t h of C h r i s t . " W h e n a n o r g a n i s m d e c a y s a n d b e c o m e s
c o r r u p t , " w r o t e P o p e L e o X I T I , " i t is b e c a u s e it h a s c e a s e d t o b e
u n d e r t h e a c t i o n of t h e c a u s e s w h i c h h a d g i v e n it i t s f o r m a n d
c o n s t i t u t i o n . T o m a k e it h e a l t h y a n d flourishing a g a i n it is n e c e s
s a r y t o r e s t o r e i t t o t h e v i v i f y i n g a c t i o n of t h o s e s a m e c a u s e s .
. . . J u s t as C h r i s t i a n i t y c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e into t h e soul w i t h o u t
m a k i n g it b e t t e r , s o it c a n n o t e n t e r i n t o public life w i t h o u t e s t a b
lishing order Tf i t h a s t r a n s f o r m e d p a g a n s o c i e t y . . . .
so, a f t e r t h e t e r r i b l e s h o c k s w h i c h u n b e l i e f h a s g i v e n t o t h e w o r l d
in o u r d a y s , it will b e a b l e t o p u t t h a t w o r l d a g a i n o n t h e t r u e
r o a d , a n d b r i n g b a c k t o o r d e r t h S t a t e s a n d p e o p l e s of m o d e r n
t i m e s . B u t t h e r e t u r n of C h r i s t i a n i t y will n o t be efficacious a n d
c o m p l e t e if it d o e s n o t r e s t o r e t h e w o r l d t o a s i n c e r e l o v e of t h e
O n e Ploly C a t h o l i c a n d A p o s t o l i c C h u r c h . In t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h
C h r i s t i a n i t y is i n c a r n a t e . Jt is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h a t p e r f e c t s p i r i t
ual s o c i e t y , s o v e r e i g n in i t s o w n o r d e r , w h i c h is t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of J e s u s C h r i s t a n d w h i c h h a s f o r i t s visible h e a d t h e R o m a n
Pontiff, s u c c e s s o r of t h e P r i n c e of t h e A p o s t l e s , . . . S o c i e t y s o
s a d l y g o n e a s t r a y m u s t r e - e n t e r t h e b o s o m of t h e C h u r c h , if it
( 1 5 J
wishes t o r e c o v e r its well-being, its repose a n d its s a l v a t i o n . "

SOME EXPRESSIONS OF THANKS.

I a m u n d e r a p a r t i c u l a r o b l i g a t i o n t o M i s s G. M . C o o g a n , of
C h i c a g o , w r i t e r of Money Creators a n d Law fid Money Lectures,
for g u i d a n c e a n d i n s t r u c t i o n o n t h e s u b j e c t of finance. Jf t h i s

(is) Apostolic Letter, March 19th, 1902, Review of his Pontificate,

 XIV THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

b o o k p r o v e s helpful t o o t h e r s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f
m o n e y t o t h e real o r d e r of t h e w o r l d , it is in g r e a t p a r t o w i n g t o
Miss Coogan's kindness. She not only assisted m e with books
a n d a d v i c e , b u t s p u r r e d m e on t o t h e effort r e q u i r e d t o h e l p t h e
p o o r on t h e o n e h a n d a n d t o e n l i g h t e n t h e b e w i l d e r e d o n t h e o t h e r .
I m u s t a l s o t h a n k P r o f e s s o r O ' R a h i l l y of U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e ,
C o r k , f o r f r e e l y p u t t i n g his p r o f o u n d l e a r n i n g a t m y d i s p o s a l . I
a m o n l y o n e of m a n y w h o m t h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d I r i s h m a n h a s m a d e
bis d e b t o r s .
1 b e g to r e t u r n m y m o s t g r a t e f u l t h a n k s to those firms and
w r i t e r s from whose books I have quoted at some length. The
p e r m i s s i o n t o d o so h a s b e e n m o s t g e n e r o u s l y a c c o r d e d . I n p a r
ticular, 1 wish to m e n t i o n the f o l l o w i n g : T h e E c o n o m i c R e f o r m
C l u b a n d I n s t i t u t e for The Hoot, of All Evil, b y Sir R e g i n a l d R o w e ;
A l f r e d A. Knopf, Inc., N e w Y o r k , f o r America Conquers Britain,
b y L u d w e l l D e n n y ; Messr.s. C h a p m a n a n d H a l l , L t d . , for The
Polish Jew, by B e a t r i c e C. B a s k e r v i l l e ; M r . G e o f f r e y C r o w t h e r
a n d M e s s r s . T h o m a s N e l s o n a n d S o n s , L t d . , for M r . C r o w t h e r ' s
b o o k , An Outline of Monet/; M e s s r s . C h a t t o a n d W i n d u s , for The
Modern Idolatry, by J e l T r e y M a r k ; M r . A. N. F i e l d . N e l s o n , N e w
Z e a l a n d , f o r The Truth about the Slump, All These Things, Un
taught History of Money, The Truth about New Zealand, and
Socialism U nw/fsked; T h e C o n t r o l l e r of TI.M. S t a t i o n e r y Office f o r
The Report of the Select Committer on Patent Medicines (H.C.
4 1 4 ) ; K . R . P . P u b l i c a t i o n s , for Ta.r-Bmids or Bondage, by J o h n
M i t c h e l l ; T h e F o r u m P r e s s , for Our Daily Bread y by P r o f e s s o r
J o s e p h R e i l l y ; Dr. D o u g l a s I ' o y d , for Barrier to Health; M i s s G.
M . C o o g a n , C h i c a g o , for Money Creators a n d Lawful Money
Lectures; Professor Alfred O'Rahilly and the Cork University
P r e s s , f o r P r o f e s s o r O ' R a h i l l y ' s b o o k , Money; W e l l s G a r d n e r , B a r
t o n & Co.. L t d . , for Professor Skinner alias Montagu Xor?nan, by
J o h n T - I a r g r a v e ; T h e F o o d E d u c a t i o n S o c i e t y for Bread in Peace
and War; G e o r g e R o u t l e d g e & S o n s , L t d . , f o r The Role of Money,
b y P r o f e s s o r S o d d y ; T h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l on P u b l i c A f f a i r s ,
F l o r i d a A v e n u e , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., for Interest and Usury, b y R e v .
IF W . D e m p s c y , S . J . ; F a b e r a n d P a b e r , L t d . , for Alternative to
Death, b y t h e E a r l of P o r t s m o u t h ( V i s c o u n t L y m i n g t o n ) ; J . M.
D e n t & S o n s , L t d . , for Look, to the Land, b y F o r d N o r t h b o u r n e .
I b e g t o m e n t i o n a l s o M e s s r s . S i m o n a n d S c h u s t e r , I n c . , of
N e w Y o r k , and T h e C r e s s e t P r e s s , by w h o m p e r m i s s i o n to q u o t e
f r o m Wall Street under Oath w a s g r a n t e d on s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s .
T h r o u g h t h e k i n d n e s s of a f r i e n d , a n I r i s h p r i e s t r e s i d e n t i n
F r a n c e , I w a s a b l e t o g e t in t o u c h w i t h D e s c l e e , D e B r o u w e r e t
Cie, P a r i s , for La Juridiction de VBglise sur la Citi, b y l'abbe
C h a r l e s J o u r n e l , a n d Philosophic Economique by M o n s i e u r J.
Vialaloux; and with Beauchesne et Fils, Paris, for La
 PREPACK XV

Mt/sterieuse Internationale Juive, by M. Leon de Poncins. I beg

to thank both those firms. My friend was not able to get in con
tact with the Editions Spes, Paris, for. La Legon du Passe, by
Mgr. Landrieux.
The permission kindly accorded by Messrs. .Burns, Oales and
Washbournc, Ltd., to quote from The Persecution of the Catholic
Church in the Third Reich, was availed of only for small portions
of the translations of two documents, which 1 had previously trans
lated. In those two passages, the version of the above-mentioned
book gave the meaning more accurately.
1 beg to return thanks also to the Editors of The Irish Catholic,
The Standard, and The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, for permission
to republish the portions of the book, which appeared in those
periodicals.
J wish to make special mention of one bookthough I have
quoted only a few passages from itbecause of the help it has
been to me in seeing the history of the world in iis true
perspective, that is, in relation to" Our Lord. That book is
La Rot/ante Sociale de A\ S. Jesus-Christ d'apres le Cardinal Pie
{The Kingship of Christ according to Cardinal Pie of Poitiers),
by Pere Theotime-de St. Just. Pope Pius X told the students of
the French Seminary, Rome, on audience, that he had read and
re-read the works of Cardinal Pie, who was Bishop of Poitiers
from 1849 to 1880. Other Sovereign Pontiffs, Pius IX, Leo XIII,
Benedict XV, have added their encomiums to those of Pius X. I
may say that the great Cardinal's ideas permeate every chapter of
this book.
My gratitude is due to Rev. J. J. Ryan, C.S.Sp., M.A., of Black-
rock College, for his kindness in reading the manuscript and for
many helpful suggestions. I am also very grateful to the Scholas
tics of the Congregation of the Holy Ghost for typing the manu
script, correcting the proofs and compiling the Index.
Finally, a special word of thanks is due to the Printers, The
Kerryman, Ltd., Tralee, and to the Publishers, The Forum Press,
Cork, for their great kindness and consideration.
DENIS FAHEY, C.S.Sp.
Feast of the Most Pure Heart
of the Blessed Virgin Mary,
 Table of Contents
Page
Preface: The Aim of this BookMan's Response
to God's L o v i n g C o n d e s c e n s i o n or the
T h e o l o g y of H i s t o r y O r g a n i z e d Opposi
tion t o O u r S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e - M e m b e r s
of O n e B o d y u n d e r C h r i s t O u r H e a d
S o m e E x p r e s s i o n s of T h a n k s I

Part I.

THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

and

THE DIYJXE PLAX FOR ORDER.

Chapters IV.

Chapter I : T h e M y s t i c a l B o d y o f Christ 1
God is S u b s i s t e n t L o v e of O r d e r G o d ' s
Unchanging PurposeXaturaiism and
Our S u p e r n a t u r a l LifeSocial O r g a n i z a
tion a n d t h e I n d i v i d u a l M e m b e r of S o c i e t y
H u m a n P e r s o n a l i t y and Individuality
Personality, Individuality and the ' Com
m o n G o o d A p p e n d i x : Social J u s t i c e .

Chapter II: T h e K i n g s h i p o f Christ in its E s s e n c e 26

T h e P r i e s t h o o d a n d t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t
T h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t I n O u r L o r d ' s
K i n g d o m O u r B l e s s e d M o t h e r is Q u e e n
and Mediatrix of all GracesThe
xvm TMK MYSTICAL RODY OK CHRIST

Church's Participation in the Priesthood

and in the Spiritual Kingship of Christ
The Kingship of Christ and Temporal
RulersChrist's Spiritual Kingship and
that of the ChurchThe Spiritual King
ship of the Church and Temporal Affairs
---What God Desires--The Thomistic
Doctrine on the Relation between Church
and StateTwo other Theories concern
ing Church and Slate--The Duty of
Catholies to Christ the KingAppendix
1 : Papal Authority in Temporal Affairs
Appendix II: The Scope of the Indirect
Power of the Church.

Chapter III: T h e K i n g s h i p o f Christ i n i t s I n t e g r i t y 58

Meaning of the Integrity of the Kingship
of ChristSt. Thomas and PoliticsSt.
Thomas and EconomicsState and Pamily
The Role of Money in EconomicsThree
Ways of Dealing in MoneyUsuryThe
Proper Use o f MoneySt. Thomas and
the Ideal of National Self-Sufficiency
Appendix: Usury and Confessors.

Chapter I V : P r o g r a m m e of Integral Acceptance of

the K i n g s h i p o f Christ 84
Social or Practical ModernismSocial
Acceptance of the Divine PlanAcknow
ledgment of the Spiritual Kingship of the
Church's RulersDuty of States towards
Religious Orders and Congregations-The
Duty of States with Regard' to Secret
SocietiesAcknowledgment of the Dig
nity of Christian MarriageRecognition
of Education as the Vormalion of Mem
bers of ChristSolidarity of the Mystical
Rody Reflected in Economic Organiza
tionMoney is an Instrument of Econo
micsWhat is Meant bv Liberalism ?
The Return to the GospelThe Church's
Programme for the Rights of God
Appendix: Pope Penedict XV's Peace
Proposals, August 1, 1917.
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OP CHRIST

Chapter V : T h e H o l y Sacrifice of t h e M a s s a n d t h e
K i n g s h i p o f C h r i s t in i t s I n t e g r i t y 114
T h e Relation b e t w e e n the M a s s a n d the
K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t U n i f y i n g I n f l u e n c e of
the M y s t i c a l B o d y T h e U l t i m a t e A i m of
R e v o l u t i o n T h e S o l i d a r i t y of t h e M y s
tical B o d y a n d t h e D u t y of C a t h o l i c s
C a t h o l i c S o l i d a r i t y is W e a k e n e d b y I n
dividualism and N a t u r a l i s m P r i e s t s and
C a t h o l i c S<ilidarity.

Pan II.

THE ORGANIZED OPPOSITION TO THE MYSTICAL

BODY OF CHRIST

and

TO TIIK DIYIXK PLAN FOR ORDER.

Chapters V I - -X.

C h a p t e r VI : T h e O r g a n i z e d O p p o s i t i o n to the M y s t i c a l
B o d y of Christ 135

Chapter V I I : T h e Invisible Organized ForceSatan

and H i s F e l l o w - d e m o n s 138
Satan's Anti-Supcrnaturalism Satan's
P l a n s for D i s o r d e r S a t a n ' s H a t r e d of
t h e Blessed E u c h a r i s t .

Chapter V I I I : First Visible Organized Naturalistic Force

The Jewish Nation 148
T h e J e w i s h N a t i o n ' s R e j e c t i o n of t h e
S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s T h e T r a g e d y of
the J cwish N a t i o n T h e Anti-Superna
t u r a l I n f l u e n c e of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n
T h e D u a l C i t i z e n s h i p of t h e J e w s T h e
Catholic Church and Anti-Semitism
R e a s o n for S p e c i a l O p p o s i t i o n t o t h e
J e w i s h N a t i o n D i v i n e Providence and
the Jewish NationThe T w o Camps
Jewish Conversions to Christianity
The Jewish Problem, by L o u i s G o l d i n g
Appendix: Contrasting Programmes.
xx THE MYSTICAL F50DY O F CHRIST

Chapter TX: The Second Visible Organized Naturalis

tic F o r c e F r e e m a s o n r y
N a t u r a l ism a n d S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m T e a c h
ing" of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h C o n c e r n i n g t h e
N a t u r a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y Final A i m :
Naturalistic World-State or World Re
public- -Masonic ConstitutionsOpposi
tion of breemasonry to the Catholic
Church - - Freemasonry and Political
A c t i o n -- -M a s o n i c D e c l a r a t i o n s of L o y a l t y
-Is U r i i i s h M a s o n r y a l s o m o v i n g to t h e
0
Left F r e e m a s o n r y a n d Social j u s t i c e .

Chapter X : Links B e t w e e n Organized Anti-Super

natural F o r c e s
T h e H e a d s h i p of S a t a n A c c o r d i n g to St.
Tin>mas T h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a n d F r e e
m a s o n r y A p p e n d i x : P r a y e r for t h e C o n
v e r s i o n of t h e J e w s -I s r a e l ' s P r a y e r of
K e p a r a lion I * r a v e r for t h e C< i n v e r s i o n
of F r e e m a s o n s .

Part III.

OCKHAMISM OR NOMINALISM
and

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DECAY.

Chapters XIXII.

Chapter X I : T h o m i s m and O c k h a m i s m or Nominalism

Th< m i i s m Ockhamism or Nominalism
C o n s e q u e n c e s of O c k h a m i s m o r N o m i n a l
ism w i t h r e g a r d to F a i t h in t h e M y s t i c a l
I!(idy ot C h r i s t N o m i n a l i s m a n d S e p a r -
at i s m .

Chapter X I I : N o m i n a l i s m and the A d v e n t of Social

Materialism
T h e T w o Currents I s s u i n g from O c k h a m
i s m T h e F i r s t C u r r e n t , t h e N<miinalism
of D e s c a r t e s T h e S e c o n d C u r r e n t , t h e
N o m i n a l i s m of L o c k e L o c k e on M o n e y
-Economic Laws become exclusively
Physical Laws.
 THE MYSTICAL I80DY OK CHRIST xxi

Part IV.

POLITICAL DECAY

and

THE DIV1XK PLAX FOR ORDER.

Chapters XIITXVI.

Chapter XIII : T h e P r o t e s t a n t Revolt Against Order 267

The Preparation of Wrong National
DecisionsDecay in the Intellectual
Grasp of OrderWeakening of the Will
through the Decay of the V i r t u e s -
Luther and OckhamismConsequences
of Lutheranism.
#

Chapter XIV: T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n of 1789 278

The Significance of the Revolution
Naturalism ami RevolutionThe Declar
ation of the Rights of ManThe Jewish
Nation and the French RevolutionCon
sequences of the French RevolutionThe
Opposition between the French Revolu
tion and the Catholic ChurchResponsi
bility of Freemasonry for Revolutions
Two Currents issuing from the French
Revolution.

Chapter X V : T h e B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n of 1917 296

The Role of England in the Rolshevik
RevolutionThe Role of Germany in the
Rolshevik RevolutionThe Role of the
Jewish Nation in the Rolshevik Revolu
tionin) The Jewish Nation guides the
Communist Movement(b) The Jewish
Rund and the Rolshevik Revolution(c)
The Difference between the Rolsheviks
and the Memheviks(d) The Central
Jewish Organization and the Revolution
at Odessa in November, 1905(c) Tn the
Hour of Triumph(f) The Alliance of
Jewish Finance with Communism
Appendix: Lenin's Nationality.
 TI1K MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Chapter XY7: Reactions against the Naturalism of the

French Revolution .... 330
Ordered Reaction implies Acceptance of
Christ's Kingship in its IntegrityPo
land's R e a c t i o n S p a i n ' s R e a c t i o n ' P o r
tugal's Reaction.
Ireland's ReactionWidespread Ignor
ance of the Meaning of Naturalism
Wolfe Tone and the Vicar of Christ
Wolfe Tone and the Jewish Longing for
the Natural MessiasWolfe Tone, Natur
alism and Anti-SupernaturaUsmWolfe
Tone's Ignorance of the rcal^leaning of
MasonryJames Connolly's Ignorance of
the Meaning and the Aim of Commun
ism -James Connolly's Ignorance " f
Catholic TeachingThe Irish Constitu
tion of 1037The Irish Monetary Sys
tem.
Germany's R e a c t i o n Prussia and
Judaco-MasonryGerman}'"s Reaction is
Antagonistic to the Catholic Church
Sources of the German Race-Theory The
Lutheran RevoltThe Philosophy of Kant,
Fichtc and IlegelGerman Racial Instinct
replaces the German Mind as (he Force
Moulding the World--Gobincau and II.
St. ChamberlainThe < iennan Race-
Theory and 1 'ersonal LibertyPrussian
Freemasonry and the National-Socialist
Movement.
Italy's Reaction.

Part V.

KCONOMrC DKCAY
and

TI1K DIVINE PLAN FOR ORDER.

Chapters XVIIXXL
Chapter XVI1: S o m e Aspects of Economic Decay 389
The English Revolution of 1688 and the
Rank of ICnglandThe Jews and William
of Orange's Expedition to EnglandThe
 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST XXIII

Bank of E n g l a n d , L o c k e , a n d Free
masonryDefective Principles adopted
b y t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d w i t h r e g a r d t o
t h e I s s u e of M o n e y B e r k e l e y ' s R e d i s
c o v e r y of s o m e s a n e P r i n c i p l e s c o n c e r n i n g
M o n e y F r e n c h E c o n o m i c Life sacrificed
in o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e M e m b e r s h i p of
C h r i s t : (a) F r e d e r i c k the G r e a t and the
F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ; ( b ) B i s m a r c k and
G a m b e t t a ; ( c ) t h e A t t a c k on t h e C h r i s t i a n
F a m i l y b y D i v o r c e ; ( d ) F i n a n c i a l Cost of
e l i m i n a t i n g M e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t f r o m
F r e n c h S c h o o l s ; f e) Legalized R o b b e r y
u n d e r F a l s e P r e t e n c e s : (f) T h e W a r n i n g
of t h e G r e a t W a r u n h e e d e d A p p e n d i x :
C a r d i n a l P i c of P o i t i e r s a n d X a p o l e o n I I I .

C h a p t e r X V I H : T h e F u n c t i o n i n g of the Gold Standard

and E c o n o m i c D e c a y 421
S o m e F i n a n c i a l P r i n c i p l e s of S t . T h o m a s
Aquinas-The Bankers' DiscoveryNa
t i o n a l F i n a n c e a n d t h e Gold S t a n d a r d
T h e M e a n i n g of 3 nil at ion a n d Deflation-
S o m e H i s t o r i c a l E x a m p l e s of Planned
DeflationsInternational Trade and the
Gold S t a n d a r d T h e U r g e to W a r and
Destruction.

Chapter X I X : T h e E c o n o m i c Principles of S t . T h o m a s
A q u i n a s a n d t h e F u n c t i o n i n g of t h e Gold
Standard 452
( A ) U s u r y o r t h e C o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e
G o l d S t a n d a r d f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of
Efficient Causality(B) Money as a
S t a b l e M e a s u r e of T h i n g s S a l e a b l e , o r t h e
C o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e Gold S t a n d a r d f r o m
t h e p o i n t of v i e w of F o r m a l C a u s a l i t y
( C ) T w o T h e o r i e s of M o n e y , T h e Q u a n t i
tative T h e o r y and the Qualitative or Com
m o d i t y T h e o r y , o r t h e C o n s i d e r a t i o n of
t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w
of M a t e r i a l C a u s a l i t y ( D ) T h e P u r p o s e
of M o n e y , o r t h e C o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e
G o l d S t a n d a r d f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of
Final Causality: (a) F a r m i n g ; (b) Ruin
of S m a l l O w n e r s a n d M a n u f a c t u r e r s ; ( c )
XX J \ Tin-; M Y S T I C A L B O D Y OK CHRIST

B r e a d ; ( d ) R e g i m e n t a t i o n of M e d i c a l
D o c t o r s ; ( c ) A d v e r t i s e m e n t s of P a t e n t
M e d i c i n e s ; (f) F a m i l y L i f e .

Chapter X X : T h e P o l i t i c a l P r i n c i p l e s of St. T h o m a s
A q u i n a s and the F u n c t i o n i n g of the Gold
Standard 488
Money-.Manipulat<>r^ a n d G o v e r n m e n t s
The Federal Reserve Sy>tem Naturalis
tic h o i v e s w o r k i n g for C e n t r a l i / a t i o n
T h e (ierman-J e w i s h I n s p i r a t i o n of t h e
;
J ederal Reserve SystemThe Federal
R e s e r v e B o a r d a n d t h e S t r u g g l e for W o r l d
Financial Supremacy.

Chapter X X I : T h e P r i n c i p l e s of St. T h o m a s A q u i n a s a n d
Monetary Reform 520
General 1 Vinciple.s X a i i< mal Monetary
R e f o r m : ( a ) A b a n d o n m e n t of t h e D o m e s
tic G o l d S t a n d a r d : ( b ) I s s u i n g of L a w f u l
E x c h a n g e - m e d i u m by S t a t e ; (c) L e n d i n g
of L a w f u l E x c h a n g e - m e d i u m by B a n k i n g
G u i l d ; f d ) S t a b i l i t y of P r i c e L e v e l ; ( e )
Concluding R e m a r k s on National M o n e
tary ReformInternational Trade and
Money*: ( a ) T h e B a n k for I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Settlements and International T r a d e ; (b)
International Planning and the Gold
S t a n d a r d : UM P r o p o s e d R e f o r m of M o n e
t a r y S v s l c m in v i e w of International
TradeI nternational Economic Code
A p p e n d i x : Pope Pius X l P s Five Peace
PointsPope Pius Xfl's Allocution,
C h r i s t m a s , 1941 : T h e F i v e . E s s e n t i a l s of a
N e w O r d e r S o m e P'xtracts from Pope
Pius XII s Allocution, C h r i s t m a s , 1942:
D i g n i t y a n d R i g h t s of t h e H u m a n P e r s o n ;
T h e S e n s e of S o c i a l U n i t y a n d e s p e c i a l l y
of t h e F a m i l y ; D i g n i t y a n d P r e r o g a t i v e s
of L a b o u r ; R e s t o r a t i o n of t h e R u l e of
L a w ; C o n c e p t i o n of t h e S t a t e a c c o r d i n g
to t h e C h r i s t i a n S p i r i t .

Index of Proper N a m e s 571

 PART I.

T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

and

THE DIVINE PLAN FOR ORDER.

CHAPTERS IV.
 CHAPTER I.

THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST.

GOD IS SUBSISTENT LOVE OF ORDER.

G o d is t h e S u b s i s t e n t A c t of I n t e l l i g e n c e of t h e i n f i n i t e l y
o r d e r e d B e i n g t h a t is H i m s e l f , s o H e m a y b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e
S u b s i s t e n t G r a s p of I n f i n i t e O r d e r . H e is a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e
S u b s i s t e n t A c t of L o v e of t h e I n f i n i t e G o o d t h a t is H i m s e l f . H e
1
is, t h e r e f o r e , S u b s i s t e n t L o v e of Order.* * T h e w o r l d , H i s C r e a t i o n ,
is i n t e n d e d t o reflect in i t s l i m i t e d w a y t h e I n f i n i t e L o v e of o r d e r
of i t s C r e a t o r . St. T h o m a s p o i n t s o u t t h a t the inexhaustible
m a g n i f i c e n c e a n d l o v e a b l e n e s s of t h e d i v i n e p e r f e c t i o n s a r e m o r e
s t r i k i n g l y b r o u g h t h o m e t o u s b y t h e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y of c r e a t e d
t h i n g s , t h a n t h e y w o u l d h a v e b e e n if G o d h a d b e e n less p r o f u s e
in H i s g e n e r o s i t y . " W e m u s t h o l d / ' he writes, " that the dis
tinction between created things and their multiplicity have been
willed by the First M o v e r , God Himself. H e b r o u g h t things into
b e i n g , in o r d e r t o m a n i f e s t H i s G o o d n e s s b y c o m m u n i c a t i n g t o
t h e m a s h a r e in it. A s H i s P e r f e c t i o n a n d G o o d n e s s could n o t b e
a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y o n e c r e a t u r e , H e c r e a t e d m a n y differ
e n t c r e a t u r e s in o r d e r t h a t t h e D i v i n e B e a u t y m i g h t b e m i r r o r e d
f o r t h less inadequately. T h u s o n e c r e a t u r e ' s insufficiency a s a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e D i v i n e G o o d n e s s is c o m p e n s a t e d in s o m e
degree by another. G o o d n e s s , w h i c h in G o d is s i m p l e a n d u n
d i v i d e d , is t o b e m e t w i t h in c r e a t u r e s s c a t t e r e d in p r o f u s i o n in
a v a r i e t y of f o r m s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e w h o l e u n i v e r s e reflects t h e
( 2 J
Divine Goodness m o r e perfectly than a n y individual c r e a t u r e . "
T h e i r r a t i o n a l c r e a t i o n is d e s t i n e d t o m i r r o r f o r t h t h e d i v i n e p e r
fections u n c o n s c i o u s l y ; intellectual c r e a t u r e s a r e m e a n t to r e p r o
duce t h e m consciously and knowingly. Men (and angels) are

(1) A c c o r d i n g to the definition of St. Thomas, quoted by Pope P i u s

X I i n the Encyclical L e t t e r , Quadragesimo Anno, " o r d e r is the u n i t y
, ;
a r i s i n g from t h e a p t a r r a n g e m e n t of a p l u r a l i t y of objects (Summa
Contra Gent., I l l , 71).^ I t m a y also be described as the h a r m o n i o u s
a r r a n g e m e n t of t h i n g s i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r p r i n c i p l e a n d amongst them
selves, according' t o p r i o r i t y a n d p o s t e r i o r i t y of n a t u r e , origin, caus
a l i t y , etc.
(2) l a P . , a.l,c. An aspect of this t h o u g h t h a d been already ex
pressed by the Angelic D o c t o r when he s a i d : " T h e perfection of the
whole o r d e r of the 'world is w h a t is best in creation " I a P . , Q.15, a.2,c.
Cf. I a P . , Q.65, a.%
c
 2 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

b o u n d t o g r a s p t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d w i t h t h e i r i n t e l l i g e n c e s ,
a c c e p t i t w i t h t h e i r w i l l s a n d e x p r e s s t h a t a c c e p t a n c e in a c c o r d
ance w i t h t h e i r n a t u r e s . God's r i g h t s , as C r e a t o r a n d F a t h e r , to
t h a t recognition and that acceptance are irrefragable, and the
o n e w a y f o r t h e r a t i o n a l c r e a t u r e t o a t t a i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
3
t r u e p e r s o n a l i t y is b y t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n a n d t h a t a c c e p t a n c e . * ^
N o w t h e c e n t r e of o r d e r in t h e a c t u a l w o r l d is O u r L o r d J e s u s
C h r i s t , f o r i t is t h r o u g h H i m a l o n e t h a t m e n c a n b e i n fully h a r
monious relation to God and a m o n g s t themselves. T h e culmin
a t i n g e x p r e s s i o n of m a n k i n d ' s a c c e p t a n c e of o r d e r is t h e H o l y
S a c r i f i c e of t h e M a s s . T h i s is s o b e c a u s e t h e M a s s , b e i n g t h e
r e n e w a l of t h e o n e s u p r e m e l y a c c e p t a b l e a c t of s u b m i s s i o n of
C a l v a r y , is t h e official a c t of s u b m i s s i o n t o G o d in T h r e e D i v i n e
P e r s o n s , o n t h e p a r t of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , in u n i o n
w i t h its H e a d . Accordingly, God's r i g h t s a r e r e s p e c t e d in t h e
w o r l d , in p r o p o r t i o n a s l o v e of a n d s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e o r d e r
e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y a r e e x p r e s s e d b y all a t M a s s
a n d find c o n c r e t e r e a l i z a t i o n in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t u d y of t h e p h i l o s o p h y ( o r t h e o l o g y ) of h i s
t o r y m u s t c o m p r i s e a b o v e all t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of p r o g r e s s o r r e
g r e s s in t h e w o r l d ' s a c c e p t a n c e of o r d e r in u n i o n w i t h O u r L o r d
i n t h e S a c r i f i c e of t h e M a s s . T h a t t h e i m p o r t of t h e s e l a c o n i c
s t a t e m e n t s m a y be fully u n d e r s t o o d , w e m u s t d w e l l a t s o m e
l e n g t h in s u c c e s s i v e c h a p t e r s in t h i s o p e n i n g p a r t , o n t h e m e a n i n g
of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , of t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t i n i t s
e s s e n c e a n d in i t s i n t e g r i t y , a n d of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e H o l y
S a c r i f i c e of t h e M a s s . W e s h a l l t r e a t in t h i s first c h a p t e r of t h e
M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t a n d of t h e o r d e r e d d e v e l o p m e n t of o u r
personality t h r o u g h our m e m b e r s h i p thereof.

GOD'S UNCHANGING PURPOSE.

I n h u m a n b e i n g s , t h r e e k i n d s of life a r c t o be f o u n d , s e n s e
( 1}
life, r a t i o n a l life, a n d S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e . ' S e n s e life, w h i c h w e
h a v e in c o m m o n w i t h t h e a n i m a l s , is t h e life of o u r s e n s e s of
s i g h t , h e a r i n g , t o u c h , e t c . , i n c l u d i n g a l s o , of c o u r s e , i n s t i n c t ,
imagination and sense-memory. R a t i o n a l life is t h e life b y w h i c h
w e d o m i n a t e o v e r a n d are superior to the b r u t e creation. Both
(3) " A c c o r d i n g to the P h i l o s o p h e r s , the final perfection to which the
h u m a n soul c a n a t t a i n is t h a t it should u n d e r s t a n d the whole o r d e r of
t h e universe a n d its causes. T h i s , they hold, is m a n ' s final end, which
we ( C h r i s t i a n s o r T h e o l o g i a n s ) know to he the vision of God in T h r e e
D i v i n e P e r s o n s " (St. T h o m a s , De Vcritate, Q.2, a.2). T h e super
n a t u r a l end is a n elevation a n d p e r f e c t i o n of the n a t u r a l end.
W S u p e r n a t u r a l Life is m e a n t to be in all, according to the D i v i n e
P l a n , though, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , it. m a y n o t be, because of sin. Vegetative
life is left o u t of a c c o u n t in t h i s s t u d y , for i t is n o t subject t o o u r free
will.
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 3
of t h e s e f o r m s of life, b e i n g d u e t o u s b y o u r n a t u r e , a r e m e r e l y
natural. By Sanctifying Grace, however, we have a created
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e D i v i n e N a t u r e , a s h a r e in t h e D i v i n e L i f e a s
i t h a s b e e n lived f r o m all e t e r n i t y b y t h e T h r e e P e r s o n s of t h e
M o s t H o l y T r i n i t y . A s t h a t D i v i h e L i f e , i n f i n i t e l y s u p e r i o r t o all
n a t u r a l life, i s , of all, t h e m o s t r e a l , s o t h e L i f e of G r a c e i s , in t h e
f u l l e s t a n d t r u e s t s e n s e , o u r m o s t r e a l life. D i v i n e G r a c e is life.
I t is n o t a m e r e i n a n i m a t e o r n a m e n t , l i k e a l u m i n o u s c o a t i n g of
p a i n t , b u t it is life a n d e n e r g y a t t h e i r h i g h e s t a n d s u b l i m e s t .
G r a c e is d e s t i n e d t o e n a b l e t h e h u m a n s o u l t o e n t e r i n t o r e l a t i o n
w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y p r e s e n t in it, in t h e o b s c u r i t y of f a i t h
h e r e b e l o w in p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e f u l n e s s of v i s i o n h e r e a f t e r in
h e a v e n . O u t of l o v e f o r u s h u m a n b e i n g s , G o d w a s n o t c o n t e n t
w i t h g i v i n g u s m e r e l y n a t u r a l life, t h a t is, t h e n a t u r a l e q u i p m e n t
of s o u l a n d b o d y d u e t o u s a s m e m b e r s of t h e h u m a n r a c e , b u t
g a v e u s b e s i d e s a s h a r e in H i s o w n I n n e r L i f e in T h r e e D i v i n e
Persons. W h y did H e d o t h i s ? Because H e w a n t e d to come to
d w e l l in o u r s o u l s a s o u r g u e s t a n d be w e l c o m e d t h e r e w i t h a
l o v e of t h e s a m e " t e x t u r e " o r " q u a l i t y " t h e e x p r e s s i o n s a r e
m a t e r i a l a n d d e f e c t i v e a s t h a t of t h e H o l y G h o s t for t h e F a t h e r
a n d Son. I t w a s b e c a u s e t h e Blessed T r i n i t y w a n t e d to d r a w us
i n t o t h e F a m i l y - C i r c l e of G o d a n d e n t e r i n t o r e l a t i o n s of p e r s o n a l
f r i e n d s h i p a n d l o v e w i t h u s t h a t t h e L i f e of G r a c e w a s b e s t o w e d
u p o n u s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g . W i t h o u t t h e L i f e of G r a c e , w e c o u l d
h a v e k n o w n a n d l o v e d G o d a s o u r C r e a t o r , b u t w e could n o t h a v e
k n o w n a n d l o v e d G o d in T h r e e D i v i n e P e r s o n s . Without that
life w e c o u l d n o t h a v e a s p i r e d t o t h e i n t i m a c y of t h e D i v i n e F a m i l y -
C i r c l e . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e r e is an infinite difference in o u r
destiny.

T h e s e d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s of life, h o w e v e r , a r e n o t n o w h a r m o n
i o u s l y i n t e r r e l a t e d in o u r b e i n g a s t h e y w e r e in o u r first p a r e n t s .
G o d p o u r e d S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e i n t o t h e s o u l s of o u r first p a r e n t s ,
i n o r d e r , a s h a s b e e n s a i d , t o d r a w n o t o n l y t h e m b u t all t h e i r
d e s c e n d a n t s i n t o t h e c y c l e of H i s I n n e r L i f e in T h r e e D i v i n e
P e r s o n s . A l o n g w i t h h u m a n n a t u r e , S u p e r n a t u r a l Life w a s to be
c o m m u n i c a t e d t o e v e r y child of A d a m s o t h a t G o d could be t h e
p e r s o n a l f r i e n d of e a c h a n d e v e r y o n e a n d find in h i m a l o v e of
o r d e r of t h e s a m e " q u a l i t y " a s in H i m s e l f . A n d t o e n s u r e t h a t
this friendship could be easily cultivated, h u m a n n a t u r e w a s n o t
left t o be a g r o u p of d i s o r d e r l y t e n d e n c i e s a n d a p p e t i t e s , e a c h
a i m i n g a t i t s p r o p e r o b j e c t , i t s o w n g o o d , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e
r i g h t r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r p o w e r s a n d to t h e w h o l e b e i n g . N o !
b y a s p e c i a l p r e t e r n a t u r a l g i f t called t h e Gift of I n t e g r i t y , h a r m o n y
was assured. A c c o r d i n g l y , o r d e r e d c o l l a b o r a t i o n of all t h e r e
s o u r c e s of t h e t w o n a t u r a l f o r m s of life, s e n s e life a n d r a t i o n a l life,
w i t h t h e i n t e r i o r m o v e m e n t of u n i o n w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y in
t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l l o v e of c h a r i t y w a s i n t e n d e d t o be t h e c h a r a c t e r -
 4 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

istic n o t e of h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . B y t h e o t h e r p r e t e r n a t u r a l g i f t of
I m m o r t a l i t y , o u r first p a r e n t s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s c o u l d h a v e
l i v e d b y f a i t h in u n i o n w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y p r e s e n t in t h e m
a n d h a v e m o v e d f o r w a r d to t h e v i s i o n of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y w i t h
(5
o u t p a s s i n g b y t h e s o r r o w f u l g a t e w a y of d e a t h . >
If t h e g i f t of S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e h a d m e a n t t h e d i r e c t v i s i o n of
G o d , t h e r e w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a n y m e a n i n g in G o d ' s a s k i n g A d a m
if h e w i s h e d t o a c c e p t S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e a n d h a p p i n e s s in f r i e n d
s h i p w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y , f o r h i m s e l f a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s . I n
v i r t u e of h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l n a t u r e A d a m w a s a free b e i n g , i n c a p
a b l e of b e i n g d e p r i v e d of his f r e e d o m of c h o i c e by t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of a n y c r e a t e d g o o d , b u t i n c a p a b l e t o o of t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m t h e
v i s i o n of G o d face t o face. H e n c e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e w a s a d a p t e d
t o his f a c u l t i e s , in o r d e r t h a t in t h e o b s c u r e l i g h t ' o f f a i t h , h e m i g h t
give a free a n s w e r to God's l o v i n g q u e s t i o n . W e k n o w by revela
t i o n t h a t t h e a n s w e r w a s in t h e n e g a t i v e . O u r first p a r e n t s
e l e c t e d n o t t o d e p e n d on G o d f o r t h e i r h a p p i n e s s b u t o n t h e m
s e l v e s . I n s p i t e of t h e c l e a r n e s s w i t h w h i c h t h e y g r a s p e d o r d e r
a n d t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h t h e y c o u l d h a v e a d h e r e d t o it, t h e y r e
jected supernatural friendship w i t h God and put themselves instead
of G o d in t h e c e n t r e of t h e w o r l d . T h e y did t h i s a t t h e i n s t i g a
t i o n of S a t a n w h o , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r fallen a n g e l s , h a d a l r e a d y
m a d e t h e s a m e s e l f - c e n t r e d c h o i c e . T h e fallen a n g e l s ' d e c i s i o n
was, however, irrevocable. It was a declaration by the whole
b o d y of t h e m t o g e t h e r , of p e r p e t u a l w a r o n a n d u n c e a s i n g o p p o
(G
s i t i o n to t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y a n d t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e . >
T h e fall of t h e h u m a n r a c e c o u l d b e u n d o n e , b e c a u s e h u m a n b e i n g s
can change their minds and the h u m a n race comes into
7
e x i s t e n c e s u c c e s s i v e l y b y p r o p a g a t i o n f r o m t h e first A d a m . * )
It was in f a c t u n d o n e , a n d o r d e r w a s restored to the
w o r l d by the Second A d a m , O u r L o r d J esus Christ, Son
of the Virgin Mary, our Immaculate Mother. God did
n o t a b a n d o n H i s c h e r i s h e d p u r p o s e of c o m i n g t o d w e l l in o u r

m (5) I n his work, The Holy Ghost, p p . 152-154, Rev. E. L e e n C . S . S p . , v

p o i n t s o u t the lowering of the ideal of life t h a t comes from the d o c t r i n e

of G o d ' s -presence in the soul by Grace being connected in childhood
w i t h the image of God as a watchful, i n e x o r a b l e J u d g e , i n s t e a d of a
11
loving tender F a t h e r , longing to dwell a l w a y s in our souls. What a
c h a n g e could be w r o u g h t if it were b r o u g h t home to all children from
the beginning t h a t God is, indeed, watchful, but watchful r a t h e r for
t h e p u r p o s e of d o i n g us good t h a n of finding us at f a u l t ! W h a t a
different idea would be h a d of God, if the child were t a u g h t from the
b e g i n n i n g t h a t God's v i g i l a n c e was a v i g i l a n c e of love a n d not of dis
a p p r o v a l t h e vigilance of the loving f a t h e r and not t h a t of the
suspicious w a r d e r ! Too f r e q u e n t l y i t is the idea of God as the j u s t
a n d inflexible j u d g e t h a t is stressed in the i n s t r u c t i o n of the young.
7
T h i s is a defective p r e s e n t m e n t of C h r i s t i a n i t y /
<6> l a P . , Q.64, a.2 a n d l a P., Q.63, a.3.
(7) l a P . , Q.64, a.2.
 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 5

souls as our Guest. Adam's refusal to enter into His designs

brought about a change of plan for the realization of His aim,
but that aim remained the same, and fallen man was raised to
the dignity of a member of Christ. Nor was that all. By the
manner in which He set about undoing the Fall, God showed also
that it was not through cold indifference or lack of affection that
He did not prevent the sin of our first parents. Not only did He
not remain aloof from the fallen race, but He accepted all the
consequences of the Fall for Himself become Man, except the one
ts
incompatible with His Divine NatureSin. ^ The Supernatural
Life of Grace now becomes ours, not at our generation or con
ception, as would have been the case if Adam had not sinned, but
by reason of our being incorporated into Our Lord's Mystical
Body by the Sacrament of Baptism.
To use the words of Pope Pius XI, Baptism sets up in every
one in whom there is not an obstinate attachment to mortal sin
the circulation of the life-blood of Grace.w We are all one with,
the first Adam, our natural head, and receive from him at our con
ception a fallen nature with its tendency to make of self the centre
of life. We are all intended by God to become one with Christ,
our Supernatural Head, and to receive the Life of Grace with its
tendency to centre life on the Blessed Trinity, through being en
grafted on Christ by Baptism. St. Paul dwells at some length
(8) When speaking of a change of plan in God. we are using human
imperfect language. There is no change in God. St. Thomas treats the
point with his customary lucidity: " I answer that the will of God is
entirely unchangeable. On this point we must consider that to change
the will is one thing; to will that certain things should be changed is
another. It is possible to will a thing to be done now and its contrary
afterwards; and yet for the will to remain permanently the same':
whereas the will would be changed if one should begin to will what before
he had not willed; or cease to will what he had previously willed. This
cannot ha^rjen, unless we presuppose change either in knowledge or in
the disposition of the substance of the wilier. . . . Now it has already
been shown that both the substance of God and His knowledge are
entirely unchangeable (Q.IX, a.l; XIV, a.T5). Therefore His will must
J1
be entirely unchangeable (la P., Q.XIX, a.7).
" It was necessary, dearly beloved, that the unchanging' God, whose
will cannot lose its kindliness, should accomplish in more obscure and
mysterious fashion what in His paternal affection He had first arranged,
in order that mankind, urged on to sin by the cunning of the evil one,
should not be lost. . . (Second Sermon of Pope St. Leo the Great
on the Nativity. Fifth Lesson of Matins for the Feast of the Annuncia
tion).
W " Now every Christian receives the supernatural life, which cir
culates in the veins of the Mystical Body of Christ, that abundant life
which Christ, as He himself says, came to bestow upon the world. Con
sequently, every Christian ought to diffuse that life to others who either
do not possess it or who have it only feebly or merely in appearance "
(Letter of Pope Pius XI to the Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon, Nov.
10, 1933).
 6 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

o n t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n o u r s o l i d a r i t y in t h e first A d a m a n d o u r
s o l i d a r i t y in t h e S e c o n d A d a m , in t h e E p i s t l e to t h e R o m a n s , V ,
1 2 2 1 : " W h e r e f o r e as by o n e m a n sin e n t e r e d i n t o this w o r l d ,
a n d b y s i n d e a t h ; a n d s o d e a t h p a s s e d u p o n all m e n , i n w h o m all
have sinned . . . But death reigned from A d a m u n t o M o s e s , even
o v e r t h e m a l s o w h o h a v e n o t s i n n e d a f t e r t h e s i m i l i t u d e of t h e
t r a n s g r e s s i o n of A d a m , w h o is a figure of h i m w h o w a s t o c o m e .
B u t n o t a s t h e offence, s o a l s o t h e gift. F o r if b y t h e offence of
o n e , m a n y d i e d ; m u c h m o r e t h e g r a c e of G o d , a n d t h e g i f t , b y
t h e g r a c e of o n e m a n , J e s u s C h r i s t , h a t h a b o u n d e d u n t o m a n y .
A n d n o t a s it w a s by o n e sin, s o a l s o is t h e gift. F o r j u d g m e n t
i n d e e d w a s b y o n e u n t o c o n d e m n a t i o n ; b u t g r a c e is of m a n y
offences, u n t o justification. F o r if b y o n e m a n ' s o f f e n c e d e a t h
r e i g n e d t h r o u g h o n e ; m u c h m o r e t h e y w h o r e c e i v e a b u n d a n c e of
g r a c e , a n d of t h e g i f t , a n d of j u s t i c e , s h a l l r e i g n in life t h r o u g h
o n e , J e s u s C h r i s t . T h e r e f o r e , a s b y t h e offence of o n e , u n t o all
m e n t o c o n d e m n a t i o n ; so a l s o b y t h e j u s t i c e of o n e u n t o all m e n
t o j u s t i f i c a t i o n of life. L o r as b y t h e d i s o b e d i e n c e of o n e m a n ,
m a n y w e r e m a d e s i n n e r s ; s o a l s o b y t h e o b e d i e n c e of o n e , m a n y
s h a l l b e m a d e j u s t . . . . A n d w h e r e sin a b o u n d e d , g r a c e did m o r e
a b o u n d . T h a t a s sin h a t h r e i g n e d t o d e a t h ; s o a l s o g r a c e m i g h t
r e i g n b v j u s t i c e u n t o life e v e r l a s t i n g , t h r o u g h J e s u s C h r i s t O u r
Lord."<"

NATURALISM AND OUR S U P E R N A T U R A L LIFE.

A c c o r d i n g l y , w e all c o m e i n t o t h e w o r l d , g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r g e n e r
a t i o n , d e p r i v e d n o t o n l y of t h e p r e t e r n a t u r a l g i f t s of I n t e g r i t y a n d
I m m o r t a l i t y , b u t a l s o of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e . T h e l o s s
of t h e g i f t of I n t e g r i t y l e a d s t o t h e r e v o l t of t h e p a s s i o n s a g a i n s t
r e a s o n a n d a g a i n s t t h e D i v i n e L i f e ; t h e loss of t h e G i f t of I m m o r
t a l i t y l e a d s t o s u f f e r i n g , d i s e a s e a n d d e a t h . O w i n g t o t h e l o s s of
S u p e r n a t u r a l Life and our c o n s e q u e n t aversion from God, our in
t e l l i g e n c e is d a r k e n e d , o u r will is w e a k e n e d a n d o u r s e n s e - l i f e is
i n c l i n e d t o r e v o l t a g a i n s t o r d e r . I t is t r u e t h a t o u r n a t u r e is n o t
c o r r u p t e d in i t s e l f a s L u t h e r a n d t h e J a n s e n i s t s h e l d . T h e pri
m o r d i a l i n c l i n a t i o n of o u r n a t u r e is t o G o d a n d t h a t e s s e n t i a l i n
clination remains. I t is, h o w e v e r , w e a k e n e d by o r i g i n a l sin, s o
t h a t t h e c o n c r e t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of o u r m o r a l life,
e v e n a f t e r t h e D i v i n e L i f e of G r a c e h a s b e e n r e s t o r e d t o u s in

do) I I H a P . , Q.3, a.8, St. T h o m a s says it was most fitting t h a t the

n

Second Person of the Blessed ' T r i n i t y should become m a n , because the

W o r d , like the concept or idea of the a r t i s t , is the e x e m p l a r cause of
all t h a t God has made. J u s t as the a r t i s t , by the intelligible form of
h i s a r t , whereby he produced his m a s t e r p i e c e , restores it when it has
fallen i n t o r u i n , so God restores the o r d e r of the world d i s t u r b e d by
sin. " God indeed was in C h r i s t reconciling the world to Himself "
( I I Cor., V, 19).
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 7

Baptism, are generally selfish with a disordered love of self. Our

concrete judgements are liable to be erroneous, and we are exposed
u
in our acts of will to make of self the centre of Iife.< > We are
bound to grasp the order of life, accept it and express it. yet we
easily lose sight of the ideal of living the whole of life here below
in union with the Blessed Trinity as members of Christ, in pre
paration for the intimacy of heaven. God's desire, then, is to draw
us all into union with Himself in Three Divine Persons, through
our willing acceptance of the duty of living life in full subjection
to Our Lord as His members. But God's wish is in continual
danger of being thwarted by our tendency to turn against His
impulses and make of self the centre of life, in this way hamper
ing the development of our personality. We have to struggle with
the aid of Divine Grace to acknowledge God's rights to the full
and not place self on the same level as God or on a higher level.
Even if there were no organized naturalistic or anti-supernatural
forces at work in the world, striving to mould social institutions
to active hostility to the Supernatural Life, there arc anti-super
natural tendencies in ourselves (hat have to be combated by self-
discipline and social organization. We may speak of those forces or
tendencies that are in each of us, as unorganized anti-supernatural
or naturalistic forces, in contrast with the organized forces, visible
and invisible, that are working for Naturalism.
What is meant by Xaturalism? We can best describe it by
contrasting it with the supernatural ideal of the Catholic Church.
This supernatural ideal affirms: firstly, that the Life of Grace, a
share in the Inner Life of the Blessed Trinity, is infinitely higher
than the natural life of human reason; secondly, that the loss of
Supernatural Life on account of the first Adam's fall has been
repaired through membership of the Mystical Body of the Second
Adam, Our Lord Jesus Christ, who in the existing order is the
unique Source of that Life; and, thirdly, as a logical consequence,
that it is only through cultivation of our membership of Our Lord's
Mystical Body that we can be good and true men as we ought
to be. Accordingly, minds imbued with the supernatural ideal will
proclaim that the Catholic Church, the Mystical Body of Christ,
is infinitely higher and nobler than any natural society, while in
sisting at the same time that ordered love of country and native
land must be sedulously cultivated. They will aim, not as isolated
individuals, but fully conscious of their royal dignity as members
of a living organism, at permeating all social life, political and
economic, with the spirit of membership of Christ.
Naturalism, on the other hand, is described as follows by Pope
Leo XIII: " The fundamental doctrine of the Naturalists, which

Cf. L* Amour de Dieu, et la Croix de Jesus, pp. 305-315, by Pere

Garrigou-Lagrange,. O.P.
8 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t h e y sufficiently m a k e k n o w n b y t h e i r v e r y n a m e , is t h a t h u m a n
n a t u r e a n d h u m a n r e a s o n o u g h t in all t h i n g s t o b e m i s t r e s s a n d
g u i d e . L a y i n g this d o w n , t h e y c a r e l i t t l e for d u t i e s t o G o d , o r
pervert them by erroneous and vague opinions. F o r they deny
t h a t a n y t h i n g h a s b e e n t a u g h t b y G o d : t h e y a l l o w n o d o g m a of
r e l i g i o n o r t r u t h w h i c h c a n n o t be u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e h u m a n i n
t e l l i g e n c e , n o r a n y t e a c h e r w h o o u g h t t o be b e l i e v e d b y r e a s o n
of his a u t h o r i t y . . . . I t is t h e s p e c i a l a n d e x c l u s i v e d u t y of t h e
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h fully t o s e t f o r t h in w o r d s t r u t h s d i v i n e l y r e c e i v e d
and, besides offering o t h e r divine helps to salvation, to t e a c h t h e
a u t h o r i t y of h e r office, a n d t o d e f e n d t h e s a m e w i t h p e r f e c t p u r
I2)
ity. . . ."< " W h a t Naturalists o r Rationalists a i m a t in p h i l
o s o p h y , t h a t t h e s u p p o r t e r s of Liberalism, carrying out the prin
c i p l e s laid d o w n by N a t u r a l i s m , a r e a t t e m p t i n g in t h e d o m a i n of
m o r a l i t y a n d politics. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l d o c t r i n e of R a t i o n a l i s m
is t h e s u p r e m a c y of h u m a n r e a s o n , w h i c h , r e f u s i n g d u e s u b m i s s i o n
t o t h e d i v i n e a n d e t e r n a l r e a s o n , p r o c l a i m s its o w n i n d e p e n d e n c e ,
a n d c o n s t i t u t e s itself t h e s u p r e m e p r i n c i p l e a n d s o u r c e a n d j u d g e
of t r u t h . H e n c e t h e s e f o l l o w e r s of L i b e r a l i s m d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a n y d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y t o w h i c h o b e d i e n c e is d u e , a n d p r o c l a i m
t h a t e v e r y m a n is a l a w u n t o h i m s e l f ; f r o m w h i c h a r i s e s t h a t
ethical system which they style independent morality, and which,
u n d e r t h e g u i s e of l i b e r t y , e x o n e r a t e s m a n f r o m a n y o b e d i e n c e t o
( 1 3 >
t h e c o m m a n d s of G o d , a n d s u b s t i t u t e s a b o u n d l e s s l i c e n c e . "
A c c o r d i n g l y , N a t u r a l i s m affirms t h a t o u r h i g h e s t life is t h e life
of r e a s o n , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , d e n i e s t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a n y s u c h
t h i n g s a s a fall f r o m , o r l o s s of, S u p e r n a t u r a l Life o r , a t l e a s t , t h a t
w e c a n k n o w of it. N a t u r a l i s m a l s o l o g i c a l l y affirms t h a t it is a
m a t t e r of i n d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r o n e w o r s h i p s O u r L o r d J e s u s
Christ or denies that l i e instituted a supranational society to set
f o r t h t h e D i v i n e F l a n f o r o r d e r in t h e w o r l d a n d t o diffuse t h a t
Divine Life by which alone w e can be really good m e n as w e
o u g h t to be.
T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n Naturalism, Rationalism and Liberalism
is e x c e l l e n t l y o u t l i n e d b y P e r c G a r r i g o u - L a g r a n g e , O . P . (De
Revelatione, V o l . I, P- 2 2 1 ) . H e w r i t e s : " A l t h o u g h "the t e r m N a
t u r a l i s m is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w i t h t h e s a m e s i g n i f i c a t i o n a s R a t i o n a l
i s m , it r a t h e r d e s i g n a t e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n of R a t i o n a l i s m . For
N a t u r a l i s m is p r o p e r l y t h e n e g a t i o n of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e e l e v a
t i o n of o u r nature t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r , a n d R a t i o n a l i s m is
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s d o c t r i n e t o human reason a s L i b e r a l i s m is
i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o human liberty. H e n c e R a t i o n a l i s m h a s its p r o x
i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n in N a t u r a l i s m , j u s t a s o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e
v i r t u e of f a i t h is f o u n d e d in g r a c e . If N a t u r a l i s m s i g n i f i e s n o t

12
< ) Encyclical Letter, Ilum&num genus, on F r e e m a s o n r y .
13
< > Encyclical Letter, Libcrtas, on H u m a n Liberty.
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 9

m e r e l y t h e d e n i a l of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of k n o w i n g t h e o r d e r of s u p e r
n a t u r a l t r u t h , b u t t h e d e n i a l of t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of t h a t o r d e r ,
t h e n i t h a s i t s f o u n d a t i o n in P a n t h e i s m . I n o r d e r t h a t n o t r u t h
s h o u l d b e a b o v e t h e p o w e r s of o u r r a t i o n a l n a t u r e , o u r n a t u r e
m u s t be identified w i t h the Divine N a t u r e . "
M e n i m b u e d w i t h t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e will i n s i s t t h a t t h e
h i g h e s t s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is t h e i n d i v i d u a l S t a t e o r t h e w h o l e
g r o u p of S t a t e s t e n d i n g t o c o a l e s c e i n t o t h e w o r l d - s t a t e . They
will a i m a t e l i m i n a t i n g e v e r y v e s t i g e of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e f r o m
social o r g a n i z a t i o n . F o r t h o s e w h o a r e a w a r e of t h e i m p o r t a n c e
f o r t h e w o r l d of r e s p e c t for t h e R i g h t s of G o d a n d w h o u n d e r
s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g of t h e R e d e m p t i o n , N a t u r a l i s m is t h e f o r e
r u n n e r of d e c a y a n d d e a t h .
W e s e e , t h e n , t h a t t h e r e a r e in u s f r o m B a p t i s m t w o c u r r e n t s
of life, s o t o s a y . T h e r e is t h e c u r r e n t of n a t u r a l life, c o m i n g t o
u s f r o m t h e first A d a m , w i t h i t s t e n d e n c y t o r e v o l t a n d self-
c e n t r e d n e s s , a n d t h e r e is t h e c u r r e n t of S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e c o m i n g
from Our Lord J e s u s Christ, the Second Adam, which aims at the
o r d e r e d s u b j e c t i o n of o u r w h o l e life t o H i m in v i e w of u n i o n w i t h
t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y . B y o u r n a t u r a l g e n e r a t i o n w e f o r m p a r t of
( 1 4 )
t h e p r o g e n y of t h e first A d a m . By our supernatural regenera
t i o n in t h e S a c r a m e n t of B a p t i s m , w e a r e e n g r a f t e d o n O u r L o r d
( 1 5 )
J e s u s Christ and incorporated into His Mystical B o d y . Because
of o u r n a t u r a l d e s c e n t , o u r p e r s o n a l life a n d o u r s o c i a l life, b o t h
political and economic, are exposed to disorder and confusion.
O w i n g t o t h e c o n t i n u o u s s t r e a m s of S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e c o m i n g
from O u r L o r d ' s Sacred H u m a n i t y into our souls, more abundantly
n o w t h a n before the Fall, w e a r e enabled to strive to b r i n g about
s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r in o u r life a n d t o s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t N a t u r a l i s m .

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND T H E INDIVIDUAL

M E M B E R OF SOCIETY.

A s m a n is b y n a t u r e a social b e i n g , a n d as t h e a v e r a g e m e m b e r
of s o c i e t y is, t o a n a l m o s t i n c a l c u l a b l e e x t e n t , a t t h e m e r c y of his
s u r r o u n d i n g s , h e m u s t b e s u s t a i n e d , in his efforts t o c u l t i v a t e his
p e r s o n a l i t y , b y a social f r a m e w o r k p e r m e a t e d b y t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l
o u t l o o k . T h a t f r a m e w o r k in itself, of c o u r s e , is n o t e n o u g h , b u t
T
t h e o r d e r of life d e m a n d s t h a t w e s h o u l d e v e r a n d a l w a y s s t r i v e
f o r i t s r e a l i z a t i o n , t o t h e b e s t of o u r a b i l i t y . O u r d u t y t o G o d

(14) Cone. T r i d . , c a n . 3 ; S.T. I a I l a e , Q.81, a.4. Cf. Donzinger, 101-102.

11
(15) Above the brotherhood of h u m a n i t y a n d f a t h e r l a n d , " said Pope
P i u s X I , in his Allocution to the S p a n i s h Refugees, 14th Sept., 1936,
" t h e r e is a b r o t h e r h o o d which is infinitely more sacred a n d m o r e p r e
cious, the brotherhood which makes us one in Christ, o u r Redeemer,
n a m e l y , o u r k i n s h i p i n the Catholic Church, the Mystical Body of
Christ."
 10 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a n d t o o u r f e l l o w m e n d e m a n d s t h i s , b e c a u s e s o c i e t y is d e s t i n e d
for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n n a t u r e . I t is i n t e n d e d b y t h e
C r e a t o r to acknowledge His R i g h t s a n d to co-operate h a r m o n i
o u s l y in c o m p l e t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n of a m e m b e r of C h r i s t , b e g u n
in t h e f a m i l y . A s s u c h , s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in all i t s f o r m s is
m e a n t to accept God's plan for o r d e r l y h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t and
c o - o p e r a t e w i t h H i m in a i d i n g its i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s t o g r a s p
t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d a n d a c c e p t it, i n s t e a d of c a u s i n g d i s o r d e r
and confusion by opposing and t h w a r t i n g Him. As m a n needs the
h e l p of a social f r a m e w o r k b a s e d on t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e K i n g
s h i p of C h r i s t , s o s o c i e t y , in v i r t u e of i t s c r e a t u r c h o o d , is b o u n d
to build up t h a t f r a m e w o r k . R o p e L e o X I I I , in t h e E n c y c l i c a l
L e t t e r , Imtnortaie Dei, is v e r y e m p h a t i c c o n c e r n i n g t h i s o b l i g a t i o n
i n c u m b e n t on society. " N a t u r e and r e a s o n , " he w r i t e s , " which
c o m m a n d e v e r y individual d e v o u t l y t o w o r s h i p G o d in holiness,
b e c a u s e w e b e l o n g to H i m a n d m u s t r e t u r n t o H i m , s i n c e f r o m
H i m w e c a m e , bind a l s o t h e civil c o m m u n i t y b y a l i k e l a w . M e n
l i v i n g t o g e t h e r in s o c i e t y a r e u n d e r t h e p o w e r of G o d n o l e s s
t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s a r c , a n d s o c i e t y , n o t less t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s , o w e s
g r a t i t u d e t o G o d , w h o g a v e it b e i n g a n d m a i n t a i n s it, a n d w h o s e
e v e r - b o u n t e o u s g o o d n e s s e n r i c h e s it w i t h c o u n t l e s s blessings.
S i n c e , t h e n , n o o n e is a l l o w e d t o be r e m i s s in t h e s e r v i c e d u e t o
G o d , a n d s i n c e t h e chief d u t y of all m e n is t o c l i n g t o r e l i g i o n in
b o t h ils t e a c h i n g a n d p r a c t i c e n o t s u c h r e l i g i o n as t h e y m a y h a v e
a p r e f e r e n c e for, b u t t h e r e l i g i o n w h i c h G o d e n j o i n s , a n d w h i c h
certain and m o s t clear m a r k s s h o w to be the one and only true
r e l i g i o n i t is a p u b l i c c r i m e t o a c t a s t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e n o G o d .
S o , t o o , it is a s i n f o r t h e S t a t e n o t t o h a v e a c a r e f o r r e l i g i o n , a s
s o m e t h i n g b e y o n d i t s s c o p e , o r a s of n o p r a c t i c a l b e n e f i t : o r o u t
of m a n y f o r m s of r e l i g i o n t o a d o p t t h a t o n e w h i c h c h i m e s in w i t h
i t s f a n c y : for w e a r c b o u n d a b s o l u t e l y t o w o r s h i p G o d in t h a t w a y
w h i c h H e h a s s h o w n t o be H i s will. . . . H e n c e civil s o c i e t y ,
established for the c o m m o n welfare, should not only s a f e g u a r d the
w e l l - b e i n g of t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t h a v e a l s o a t h e a r t t h e i n t e r e s t s
of i t s i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s , i n s u c h w i s e a s n o t in a n y w a y t o
h i n d e r , b u t in e v e r y m a n n e r t o r e n d e r a s e a s y a s p o s s i b l e , t h e
p o s s e s s i o n of t h a t h i g h e s t a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e g o o d f o r w h i c h all
should seek."
T h e c i t i z e n s of a S t a t e a r e o b l i g e d t o r e n d e r t o G o d t h e t h i n g s
t h a t are God's and to Caesar the things t h a t are Caesar's, b u t
C a e s a r , t o o , t h a t is, t h e S t a t e a s a n o r g a n i z e d c o m m u n i t y , is
b o u n d t o fulfil i t s d u t y to G o d . If it d o c s n o t , it will fail in i t s
d u t y t o its c i t i z e n s , for it will n o t a i d t h e m a s it s h o u l d t o
develop their personality. "When the State," writes Pope
L e o X H 1 , " refuses to give to God w h a t belongs to God,
by a necessary consequence, it refuses to give to its
citizens t h a t to which they, as men, have a right. F o r , w h e t h e r
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 11

o n e l i k e s i t o r n o t , t h e t r u e r i g h t s of m a n s p r i n g p r e c i s e l y f r o m
h i s d u t i e s t o w a r d s G o d . H e n c e i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e S t a t e , b y fail
i n g in t h i s w a y t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t of its i n s t i t u t i o n ,
finally b e c o m e s false t o itself a n d d e n i e s t h a t w h i c h is t h e r e a s o n
( 1 6 )
of its o w n e x i s t e n c e . "
T h e r e s u l t s of t h e S t a t e ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d a r e d i s a s t r o u s .
" W h e n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e w o r l d , " w r i t e s V A b b e J o u r n e t ,
" is o u t of h a r m o n y w i t h t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l e n d of m a n , s c a r c e l y
a n y b o d y except the saints and m a r t y r s can avoid m o r t a l sin a n d
a b i d e in c h a r i t y . B u t w h e n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e w o r l d is a d
j u s t e d t o t h e d e m a n d s of t h e D i v i n e L i f e of s o u l s , t h e n t h o u s a n d s
of C h r i s t i a n s c a n live a n d die in t h e l o v e of God. T h e y a r e s t r o n g
e n o u g h t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e i r d u t y in t h e c o m p a n y of o t h e r s a n d t o
p e r f o r m a c t s of h e r o i c v i r t u e a t c e r t a i n e x c e p t i o n a l m o m e n t s , b u t
t h e y w o u l d h a v e been too w e a k to b r e a s t the frightful a n t i - s u p e r
n a t u r a l c u r r e n t of a p e r v e r t e d n a t u r a l i s t i c w o r l d . C h a r i t y , t h e n ,
u r g e s u s t o s t r i v e f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of a C h r i s t i a n t e m p o r a l
17
order."< >
I t is q u i t e t r u e t h a t n a t i o n s o r s o c i e t i e s do n o t g o t o h e a v e n .
H u m a n b e i n g s g o t o h e a v e n o n e b y o n e , t o live i n t h e F a m i l y -
C i r c l e of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y . B u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r of
s o c i e t y lives u n d e r t h e n e v e r - c e a s i n g influence of his e n v i r o n m e n t ,
in w h i c h , if w e m a y n o t s a y t h a t h e is s u b m e r g e d , h e is. a t l e a s t ,
deeply plunged. S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is r e q u i r e d t o aid t h e d i s
c i p l i n i n g of self a g a i n s t t h e unorganized t e n d e n c i e s of f o r m a l i s m
( 1 3 )
a n d n a t u r a l i s m t h a t a r e in all of u s . I t is still m o r e i n d i s p e n s
a b l e in o r d e r t o c o m b a t t h e organized, a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s t h a t
a r e i m b u e d w i t h opposition to O u r L o r d ' s p r o g r a m m e for t h e
w o r l d . If C a t h o l i c s c o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n c u l c a t i n g t h e p r i
v a t e p r a c t i c e of r e l i g i o n a n d a l l o w t h e i r social i n s t i t u t i o n s t o b e
m o u l d e d b y t h o s e o r g a n i z e d naturalistic and anti-supernatural
f o r c e s , t h e n , l i t t l e b y l i t t l e , t h e a v e r a g e m e m b e r of s o c i e t y will
s u c c u m b t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of his s u r r o u n d i n g s . H e will g r a d u a l l y
c e a s e t o live a s a m e m b e r of C h r i s t , t h o u g h he m a y r e t a i n t h e
n a m e of C h r i s t i a n .
I n c o u n t r i e s w i t h a C a t h o l i c m a j o r i t y a n d an a g e - l o n g C a t h o l i c
tradition, S a t a n and his fellow-demons, w h o form the o r g a n i z e d
invisible a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e , p r o f i t b y t h e l a c k of v i g i l a n c e o n
t h e p a r t of C a t h o l i c s in r e g a r d t o s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d g r a d u a l l y
s a p belief in t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e a n d in t h e r e a l i t y
of t h e F a l l . T h u s it h a s o f t e n t i m e s h a p p e n e d t h a t t h e w o r k of t h e
visible f o r c e s , a i m i n g a t t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m , h a s m e t

U6) Encyclical L e t t e r , Au milieu des sollicitudes (1892).

(W) L'Ordre Social Chretien, in Nova et Vetera (1931), p . 377.
(18) The t e n d e n c y to f o r m a l i s m is the tendency to be c o n t e n t with
the e x t e r n a l accomplishment o f the rites o f religion w i t h o u t e n t e r i n g
i n t o the i n n e r s p i r i t o f them.
 12 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

w i t h l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e in c o u n t r i e s n o m i n a l l y C a t h o l i c . O n t h e
one h a n d , then, Catholics faithful t o w h a t t h e y p r o f e s s a t M a s s ,
m u s t e v e r s t r i v e t o p e r m e a t e t h e f r a m e w o r k of s o c i e t y w i t h t h e
i n f l u e n c e of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e , so t h a t t h e o r d i n a r y m a n m a y
be a l w a y s a i d e d to a c t a s a m e m b e r of C h r i s t , a n d n o t find h i m
self, f r o m t h e m o m e n t h e l e a v e s C h u r c h , u r g e d b y a n t i - s u p e r
n a t u r a l c u r r e n t s to r e v o l t a g a i n s t C h r i s t . On the other hand,
C a t h o l i c s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e n o t sufficient of t h e m s e l v e s t o m a i n
t a i n s o c i e t y C a t h o l i c . T h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e r e q u i s i t e is a f o r m a t i o n
of t h e y o u t h of b o t h s e x e s w h i c h will b e p e n e t r a t e d t h r o u g h a n d
t h r o u g h w i t h t h e d o c t r i n e of m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t . T h a t f o r m a
t i o n will a l o n e e n s u r e w h o l e - t i m e C a t h o l i c i s m a n d will e n a b l e
t h e m t o d r a w f r o m t h e i r u n i o n w i t h O u r L o r d in M a s s a n d H o l y
C o m m u n i o n t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l l o v e t h a t is r e q u i r e d t o diffuse
t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y t h e s e n s e of t h e i n d w e l l i n g of t h e B l e s s e d
Trinity, through incorporation into Christ, and to w o r k unceas
ingly for t h e p r o g r a m m e s e t forth by Christ. I t w a s t h e sense
of t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y as c o - o f f e r e r s a n d c o - v i c t i m s w i t h C h r i s t in t h e
M a s s t h a t n e r v e d C a t h o l i c s for t h e l o n g s t r u g g l e for t h e r e f o r m
of t h e p a g a n w o r l d . " It w a s C h r i s t i a n i t y , " w r i t e s P o p e P i u s X I
11
in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Divini Redemptoris, t h a t first affirmed
t h e r e a l a n d u n i v e r s a l b r o t h e r h o o d of all m e n of w h a t e v e r r a c e
and condition. . . . Not bloody revolution but the inner force
of t h e C h u r c h ' s t e a c h i n g m a d e t h e p r o u d R o m a n m a t r o n s e e i n
h e r s l a v e a s i s t e r in C h r i s t . " F o r t h e r e t u r n of t h e m o d e r n w o r l d
t o C h r i s t , w e m u s t i n s i s t u p o n t h e s a m e g r e a t t r u t h of o u r o n e
n e s s in C h r i s t .

HUMAN PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUALITY.

I t w o u l d g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o c l e a r n e s s of t h o u g h t in r e g a r d
t o t h e q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e d in t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y a n d t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of o r d e r in t h e w o r l d , if t h e T h o m i s t i c d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n personality a n d individuality w e r e fully g r a s p e d a n d c o n
s i s t e n t l y k e p t in v i e w . T h e n e g l e c t of e i t h e r of t h e s e a s p e c t s of
t h e w h o l e t r u t h , b u t e s p e c i a l l y of t h e f o r m e r , l e a d s t o e x p e r i m e n t s
t h a t a r c d i s a s t r o u s for h u m a n h a p p i n e s s .
T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n r u n s t h r o u g h all St. T h o m a s ' s e x p o s i t i o n of
t h e o r d e r of b e i n g . A s m a t t e r is t h e p r i n c i p l e of i n d i v i d u a t i o n , it
is c l e a r t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g , a s s u c h , is a p a r t . " E a c h
p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n is c o m p a r e d t o t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y a s a p a r t
( l 0 )
to the w h o l e . " " N o w , in n a t u r a l t h i n g s , " h e w r i t e s e l s e w h e r e ,
" e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h , a s s u c h , n a t u r a l l y b e l o n g s t o a n o t h e r , is p r i n
c i p a l l y a n d m o r e s t r o n g l y i n c l i n e d t o t h a t o t h e r t o w h i c h it b e
l o n g s , t h a n t o w a r d s itself. . . . F o r w e s e e t h a t a p a r t b y a
n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n r i s k s itself f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e w h o l e ,
(16) H a I l a e , Q.64, a.2.
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 13

a s t h e h a n d w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n e x p o s e s itself to a b l o w t o s a v e
t h e w h o l e b o d y . A n d b e c a u s e r e a s o n copies n a t u r e w e find t h i s
a c t i o n r e p r o d u c e d in v i r t u o u s s o c i a l a c t i o n . A g o o d c i t i z e n will
n o t h e s i t a t e t o e x p o s e h i m s e l f t o t h e d a n g e r of d e a t h t o s a v e t h e
S t a t e . A n d if t h e c i t i z e n w e r e a n a t i v e ( o r n a t u r a l p a r t ) of t h e
S t a t e in q u e s t i o n , t h e i n c l i n a t i o n t o m a k e t h e sacrifice w o u l d b e
natural. A c c o r d i n g l y , b e c a u s e G o d is t h e U n i v e r s a l G o o d , a n d
b e c a u s e a n g e l s a n d m e n a n d all c r e a t u r e s , l o o k e d a t f r o m t h e p o i n t
of v i e w of t h e i r b e i n g a n d e x i s t e n c e , a r e of God a n d b e l o n g t o
G o d , it f o l l o w s t h a t a n g e l s a n d m e n b y n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n l o v e
(20
God m o r e t h a n themselves." > O n the o t h e r hand, for St. T h o m a s ,
" a m a n is n o t o r d a i n e d t o t h e p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t y of w h i c h h e
f o r m s p a r t , i n r e g a r d t o h i s w h o l e b e i n g a n d t o all t h a t is h i s . . . .
f o r all t h a t a m a n is a n d all t h a t h e c a n a c c o m p l i s h a n d c a n p o s s e s s
l 2 1 J
m u s t be o r d a i n e d to G o d . " T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y is i n
t e n d e d t o a i d m a n , c o n s i d e r e d f o r m a l l y as a p e r s o n d e s t i n e d for
(22
God, to a t t a i n union w i t h Him. > As an i n d e p e n d e n t whole, m a n
e m e r g e s a b o v e t h e o r d e r of s o c i e t y , a n d t h e c o m m o n t e m p o r a l
g o o d is o r d a i n e d t o h i m .
T h e h u m a n b e i n g is t h e r e f o r e b o t h a n individual a n d a person.
I n d i v i d u a l i t y is b a s e d o n m a t t e r a n d t h e r e f o r e b e l o n g s t o m a n b e
c a u s e of his a n i m a l n a t u r e . H u m a n n a t u r e , like a n i m a l n a t u r e ,
b u t u n l i k e a n g e l i c n a t u r e , c a n b e f o u n d r e a l i z e d in i n n u m e r a b l e
i n d i v i d u a l s of t h e s a m e s p e c i e s , a n d t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e n e c e s
s a r i l y in r e l a t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . In other words, they are
o b l i g e d t o f o r m s o c i a l g r o u p s ( s o c i e t i e s ) . F i r s t in o r d e r c o m e s
t h e f a m i l y , a n d t h e n civil s o c i e t y , w h i c h h a s for o b j e c t the
d e v e l o p m e n t of life. O n a c c o u n t of his m a t e r i a l n a t u r e a n d t h e
m o d e of p r o p a g a t i o n of t h a t n a t u r e , t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n of
d i f f e r e n t m e m b e r s of t h e s a m e s p e c i e s , m a n r e s e m b l e s t h e
r ( 2 3 )
low er a n i m a l s . B e c a u s e m a n is a n individual of t h e h u m a n

(20) l p Q .
a M 6 0 ) . 5 . Cf. H a I l a e , Q.61, a . l ; H a I l a e , Q.64, a . 5 ; a n d
a

H a I l a e , Q.65-, a . l . St. T h o m a s s a y s : " Where one being is the^whole

cause of the existence a n d goodness of another being, t h a t being is
n a t u r a l l y more loved by the other t h a n itself, because, as we said above,
each p a r t n a t u r a l l y loves the whole more than itself : a n d each indivi
d u a l n a t u r a l l y loves the good of the species more t h a n its own i n d i v i d u a l
good. Now God is n o t only the good of the species, b u t is absolutely
the U n i v e r s a l G o o d ; hence e v e r y t h i n g in its own way n a t u r a l l y loves
God more t h a n i t s e l f " ( l a P . , Q.60, a.5, ad 1).
(21) I H a e , Q.21, a.4, ad 3. Cf. M a r i t a i n , Three Reformer*,
a pp.
193-196.
(22) We speak formally, when we consider not the subject of c e r t a i n
characteristics, b u t the characteristics themselves, or r a t h e r the subject
looked a t from t h a t p o i n t of view.
(23) T h e social theory of Hobbes. the Social C o n t r a c t of Rous
seau, Socialism a n d Communism, in stressing the resemblance of
h u m a n society t o a beehive, dwell exclusively on the a n i m a l n a t u r e of
m a n . T h e i r m a t e r i a l i s t philosophy denies m a n ' s personality.
14 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
species, he is an individual in society, a component part of the
whole formed by the family or by civil society. From this point
of view, he is ordained to the welfare of the State or social group
as to the good of the whole of which he forms a part; he is sub
ordinated to the Common Good which, as such, is of a nobler
order than the good of the individual. He is thus, as an individual,
directly ordered to society and through society to God, for society,
being God's creature, is bound in the nature of things to acknow
ledge its due subordination to God.
On the other hand, this due acknowledgment of dependence
on God, on the part of the social groups of which he forms a part,
is required for the proper development of man's personality. Per
sonality belongs to man because of his having an immaterial soul.
Alone among visible beings, man can grasp with his intelligence
and love with his will God, the Supreme Good, and the order of
the world subject to Him. Thus, while all other visible beings
move to their end, because they are impelled thereto by the cur
rent of the world in which they are immersed, man alone can rise
above that current and enter into direct relation with God. He
is not immersed in the movement of the universe and in this re
(24
spect resembles the angels. > Every human being, as a person,
is ordained directly to God, and as such, society exists for him.
The political and economic arrangements of society are therefore
meant to subserve the spiritual and eternal interests of the human
person. Accordingly, as in the actual order of the world, the
human person is destined to supernatural union with God, the
Divine Plan for harmonious social development, through member
ship of Our Lord's Mystical Body, must be grasped and accepted.
Man as an individual is for society, but society is for the person,
"The good of the community (the Common Good) . . . is super
ior to the good of the individual looked at from the point of view
of the terrestrial values according to which the individual forms
part of the community. But these terrestrial values themselves
are inferior to the dignity of the person. . . . The person stands
out above the level of the society of which the individual forms a
part."<>
(24) Liberalism, Romanticism, the philosophy of Locke, and the state
of nature as described by Rousseauist-Masonic revolutionary oratory,
with their stressing o f the independence o f the individual human unit,
misinterpret this resemblance of man to the angels. Both the Liberal-
istic writers and legislators, as well as the Socialists and Communists
mentioned in a previous note, start from one and the same false prin
ciple of the autonomy of the. Individual, thus confusing the whole basis
of social organization, namely, the distinction between man as a person
and man as an individual. Cf. Vulture Lutinc, et Ordre Social, by
R. P. Gillet, O.P., pp. 40-5&
(25) J)u Regime* Temporel et de la Liherte, by J. Maritain, p. 63, and
Three Reformers (English edition) pp. 22, 194. Cf. Ha Hae, Q.64, a.2;
la Hae, Q.21, a.4, ad 3.
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 15

" M a n h a s a s p i r i t u a l a n d i m m o r t a l s o u l . H e is a p e r s o n , m a r
v e l l o u s l y e n d o w e d b y h i s C r e a t o r w i t h gifts of b o d y a n d m i n d .
H e is a t r u e ' m i c r o c o s m / a s t h e a n c i e n t s said, a w o r l d in m i n i a
t u r e , w i t h a v a l u e f a r s u r p a s s i n g t h a t of t h e v a s t i n a n i m a t e
c o s m o s . G o d a l o n e is h i s l a s t e n d , in t h i s life a n d t h e n e x t . B y
s a n c t i f y i n g g r a c e he is r a i s e d t o t h e d i g n i t y of a s o n of G o d , a n d
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e K i n g d o m of G o d in t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of
Christ. In consequence he has been endowed by God with m a n y
a n d v a r i e d p r e r o g a t i v e s : t h e r i g h t t o life, t o b o d i l y i n t e g r i t y , t o
o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y m e a n s of e x i s t e n c e ; t h e r i g h t t o t e n d t o w a r d
h i s u l t i m a t e g o a l in t h e p a t h m a r k e d o u t for h i m b y G o d ; t h e
r i g h t of a s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e r i g h t t o p o s s e s s a n d u s e p r o p e r t y . . .
S o l i k e w i s e a r e t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d f u n d a m e n t a l p r e r o g a t i v e s of
t h e f a m i l y fixed a n d d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e C r e a t o r . I n t h e E n c y c l i c a l
{ 2 6 )
on Christian M a r r i a g e a n d in O u r o t h e r E n c y c l i c a l on ICduca-
t i o n , c i t e d a b o v e , W e h a v e t r e a t e d t h e s e topics a t c o n s i d e r a b l e
l e n g t h . . . . B u t G o d h a s l i k e w i s e d e s t i n e d m a n f o r civil s o c i e t y
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c t a t e s of h i s v e r y n a t u r e . I n t h e p l a n of t h e
C r e a t o r , s o c i e t y is a n a t u r a l m e a n s w h i c h m a n c a n a n d m u s t u s e
t o r e a c h h i s d e s t i n e d e n d . S o c i e t y is f o r m a n , n o t m a n for s o c i e t y .
T h i s m u s t n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d in t h e s e n s e of l i b e r a l i s t i c I n d i v i d u a l
i s m , w h i c h s u b o r d i n a t e s s o c i e t y t o t h e selfish u s e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ;
b u t o n l y in t h e s e n s e t h a t b y m e a n s of an o r g a n i c u n i o n w i t h
s o c i e t y a n d b y m u t u a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n t h e a t t a i n m e n t of e a r t h l y
w e l f a r e is p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e r e a c h of all. F u r t h e r , i t is s o c i e t y
w h i c h a f f o r d s t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of all t h e
i n d i v i d u a l a n d social g i f t s b e s t o w e d o n h u m a n n a t u r e . . . . M a n
c a n n o t be e x e m p t e d from his divinely-imposed obligations t o w a r d
civil s o c i e t y , a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a u t h o r i t y h a v e t h e r i g h t
to coerce h i m w h e n he refuses w i t h o u t reason to do his d u t y .
S o c i e t y , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n n o t d e f r a u d m a n of h i s G o d - g r a n t e d
r i g h t s , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of w h i c h W e h a v e i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , o r
m a k e t h e i r u s e i m p o s s i b l e . I t is t h e r e f o r e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c
t a t e s of r e a s o n t h a t all e a r t h l y t h i n g s s h o u l d be for t h e u s e a n d
b e n e f i t of m a n , a n d s o , through him, be referred to the Creator.
T h i s a c c o r d s w i t h t h e w o r d s of t h e A p o s t l e of t h e G e n t i l e s , w h o
w r i t e s to the Corinthians on Christian salvation: ' A l l things are
, ( 2 7 )
y o u r s , a n d y o u a r e C h r i s t ' s , a n d C h r i s t is G o d ' s . While Com
m u n i s m impoverishes h u m a n personality by inverting the t e r m s
of t h e r e l a t i o n of m a n t o s o c i e t y , t o w h a t lofty h e i g h t s is m a n
,J(28
not elevated by reason and Revelation! >

A m a n w i l l b e fully a n d a c t u a l l y a p e r s o n , e n j o y i n g t h a t i n d e
p e n d e n c e of e x i s t e n c e a n d c o n s e q u e n t i n d e p e n d e n c e of a c t i o n w h i c h
b e l o n g s t o h i m , a s s u c h , in p r o p o r t i o n as t h e life of r e a s o n a n d
Ehcycl., Casti connubii, Dec. 31, 1930.
(27) I Cor., I l l , 23.
<28) E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Divini Red&mptoris, On Atheistic Communism.
 16 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
( 2 9 )
f r e e - w i l l d o m i n a t e s in h i m o v e r t h a t of t h e s e n s e s a n d p a s s i o n s .
W i t h o u t t h a t d o m i n a t i o n , h e will r e m a i n a s l a v e t o p a s s i n g e v e n t s
and circumstances, always carried a w a y by every passing sense-
i m p r e s s i o n a n d b e r e f t of t h a t s e l f - m a s t e r y w h i c h s h o u l d b e h i s .
I n a w o r d h e will s h o w t h a t d e p e n d e n c e o n m a t t e r w h i c h c o m e s
f r o m h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y . B y h i s individuality he is essentially d e
p e n d e n t on a certain e n v i r o n m e n t , a certain climate, a certain
descent. T o d e v e l o p o n e ' s individuality m e a n s t o l e a d a selfish
e x i s t e n c e , to b e c o m e a s l a v e to o n e ' s p a s s i o n s , s t r i v i n g t o m a k e
o n e s e l f t h e c e n t r e of e v e r y t h i n g , a n d in t h e e n d b e c o m i n g d e p e n d
ent on a thousand and one ephemeral things which bring a miser
a b l e p l e a s u r e of a m o m e n t . Personality, on the other hand, grows,
i n p r o p o r t i o n a s t h e soul lifts itself a b o v e t h e w o r l d of s e n s e a n d
a t t a c h e s itself m o r e a n d m o r e , b y t h e i n t e l l e c t a n d will, t o t h a t
w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e life of a s p i r i t u a l b e i n g , n a m e l y , k n o w l e d g e
a n d l o v e of t h e S u p r e m e l y P e r f e c t B e i n g a s H e is in H i m s e l f .
G o d a l o n e p o s s e s s e s -personality in t h e full s e n s e of t h e w o r d , f o r
H e a l o n e is fully i n d e p e n d e n t , in H i s B e i n g a n d in H i s A c t i o n .
O n l y H e w h o is b e i n g itself h a s a n e x i s t e n c e t h a t is i n d e p e n d e n t ,
n o t m e r e l y of m a t t e r , b u t a l s o of e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is n o t H i m s e l f .
A c c o r d i n g l y , o u r p e r s o n a l i t y is d e v e l o p e d in p r o p o r t i o n a s o u r life
t e n d s t o w a r d s G o d a n d is a s s i m i l a t e d t o G o d ' s life, t h a t is, in t h e
a c t u a l o r d e r , in p r o p o r t i o n a s w e live in u n i o n w i t h t h e B l e s s e d
T r i n i t y p r e s e n t in us b y G r a c e t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t a n d
s t r i v e t o s h a r e in t h e life of i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d l o v e of t h e T h r e e
Divine Persons. P e r s o n a l i t y in t h e o r d e r of a c t i o n is t h u s G o d -
c e n t r e d n e s s in o p p o s i t i o n t o s e l f - c e n t r e d n e s s . A s all t h i n g s t e n d
t o w a r d s G o d b y t h e i r n a t u r e , p e r s o n a l i t y in a c t i o n i m p l i e s a firm
g r a s p of t h a t o r d e r e d t e n d e n c y a n d a n i n t e n s e l o v e of t h e o r d e r
thus grasped. T h i s l o v e will m a n i f e s t itself b y a c a p a c i t y f o r
s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , t h a t is, by t h e p o w e r of s u p p r e s s i n g t h e i n c l i n a t i o n
t o m a k e self t h e c e n t r e of life a n d of r e s p e c t i n g t h e t e n d e n c y of
30
all b e i n g s t o G o d , t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e U n i v e r s e . < > Every
s i n is a c o n s c i o u s d i s o r d e r e d m a n i f e s t a t i o n of s e l f - c e n t r e d n e s s . A s
t h e m o v e m e n t of e v e r y b e i n g is t o w a r d s G o d , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
t h e p o w e r s b e s t o w e d o n it, t h e c o n s c i o u s v o l u n t a r y d i r e c t i o n g i v e n
t o h i s b e i n g b y a s i n n e r in a sinful a c t is in o p p o s i t i o n t o h i s n a t u r e .

(29) " Persona eat per se siibsistews et per se operans."

(30) The p r o x i m a t e p r i n c i p l e of l i b e r t y thus d i s p l a y e d i n the conquest
of self is i n t h e infinite vastness of the will, by which a m a n r e m a i n s
m a s t e r of his p r a c t i c a l decisions. T h e root p r i n c i p l e of l i b e r t y is in
the intelligence, which g r a s p s the very idea of good a n d so can d o m i n a t e
the a t t r a c t i o n of every object not completely e x e m p t from imperfec
t i o n . F a c u l t i e s t h a t g r a s p the o r d e r of being' a n d the idea of good
u l t i m a t e l y have their source in a being t h a t is i n d e p e n d e n t of m a t t e r .
Cf. I a P., Q.18, art. 3, a n d IMeu, by P e r e G a r r i g o u - L a g r a n g e , O . P . ,
p. 624.
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 17

He goes against order and prefers a partial passing good to God,

31
thus lowering the level of his personality/ '
This is what the Saints understood. They realized that by
Sanctifying Grace they had been made partakers of the Life of
God as He is Himself, and were thus enabled to lift themselves
up to that Life in which the fulness of personality is to be found.
Grace, being a participation of the Divine Nature coming to them
from Our Lord, Head of the Mystical Body, enabled them,
on their level and with their limitations, to substitute progress
ively in the order of action, that is, of knowledge and love, Our
Lord's interior and exterior attitude, for their human self-centred
way of judging and willing. Our Lord enjoyed the vision of the
Blessed Trinity face to face in His human soul and all His exterior
actions were animated with the supernatural love of the Triune
God springing from that vision. So His life was perfectly ordered
and completely centred on God. The Saints likewise as members
of Christ strove to live with God in Three Divine Persons present
in them in the obscurity of faith and animated all their dealings
with their fellow-members of Christ's Mystical Body, actual and
potential, with the same supernatural love of the Triune God.
The Saints strove to die to self in order that God might reign in
them. They ever sought the will of God instead of their own
will, to love God infinitely more than themselves and above all.
They grasped thoroughly that self-centredness is the great
obstacle to the development of our most real Life, the Life of
Our Head in us. On account of our self-centredness, we either
do not grasp the objective order, that is, the lines of action in
cumbent on us, or if we see them, we refuse to sacrifice ourselves
in the way indicated. By the sacrifice of self, the Saints acquired
in a certain sense what God has by nature, namely, complete in
dependence with regard to all created things. They sought their
own good of course, but in perfect order, that is, as became mem
bers of the Mystical Body of Christ loving their own particular
good in perfect subjection to God, the Common Good of the
Universe.
PERSONALITY, INDIVIDUALITY AND THE
COMMON GOOD.
To the paramount rights of God correspond duties on the part
of man, and these duties to God are the foundation of the true
(31) Venial sin is a violation of order in regard to what leads to the
end, in other words, a fault which does not make of self the end of life
to the exclusion of God. By it, therefore, we do not withdraw our
selves completely from subjection to the guidance of Christ, our Head.
By mortal sin we reject completely the rule of Christ, for by it we make
of self the end of life.
" Peccatum veniale est inordinatio exsistens circa ea quae sunt ad
finem, servato debito ordine ad finem. Peccatum mortale est deordin-
atio circa finem ipsum," Cf. Ia Ilae, Q.89, a.3 et a.4.
D
 18 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
32
r i g h t s of man.< > T h u s t h e d u t y of t e n d i n g t o G o d in t h e w a y
H e h a s l a i d d o w n , n a m e l y , a s a m e m b e r of C h r i s t , is t h e f o u n d a t i o n
of t h e t r u e r i g h t s of m a n a s a h u m a n p e r s o n . B e c a u s e all m e n
a r e c a l l e d t o love a n d s e r v e t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y a s m e m b e r s of
C h r i s t , f r e e d o m t o w o r s h i p t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y , in t h e C a t h o l i c
w a y God desires, and to develop their personality after the model
of Christ, are indisputable h u m a n rights. N o w a sufficiency of
w h a t t h e b o d y r e q u i r e s , is n o r m a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e , a s a s e c o n d a r y
a n d q u a s i - i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n , f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of h u m a n
p e r s o n a l i t y . S o c i e t y o u g h t , t h e r e f o r e , t o be o r g a n i z e d w i t h a v i e w
t o s e c u r e t h e b e c o m i n g m i n i m u m of p e r s o n a l r i g h t s f o r all a n d
f o r e a c h of i t s m e m b e r s . A s t h e d u e f u n c t i o n i n g of s o c i e t y i s
t h u s a n i n t e r m e d i a r y e n d in v i e w of t h e a t t a i n m e n t of t h e s u p r e m e
e n d of h u m a n p e r s o n s , w h i c h is t h e p o s s e s s i o n of G o d in T h r e e
D i v i n e P e r s o n s , all of u s , a s i n d i v i d u a l s , a r e b o u n d t o k e e p a l w a y s
i n v i e w t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e s o c i e t y , t h a t is, w e all, b o t h
(33
r u l e r s and ruled, a r e b o u n d to p r a c t i s e Social J u s t i c e . > I t is
o n l y t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t t h a t w e c a n c o n s i s t e n t l y k e e p
i n v i e w t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e s o c i e t y i n all o u r a c t i o n s , a n d
32
( ) M a n ' s r i g h t s being founded on his dutievS to God, he has n o t a
right to reject the D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r a n d go a g a i n s t God, either a s
a n i n d i v i d u a l o r as a member of society. Good faith excuses from
f o r m a l sin but does not confer r i g h t s on e r r o r : these belong to t r u t h
alone. M a n h a s not a right to d o wrong. I t is true t h a t he h a s the
r i g h t as a p e r s o n not to be forced to accept w h a t he does not as y e t
see t h a t he o u g h t to accept, b u t t h a t is a very different t h i n g . T h e r e
c a n be no such t h i n g as a r i g h t in o p p o s i t i o n to God's rights. A m a n
m a y be excused from fulfilling his d u t y to God t h r o u g h i n c u l p a b l e
i g n o r a n c e , but a man has not a r i g h t to go a g a i n s t his d u t y to God.
33
t ) Social or Legal J u s t i c e is the v i r t u e which enables u s to sub
o r d i n a t e to the Common Good the acts of all the v i r t u e s . " I t is p r i
m a r i l y in the prince o r ruler as chief c o m m a n d e r and secondarily i n
t h e subjects as agents of execution " ( H a H a e , Q.58, a.6). Cf. I l a H a e ,
Q.58, a.5, 6, 7; a n d l a H a e , Q.60, a.3, ad 2. Cf. also Conscience Chre-
tienne et Justice So dale, by R. P . Gillet, O . P . , p p . 134-142.
" H e who seeks the Common Good of the g r o u p to which he belongs,
by that very fact seeks his own good also, a n d t h a t for two reasons.
F i r s t l y , because the good of the i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t be complete unless t h e
Common Good of the g r o u p , family* c i t y a n d c o u n t r y , t o which he
belongs, be assured. H e n c e M a x i m u s V a l e r i u s ( F a c t , et Diet. Mem.,
lib. 4, c a p . 6) says of the a n c i e n t R o m a n s t h a t they p r e f e r r e d t o be p o o r
i n a wealthy state r a t h e r t h a n be wealthy in a poor one. Secondly,
since a man forms a c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t of a family a n d a state, if he acts
p r u d e n t l y with r e g a r d t o the Common Good, he will necessarily l e a r n
t o seek his own good r i g h t l y , so t h a t i t m a y be a d v a n t a g e o u s to the
Common Good. F o r the p a r t s m u s t be a r r a n g e d so as to s u i t the whole.
A s St. A u g u s t i n e expresses i t in the t h i r d c h a p t e r of the Confessions:
' I t is unbecoming for a p a r t n o t to fit h a r m o n i o u s l y i n t o the whole ' "
( H a I l a e , Q. 47, a. 10).
W i t h r e g a r d to the s u b o r d i n a t i o n of t h e Common Good t o the e n d
of the h u m a n person, see M a r i t a i n , Du Regime Tempo ret et de la Liberie*,
p p . 50, 51, a n d J'Abbe J o u r n e t , V Union des Sglises, p. 266.
 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 19

work steadily for the reign of Social Justice. It is only through

full acknowledgment of the Rights of God as proclaimed" by Christ
and His Church that the rulers of States will be able to practise
Social Justice and respect the personal rights of their subjects
without essential deviations from order. Human personality will
not be respected as it ought to be, unless fhe Rights of God are
fully upheld, and the great triumphs of mankind in the realm of
physical science will be utilized to reduce men to the level of mere
individuals.
Hence the Rights of God are the foundation of the duties and,
consequently, of the rights of the human person, and those rights
are, in their turn, the foundation of the duties of the individual
member of society. For, in order that society may be able to re
spect the personal rights of its members, the citizens must fulfil
their duties with regard to society. All must respect the legitim
ate authority which is directly charged with safeguarding the
Common Good, and obey the just laws made in view of that Good.
Since, in the nature of things, the Common Good is ordained for
the development of the personality of the citizens, all, both rulers
and ruled, are bound to work for it, in order to have the right
to make use of it in their turn. The more we love God as it is
our personal duty as members of Christ to do, the more fully we
shall be urged by our charity to discharge all our individual duties
to the Common Good. Then, we in our turn shall be aided by it
in the development of our personality.
On account of our individual inequalities, however, we cannot
all serve the Common Good in the same way nor with the same
intensity. A child and an adult, a woman and a man, an ignorant
man and a learned one, cannot render the same services to society.
Neither have they the same claims upon it. Each member of
society can demand respect for his fundamental rights as a human
person which, as we have seen, it belongs to Social Justice to
(34
secure. > But, once these rights have been safeguarded, each
<W) P o p e P i u s XI insists u p o n the necessity of Social J u s t i c e in the
Encyclical on Atheistic Communism. H e stresses the fact t h a t the
citizens m u s t fulfil their d u t i e s to the society, in order t h a t the society
m a y be able to p r o v i d e for the p e r s o n a l r i g h t s of its i n d i v i d u a l members,
b u t lays g r e a t e r emphasis u p o n the p r i m a r y obligation of the r u l e r s to
p r a c t i s e Social Justice. " Besides commutative j u s t i c e , " he writes,
11
there is also social justice w i t h its own set obligations, from which
n e i t h e r e m p l o y e r s nor working men can escape. Now it is of the very
essence of social justice to d e m a n d from each i n d i v i d u a l all t h a t is
necessary for the common good. B u t j u s t as in the l i v i n g o r g a n i s m it
is impossible to p r o v i d e for the good of the whole unless each single
p a r t a n d each i n d i v i d u a l member is given what it needs for the exercise
of its p r o p e r functions, so it is impossible to care for the social o r g a n i s m
a n d the good of society as a whole unless each p a r t a n d each i n d i v i d u a l
member t h a t is to say, each i n d i v i d u a l m a n in t h e d i g n i t y of his
h u m a n personalityis s u p p l i e d with all t h a t is necessary for the exercise
20 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

member of society has a right to share in the Common Good in

proportion to his or her social value, that is, in proportion to the
services rendered lo the Common Good. These services vary with
individual capacities and services. The State must never forget,
in the proportionate distribution of social favours that the family
is the nucleus of society. Family life must be favoured and
351
strengthened by every possible m e a n s /
Accordingly, since society exists for the development of per
sonality, in and through Christ, society, on which man as an in
dividual is so dependent, must be organized along the lines indi
cated by Our Lord Himself.<W in this way alone will the indi
vidual members be as efficaciously aided as they should be in
grasping the order of the world, accepting it and expressing it in
life. Thus alone also will Social Justice be respected and we shall
have a social organization capable of harmonizing the fundamental
equality of human persons as members of Christ with the inevit
able inequality of individual conditions, in which the members of
the Mystical Body arc destined to work out their salvation.
Admitting the inevitable inequality of human conditions, Liberal
ism denies, in practice, the essential equality of human persons
and the fundamental rights of human personality, by the legalized
oppression of the weak and the feeble. Admitting the specific or
essential equality of human beings, the Socialists and Commun-
its, in their insane attempts to do away with individual inequali
ties, also legalize the denial of human personality. Both Liberal
ism and Communism reach this level of degradation, because,
owing to imperfect philosophy, they confuse the true freedom of
the human person with an impossible independence of the human
individual.
What are the lines of social organization indicated by Christ
when He founded the Kingdom of His Mystical Body? To answer
this question we must begin by an explanation of the Kingship of
Christ in its essence. This will be the subject matter of the next
r
chapter, in which w e shall treat also of the relation between the
Kingship of Christ and His Priesthood. Then, in the following
chapters, we shall see the meaning of the Kingship of Christ in its
integrity and set forth the outlines of social organization in sub
jection to Christ the King.

of his social functions. If social justice be satisfied, the result will be

an intense activity in economic life as a whole, pursued in tranquillity
and order." Cf, Appendix on Social Justice.
(35) Cf. Culture Latine et Ordre Social, by R. P. Gillet, O.P., p p .
40-56.
W> " The true good is the common good regulated according to divine
justice " (la Ilae, Q.92, a.l).
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 21
A P P E N D I X .

SOCIAL JUSTICE.

T H E MEANING OF SOCIAL JUSTICE.

T h e T h o m i s t i c d o c t r i n e o n t h e m e a n i n g of S o c i a l J u s t i c e h a s
b e e n e x p o s e d w i t h his c u s t o m a r y l u c i d i t y b y R. P . Gillet, O . P . , i n
a l e c t u r e g i v e n b y h i m o n t h e o c c a s i o n of t h e Semaine Socialc de
(1
Franee a t T o u l o u s e in 1921. > S t . T h o m a s , h e s a y s , u s e s t h e t e r m
L e g a l J u s t i c e t o d e s i g n a t e t h e v i r t u e w h i c h h a s for s p e c i a l o b j e c t
t h e public i n t e r e s t or the C o m m o n Good, and which enables both
rulers a n d ruled to subordinate their private interests to the Com
m o n G o o d as t h e y should. L e g a l Justice, according to the Angelic
2
D o c t o r , is a v i r t u e p e r f e c t i n g a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e w i l l / ) a m o v
i n g o r p r o p e l l i n g v i r t u e , of w h i c h t h e e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n is t o direct-
t o t h e C o m m o n G o o d t h e a c t s of all t h e v i r t u e s , o r , a s h e s a y s
3
e l s e w h e r e , all t h e a c t s of t h e v i r t u e s / *
I t is b y t h e a n a l y s i s of t h i s v i r t u e of L e g a l J u s t i c e t h a t S t .
T h o m a s b e g i n s his T r e a t i s e o n J u s t i c e . H e first a s k s t h e q u e s
t i o n w h e t h e r J u s t i c e is a g e n e r a l v i r t u e a n d r e p l i e s as f o l l o w s :
" J u s t i c e h a s as end to r e g u l a t e t h e relations b e t w e e n m e n . N o w
a m a n m a y b e l o o k e d u p o n in r e l a t i o n t o a n o t h e r in t w o w a y s ,
either individually or socially. By the latter t e r m w e m e a n t h a t
a m a n m a y b e in r e l a t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r m a n i n a s m u c h a s h e s e r v e s
a s o c i a l g r o u p a n d t h r o u g h t h e g r o u p all t h o s e w h o b e l o n g t o it.
F o r it is e v i d e n t t h a t all t h o s e w h o live in s o c i e t y a r e r e l a t e d t o
it a s t h e p a r t s t o t h e w h o l e . N o w , t h e p a r t , a s s u c h , is s o m e t h i n g
of t h e w h o l e . T h u s t h e g o o d of e v e r y v i r t u e , b o t h of t h e v i r t u e s
w h i c h p e r f e c t u s p e r s o n a l l y a n d t h o s e w h i c h p e r f e c t us in o u r
relation w i t h others, should b e directed to the C o m m o n Good t o
w h i c h J u s t i c e o r d a i n s u s . I t f o l l o w s f r o m t h i s t h a t t h e a c t s of
T
all t h e v i r t u e s d e p e n d o n J u s t i c e w hich d i r e c t s m a n t o t h e C o m m o n
4
G o o d . A c c o r d i n g l y , J u s t i c e is a g e n e r a l v i r t u e . " * *
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r of L e g a l J u s t i c e d o e s n o t
p r e v e n t it f r o m b e i n g a special v i r t u e . J u s t as C h a r i t y can be
t e r m e d a g e n e r a l v i r t u e b e c a u s e it d i r e c t s t o t h e D i v i n e G o o d n e s s
t h e a c t s of all t h e v i r t u e s , s o l i k e w i s e L e g a l J u s t i c e is a g e n e r a l
v i r t u e i n a s m u c h a s it o r d a i n s t h e a c t s of all t h e v i r t u e s t o t h e

(i) T h e lecture deals with the 'whole question of social responsibility

in r e g a r d to investments. Only the p a r t t r e a t i n g of Social J u s t i c e is
here s u m m a r i z e d .
<2> H a H a e , Q.58, a.4.
<*> H a H a e , Q.58, a. 5, a.7; l a H a e , Q.60, a.3, ad 2.
<*> H a H a e , Q.58, a.4, a.5, a . 6 , a . 7 ; l a H a e , Q.60, a.3, ad 2.
22 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Common Good. Since we know that in the supernatural order a

virtuous act is meritorious only inasmuch as it is under the in
fluence of Charity, so we can conclude that individual virtues
would cease to be virtues, if they did not bear the impress of
Legal Justice and receive its fruitful impulsion. The general func
tion of Charity does not prevent it from being in its essence a
special virtue, since it has for special object the Divine Goodness.
We must say exactly the same thing about Legal Justice. It is
in its essence a special virtue, for it has for special object the
51
Common G o o d /
It is only after having thus set forth the general function and
the special object of Legal Justice that St. Thomas puts himself
the question whether, besides this virtue, there are not other vir
tues of justice having for object, not the Common Good or the
good of the whole group, but the private good of the individuals
composing the group. He answers this question in the affirma
tive and distinguishes two kinds of Particular Justice: Commuta
tive Justice and Distributive Justice. Commutative Justice regul
ates the relations of justice between individuals. Distributive Jus
tice regulates the distribution of the Common Good to the sub
jects, by the authority in the society, according to their social
Gj
value and the rights which flow from i t / That the most import
ant virtue of justice for St. Thomas is Legal Justice is abundantly
clear from the fact that the two forms of Particular Justice, Com
mutative Justice and Distributive Justice, arc subject to its direc
tion like all the other moral virtues, as they too must be directed
71
to the Common Good/
Between the Common Good of a society and the particular good
of its individual members, there is the same specific difference as
between the whole and its parts. The Common Good does not
differ from the particular good merely as regards quantity. It is
not a sum-total arrived at by the addition of the particular goods
of the members, but a whole of a special kind which surpasses
this sum-total in moral value as the society itself surpasses the
81
mere collection of its individual members/ Therefore we must
say that Legal Justice, in spite of its general motive function,
is a special virtue which has for object the Common Good towards
which it directs the acts of all the virtues. The other moral vir
tues, in spite of the particular character of their object, are social
virtues in so far as Legal Justice makes them serve the Common
1
Good/9

<M Ha Ilae, Q.58, a.6.

(6) Ha Ilae, Q.58, a.7.
(7) Ha Ilae, Q.58, a.7, ad 1.
(8) H a Ilae, Q.58. a.7, ad 2.
9
<> Ha Ilae, Q.58, a.6 (conclusion of the article).
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 23

LEGAL OR SOCIAL JUSTICE,

Why does St. Thomas use the expression Legal Justice rather
than Social Justice? He himself gives the reason. It is called
Legal Justice, he says, because it keeps a man in harmony with
the law whose function is precisely that of directing the acts of
10
all the virtues to the Common Good/ > In order to understand
the importance of this answer, we must go back to St. Thomas's
Treatise on Laws. We know that for him every law, whether
eternal, natural or human, is an order in accordance with right
reason made with a view to the Common Good. The binding force
of human law springs from the fact that it aims at the Common
Good and it loses its power to oblige in conscience if it does not
do so. On the other hand, all human positive laws drawn up and
promulgated in view of the Common Good oblige in con
11
science/ !
Since St. Thomas, then, employs the expression, Legal Justice,
for General Justice, because it is the function of law to regulate
the actions of man in view of the Common Good, he could just as
well have used the term Social Justice. Why is this so? Because,
according to him, the Common Good is the proper object of
society. It is precisely for this reason that he says that Legal
Justice " is found primarily in the ruler as chief commander and
12
secondarily in the subjects as agents of execution."* ) The rulers
are directly charged with safeguarding the Common Good of
society; it belongs to them to make and promulgate the laws re
gulating the conduct of their subjects and aiming exclusively at
the Common Good. Social Justice is, therefore, primarily the
virtue of rulers of societies, but it is also the virtue of the sub
jects, that is, of all those who form part of a society and precisely
because they form part of it. Though the law regulates the acts
of all the virtues in view of the Common Good, it cannot regulate
every act. It is not even desirable that it should attempt to do
so. Continual State-intervention is not good, either- from the
moral or the economic aspect. By paralysing individual initiative,
legal constraint will prove hurtful to the Common Good instead of
favourable. The subjects must become conscious of their obliga
tions as members of society and must show themselves just
towards all by directing all their virtuous acts to the Common
Good, both those that are regulated by law and those that are not.
In the latter case, it is their sense of equity which will enable
18
them to act as they should/ *

<H>) Ha Hae, Q.58, a.5 (conclusion of the article).

OU 7a H a e , Q.96, a.4.
U2) Ha Ilae, Q.58, a.6.
(13) In this connexion we must remember that for St. Thomas " it
was a most certain doctrine that the love of God must always be on the
24 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

C o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w , S o c i a l J u s t i c e is s e e n t o
be a s o v e r e i g n v i r t u e e x e r c i s i n g its c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t h o u g h t s ,
t h e s e n t i m e n t s a n d t h e a c t s of t h e c i t i z e n s a n d s u b j e c t i n g t h e m
t o its g e n e r a l impulsion. F a r from a n n i h i l a t i n g p e r s o n a l i t y , it
combats only individualism. It d e m a n d s that the citizens should
s e r v e t h e s o c i e t y in o r d e r t o h a v e t h e r i g h t t o m a k e u s e of it.
T h e y m u s t d i r e c t t o t h e C o m m o n G o o d t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of all t h e i r
m a t e r i a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d m o r a l r e s o u r c e s , in o r d e r t h a t t h e C o m
m o n G o o d m a y r e t u r n t o e a c h of t h e m a n d e n a b l e all w i t h o u t d i s
t i n c t i o n t o d e v e l o p t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y a s fully a s p o s s i b l e , t h a t i s ,
t o r e a l i z e t h e f u l n e s s of t h e i r h u m a n i d e a l by r e s e m b l a n c e t o
C h r i s t . T h a t is t h e e n d for w h i c h m e n live in s o c i e t y .
Of c o u r s e , all t h e m e m b e r s of a g r o u p h a v e n o t t h e s a m e s o c i a l
value. S o m e a r c m o r e moral, or m o r e intelligent, or m o r e active,
o r s t r o n g e r t h a n o t h e r s , a n d t h i s will b e a sufficient m o t i v e f o r
t h e s o c i a l a u t h o r i t y t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e C o m m o n G o o d in p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h e s o c i a l v a l u e of t h e d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s . All, h o w e v e r , w h a t
e v e r m a y be t h e i r s o c i a l v a l u e as c i t i z e n s in t h e s o c i e t y of w h i c h
t h e y are m e m b e r s , have the same h u m a n value. All a r c m e n
c r e a t e d t o t h e i m a g e of G o d a n d c a l l e d t o b e m e m b e r s of C h r i s t ,
a n d all, if t h e y o b s e r v e S o c i a l J u s t i c e , w i l l h a v e t h e r i g h t t o r e
c e i v e f r o m t h e C o m m o n G o o d w h a t is s t r i c t l y n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r
t o live in a m a n n e r b e f i t t i n g h u m a n p e r s o n s .
T w o r e m a r k s m u s t b e a d d e d in c o n c l u s i o n . I n t h e first p l a c e ,
w e have seen above t h a t the laws e n a c t e d by rulers a n i m a t e d by
t h e v i r t u e of S o c i a l J u s t i c e s h o u l d n o t a t t e m p t t o r e g u l a t e all t h e
1 4
a c t s of t h e i r s u b j e c t s . T h e y s h o u l d d e m a n d w h a t is n e c e s s a r y / *
a n d s h o u l d , in a d d i t i o n , f a v o u r t h e e d u c a t i o n of t h e c i t i z e n s a s
1 5
m e m b e r s of C h r i s t / * I n t h i s w a y , t h e s u b j e c t s will b e h e l p e d

(
increase : T h i s is e v i d e n t from the very form of the c o m m a n d m e n t ,
Thou shall love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart: the whole^ is
the same as the perfect . . . The end of the commandmeiit is charity,
as the Apostle says ( I T i m . , I, 5) a n d the end is not subject- to a measure,
b u t onlv such t h i n g s as are subject to the end ' ( I l a I l a e , Q.184, a.3).
A n d t h a t is why the perfection of c h a r i t y falls u n d e r a c o m m a n d m e n t
a n d why everyone, according to his state of life, is s t r i c t l y bound to
s t r i v e after the perfection of c h a r i t y " ( P o p e P i n s X I , Encyclical L e t t e r ,
On St. Thomas as Guide of Studies, 1923). W i t h the increase of C h a r i t y
will go the increase of the m o r a l v i r t u e s , i n c l u d i n g Social J u s t i c e .
Hi) " Jfc is of the essence of social justice to d e m a n d from each
i n d i v i d u a l all t h a t is necessary for the Common Good " ( P o p e P i u s X I ,
Encyclical Letter. On Atheistic Communion).
((
(i5) Civil society, established for the common welfare, should n o t
o n l y safeguard the well-boms of the community, but also have a t h e a r t
the interests of its i n d i v i d u a l members, in such wise ns not in any way
to hindrr, hut in every way to render as easy as possible the possession
7;
of t h a t highest and unchangeable good for which all should seek (Pope
Leo X I I I , Encyclical, On- the Christian Constitution of States).
 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST 25

to tend to the perfection of human personality. In the second

place, it is only through full acknowledgment of the Rights of
God, proclaimed by Christ and His Church, that rulers of States
are enabled to practise Social Justice, and respect the personal
rights of their subjects. Accordingly, we need not be astonished
that increasing opposition on the part of States to the Divine
Plan for order is accompanied by widespread elimination of those
rights of the person and the family mentioned in the lext quoted
above from. Pope Pius XPs Encyclical Letter, On Atheistic
{
Communism. W In proportion as those rights are denied by the
State, human beings are treated as mere individuals subject to the
State.

u> Cf. p. 15.

 CHAPTER II.

T H E KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ITS ESSENCE.

THE PRIESTHOOD AND THE KINGSHIP OF CHRIST.U)

Our Supernatural Life of Grace comes to us from Our Lord

Jesus Christ, Head of His Mystical Body, the Catholic Church,
while we continue to receive our disordered natural life from the
first Adam. Our Lord is our Supernatural Head. For not only
did the Son of God, when He came into this world, take to
Himself a human body, which with His human soul constitutes
His Sacred Humanity; but He is, moreover, assuming another
body, a many-membcred one, of which we all become members
by the character of Baptism. Our Lord is ever seeking to draw
all human beings into the unity of that Body, so that they too
may stand for His programme and face life in the ordered way
He Himself faced life when on earth.
Our Lord has a twofold claim to the acceptance of His pro
gramme as Head, and this constitutes an important difference
between Him and earthly leaders. He is Head of the human race
by a twofold title. First of all, He is Plead in virtue of the
Hypostatic Union, that is, in virtue of the substantial union of
the human nature with the Divine Nature in the Second Person
of the Blessed Trinity. Then again, because of the rejection of
His programme by His own nation, He laid down His life, so that
He has not only a natural right to the ordered submission of the
human race but also a dearly-acquired right. This is what Pope
Pius XI insists upon so strongly, in the Encyclical, On The King
ship of Christ. " Christ's Kingship/' he writes, " is founded on
the incfTahle Hypostatic Union. Hence it follows that Christ is to
be adored by angels and men, not only as God, but that angels
and men must obey and be subject to His sovereignty as man.
Thus by virtue of the Hypostatic Union, Christ has power over all
creatures. But what rellection can give us more pleasure and joy
than the rellection that Christ is our King, not only by natural
but by acquired right, by virtue of His Redemption? . . . We
are no longer our own property, since Christ has purchased us

_U) In treating of the relation between the Priesthood and the King
ship of Christ, free use has been made, with the kind permission of the
author, of Le Mysttre du Christ, by Rev. C. V. Heris, O.P., and of
articles by the same distinguished writer.
 KINGSHIP O F CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 27

with a great price (I Cor., V I , 20): o u r very bodies a r e the mem

2
bers of Christ ( I Cor., V I , 15).< >
I t is a d o c t r i n e c o n s t a n t l y i n s i s t e d u p o n b y S t . T h o m a s t h a t
t h e i m p e r f e c t is f o r t h e p e r f e c t , a n d t h a t i n f e r i o r b e i n g s in t h e
s e r v i c e of s u p e r i o r b e i n g s a c h i e v e in t h e m a n d b y t h e m t h e i r r e t u r n
t o G o d , t h e final e n d of all t h i n g s . B y r e a s o n of t h i s o r d e r a n d
h i e r a r c h y of b e i n g , i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t it b e l o n g s t o t h e m o r e p e r
f e c t t o r u l e a n d g o v e r n t h e l e s s p e r f e c t . A n d if C h r i s t , b y t h e
H y p o s t a t i c U n i o n , is a t t h e s u m m i t of c r e a t i o n , i t is H i s r i g h t
t o r u l e i t a n d t o c o n d u c t a l l c r e a t u r e s t o t h e i r e n d . S u c h is t h e
r e a s o n i n g of t h e A n g e l i c D o c t o r . " F o r if, a s S t . A u g u s t i n e s a y s
in / / / De Trinitate, t h e i n f e r i o r a n d less p e r f e c t b e i n g s in a n y
o r d e r a r e r u l e d b y G o d t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y of t h e h i g h e r
a n d m o r e p e r f e c t , t h e n w e m u s t affirm t h a t all c r e a t u r e s a r e r u l e d
a n d g o v e r n e d b y t h e s o u l of C h r i s t w h i c h is a t t h e s u m m i t of
( 3 )
creation. "
N o w S t . T h o m a s d i s t i n g u i s h e s a t w o f o l d f u n c t i o n of t h e g r a c e
of H e a d s h i p , a n a l o g o u s t o t h e d o u b l e role e x e r c i s e d b y t h e h e a d ,
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e m e m b e r s of t h e b o d y . " T h e h e a d , " h e w r i t e s ,
" h a s a t w o f o l d i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e m e m b e r s : a n interior influence,
b e c a u s e t h e h e a d t r a n s m i t s t o t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s t h e p o w e r of
m o v i n g a n d f e e l i n g ; a n d a n exterior influence of g o v e r n m e n t , b e
c a u s e b y t h e s e n s e of s i g h t a n d t h e o t h e r s e n s e s w h i c h r e s i d e in
4
it, t h e h e a d d i r e c t s a m a n in h i s e x t e r i o r action."< > T h e interior
i n f l u e n c e e x e r c i s e d b y C h r i s t is t h a t ofVHis P r i e s t h o o d , b y w h i c h
t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e is c o m m u n i c a t e d t o s o u l s . G r a c e
c o m e s from G o d alone as P r i n c i p a l Cause, from the S a c r e d H u m a n
ity as I n s t r u m e n t a l Cause united to the Divinity, through the
S a c r a m e n t s as i n s t r u m e n t a l causes s e p a r a t e d from the Divinity.
T h e exterior influence e x e r c i s e d b y C h r i s t is t h a t of H i s S p i r i t u a l
K i n g s h i p , b y H i s g o v e r n m e n t a n d d i r e c t i o n of H i s s u b j e c t s . H e r e
w e h a v e t h e b r o a d o u t l i n e s of t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o
f u n c t i o n s of o u r S u p e r n a t u r a l H e a d .
I t is n o t a l w a y s e a s y , h o w e v e r , w h e n t r e a t i n g of O u r L o r d ' s
a c t s , t o s e p a r a t e t h o s e w h i c h a r e r e f e r r e d t o o n e o r o t h e r of t h e s e
t w o p r e r o g a t i v e s of H i s P r i e s t h o o d a n d H i s K i n g s h i p . T h e t a s k
is all t h e l e s s e a s y , b e c a u s e , a t t i m e s , a n a c t m a y b e r e f e r r e d t o
both. F o r example, in r e g a r d to the Grace which H e bestows on
m a n , C h r i s t d o e s n o t m e r e l y a c t a s a n i n t e r m e d i a r y b u t Pie a l s o
b r i n g s H i s g o v e r n i n g a n d directing p o w e r into play. T o merit
G r a c e , t o p r o d u c e it a s a n i n s t r u m e n t , a r e e s s e n t i a l l y w o r k s b e
l o n g i n g t o C h r i s t ' s P r i e s t h o o d , b e c a u s e t h e i r i m m e d i a t e effect is
to unite m a n to God a n d because God always remains the prin
ts) C h r i s t is H e a d of the angels, b u t the angels have n o t heen redeemed
by H i m ( I l i a P . , Q.8, a.4).
(3) I l i a P a r s , Q.59, a.6, a d 3.
U) U l a P a r s , Q . 8 , a.6.
 28 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

cipal author of this union. To arrange the order to be observed

in this sanctification of souls, to accomplish God's designs in the
work of the Redemption, thus organizing the plan of salvation,
all this supposes a hierarchical power altogether different from the
sacerdotal power, but not exclusive of it. While it belongs, then,
to Christ as Priest to merit Grace, to Christ as King it pertains
to establish a just proportion in the distribution of Grace to the
faithful so that " the whole body being compacted and fitly joined
t5)
together, by what every joint supplieth/' may continue to grow
and develop in loving union with God in charity.
As a consequence of the doctrine outlined in the previous par
agraph, there is an important difference between Christ as King
and earthly rulers. The difference in question is intimately con
nected with the fact of His also being High-Priest of redeemed
humanity. In the ordinary course of events, it pertains to the
King, on account of the powers vested in him, to conduct his sub
jects as a body to their social end in a visible manner: but it is
not the king who is called upon to bestow on them the vital force
or the physical capacity required for the attainment of the end.
These he takes for granted. The role of the earthly king is to
rule, not to transmit life to his subjects. Now the mission of
Christ our Redeemer not only establishes Him as Guide in the
development of the Supernatural Life, but also as the Source of
that Life. . He is destined to corhmunicate to men as a universal
cause, the Grace with which His Sacred Humanity is filled to
overflowing. This docs not mean that the Grace of Christ is the
principal physical and efficient cause of that of other men. It does
mean that the Sacred Plumanity is not only an inexhaustible source
of merit and satisfaction for the world, but also a perfect instru
ment in the hands of the Word for the transmission of the Divine
Life.
This sanctifying role belongs to Christ as Priest. The priest
is called upon to be an intermediary between God and men. He
presents the supplications of men to God and offers up their sacri
fices, while in return he communicates to men God's gifts and
benefits. When Christ merits for us and satisfies for us by the
oblation of His sufferings and death, He acts as Priest and not
as King. When He communicates through His Humanity, the in
strument of the Word, the graces of pardon and regeneration and
when He teaches the truth which transforms souls, again He acts
as Priest and not as King. But He is not Priest in the ordinary
way. He need not "offer sacrifice first for his own sins, and then
fi)
for the pcople's."< Our Lord has not to expiate for Himself nor
beg for the divine mercy. Again, His Humanity is not an inert
and passive instrument of the Word in the work of our sanctifica-
(5> Ephcsians, IV, 16.
<> Hebrews, VII, 27.
 KINGSHIP O F C H R I S T IN ESSENCE. 29

t i o n . I t is fully c o n s c i o u s of I t s r o l e . I t r e m a i n s f r e e , e v e n w h e n ,
i n full a c c o r d w i t h t h e D i v i n e W i l l , I t p l a c e s I t s e l f u n d e r t h e o m n i
p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e of t h a t W i l l t o p r o d u c e G r a c e for u s . Our Lord
a s M a n p o s s e s s e s p e r f e c t k n o w l e d g e of t h e m y s t e r i e s of p r e d e s
t i n a t i o n , a n d t h u s , i t is w i t h a full u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e e t e r n a l
d e s i g n s of G o d o n t h e w o r l d t h a t H e freely c o n c u r s in t h e w o r k
of R e d e m p t i o n . A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , in t h e b e s t o w a l of G r a c e
O u r Lord's Kingship functions along with His Priesthood. In
o r g a n i z i n g t h e p l a n of s a l v a t i o n f o r m e n , in d r a w i n g t h e m t o H i m
self a n d in g r o u p i n g t h e f a i t h f u l a r o u n d H i m in H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y ,
O u r L o r d a c t s n o t m e r e l y a s P r i e s t a n d M e d i a t o r b u t as K i n g .
T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , c e r t a i n a c t s w h i c h b e l o n g exclusively to C h r i s t
in H i s r o l e a s K i n g . T h e s e w e s h a l l n o w s e t f o r t h .

THE KINGSHIP OF CHRIST.

T o C h r i s t t h e K i n g i t b e l o n g s t o s e t b e f o r e t h e faithful t h e
c o m m o n e n d for w h i c h t h e y s h o u l d s t r i v e , a n d t o p o i n t o u t t o
t h e m t h e m e a n s t o a t t a i n it. I t m a y b e o b j e c t e d t h a t s u c h t e a c h
i n g p e r t a i n s also to H i s P r i e s t h o o d . W e can reply, h o w e v e r , t h a t
in t h i s c o n n e x i o n it is n o t q u e s t i o n of p r o m o t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of t h e i n t e r i o r life b u t of g u i d i n g t h e e x t e r i o r a n d visible m o v e
m e n t of t h e w h o l e M y s t i c a l T>ody t o w a r d s i t s final g o a l . The
t e a c h i n g w e s p e a k of is d e l i v e r e d b y a n a u t h o r i t y w h i c h c o m m a n d s
and legislates. I t is n o t s i m p l y a m o r a l e x h o r t a t i o n d i s p o s i n g
s o u l s t o c o m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of G r a c e . T h i s p a r t of t h e r o l e
of C h r i s t ' s K i n g s h i p c o n s i s t s , t h e n , in t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of t h e o r d e r
w h i c h G o d ' s l o v e w a s h e s t o s e e o b s e r v e d in t h e w o r l d .
I t is a l s o f o r C h r i s t t h e K i n g t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p e r s a n c t i o n s
for the precepts H e imposes and to r e w a r d and punish His sub
j e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r d e s e r t s . H e it is w h o m u s t r e w a r d fidelity
in t h e o b s e r v a n c e of t h e o r d e r i n s t i t u t e d b y G o d ' s l o v e a n d p u n i s h
o b s t i n a t e revolt against t h a t o r d e r and resistance to His rule.
F i n a l l y , i t is for C h r i s t t h e K i n g t o c o n q u e r H i s K i n g d o m a n d
d e f e n d H i s faithful s u b j e c t s a g a i n s t the visible enemies w h o join
f o r c e s w i t h t h e i n v i s i b l e e n e m y , S a t a n . It h a p p e n s a t t i m e s in t h e
n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t , a s a r e s u l t of t h e b a d will of h i s s u b j e c t s o r t h e
o p p o s i t i o n of h i s e n e m i e s , t h e K i n g is o b l i g e d , if h e w i s h e s t o
e x e r c i s e fully his p r e r o g a t i v e s a s h e a d , t o b r i n g h i s s u b j e c t s i n t o
c o m p l e t e s u b j e c t i o n first of all, b e f o r e h e s e t s o u t t o c o n q u e r h i s
e n e m i e s . T h e K i n g of s o u l s t o o is o f t e n o b l i g e d t o w i n s o u l s b y
d r a w i n g t h e m f r o m sin. O n c e t h e y a r e H i s , H e m u s t g u a r d t h e m
a g a i n s t t h e s n a r e s w h i c h t h e w o r l d a n d t h e devil n e v e r c e a s e t o
set for t h e m , a n d H e m u s t p r e s e r v e t h e m also from their o w n
passions.
A s K i n g , t o o , O u r L o r d is c o n t i n u a l l y o f f e r i n g g r a c e s of l i g h t
a n d s t r e n g t h t o all, e v e n t o H i s d i r e s t e n e m i e s , t o g e t t h e m t o
 30 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

c o m e into His camp a n d c o - o p e r a t e w i t h H i m in e s t a b l i s h i n g a

s o c i a l o r d e r t h a t will s u s t a i n t h e w e a k a n d s a f e g u a r d t h e s t r o n g
in t h e i r efforts t o r e p r o d u c e in t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e i r l e v e l H i s life
of B e t h l e h e m , N a z a r e t h , a n d C a l v a r y . H e a i m s n o t m e r e l y a t t h e
c o n q u e s t of i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s of s o c i e t y b u t a t t h e c o n q u e s t of
s o c i e t y itself, s o t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s m a y b e a i d e d in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e h o l d s w h e n ,
t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n of H i s a m b a s s a d o r s in p a g a n l a n d s , n a m e l y ,
His missionaries, H e proceeds to b r i n g n e w realms under H i s
sway. H e w a n t s not m e r e l y to convert individuals, b u t to o r g a n
ize s o c i e t y in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e D i v i n e P l a n , s o t h a t t h e c o n
quest m a y be lasting. Of c o u r s e , in t h i s w o r k H e e x p e c t s t h e
c o l l a b o r a t i o n of H i s l i e u t e n a n t s , t h e C h r i s t i a n T e m p o r a l R u l e r s , in
t h e t e r r i t o r y u n d e r t h e i r s w a y . A s G o d w a n t s all m e n t o b e s a v e d
through the One Mediator, Jesus Christ, H e wants co-operation
a n d u n i o n b e t w e e n all t h o s e w h o s h a r e in O u r L o r d ' s P r i e s t h o o d
a n d H i s K i n g s h i p d o w n t h e a g e s . " F o r t h i s is g o o d a n d a c c e p t a b l e
in t h e s i g h t of G o d , o u r S a v i o u r , w h o will h a v e all m e n t o b e
s a v e d a n d t o c o m e t o t h e k n o w l e d g e of t h e t r u t h . F o r t h e r e is o n e
G o d , a n d o n e m e d i a t o r of G o d a n d m a n , t h e m a n C h r i s t J e s u s ,
7
w h o g a v e H i m s e l f a r e d e m p t i o n f o r all."* ) T h e y a r e all m e a n t ,
e a c h in h i s o w n p l a c e , t o live a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t .

IN OUR LORD'S KINGDOM OUR B L E S S E D M O T H E R IS

Q U E E N AND M E D I A T R I X O F A L L GRACES.

O u r B l e s s e d M o t h e r is Q u e e n of O u r L o r d ' s K i n g d o m . " G o d
h a s c o n s t i t u t e d H e r Q u e e n of H e a v e n a n d E a r t h , " s a i d P o p e P i u s
I X in t h e B u l l , lneffahilis Deus, in w h i c h h e defined t h e d o g m a of
the Immaculate Conception. I n t h e E n c y c l i c a l , Ad diem ilium
laetissimum ( 2 n d F e b . , 1904), o n t h e o c c a s i o n of t h e fiftieth a n n i
v e r s a r y of t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h a t s a m e s u b l i m e t r u t h , P o p e P i u s X
t a u g h t t h a t M a r y is a l w a y s a n d e v e r y w h e r e t h e a s s o c i a t e of H e r
D i v i n e S o n in t h e w o r k of o u r s a l v a t i o n : " A s s u r e d l y t h e d i s p e n s
i n g of t h e s e t r e a s u r e s [ a m a s s e d b y O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t f o r u s
b y H i s D e a t h ] b e l o n g s t o n o b o d y b u t C h r i s t f r o m t h e p o i n t of
v i e w of r i g h t , f o r t h e y w e r e p u r c h a s e d b y H i s D e a t h a l o n e , a n d
H e , of n a t u r a l r i g h t , is M e d i a t o r b e t w e e n G o d a n d m a n . Y e t ,
b e c a u s e of t h e u n i o n of a n g u i s h a n d s o r r o w b e t w e e n M o t h e r a n d
S o n this a u g u s t V i r g i n h a s b e c o m e for t h e whole w o r l d the m o s t
powerful M e d i a t r i x and A d v o c a t e with H e r only Son. T h e F o u n
t a i n , t h e r e f o r e , is C h r i s t a n d of H i s f u l n e s s w e h a v e all r e c e i v e d .
. . . B u t M a r y , as S t . B e r n a r d t r u l y o b s e r v e s , is t h e A q u e d u c t ;
o r , S h e is, o n e m a y s a y , t h e M y s t i c N e c k , w h i c h c o n n e c t s t h e H e a d
w i t h t h e B o d y a n d c o n v e y s t o all t h e m e m b e r s of t h e B o d y t h e
e n e r g i z i n g influence of t h e H e a d . F o r , a s S t . B e r n a r d i n e of S i e n n a
<*> I T i m . , I I , 3-6.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 31

says, She is the Neck of our Head by which He communicates to

His Mystical Body all spiritual gifts."
Let us now see who are the representatives and lieutenants of
Christ in the task of aiding human beings to love order and thus
mirror forth the life of God on their level. We shall begin by
representing the Divine Plan for order in diagrammatic form as
follows:
GOD

(in Three Divine Persons)

V
Our Lord Jesus Christ
Who, as Head of His
Mystical Body, the
Catholic Church, Super
natural and Supranational,
is High-Priest and King
of redeemed humanity.

His Priesthood is shared His Kingship is both

in by the Pope, Bishops
and Priests, through the
sacramental character . of
Order, and by the faith
ful, thanks to the char
acters of Baptism and
Confirmation.
Spiritual and Temporal.
The Spiritual Kingship
comprises the Right of
Intervention in Temporal
Affairs. The Temporal
Royalty of Our Lord is
universal. Our Blessed
Mother is Queen of His
Kingdom.

V V
The Spiritual Kingship The Universal Temporal
of Christ is shared in Kingship of Our Lord is
by the Pope and the shared in" by the Rulers
Bishops. of States and Nations.

Politics. Economics

T H E CHURCH'S PARTICIPATION IN THE PRIESTHOOD AND

IN THE SPIRITUAL KINGSHIP OF CHRIST.

As we have seen, the interior influence by which the Super

natural Life is communicated to souls comes from God alone as
32 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Principal Cause, from the Sacred Humanity of Christ as Instru

mental Cause united to the Divinity, and from the Sacraments and
their Dispensers as instrumental causes separated from the
Divinity. The Pope, Bishops and Priests are destined to organize
the worship of Christ's Mystical Body and to administer the Sacra
ments by their participation in the Priesthood of Christ through
the sacramental character of Order. The faithful are prepared
to take part in the worship instituted by Christ and to receive the
Sacraments by the participation of Christ's priesthood bestowed
on them by the sacramental character of Baptism. By the sacra
mental character of Confirmation, the baptized faithful are pre
pared to make public confession of their faith and also to defend
Christian worship. This Sacrament is the one which equips
Christians for the work of Catholic Action under the Church's
Hierarchy. " B y Baptism," writes St. Thomas, "a man in his in
dividual capacity receives the power to accomplish what concerns
his own salvation, but, in Confirmation, he receives the power to
do all that concerns the defence of religion against the enemies
8
of the faith."< >
To undo the Fall in regard to individual men and so restore
order under the new Head, God wants to draw all men into union
with Our Lord in the renewal of the expression of submission of
Calvary in Holy Mass. He wishes that worship to be animated
with the supernatural love of charity springing from the Life of
Grace, which is a participation of the Inner Life of the Blessed
Trinity. Ploly Mass is meant to be the worship of the Father by
members of Christ renewing on their level His filial attitude.
All the Sacraments confer the Divine Life of Grace, by which
we share, in and through membership of Christ, in the Inner Life
of God in Three Divine Persons. Three of them, namely, Baptism,
Confimation and Order, confer, in addition, special characters,
which are participations in the Priesthood of Christ. Through the
power which the characters confer, men, in and through Christ,
can offer fitting worship to the Blessed Trinity. "The Sacraments
of the New Law serve a double purpose. They act, first of all,
as a remedy for sin, and secondly, they equip the soul in regard
to what concerns the worship of God, according to the rite insti
tuted by Christ. When anyone is appointed to a certain charge,
he is usually distinguished from others by some rank or sign in
9
dicative of his function."* *
On the one hand, therefore, when the Church, through her
priesthood and the Sacraments, communicates Grace to us, she is
only the instrument used by Christ to vivify our souls. But when,
on the other hand, the Church governs in the name of Christ,

(8) I l i a P., Q.72, a.5.

(> I l i a Pars, Q.63, a.L Cf. ibid., a . 3 and a.6.
 KIXGSHIP O F C H R I S T IN ESSENCE. 33
s h e is t r u l y a p r o p e r a n d p r i n c i p a l , t h o u g h s u b o r d i n a t e , c a u s e o f
h e r g o v e r n m e n t a n d d i r e c t i o n of s o u l s . H e n c e , a s S p o u s e of
C h r i s t a n d T r u e R e g e n t of s o u l s o n e a r t h , s h e h a s t h e r i g h t t o
d e m a n d that we should recognize her authority, obey her laws
and accept her guidance. As the Church has not received purely
T e m p o r a l Royalty from her Divine Founder, we are treating here
of S p i r i t u a l K i n g s h i p o n l y . A s t h e m i s s i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ,
s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d s u p r a n a t i o n a l , is t h e s p i r i t u a l o n e of t h e o u t
p o u r i n g of t h e D i v i n e L i f e , s o t h e K i n g s h i p in w h i c h t h e P o p e a n d
B i s h o p s , a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of C h r i s t , h a v e p a r t , is p u r e l y S p i r i t u a l .
T h e P o p e a n d B i s h o p s a l o n e s h a r e in t h e S p i r i t u a l R o y a l t y of O u r
L o r d : t h e y a l o n e a r e t h e R u l e r s of t h e C h u r c h . P r i e s t s a n d t h e
o r d i n a r y f a i t h f u l do n o t s h a r e in O u r L o r d ' s S p i r i t u a l R o y a l t y ,
t h o u g h t h e y do s h a r e in H i s P r i e s t h o o d by t h e c h a r a c t e r s of O r d e r
a n d B a p t i s m , as w e h a v e j u s t e x p l a i n e d . T o t h e P o p e a n d t h e
B i s h o p s it b e l o n g s t o c o n t i n u e t h e m i s s i o n of C h r i s t t h e K i n g
d o w n t h e a g e s by h o l d i n g u p b e f o r e t h e w o r l d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l
i d e a l of life t o be lived b y all m e n a n d l a y i n g d o w n t h e l a w s a n d
p r e c e p t s t o be o b s e r v e d in o r d e r t h a t t h a t life m a y n o t be l o s t .
T o t h e m it b e l o n g s t o r e g u l a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of all t h e m e a n s
c o n f i d e d t o t h e C h u r c h b y O u r L o r d for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
L i f e of G r a c e , t o e s t a b l i s h fitting s a n c t i o n s for all offences t h a t
j e o p a r d i z e t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h a t life, a n d , finally, t o c a r r y o r t h e
s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e p o w e r s of evil, by e v e r y f o r m of a p o s t o l a t e ,
f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e of C h r i s t .
I n a w o r d , to t h e P o p e a n d t h e B i s h o p s it b e l o n g s to p r o c l a i m
t h e o r d e r t h a t G o d w a n t s all m e n to a c c e p t l o v i n g l y a n d to s a f e
guard that order. N o w , in o r d e r t o s a f e g u a r d it, t h e S p i r i t u a l
K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t m u s t c o m p r i s e t h e p o w e r of i n t e r v e n t i o n in
t e m p o r a l affairs in v i e w of efficaciously o p p o s i n g e v e r y t h i n g t h a t
c o u l d h i n d e r t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e a n d of o b t a i n
i n g f r o m t h e r u l e r s in t h e civil o r d e r t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n n e c e s s a r y
t h e r e f o r . T h i s r i g h t of t h e R u l e r s in the s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r t o
i n t e r v e n e in t h e s t r i c t l y n a t u r a l s p h e r e is m e a s u r e d b y t h e d e m a n d s
of t h e D i v i n e L i f e of s o u l s . I t is for t h e C h u r c h a l o n e to j u d g e
w h a t is n e c e s s a r y in t h e m a t t e r of social o r g a n i z a t i o n in o r d e r t o
s a f e g u a r d t h e Life of G r a c e . T h i s is called t h e Indirect Power
of t h e C h u r c h in t e m p o r a l affairs. O n a c c o u n t of its i m p o r t a n c e ,
w e s h a l l e n t e r i n t o s o m e d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s P o w e r in a l a t e r
section.

T H E KINGSHIP OF CHRIST AND T E M P O R A L RULERS.

T h o u g h O u r L o r d ' s K i n g s h i p is p r i m a r i l y s p i r i t u a l , a n d as s u c h ,
s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e diffusion and s a f e g u a r d i n g of t h e
S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of m e n , y e t H e is a l s o K i n g of t h e U n i v e r s e .
H i s T e m p o r a l R o y a l t y is U n i v e r s a l , n o t p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t is, n o t r e -
34 'Villi MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

stricted to any one race or nation. Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius
XI insist both on the reality of Christ's Temporal Sovereignty
and on its universality. In the Encyclical Letter, On The King
ship of Chris/, we read: "That Christ's kingdom is in a special
manner spiritual and concerned with things spiritual, is quite plain
from the extracts from Scripture above quoted: and Christ's own
line of action confirms this view. For on many occasions when
the Jews, and even the Apostles themselves, wrongly supposed
that the Messiah would emancipate the people and restore the
kingdom of Israel, He effectively rejected that idle hope and fancy.
When the admiring throng surrounded Him and would have pro
claimed Him king, lie refused that title and honour by taking
flight and lying in concealment. In presence of the Roman gov
ernor, He declared His kingdom was not of this world. . . . He,
however, would be guilty of shameful error who would deny to
Christ as man authority over civil affairs, no matter what their
nature, since by virtue of the absolute dominion over all creatures
He holds from the Father, all things are in His power.
"Nevertheless, during His life on earth lie refrained altogether
from exercising such dominion, and despising the possession and
administration of earthly goods. He left them to (heir possessors
then, and He does so to-day. It is well said: Son eripit mortalia
qui reyna flat, eaelestiaHe does not seize earthly kingdoms Who
fl0)
gives heavenly kingdoms. And so, the empire of our Redeemer
embraces all men. To quote the words of Our immortal Prede
cessor, Pope Leo XIII : ' His ICmpirc manifestly includes not
only Catholic nations, not only those who were baptised and be
long to the Church by right, though error of doctrine leads them
astray or schism severs them from her fold: but it includes also
all those who are outside (he Christian faith, so that irulj' the
human race in its entirety is subject to the power of [esus
Chrisl.'<">
"Nor in this connexion, is there any difference between in
dividuals and communities, whether family or State, for collectivi
ties are just as much under the dominion of Christ as individuals.
The same Christ ussuvcdly is the source of the individual's salva
tion and of the community's salvation: 'Neither is there salvation
in any other, for there is no other name under heaven given to
121
men whereby we must be saved/' . . . / / rulers therefore,
t of
nations wish to preserve their own authority and to promote and
increase their country's prosperity, let them not refuse, themselves
and their people, to give public observance of reverence and obedi
ence to the rule of Christ. ... If men recognised, both in public
and private life, Christ's royal power, wonderful blessings would
*> Hymn for the Feast of (he Epiphany.
Hi) Rik-YcIicaJ Letter, Annum- Sanctum, Alav 25, 1899.
'12) Acts, IV, 12.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE 35
i m m e d i a t e l y be v o u c h s a f e d t o all s o c i e t y , s u c h a s , t r u e l i b e r t y ,
discipline, tranquillity, concord and peace. For Our Lord's royal
d i g n i t y , j u s t a s it i n v e s t s t h e h u m a n a u t h o r i t y of p r i n c e s a n d
r u l e r s w i t h a r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e , e n n o b l e s t h e c i t i z e n ' s d u t y of
obedience. . . . If p r i n c e s a n d m a g i s t r a t e s d u l y e l e c t e d be c o n
v i n c e d t h a t t h e y r u l e n o t b y t h e i r o w n r i g h t , b u t by t h e m a n d a t e
a n d in t h e p l a c e of t h e D i v i n e K i n g , a s s u r e d l y t h e y will e x e r c i s e
t h e i r a u t h o r i t y holily a n d w i s e l y , a n d , in m a k i n g l a w s a n d a d m i n
i s t e r i n g t h e m , t h e y will t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e c o m m o n g o o d ,
a n d a l s o t h e h u m a n d i g n i t y of t h e i r s u b j e c t s . T h e r e s u l t will b e
o r d e r a n d s t a b l e t r a n q u i l l i t y , for t h e r e will be n o c a u s e of d i s c o n
t e n t r e m a i n i n g . M e n m a y s e e in t h e i r k i n g o r in o t h e r r u l e r s of
t h e S t a t e , b e i n g s like t h e m s e l v e s , u n w o r t h y p e r h a p s a n d o p e n t o
b l a m e , b u t t h e y will n o t f o r t h a t r e a s o n d e n y t h e i r r i g h t t o c o m
m a n d if t h e y s e e r e f l e c t e d in t h e s e r u l e r s t h e a u t h o r i t y of C h r i s t ,
( 1 3 )
God and m a n . "
All authority is f r o m G o d , " for t h e r e is n o p o w e r b u t f r o m
God. . . . he t h a t r e s i s t e t h the p o w e r , resisteth the order willed
( 1 4
by God." ) C h r i s t " h o l d s a b s o l u t e d o m i n i o n o v e r all c r e a t . i r e s
f r o m t h e F a t h e r , " t h e r e f o r e all a u t h o r i t y on e a r t h is a p a r t i c i p a
t i o n of C h r i s t ' s a u t h o r i t y . Of c o u r s e , it is in itself a n d in i t s
e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e t h a t a u t h o r i t y c o m e s f r o m God. T h e mode of
accession t o p o w e r m a y b e e i t h e r l e g i t i m a t e o r i l l e g i t i m a t e ; in t h e
f o r m e r c a s e , it c o m e s f r o m G o d , in t h e s e c o n d , f r o m t h e p e r v e r t e d
a m b i t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g s . F i n a l l y , t h e exercise of p o w e r m a y be
15
in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h o r c o n t r a r y t o G o d ' s laws.* ) W h e n a G o v e r n
m e n t h a s been declared legitimate by the Church, t h a t does not
m e a n t h a t t h e C h u r c h g u a r a n t e e s t h a t all t h e a c t i o n s of s u c h a
G o v e r n m e n t a r c in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e m o r a l l a w . J u s t a s a
f a t h e r w h o is lawful h e a d of a h o u s e h o l d m a v a c t w r o n g l y , so a l s o
a l e g i t i m a t e G o v e r n m e n t m a y a c t w r o n g l y t o w a r d s its s u b j e c t s .
O u r L o r d , then, as the S o v e r e i g n R u l e r a n d S u p r e m e J u d g e
of all K i n g s a n d R u l e r s , h a s t h e r i g h t t o r u l e t h e m a s a b o d y , t o
d i c t a t e H i s l a w s to t h e m , t o r e w a r d o r p u n i s h t h e m for t h e g o o d
o r b a d u s e of t h e i r p o w e r . T o t h e r u l e r s of t h e e a r t h it b e l o n g s
t o l e g i s l a t e in civil a f f a i r s , t o d e t e r m i n e s a n c t i o n s for t h e i r l a w s
a n d t o j u d g e t h e i r s u b j e c t s g u i l t y of t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of t h e s e l a w s .
O u r L o r d r e s e r v e s t o H i m s e l f t h e r i g h t of p r o n o u n c i n g t h e final
j u d g e m e n t o n t h e L a s t D a y o n t h e p u r e l y civil a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of all
e a r t h l y r u l e r s a s well as o n t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e .
All T e m p o r a l R u l e r s will h a v e t o r e n d e r an a c c o u n t of t h e i r s u b
j e c t s in m a t t e r s p u r e l y p o l i t i c a l . All will, in a d d i t i o n , be j u d g e d
o n t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e y b e h a v e d t o w a r d s t h e D i v i n e P l a n for
o r d e r , in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of it.
(13) Encyclical Letter, Quw Prima*.
H4) Horn., X I I I , 1, 2.
U5) Cf. Comment, S. Thomae in Ep. ad Pom. ( X I I I , 1).
36 TlfK MYSTICAL ROOY OK CHRIST

The objective order of the existing world demands that the

temporal prosperity of society should be sought in such a way as
to favour the development of the true personality of the members
by the advance of their Supernatural Life and love. Temporal
Rulers must seek the natural Common Good of the States subject
to them in a manner calculated to aid their subjects in the develop
ment of supernatural charily as members of Christ, so that they
(the subjects) may advance steadily in love of God in Three Divine
Persons, and attain the goal of eternal life. " Civil society,"
writes Tope Leo XJ11, " established for the common welfare,
should not only safeguard (he well-being of the community, but
have also at heart the interests of its individual members, in such
wise as not in any way to hinder, but in every way to render as
easy as possible the possession of that highest and" unchangeable
,,(H;)
good for which all should s e e k .
Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Source of Supernatural Life of which
the effect is resemblance to Himself, will judge, not only the sub
jects of rulers, but rulers themselves, on their attitude towards
Him. "The very celebration of the Feast (of the Kingship of
Christ)," writes Pope Pius XI, "by its annual recurrence, will
serve to remind nations that not only private individuals but
State officials and rulers are bound by the obligation of worship
ping Christ publicly and rendering Him obedience. They will be
thus led to reflect on that last judgement, in which Christ, who has
been cast out of public life, despised, neglected and ignored, will
severely revenge such insults; for I lis kingly dignity demands
that the constitution of the whole State should conform to the
Divine commandments and Christian principles, whether in the
making of laws, the administration of justice, or in the moulding
of the minds of the young on sound doctrine and upright
<17)
morals." "Christ Our Lord must be reinstated as the Ruler
,,fl8>
of human society. It belongs to Him, as do all its members.
St. Thomas teaches that " kings are anointed at their coronation
to acknowledge the fact that they receive from Christ the gift of
their powers and that they are meant to reign under Christ over
(19
a Christian people." >

CHRIST'S SPIRITUAL K I N G S H I P AND T H A T OF

THK CHURCH.

A few words about the extent of the inlluence of Christ's

Royalty compared with that of the Church will be opportune here.
Since the Sacred Humanity of Christ is immediately united to the
16
< * Encyclical Letter, Immortal*- Dei, On the Christian Constitution
of States.
U7) Encyclical Letter, Qua* l*rimax. On the Kingship of Christ.
HR) Encyclical Letter, Tametsi, On- Christ our Redeem* r.
IV Sent., dist, 19, Q.T, a.l; Q.O, a.2.
 KINGSHIP O F C H R I S T IN ESSENCE. 37
W o r d , His R o y a l t y a s well a s H i s P r i e s t h o o d r e c e i v e t h e r e b y a
f u l n e s s , a u n i v e r s a l i t y a n d a p e r f e c t i o n w h i c h can be p a r t i c i p a t e d
in b y t h e C h u r c h o n l y in a l i m i t e d w a y . T e m p o r a l affairs as s u c h ,
m a t t e r s purely political, a r e under O u r Lord's jurisdiction b u t do
n o t fall u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of the C h u r c h , w h i c h is c o n c e r n e d
e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e D i v i n e L i f e of s o u l s . C h r i s t is t h e S o v e r e i g n
L o r d of all R u l e r s , C h r i s t i a n a n d n o n - C h r i s t i a n , a n d j u d g e s all
their actions. It is o n l y in so far a s t h e political a n d e c o n o m i c
p r o g r a m m e s of Catholic rulers concern the Divine Life and the
e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n of s o u l s t h a t t h e C h u r c h , t h a t is, t h e P o p e a n d
t h e R i s h o p s , lias the r i g h t t o p r o n o u n c e o n t h e m . The Church
g i v e s j u d g m e n t on m a t t e r s t h a t a r c purely spiritual, like t h e a d
m i n i s t r a t i o n of the S a c r a m e n t s , o r partially spiritual (mixed mat
t e r s , s u c h as t h e p r o g r a m m e s of s c h o o l s a n d the effects of m a r
r i a g e ) , o r on m a i l e r s w h i c h t h o u g h t e m p o r a l by n a t u r e y e t a r e
accidentally spiritual on a c c o u n t of t h e s p i r i t u a l i n t e r e s t s i n v o l v e d .
S t . T h o m a s p o i n t s o u t t h a t C h r i s t r u l e s t h e m e n of all p l a c e s ,
t i m e * a n d S t a t e s , w h i l e t h e R u l e r s of the C h u r c h e i t h e r g o v e r n
o n l y in c e r t a i n p l a c e s f o r a l i m i t e d t i m e , like t h e R i s h o p s , o r w i t h
o u t l i m i t a s to p l a c e , b u t o n l y for a l i m i t e d t i m e , as is t h e case
w i t h t h e P o p e , t h e r u l e of b o t h t h e P o p e a n d t h e B i s h o p s b e i n g
2 0
r e s t r i c t e d to h u m a n b e i n g s h e r e b e l o w / ' In a d d i t i o n . C h r i s t
c o m m a n d s by His o w n a u t h o r i t y , for all t h i n g s a r e s u b j e c t to H i m .
T h e R u l e r s of t h e C h u r c h h a v e o n l y the a u t h o r i t y c o m m u n i c a t e d
t o t h e m by C h r i s t . It f o l l o w s f r o m w h a t w e h a v e said, t h a t t h e
i n f l u e n c e w h i c h C h r i s t e x e r c i s e s on t h e w o r l d , b y H i s K i n g s h i p
a s w e l l as by H i s P r i e s t h o o d , s u r p a s s e s in e x t e n t a n d c o m p a s s ,
e v e n h e r e b e l o w , t h e i n f l u e n c e of l h c visible C h u r c h . All m e n ,
1
c o n t i n u e s St. T h o m a s / - ' b e l o n g to C h r i s t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y b e
h e r e t i c s o r p a g a n s , a n d on t h e m C h r i s t can a c t in a n invisible m a n
n e r , by p r o v i d i n g t h e m w i t h t h e h e l p t h e y n e e d for c o n v e r s i o n ,
e v e n b y r a i s i n g t h e m t o t h e D i v i n e Life, if t h e i r i n c u l p a b l e i g n o r
ance keeps them outside the one T r u e Church.
I n t h e s e d a y s of m e n t a l c o n f u s i o n , the o n e n e s s of the D i v i n e
P l a n a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , the M y s t i c a l B o d y
of C h r i s t , is t h e a r k of s a l v a t i o n for all, c a n n o t be o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d .
P o p e P i u s EX u r g e d t h e R i s h o p s of the w h o l e w o r l d t o do all in
t h e i r p o w e r " t o k e e p m e n ' s m i n d s free f r o m t h e i m p i o u s a n d
f a t a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e w a y of e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n c a n
1
b e f o u n d in a n y r e l i g i o n w h a t e v e r . " ' T h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y t r u t h
t h a t t h e r e a r e s o u l s in g o o d faith ( m t s i d e t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h
m u s t , h o w e v e r , lie s t r e s s e d a l o n g w i t h it. In t h e s a m e a l l o c u t i o n ,
t h e P o p e d e c l a r e d ; " It is of faiih that no o n e can be s a v e d o u t -

I l i a P., Q.S. a.G.

'2D I l i a P.. Q.8, a . 3 , <. et ad t.
(2) Singular! qu<i<h?m, December 9th. .1854.
38 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

s i d e t h e A p o s t o l i c R o m a n C h u r c h , t h a t t h i s C h u r c h is t h e o n e a r k
of s a l v a t i o n , a n d t h a t h e w h o d o e s n o t e n t e r t h e r e i n will b e o v e r
w h e l m e d by t h e d e l u g e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it must, a l s o b e h e l d a s
c e r t a i n t h a t t h o s e w h o a r e i n v i n c i b l y i g n o r a n t of t h e T r u e R e l i
g i o n i n c u r no g u i l t on t h a t a c c o u n t in G o d ' s s i g h t . N o w w h o will
d a r e to c l a i m t h a t h e c a n i n d i c a t e t h e l i m i t s of i n v i n c i b l e i g n o r
a n c e , in \ i e \ v of t h e n a t u r e a n d v a r i e t y of p e o p l e s , c o u n t r i e s , c h a r
a c t e r s a n d so man_\' o t h e r f a c t o r s ? "
In t h e O u t l i n e of t h e Dor/mafic Constitution of the Church,
c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g s t t h e F a t h e r s of t h e V a t i c a n C o u n c i l , w e r e a d :
. . . W e r e p r o v e a n d d e c l a r e d e t e s t a b l e t h e d o c t r i n e , w h i c h is
b o t h i m p i o u s a n d c o n t r a r y t o r i g h t r e a s o n , of o n e r e l i g i o n b e i n g
a s g o o d a s a n o t h e r . B y t h i s d o c t r i n e t h e c h i l d r e n of t h i s w o r l d ,
s u p p r e s s i n g tin* d i s t i n c t i o n of t r u t h a n d e r r o r , e i t h e r p r o c l a i m t h a t
t h e g a t e w a y to e t e r n a l life is w i d e o p e n t o all, no m a t t e r t o w h a t
r e l i g i o n t h e y b e l o n g , o r d e c l a r e t h a t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t r u t h of a
r e l i g i o n w e c;in o n l v h a v e m o r e o r l e s s p r o l l a b l c o p i n i o n s , n o t
l
c e r t i t u d e . "< ^>
T h e Church a l w a y s r e m a i n s the \isible centre from w h i c h the
D i v i n e L i f e , w h i c h is f o u n d in its f u l n e s s in C h r i s t , is diffused b y
H i m t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . T h a t D i v i n e Life of S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e ,
c o m i n g f r o m C h r i s t , is e v e r d r a w i n g t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e C h u r c h t o
e n t e r h e r visible fold. Hy d i v i n e r i g h t t h e C h u r c h is u n i v e r s a l ,
a n d s h e is e v e r s t r i v i n g to h a v e h e r i n f l u e n c e h e r e b e l o w c o - e x t e n
s i v e w i t h t h a t of l l e r D i v i n e H e a d a n d F o u n d e r . H u m a n b e i n g s
a r c s u b j e c t to t h e P r i e s t h o o d a n d k i n g s h i p of C h r i s t w h i l e y e t
o u t s i d e t h e C h u r c h , b u t in o r d e r to r e a p t h e full benefit for t h e i r
s o u l s of this s u b j e c t i o n t o O u r L o r d , t h e y m u s t be fully i n c o r
p o r a t e d i n t o C h r i s t , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e o r d e r H e H i m s e l f h a s
e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e y m u s t be c h i l d r e n of t h e C h u r c h .

Tl IK SIM KIT UAL KINGSHIP OF T H E CHURCH AND

T E M P O R A L AFFAIRS.
W e m u s t , first of all, d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n temporal m a t t e r s and
spiritual m a t t e r * . Temporal m a t t e r s are those which are ordained
t o t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e S t a t e a s to t h e i r i m m e d i a t e a n d p r o x i
m a t e e n d . T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d m o r a l a c t i v i t y of a g e n e r a l w h o
s t u d i e s t h e b e s t m e t h o d of d e f e n d i n g b i s c o u n t r y a g a i n s t a t t a c k ,
t h a t of a s t a t e s m a n w h o d e l i b e r a t e s on h o w t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r in
l
t h e S t a t e , t h a i o " a c i t i z e n w h o p a y s h i s t a x e s , t h a t of a f a r m e r
w h o s o w s and r e a p s , t h a t of a l i g h t - b o u s e k e e p e r w h o c a r r i e s o u t
h i s lonely task-, all t h e s e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h temporal affairs.
T h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e S t a t e is substantially natural, b u t it
is b o t h moral a n d material. P o l i t i c a l Life, b e i n g t h e s o c i a l life of
t h e r a t i o n a l a n i m a l , m a n , is b o t h moral a n d m.aferu/l. As the social

(23) Chap. v n . Cf. C h a p . VI.

 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 39

life of a person, who grasps the order of being, and sees it is in

cumbent on him to observe that order, it must be moral. As the
social life of an animal who is an individual of a species like other
animals, it is material and must take account of the production
and distribution of wealth, as a prerequisite condition for the vir
tuous life of the multitude. Man as man, however, does not live
on bread alone nor even is that his chief need. The State must
look after roads and railways, treaties regarding imports and ex
ports, and such like, but that is not its whole domain. Its prin
cipal care must be to combat with all its might everything that
tends to lower the moral dignity of man, everything that is an
obstacle to the development of his personality through member
ship of Our Lord's Mystical Body. "Two things are required for
1
a good life on the part of the people,' writes St. Thomas, in a
text which will be quoted at length further on, " the chief requisite
is virtuous action . . . the other requisite, which is secondary
and quasi-instrumental in character, is a sufficiency of material
24 5
goods, the use of which is necessary for virtuous action."*
Spiritual matters are those ordained to the supernatural Com
mon Good of the Church, the Mystical Body of Christ, as to their
proximate and immediate end. This supernatural Common Good
is the personal union of all members with the Blessed Trinity
through growth in resemblance to Christ. Spiritual matters are
either regularly and habitually spiritual and supernaturalthe two
words (spiritual and supernatural) are used synonymously in these
explanationsor they may be exceptionally supernatural and
spiritual, though habitually temporal. Again, matters that are
regularly supernatural and spiritual may be so entirely and ex
clusively, such for example, arc measures concerning the preaching
of the Gospel and the proper administration of the Sacraments, or
they may be so only partially. These latter are what are usually
called mixed matters, as they concern both the Church and the
Civil Authority. Such matters are, for example, the effects of
marriage, which are partly religious and partly temporal, and the
teaching in schools and universities which aims at forming Christ
ian citizens. The matters that are regularly and by their nature
temporal become spiritual accidentally in certain exceptional cir
cumstances because of their morally necessary connexion in those
circumstances with the Supernatural Life of souls.
Corporeal things can be supernatural, not of course in their
substance (quoad substantiam), but by the end towards which they
are directed, and the manner in which they are referred to the
25
Kingdom of God (quoad modern).* '
(24) De Regimine l*riiieipum, lib. I, c.15.
(25) " Ecclesiastical punishments, such as censures, must be spiritual,
not indeed in the sense in which spiritual is opposed to corporeal, but
in the sense i n which it i s opposed to natural, and is the same as super-
40 71 lb] M Y S T I C A L B O D Y O F CHRIST

We are now in a position to explain precisely in what the

Indirect Power of the Church consists. The Rulers of the Church
have jurisdiction, that is, power in the proper sense of the term,
over the matters that are regularly spiritual, whether they be so
entirely and exclusively or only partially ("on the religious side).
They also have it over matters that are regularly temporal but
which become spiritual in certain exceptional circumstances. When
the participation which the Rulers of the Church have in the
Spiritual Kingship of Christ is concerned with matters of this last
category, it is called the Indirect Power. The spiritual jurisdic
tion of the Church, in these cases, instead of being concerned with
matters that arc regularly spiritual, is exercised over matters that
are regularly o r directly temporal, but exceptionally or in
directly spiritual. This is (he reason of the use of the term In
direct Power to designate the right of the Rulers of the Church
to intervene in these matters. It is not a power superadded to and
distinct from the Spiritual Kingship of Christ in which they share.
It is comprised within the orbit of that Spiritual Royalty and has
received the name of Indirect Power because the matters with
which it deals are only indirectly, that is, exceptionally, spiritual,
on account of special circumstances.
" ft is question of real power, that is to say. of a power of
jurisdiction, which gives orders and not merely advice, which can
command and not merely persuade, \\ is question of an indirect
power. This means that the Church has power over temporal mat
ters, not directly or as such, but indirectly, that is. in view of the
spiritual interests involved. Direct power over temporal matters
belongs to the State. The Church has direct power over spiritual
matters, but indirect over temporal matters because she deals
with them only in so far as spiritual interests are involved. . . .
4
If, instead of the expression spiritual power over matters regul
arly temporal but become spiritual ratiune peerali,' the more suc
cinct expression * temporal power (jurisdiction) ratione peccali,*^
is employed, then one can sav that the Pope has two jurisdictions
spiritual jurisdiction and in certain cases temporal jurisdiction, in
other words, that he has two powers: direct power and indirect

natural, whether that supernatural be corporeal or not " (John of St.

Thomas, Cur&us Theoiogicus* t. VII, p. 5 1 3 ) .
The Canonists divide the spiritual things of which we a;*e speaking
into spiritual things, like prate and the virtues, and things connected
with the spiritual, liko rites, fasts, etc. Cf. Codex Juris Canonici,
Can. 1553, R.I., No. 1.
(6) The expression ratione perxati has been used to designate every
form of intervention on the part of the Church in temporal affairs, in
view of the spiritual interests involved, whether it be to forbid sin or
prescribe a good action. Cf. La Juridiction de f'ftgline #nr la itt'\ by
r

by M. 1'abbe Journet, p. 103, note.

 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 41

power. This formula has become common amongst theologians

since the time of St. Robert Rellarmine and Suarez. The tradi
tional doctrine was not in the least changed. One has on-y to
read St. Robert Hellarmine and the theologians who have suc
ceeded him to be convinced of it, but . . . as the spirit of faith
waned and the pretentions of secular governments to direc the
whole of life increased, the expression 'indirect power' became
less intelligible tu the world. It came to be held to be a second
power, a sort of human, political and extra-evangelical power,
which the Popes have added in the course of ages to the spiritual
power bequeathed by Our Lord to St. Peter. The Indirect Power
thus appeared as something out of date and belonging to a past
age, which might be freely admired or regretted in our day. but
it had ceased to mean the divine, evangelical and spiritual jurisdic
tion of the Church over temporal matters in so far as they are
1 27
ordained to spiritual matters/' ' * The restoration of order in the
world demands the full recognition of the Spiritual Royalty o" the
Rulers of the Church in temporal affairs when spiritual issues
are at stake.
Pope Leo XIII uses the term m'uti juris when speaking of the
usurpation of the civil power in regard to matters like the effects
of marriage. " With reference to matters that are of mixed juris
diction." he writes. " they who administer ihc civil power lay down
the law at their own will, and in matters that appertain to religion
defiantly put aside the most sacred decrees of the Church '1 hey
claim jurisdiction over the marriages of Catholics, even over the
bond as well as over the unitv and the indissolubilitv of matri
mony.""*'
The same Pontiff had previously pointed out in his Encyclical
14
Letter, On Christian Marriage, that no one doubts that Jesus
Christ, the Founder of the Church, willed her sacred power to be
distinct from the civil power, and each power to be free and
unshackled in its own sphere: with this condition, however,-a
condition good for both, and of advantage to all menthat union
and concord should be maintained between them; and that on
those questions which are, though in different ways, of common
right and authority, the power to which secular matters have been
entrusted should happily and becomingly depend on the other
power which has in its charge the interests of heaven. In such
arrangement and harmony is found not only the best line of action
for each power, but also the most opportune and efficacious method
of helping men in all that pertains to their life here, and to their
29
hope of salvation hereafter."' ' Pope Leo X111 here enunciates
(
27* Op. c i t . , pp. 116-118.
(28) Encyclical Letter, Immortate Dti.
<2i Encyclical Letter, Arcanum Divinuf Sa/n'tmiar (1880).
 42 TliK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
the supreme guiding principles for the social organization of the
world, viz., distinction of the two supreme authorities of the
Church and the Stale and their union by subordination of the lower
to the higher.
We must complete this explanation of the Spiritual Royalty of
the Rulers of the Church by a few words about matters purely
civil or temporal as well as about matters doubtfully or problem
atically spiritual. The Rulers of the Church have no jurisdiction
over temporal matters as such. Tt is true that the spiritual mea
sures taken by the Church in her own sphere may affect matters
of this nature, but it will be only by repercussion and by chance.
In the case of matters of which the connexion with the diffusion
of the Supernatural Life is simply doubtful or problematic, the
Church may advise certain measures but she may not enforce
them by a command. It is, however, for the Church to appreciate
the nature of the connexion between temporal matters and the
spiritual life of souls, because she has charge of the supernatural
final end of man, the one which dominates all other subordinate
ends.
As God is Subsistent Love of Order, He wants order every
where in creation. Accordingly, lie desires orderly collaboration
between those who share in the Spiritual Kingship and those who
share in the Temporal Kingship of the One Mediator Christ Jesus.
Those who share in the Temporal Kingship are the Rulers of the
States and Nations in which man, on account of his social nature,
must develop.
Pope Leo XIII lays down the principles governing this harmon
ious collaboration of the Church and States. We shall see in par
ticular that the great Pontiff insists upon the Church's jurisdic
tion over matters that are regularly temporal when they, excep
tionally or indirectly, become spiritual, as has been pointed out.
"The Almighty, therefore/' writes the Pope, "has appointed the
charge of the human race between two powers, the ecclesiastical
and the civil, the one being set over divine, and the other over
human, things. Kach in its kind is supreme, each has fixed limits
within which it is contained, limits which are defined by the
nature and special object of the province of each, so that there is,
we may say, an orbit traced out within which the action of each
is brought into play by its own inherent right. Rut inasmuch as
each of these two powers has authority over the same subjects,
and as it might come to pass that one and the same thing
related differently, but still remaining one and the same thing
might belong to the jurisdiction and determination of both, there
fore God, Who forsees all things, and Who is the Author of these
two powers, has marked out the course of each in proper relation
(30j
to the other. 'For (he powers that are, are ordained of G o d /
Rom., X I I I , 1.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 43

Were this not so, deplorable contentions and conflicts would often
arise, and not infrequently men, like travellers at the meetings of
two roads, would hesitate in anxiety and doubt, not knowing what
course to follow. Two powers would be commanding contrary
things, and it would be a dereliction of duty to disobey either of
the two. But it would be most repugnant to think thus of the
wisdom and goodness of God. . . .
" There must, accordingly, exist, between these two powers, a
certain orderly connection, which may be compared to the union
of the soul and body in man. The nature and scope of that con
nection can be determined only, as We have pointed out, by having
regard to the nature of each power, and by taking account of the
relative excellence and nobility of their purpose. One of the two
has for its proximate and chief object the well-being of this
mortal life, the other the everlasting joys of heaven. What
ever, therefore, in things human is of a sacred character,
whatever belongs either of its own nature or by reason of the end
to which it is referred, to the salvation of souls, or to the worship
of God, is subject to the power and judgement of the Church.
Whatever is lo be ranged under the civil and political order is
rightly subject to the civil authority. Jesus Christ has Himself
given command that what is Caesar's is to be rendered to Caesar,
31
and that what belongs to God is to be rendered to God."- '
To sum up, then, the Rulers of the Church have no jurisdiction
over matters that are merely human and temporal. Their juris
diction extends exclusively to divine and spiritual matters. These
latter, however, may be, in the first place, spiritual by nature,
whether completely so, like ecclesiastical matters, such as fasting
or the celibacy of the clergy, or partially so, like mixed matters
such as education and the effects of marriage. They may, in the
second place, be spiritual merely by accident or in exceptional cir
cumstances. Pope Leo XIII has made a clear distinction between
matters that are spiritual by nature and those that are spiritual
by reason of their relation^ in certain circumstances, to man's
supernatural destiny, and he has insisted that right order demands
that all these matters be subject to the judgement of the Church.
This is required, in order that the social environment may be not
only not prejudicial but favourable to integral membership of
Christ. " All the actions of a Catholic, inasmuch as they are either
morally good or bad, that is to say, in agreement or disagreement
T
with natural and divine law , come under the judgement and juris
32
diction of the Church."< > The Catholic Church alone, in accord
ance with the Divine Plan, has charge of expounding and safe
guarding the whole moral law, natural and revealed. Pope Leo
ai
< > Encyclical Letter, Jmmortale Dei.
(32) Singulari quadam (Pope Pius X to the German Hierarchy, Sept.
B4, 1912).
44 TIIK M Y S T I C A L MODY O F CHRIST

X I I I insists upon this f u n d a m e n t a l t r u t h . " The Church of

C h r i s t , " he w r i t e s , " is t h e t r u e a n d s o l e t e a c h e r of v i r t u e a n d
t 3 3 )
g u a r d i a n of m o r a l s . "
P o p e Pins XI r e p e a t s Pope Leo's l e a c h i n g : " P u t before p r o
c e e d i n g to d i s c u s s t h e s e p r o b l e m s , W e l a v d o w n t h e p r i n c i p l e l o n g
s i n c e c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d by P o p e L e o X I I I , t h a t it is O u r r i g h t
a n d O u r d u t y to deal a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y w i t h social and e c o n o m i c p r o
4 1
blems/^ It is n o t , of c o u r s e , t h e office of t h e C h u r c h to l e a d m e n
to t r a n s i e n t a n d p e r i s h a b l e h a p p i n e s s o n l y , but to t h a t w h i c h is
4
e t e r n a l : i n d e e d t h e C h u r c h b e l i e v e s t h a t it w o u l d be w r o n g for
(35)
h e r t o i n t e r f e r e wi I b o u t just c a u s e in s u c h e a r t h l v c< > n e e r n s . '
B u t s h e can n e v e r r e l i n q u i s h h e r G o d - g i v e n t a s k of i n t e r p o s i n g
h e r a u t h o r i t y , n o t i n d e e d in t e c h n i c a l m a t t e r s , for w h i c h s h e h a s
n e i t h e r t h e e q u i p m e n t n o r t h e m i s s i o n , b u t in all t h o s e t h a t h a v e
a b e a r i n g on m o r a l c o n d u c t . F o r t h e d e p o s i t of t r u t h e n t r u s t e d t o
U s b y G o d , a n d O u r w e i g h t y office of p r o p a g a t i n g , i n t e r p r e t i n g ,
a n d u r g i n g , in s e a s o n a n d o u t of s e a s o n , t h e e n t i r e m o r a l l a w ,
d e m a n d t h a t b o t h social a n d e c o n o m i c q u e s t i o n s be b r o u g h t w i t h
in O u r s u p r e m e j u r i s d i c t i o n in so far a s t h e y r e f e r to m o r a l
( 3 f i )
issues."

WHAT COP DKSIUKS.

Maplized h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e t o p e r f o r m t w o k i n d s o f tic/ions.
a c t i o n s t h a t a r e f u n d a m e n t a l ! } ' a n d s u b s t a n t i a l l v natural from the
p o i n t of v i e w of t h e matter w i t h w h i c h tliev a r e c o n c e r n e d , s u c h
a s t h e p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e of m a t e r i a l g o o d s ,
a n d a c t i o n s t h a t a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y sifpan,a!urat from t h e p o i n t of
v i e w o f t h e matter with which they a r e concerned, such as the
r e c e p t i o n of t h e s a c r a m e n t s . Met w e e n t h e e n d s of tfiese t w o s e t s
i : ! 7
of a c t i o n s , ' t h e r e is i n d i r e c t s u b o r d i n a t i o n not d i r e c t , i n a s m u c h
a s t h e n a t u r a l w o r k s o r f o r m s of a c t i v i t y m u s t n o t o n l y n o t p r o v e
o b s t a c l e s to t h e o t h e r s b u t m u s t on t h e c o n t r a r v >et u p c o n d i t i o n s
f a v o u r a b l e to t h e m . T h i s is t h e r e l a t i o n w e h a v e s e e n t o e x i s t
b e t w e e n t h e t w o a u t h o r i t i e s , e a c h s u p r e m e in its o w n s p h e r e , t o
which h u m a n beings are subject.
If w e n o w l o o k a t t h e end w h i c h the s u b j e c t s of t h e s e
t w o a u t h o r i t i e s o u g h t to h a v e in v i e w in all t h e i r a c t i o n s , t h e final
;; 8)
e n d t o w h i c h t h e y o u g h t to d i r e c t all t h e i r a c t i o n s . * t h e r e is b u t
o n e , God loved a b o v e all. God d e s i r e s t h a t all t h e a c t i v i t i e s of

Encyclical Letter, Immortale Dei.

Kncyclica.l Letter, /tV /*///// X o r a r u a i .
(35) Encyclical Letter, Ubi Arcana.
(36) Encyclical Letter, Quadragesima Anno.
l
'M)End here means the end to which by its n a t u r e a work o r form
of activity is directed, the fitiis operis, to use the scholastic expression.
(38) ]i] rf here means the finis
n operant is. what t h e p e r s o n i n t e n d ^ <.i
is a i m i n g at.
 KTXGSHIP OF CHRIST IX ESSEXCK. 45
human beings should be the fruit of infused moral virtues and be
animated b y supernatural charity. Thus e v e n matters that are
substantially natural a r e intended b y G o d t o be the fruit of activi
f39
ties that are substantially supernatural. > W e m a y express this
another w a y . T h e Supernatural Life, by which w e can animate
human actions concerning e v e n matters themselves temporal o r
natural, comes to us through membership of Christ. All human
beings are meant to be drawn into membership of Christ's Mystical
Body and when incorporated are intended to act fully as H i s
members with His attitude, interior and exterior. H i s interior
attitude is o n e of supernatural union with the Blessed Trinity ex
pressing itself exteriorly with perfect prudence, justice, fortitude
and temperance. All the actions of Christ's members, whatever
be their matter, are intended by God the Father to be subject t o
Christ and s o supernatural b y their animating force. "Whatever
a Catholic does," writes Pope Pius X, " e v e n in temporal matters,
he h a s n o t the right to neglect his supernatural interests, n a y
m o r e , the prescriptions of Catholic teaching oblige him t o direct
everything towards the Sovereign Good as towards the latt end
140
of all things." * G o d desires that the Common Good of the State,
political and economic, should be sought b y those in auihority in
such a manner as to favour the development of the Supernatural
Life of the citizens.
THE THOMISTIC DOCTRINE ON THE RELATION
BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE.
T h e doctrine of the relation between the t w o authorities in
stituted by God for the government and direction of the human
race, which has b e e n exposed in this chapter, is t h a t of t h e
essential sovereignly of the State and its accidental subordination
to the Church. T h i s is the teaching of St. Thomas, which has b e
141 ]
c o m e the common doctrine of theologians. For St. Thomas,
(39) This is a very brief summary of Billot, De Ecclesia, Vol. I I ,
pp.
Encyclical Letter, Singulari quadam.
4l
< > The whole question has been admirably treated in the excellent
work of Pabbe Journet, already quoted, namely, La Juridiction de
VSglise itur la Cite (Paris, Desclee). A summary of his conclusions is
given here. He points out that St. Thomas in Comment, in 71 Sent.,
disfc, 44, distinguishes between two kinds of subordination, namely,
essential or absolute subordination and accidental or relative, and then
goes on to describe the subordination^ of the State to the Church as
relative, in two texts, of which one will be quoted here.
Father Cappello, S.J., while highly approving of the doctrine exposed,
objects to Tabbe Journet's use of the word accidental. He says that
matters fall per accident under the jurisdiction essentially inherent in
the Church, hut that the subordination itself cannot be spoken of as
accidental. The objection is to the suitability of the words used to
express the doctrine, not to the doctrine itself. Cf. Sunimn Juris
Publici tfectesiastici, p. 299.
46 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
the spiritual power and the temporal power are both supreme,
independent and sovereign, each in its own sphere, but the political
power is subordinate to the ecclesiastical power, inasmuch and in
so far as the matters with which the former power is concerned,
and which are regularly temporal, become spiritual accidentally by
reason of the circumstances. Following his usual procedure of
looking at all things from God's side downwards, not from man's
side upwards, the Angelic Doctor says: " Both the spiritual author
ity [of the Church] and the secular authority |of the State] are
derived from the authority of God. Accordingly, the secular
power is subject to the spiritual power /// so far as it has been
placed under it by God, that is to say, in those things which con
cern the salvation of souls. Hence, in those matters, the spiritual
authority must be obeyed rather than the secular. Where it is
question of purely civil matters, the secular power must be obeyed
rather than the spiritual, according to the expression: 'Render to
42
Caesar the things that are Caesar's \"< >
"The secular power is not subject to the spiritual power uni
versally and from every point of view. Thus, in (purely] civil
matters the ruler of the state must be obeyed, and likewise in
military matters the head of the army, rather than the bishop,
who ought not to occupy himself with these things or with other
temporal affairs, except in so far as spiritual interests are involved.
But if anything in temporal affairs constitutes [becomes | an
obstacle lo the eternal salvation of his subjects, the bishop who
intervenes by a command or a prohibition docs not put his sickle
into another's harvest. //'* arts by his own rightful divinely-
constituted authority. Where the eternal salvation of. men is at
f43J
stake, all secular powers are subject to the spiritual power."
St. Robert Bellarmine, at a later date, used the comparison of
the body and the soul or the flchh and the spirit to illustrate and
explain the accidental subordination of the temporal to the spirit
ual authority. The body and the soul (or the llesh and the spirit),
explains the learned Jesuil Doctor, have distinct functions and
are even found separate from one another in the angels and the
animals deprived of reason. In the animals we find flesh without
spirit; in the angels wc find spirit without flesh." Nevertheless,
they are found united and joined together in the unity of the
human person in such wise that the soul commands and the body
obeys. The soul has the right of chastising the body and keeping
it in subjection, by fasts and other means, lest it may hamper the
activity of the spirit. The soul may even compel the body to
sacrifice itself and sacrifice everything that it holds dear, up to
and including life itself, as the martyrs have done, if this is indis
pensable in order that the soul may attain its end.
(42) Comment, in 11 Sent., dist. 44.
Cf. Cardinal Cajetan, Comment, in Ha Ilae, Q.60, a.6.
 KJXGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 47

In the same way, and for similar reasons, since the Catholic
Church is the Mystical Body of Christ, there must exist between
the ecclesiastical and the civil power a union and ordered relation
such that, when the eternal salvation of souls is concerned, the
ecclesiastical authority may direct the political authority and
command it to take a certain course of action. If necessary, the
ecclesiastical authority can and ought to compel and force it to
do so, lest the political authority may become an obstacle to the
attainment of the supernatural final end of man. So the terres
trial kingdom must be at the service of the heavenly king-
dom.<>
M. Tabbe journet points out that this comparison, so dexter
ously utilized by St. Robert Bellarminc, perfectly illustrates the
problem of the jurisdiction of the Church and the accidental sub
ordination of the State. It does not, however, as aptly bring out
the fact that all the civic activity of a baptized person, though
concerned with what is substantially natural, is intended to pro
ceed in its entirety from supernatural charity animating the in
fused virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance, and
W5)
so be purified and elevated.
The Thomistic doctrine represents the traditional teaching of
(4(
the Church. *' "It can be affirmed with certitude that the Thomis
tic teaching is the normal doctrine of the Middle Ages. It may
have been deformed in times of crisis, but it has always been set
(47)
forth again, in its integrity, precisely and correctly, later on."
Both the ecclesiastical and secular power are from God. Now,
whatever is from God, Who is Subsistent Love of Order, is in
order. Accordingly, since "the divine right which comes from
God does not destroy the human right which has its origin in man's
rational nature, the two powers must be harmoniously interrelated
( J8)
in a manner respectful of their God-given natures. ' The tra
ditional doctrine provides for this without sacrificing anything

'Ihis is a free rendering of a part- of what St. Robert Bellarmine

has written in his Be Romano Vontifice, lib. V, cap. 6. The great
mystery of the Cross is thus applied to eocial organization, adds M.
1'abbe Journet.
4fi
< ) La Juridivtion de Vfiglise sur la f-itr by M. Tabbe Journet, p.
161, note.
<W Billot, S.J., Be Ecclesia, Vol. II, p. 86, says that St. Robert
Bcllarmine, in the preface to his treatise against Barclay, quotes more
than seventy authors, including St. Thomas, St. Bonaventure, St.
Antoninus, St. Bernard, St. Rayinundus, Caietanus, Turrccremata,
Soto, Bannez, Molina, Hugh of St. Victor, Alexander of Hales, and
Reginald Pole.
U7) Recherche* sur VEsprit Politique de la Iiefor?ne t by G. de Lag-
arde, p. 77.
<48) "Jus autem divinum quod est ex gratia non tollit
% jus humanum
quod <xt ex natural} ration* " ( I l a I l a e , Q.10, a. 10).
48 TIIK MYSTICAL MODY OK CHRIST

either of the essential natures of the two powers in question or of

the order of the world. The other opinions fail to do this as we
shall see.
T W O O T H E R T H E O R I E S CONCERNING T H E RELATION
B E T W E E N CHURCH AND STATE.
Over against the Thomistie doctrine of the accidental subordin
ation of the Siatc to ihe Church, in view of the harmonious co
operation between the two powers instituted by God to guide
and govern man, there arc two other opinions. The first proclaims
that the subordination of the State to the Church is rather
metaphorical tha?i real: the second asserts, on the contrary, that
the subordination of the State is essential. If, instead of speaking
of the "accidental subordination of the Stale/' we speak of the
"indirect power of the Church/' then, the corresponding phrase
in the theory of the " metaphorical subordination of the State "
will be " the directive power of the Church/' in the theory of
" essential subordination" it will be " the direct power of the
Church."
In the expression "indirect power/' the word "power" signi
fies jurisdiction and the word "indirect" signifies that this juris
diction can be exercised in political matters only if the interests
of religion demand the intervention o f the Church. Now the par
tisans of the "directive power" deny to the Church a true power
of jurisdiction giving the Church the right to intervene authorita
tively in political matters when the interests of religion demand
it. They sacrifice the real order of the world, for " the tem
poral ruler . . . must be guided, helped and corrected in matters
committed to bis care by that higher power established to lead
491
men to their loftier, eternal end/** The partisans of the "direct
power of the Church in temporal affairs" deny that the Church's
power is indirect and concerned with temporal affairs only in cer
tain circumstances. Hence they falsify the real nature of both
301
the powers established by God.'
It is not necessary to dwell at length on this latter opinion,
held by a few medieval writers, namely, that the Rulers of the
Church have jurisdiction over temporal affairs as such. In this
view the dependence of the State would be essential and absolute
instead of relative and accidental. The Church has always rejected
1
this doctrine of the "direct power' of the Church over temporal
51
affairs.' '
(49) Suarcz, I)ffix. Fidn\ i\5.
f501
Cf. La Juritfirtinn dr Vfcgliw aur la <'it<\ \tv l'abbe Journet,
p p . 124, 125.
(51) " Those who defended this doctrine w e r e either lawyers little
versed in theology or little known theologians such as Aiigustinus
TriumphuB, Alvarus IVIagius, etc. In so far as their reasons prove
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 49
The partisans of the directive power hold that the Church has
a primacy of honour but not of jurisdiction in regard to those
civil questions in which the interests of souls are at stake. The
Church, according to them, possesses the power of persuading but
not of commanding. The word " power " in the expression " di
rective power " is thus to be taken, not in its proper sense, but in
a figurative or metaphorical sense. Many liberal Catholics are
partial to this opinion and try to explain the historical events of
the Middle Ages by asserting "that the Sovereign Pontiffs then
intervened authoritatively in political affairs, not by reason of
their authority as Vicars of Christ, but exclusively because of the
public law of the Europe of that day. The tacit or express con
sent of Christian peoples had made the Roman Pontiff the Supreme
Arbiter even of political matters. The worthlessness of these
assertions, however, will be abundantly evident from even a cur
sory examination of the documents of the period.
"The Sovereign Pontiffs continually appeal to the power of
binding which was conferred on St. Peter, to the authority of
Jesus Christ whose place on earth they take . . . If by the public
law of the Middle Ages is meant the acceptance and profession of
the truth of the Divine Plan enshrined in the Gospel, and which
was then universally acknowledged, it is true to say that this w a s
the condition which allowed of the de facto exercise of the in
direct power of the Sovereign Pontiffs. If. however, it is to be
understood in the sense that the authority of the Sovereign Pon
tiffs had its source in a law introduced by the will of the people,
that assertion is erroneous. . . . Accordingly, all these attempts
at explanation are of no value and are a clear proof of the pre
sence of that deplorable fear of the integral truth which is the
special malady of liberal Catholics. For, since the minds of their
contemporaries are so imbued with the poison of the principles
of the French Revolution that to most of them the principles we
have been enunciating about the subordination of politics to
religion seem to be ridiculous paradoxes, those weak Catholics
do not dare to go against the tide and seek to whittle down the
integral truth. They think, in their cowardice, that there is no
other way to undertake the defence of the past than to seek the
explanation of those illustrious events of the Church's history,
which are repugnant to modern ideas and prejudices, in contingent

anything, they prove rather the absolute inanity of the opinion de

n
fended (Billot, S.J., De Evrhxia, v o l . II, p. 8 0 ) .
Of course, in studying the Papal power in the Middle Ages, we must
distinguish between the spiritual jurisdiction of the Popes, of which
alone it is question here, and the temporal jurisdiction exercised by
the Sovereign Pontiffs over some Christian States, such as Hungary,
of which they were the Suzerains and Protectors. Cf. l'abb Journet,
op. cit, pp. 191 and foil.
F
 50 TIIK MYSTICAL IJODY OF CHRIST

and mutable human law. That is purely and simply to be ashamed

of the Gospel. From such a crime against His Majesty, may God
( 5 2 )
preserve us! "
Father Cappcllo, S.J., passes judgement on the Thomistic
teaching 'and on the two other theories of which we have been
speaking as follows: " T h e theory of the direct power is false.
The theory of directive power cannot be admitted. The doctrine
of the indirect power is common, certain and Catholic doctrine.
This [the Indirect Power) is an essential right of the Church,
since it springs from the Church's nature, s o it is clear that it
cannot be lost either b y custom or prescription, nor in any way
53
restricted or changed."' >

THE DUTY OF CATHOLICS TO CHRIST THE KING.

in the present state of the world, the exercise of the Indirect

Power of the Church is hampered, but all Catholics, rulers and
subjects alike, should proclaim with one voice the inalienable
rights of the Church and show themselves ready to accept all the
consequences that follow from them. These rights arc simply a part
of the Church's participation in the Spiritual Kingship of Christ.
Catholics, therefore, should unite in proclaiming the unchangeable
order of the Divine J Man. God entrusted the exposition o f this
order to St. Thomas, and we find it outlined in The Dogmatic
Constitution of the Church which was drawn up for discussion at
the Vatican Council.
In this outline we read: " We . . . teach that those who govern
should follow the same rule of the divine law in the exercise of
their power. For the divine law, whether manifested b y the light
of reason or by supernatural revelation, has been instituted n o t
only for private citizens and their actions but also for those who
are at the bead of states, and for the discharge of public duties,
for social and political action. . . . And it belongs to the supreme
teaching office of the Church to judge of the laws of human c o n
duct even for civil society and public affairs, inasmuch as it is for
the Church to determine all questions of morals and to decide what
is licit or illicit."***
<52> Billot, .S.J., l)eJiwh*ia vol. I I , p p . 87, 88.
%

Snmma Juris Ptthliri ftn'tetiia.stict\ p. 330.

11 1
The theory of the direct power ' is contrary to the common teach
ing. The theory of the 'directive power,' taken in the strict sense,
does not appear to he in conformity with the teaching of the Syllabus
| of Pope Pius IX"], the decrees of the Sovereign Pontiffs, and the vast
majority of theologians (Smnma Apologetics dp, Ecdesia Catholica
(1900) liy Fere de GrooL O.F., quoted by Fabhe Jouruet in La Juri-
dirfion fit- rftglixr xttr la Cite, p. 170, note).
'5-1) CF. Canon XII of the same Constitution: " If anyone shall
say that Our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ, has conferred on His
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 51

T h e C o u n c i l h a d t o d i s p e r s e b e f o r e t h e s e p o i n t s c o u l d be d i s
c u s s e d , b u t t h e Schema had been printed and circulated a m o n g s t
t h e F a t h e r s of t h e C o u n c i l . A c c o r d i n g l y , w e m a y s a y t h a t w e
h a v e in t h e m a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n of t h e m i n d of t h e C h u r c h on t h i s
a l l - i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of O u r L o r d ' s K i n g s h i p . O n e of t h e r e a s o n s
w h y t h e F e a s t of t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t w a s i n s t i t u t e d w a s t o
b r i n g a b o u t u n i o n a m o n g s t C a t h o l i c s in s t a n d i n g for H i s R i g h t s .
T h e y s h o u l d close t h e i r r a n k s on t h i s q u e s t i o n a n d n o t a l l o w
t h e m s e l v e s to be d i v i d e d a n d d r a w n , in e v e r y c o u n t r y in g r e a t e r
o r l e s s e r n u m b e r s , i n t o t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c c a m p of t h e e n e m i e s of
Our Lord.
Jf C a t h o l i c s w e r e at o n e in s e e k i n g first t h e i n t e r e s t s of C h r i s t ,
H e a d of t h e M y s t i c a l R o d y , t h e y w o u l d e x e r c i s e a p o w e r f u l i n
f l u e n c e o n t h e w o r l d . T h e y w o u l d , for i n s t a n c e , d r a w m a n y o u t
s i d e t h e C h u r c h f r e e l y t o r e c o g n i z e t h e m o r a l a u t h o r i t y of t h e
R o m a n P o n t i f f as i n d i s p e n s a b l e for m a i n t a i n i n g p e a c e in a n y
f u t u r e a s s o c i a t i o n of S t a t e s . " F o r no h u m a n i n s t i t u t i o n e x i s t s
w h i c h c a n i m p o s e u p o n t h e n a t i o n s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o d e , a d a p t e d
t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e w h i c h , in t h e M i d d l e A g e s ,
r u l e d t h a t s o c i e t y of n a t i o n s w h i c h w a s k n o w n a s C h r i s t e n d o m .
. . . B u t t h e r e is a d i v i n e i n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h can g u a r a n t e e t h e
s a n c t i t y of t h e l a w of n a t i o n s , an i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h , e m b r a c i n g all
n a t i o n s a n d t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e m , is e n d o w e d w i t h s u p r e m e a u t h o r
i t y a n d e v o k e s v e n e r a t i o n t h r o u g h its p l e n a r y p o w e r s of r u l e
t h e C h u r c h of C h r i s t . B e c a u s e of its divine m i s s i o n , of i t s n a t u r e ,
of its c o n s t i t u t i o n , a n d t h e p r e s t i g e w h i c h t i m e h a s c o n f e r r e d u p o n
it, it a l o n e h a s s h o w n itself e q u a l t o so g r e a t a t a s k , and far f r o m
s u c c u m b i n g t o t h e o n s l a u g h t of w a r , it h a s e m e r g e d w i t h \ i g o u r
f55
marvellously increased." *
W i t h o u t t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of the r u l e of C h r i s t , p e a c e t h a t
r e l a t i v e p e a c e w h i c h is p o s s i b l e in t h i s fallen w o r l d , c a n n o t be
a t t a i n e d h e r e b e l o w . T h e R o m a n Pontiff, t h e V i c a r of C h r i s t , a n d
t h e B i s h o p s of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , a r e t h e r e p r e s c n t a t h e s of
Christ's Spiritual Kingship. I t is t h r o u g h t h e m t h a t H i s R o y a l
W i l l is p r o c l a i m e d t o t h e w o r l d . If t h i s g u i d a n c e is n o t a c c e p t e d
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e m o r a l a s p e c t of q u e s t i o n s , t h e n w e shall s e e
a n a c c e n t u a t i o n of t h e r e i g n of b r u t e f o r c e , u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n
of s o m e s e c t i o n of t h e h u m a n r a c e u s u r p i n g t h e p l a c e of God, w i t h
d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s for t h e p o o r a n d t h e w e a k . Fear, of a r o u s i n g
anti-Catholic prejudice should not prevent Catholics from d e m a n d
i n g t h a t t h e P o p e ' s v o i c e s h o u l d be t h e d e c i d i n g f a c t o r w i t h r e -

C h u r c h only the power of d i r e c t i n g by counsels and e x h o r t a t i o n s a n d

not t h a t of c o m m a n d i n g even by laws and of compelling and constrain
ing by fitting p u n i s h m e n t s the e r r i n g and contumacious, let him he
anathema."
'55) Encyclical Letter, Ubi Arra.no Dei (1022).
52 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OP CHRIST

g a r d to t h e m o r a l i t y of d e c i s i o n s t o be t a k e n by a n y f u t u r e L e a g u e
of N a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o a r m a m e n t s a n d f i n a n c e . T h e y
should continually . point out thai the calumnies uttered
a g a i n s t t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t a r e in t h e m a i n the
worl: of the organized forces which wish to substitute
for t h e r e i g n of C h r i s i their own naturalistic domination.
T h e y s h o u l d , a c c o r d i n g l y , u n d e r s t a n d t h o r o u g h l y t h e m e a n i n g of
N a t u r a l i s m a n d r e a l i s e iuUy t h a t t h e r e a r e visible o r g a n i z e d f o r c e s
a t w o r k u n d e r S a t a n p r o p a g a t i n g it. If t h e y h a d a c l e a r g r a s p of
t h e s e v i t a l p o i n t s , t h e y w o u l d s e e w h y s o m u c h of w h a t is c a l l e d
" p r o g r e s s " a n d " e n l i g h t e n m e n t , " in p o l i t i c s a n d e c o n o m i c s , l e a d s
t o t h e d e c a y of n a t i o n s a n d to t h e e n s l a v e m e n t of t h e m a s s e s , a n d
t h e y w o u l d n o t allow t h e m s e l v e s to be inveigled into a d v o c a t i n g
p o l i c i e s u t t e r l y o p p o s e d t o t h e r u l e of C h r i s t t h e K i n g . H e is t h e
(5G
c e n t r e of o r d e r . >
" W e a r c h o p i n g for a n e w o r d e r of t i l i n g s , " w r i t e s P o p e P i u s
X I I , " w h i c h will g o v e r n t h e life of p e o p l e s a n d a d j u s t t h e i r m u t u a l
relations, w h e n these unnatural conllicts, these cruel b u t c h e r i e s ,
h a v e died d o w n a t last. T h i s n e w o r d e r m u s t n o t be f o u n d e d o n
t h e s h i f t i n g s t a n d a r d s of r i g h t a n d w r o n g , t r e a c h e r o u s q u i c k s a n d s ,
w h i c h h a v e b e e n a r b i t r a r i l y d e v i s e d to s u i t public a n d p r i v a t e in
terests. It m u s t s t a n d f i r m l y b a s e d <m t h e i m m o v a b l e r o c k of
n a t u r a l law a n d divine revelation. . . . T h e troubles from which
o u r a g e is s u f f e r i n g m a y be p u t d o w n p a r t l y , n o d o u b t , t o t h e d i s
t u r b i n g effects of e c o n o m i c m a l a d j u s t m e n t , p a r t l y to t h e c o m p e t i
t i o n b e t w e e n n a t i o n s , e a c h s t r i v i n g to get its fair s h a r e of t h e
m e a n s G o d h a s g i v e n t h e m for m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r life a n d d e v e l o p
i n g t h e i r c u l t u r e . But the r o o t of t h e m lies fnr d e e p e r t h a n t h a t .
T h e r o o t of t h e m is t o be s o u g h t in t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s
faith and the opinions which have been e m b r a c e d , the s t a n d a r d s
w h i c h h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d , by the m o d e r n w o r l d . T h o s e o p i n i o n s ,
t h o s e s t a n d a r d s , a r e c o r r u p t e d at t h e i r s o u r c e , b e c a u s e t h e p e o p l e
of t h e w o r l d a r e s l o w l y l o s i n g t o u c h w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of right-
d e a l i n g , w i t h t h e u n i t y of C h r i s t i a n faith a n d d o c t r i n e , w h i c h t h e
u n t i r i n g b e n e f i c e n c e of the C h u r c h o n c e instilled i n t o t h e m . The
r e - e d u c a t i o n , t h e r e m o u l d i n g of t h e h u m a n r a c e , if it is to p r o
d u c e t h e effects e x p e c t e d of it . . m u s t s p r i n g from t h e d o c t r i n e
( 5 7 )
of t h e D i v i n e R e d e e m e r , a s its o n l y p o s s i b l e f o u n t a i n - s o u r c e . "
" T h e c a s e of g o v e r n m e n t s , " w r o t e P o p e !,eo X I I I , " i s m u c h
t h e s a m e a s t h a t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; tliey a l s o m u s t r u n i n t o f a t a l
i s s u e s , if t h e y d e p a r t from t h e w a y . . . . Let J e s u s be e x c l u d e d ,
a n d h u m a n r e a s o n is left w i t h o u t its g r e a t e s t p r o t e c t i o n a n d
(5fi) The m o r a l i t y of a n v a r r a n g e m e n t s made with r e g a r d to the
B a n k for I n t e r n a t i o n a l Settlements, an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Court:, an I n t e r
n a t i o n a l A r m y or Air Force, must be submitted t< the Sovereign
Pontiff, the V i c a r of Christ.
(57) Encyclical Letter, Swnmi Ponttfivatus
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 53

illumination; the very notion is easily lost, of the end for which
God created human society, to wit: that by the aid of their civil
union the citizens should attain their natural good, but, neverthe
less, in a way not in conflict with that highest and most perfect
and enduring g o o d which is above nature. Their minds busy with
a hundred confused projects, rulers and .subjects alike travel a
devious road, bereft as thev are of safe guidance and fixed prin-
5?
ciple."< >
(68) Encyclical Letter, Tametsi.

APPENDIX i.

PAPAL A U T H O R I T Y IN T K M P O R A L AFFAIRS-")

1. By Divine Right, the Pope has, firstly, the power, as

Supreme Teacher and Guardian of the Moral Law, to give to
Rulers, with regard t o the government of their States, directions
obliging in conscience. He has, secondly, the power to regulate
temporal affairs in sovereign though indirect fashion, whenever
he judges it indispensable for the interests of souls, that is to say,
he has not only directive power over the temporal affairs of States
but overei<jn indirect power ( S t . Robert Bellarmine, De Rom.
P o n t . , lib. V. c. VI).
2. The universal recognition of ibis right by the peoples and
rulers of the Middle Ages and the incorporation of this recognition
into the constitutions of the various nations of Christendom, while
it did not and could not add to the intrinsic force of the Divine
Right, did add to it the extrinsic force of public law, and thus ren
dered the exercise of the Divine Right less difficult and more
efficacious.
3. The Sovereigns of several States of the Middle Ages were
vassals of the Holy See. With regard to the Rulers of these
States, the Pope had not only the indirect temporal power, found
ed upon the Divine Right and public law, but also a direct tem
poral power founded upon the right of suzerainty.
4. One of the sovereigns of the group of Christian States held
from the Pope, with the title of Emperor, the additional title of
Official Defender of the Holy See and of all Christendom. With
regard to this prince, the Pope had not only the indirect temporal
power which he had with regard (o all the other rulers, but a
special power based on the origin and purpose of the Holy Roman
Empire, as we have just explained.
5. The Popes have been invested by Divine Providence with
ft) Extract from Leu Erreurn M'odernea. Vol. IT, pp. 39& 400, by
Dom P. Benoit.
 54 THE MYSTICAL I10DY OF CHRIST

sovereign power over the State (or States) of the Church. With
regard to this State, they enjoy a direct temporal power similar
2
to that of other rulers in their respective S t a l e s / '

A. Accordingly:
The powers exercised by the Popes of the Middle Ages over
Stales were founded: with regard to all, originally and principally,
on the Divine Right: secondly and in a subsidiary way, on the
public law of the nations of Christendom: with regard to the
States thai were vassals of the Holy Sec. these powers were
founded besides on the direct right of suzerainty; with regard to
the Kmpcror, they were based in addition on a special right (sui
generis), which had its origin in the Imperial Dignity.

U. Consequently:
(a) The power of the Popes over Stale* (called the Indirect
Power) did not originate with Gregory VI f.
(h) The power of the Popes over States (called the Indirect
Power) bad not it* origin exclusively in the public law of the
Middle Ages. We must hold this in opposition to Leibnitz, Hur
ler, Yoigt. and most of the semi-liberals who in our day have
31
undertaken the defence of the Church/
2
<> F a t h e r IJohert Hull, S . J . , p o i n t s o u t i n ifedirral Theories of the
f'rijittri/. p. I I . that if would he well to reserve the term (
temporal
power for the power of the Pope as a civil prince. He says that the
1

t e r m ' power in t e m p o r a l s ' should be used for the I n d i r e c t Power.

(
P e r h a p s the term Power in m a t t e r s t e m p o r a l ' would he better. t

'H It is well to a d d , for the benefit of I r i s h readers, t h a t this is the

d o e t r i n e upheld by A. M. S u l l i v a n in Tin Story of Ireland, p . 186.
On p. 1ST of the <ame work ho ha-, some other v e r y n a t u r a l i s t i c remarks.

APPFXDIX II.

T H E SCOP]-: O F THF. IXDIKKCT P O W E R O F T H E CHURCH.CD

Principles.
(1) The Indirect power of the Church extends to all temporal
affairs which are connected with the end of the Chinch, that is to
say. which arc related to the spiritual life.
This connexion or relation is found in temporal matters on
account of their being necessary for or their being opposed to the
spiritual end of the Church, that is to say, inasmuch as the tem
poral matters are cither necessary to attain this end or prevent
its being attained and must therefore be removed.
'o Translated from Sttmnm Juris Puhliri ftcrtrsiustici, pp. 313-316,
310, of Father F. M. Cappello, S.J.. Rome, 1936.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 55

Cardinal di Turrecremata has the following excellent statement

of this doctrine: "Although the Roman Pontiff has not the full
direct power in temporal matters that he has in spiritual matters,
nevertheless he has this power by a necessary consequence and
by his own right, insofar as is necessary for the safeguarding of
spiritual interests, for the guidance of the faithful to their eternal
salvation, for the correction of sinners, and for the maintenance
2
of peace amongst the people of Christ."' '
(II) Accordingly, the Indirect Power extends to all persons,,
objects and actions, but exclusively from the point of view of their
connexion with the spiritual life.
Certainly all persons, both public personages and private indi
viduals, by the fact that they are baptized, are subject to the juris
diction of the Church and must he.guided by her to holiness of
life here below and eternal life hereafter. 1 have said expressly
"whether public or private," because the magistrate as such, the
ruler as ruler, is subject to the Church. The ruler or magistrate
is subject to the Church not merely as a private individual, as the
Gallicans erroneously taught. Therefore the Church must aid*
direct and guide him to eternal life not only as a private individ
ual but also as a public functionary.
All objects and actions, whether profane or civil or political,
may be mioral or immoral, good or bad, in conformity with or
divergent from the laws of justice and morality, and as such are
subject to the power of the Church. For example, if in any coun
try a social or political question gave rise to a controversy caus
ing grave disturbance and serious dissensions amongst Catholics
to the great detriment of Christian charity and concord, the Church
could, in order to safeguard charity and concord, impose silence-
on all concerned.
Pius X gives a fine exposition of this doctrine: "Whatever a
Catholic does, even in temporal matters, he has not the right to
neglect his supernatural interests, nay more, the prescriptions of
Catholic teaching oblige him to direct everything towards the-
Sovereign Good as towards the last end of all things. All his
actions, inasmuch as they are cither morally good or bad. that is-
to say, in agreement or disagreement with natural and divine law,
3
come under the judgement and jurisdiction of the Church."< >
This explains why, in the course of history, the Roman Pon
tiffs have intervened in matters concerning the social question,,
economics or politics.
(III) This power is by no means to be restricted to cases of

(2) Snmma de Ecclesia, lib. II. cap. 114.

(S> Encyclical Letter. Singular* quadam, Sept. 24th, 1912 (addressed
to the German Hierarchy, on the subject >f WorkingmenV Unions).
Acta Apost. Sedis, IV, 658.
56 TIIIC M Y S T I C A L RODY OF CHRIST

4 1
g r a v e necessity, as several w r i t e r s a s s e r t / C a s e s of g r a v e n e
c e s s i t y a r c t h o s e in w h i c h t h e C h u r c h w o u l d be e x p o s e d t o s e r i o u s
loss, unless she intervened. T h e q u e s t i o n of right m u s t n o t b e
c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of fact. Jt is o n e t h i n g t o s a y t h a t t h e
C h u r c h d o e s n o t in fact e x e r c i s e h e r i n d i r e c t p o w e r o v e r e a c h
a n d e v e r y t e m p o r a l m a t t e r , a n d t h a t it is n o t a l w a y s e x p e d i e n t
t h a t s h e s h o u l d do so. If a t e m p o r a l affair, n o m a t t e r w h a t i t s
n a t u r e , is c o n n e c t e d w i t h s p i r i t u a l i n t e r e s t s , f r o m t h a t p o i n t of
v i e w it is always a n d necessarily s u b j e c t to t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e
C h u r c h . T h e C h u r c h c o u l d a l w a y s e x e r c i s e h e r p o w e r in a m a t t e r
of t h a t k i n d f r o m t h a t a n g l e .
(IV) S i n c e t h e I n d i r e c t P o w e r is a public power of j u r i s d i c
t i o n in t h e t r u e a n d p r o p e r m e a n i n g of t h e t e r m , it c a n b e l e g i s
lative, judicial and coactive.
P i u s X I v i n d i c a t e s t h e c l a i m of t h e C h u r c h t o t h i s p o w e r in
eloquent l a n g u a g e : " T h e Church indeed, does not claim to inter
f e r e without reason in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t e m p o r a l o r p u r e l y p o l i t i c a l
a f f a i r s , n e v e r t h e l e s s of h e r full r i g h t , s h e c l a i m s t h a t t h e civil
p o w e r m u s t n o t a l l e g e t h i s a s a n e x c u s e f o r p l a c i n g o b s t a c l e s in
t h e w a y of t h o s e h i g h e r g o o d s o n w h i c h t h e e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n of
m e n d e p e n d s , for inilicting loss a n d i n j u r y t h r o u g h u n j u s t l a w s
a n d d e c r e e s , f o r i m p a i r i n g t h e d i v i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e C h u r c h
itself, o r for t r a m p l i n g u n d e r f o o t t h e s a c r e d r i g h t s of G o d in civil
5
society."* *
T h e C o d e of C a n o n L a w l i k e w i s e c l a i m s t h i s p o w e r for t h e
C h u r c h in e x p l i c i t t e r m s : " T h e C h u r c h b y h e r p r o p e r a n d e x c l u
sive right t a k e s cognizance of all m a t t e r s in w h i c h is t o
,,(r,
b e f o u n d a ratio peccati >
T h e w o r d s " in w h i c h is t o b e f o u n d a r a t i o p e c c a t i , " u s e d b y
B o n i f a c e V I I 1 a n d b y i n n o c e n t I I I , a r e n o t t o be u n d e r s t o o d a s
r e f e r r i n g exclusively to m e r e l y theological faults and t h e r e f o r e
r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e d o m a i n of c o n s c i e n c e , a s s o m e h a v e w r o n g l y
m a i n t a i n e d , b u t a r e t o be u n d e r s t o o d a s a p p l y i n g t o all m a t t e r s
w h i c h a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h the good of religion, t h a t is, the end of
the Church, either positively or negatively. M a t t e r s are connected
positively y i n a s m u c h a s t h e y a r e n e c e s s a r y for t h e g o o d of r e l i g i o n ,
t h a t is, for t h e a t t a i n m e n t of t h e C h u r c h ' s e n d ; m a t t e r s a r e c o n
n e c t e d negatively, i n a s m u c h as t h e y a r e obstacles to the a t t a i n
m e n t of t h a t e n d a n d so m u s t b e e l i m i n a t e d .
T h a t t h e w o r d s in q u e s t i o n a r e n o t to be u n d e r s t o o d e x c l u s i v e
ly of m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e internal f o r u m is c l e a r f r o m t h e
text, a n d t h e c o n t e x t . F o r C a n o n 1553, I, 2, is t r e a t i n g of t h e
(4
> Cf. Revet, I.e., p. 113, in n o t e : Laure.ntius, I.e., n.ODs; Chalodi,
I.e., n . 2 7 , not. 5 ; P i l a t i , Potere diretto indiretto e direttivo.
} Rome,
1935.
(5) Fneyelieal Letter, Ubi Arcana, 23rd December, 1922.
'6) Can. 1 5 5 3 , I, 2o.
 KINGSHIP OP CHRIST IN ESSENCE. 57

object of a judgement or ecclesiastical process, which is, of course,

a matter belonging to the external forum.
NOTE. 1 beg to add the following clear statement of Pius X,
44
not quoted by Father Cappello: We do not conceal the fact that
We shall shock some people by saying that We must necessarily
concern ourselves with politics. Hut anyone forming an equitable
judgement clearly sees that the Supreme Pontiff can in no wise
violently withdraw the category of politics from subjection to the
supreme control of faith and morals confided to him" (Consis-
torial Allocution, November 9, 1903).
 CHAPTER III.

THE KIXGSUIP OF CHRIST IN ITS INTEGRITY.

MEANING OF T H E INTEGRITY OF T H E KINGSHIP
OF CHRIST.

The Divine Plan for order in our fallen and redeemed world
comprises, primarily, the supernatural social organism of the
Catholic Church, and then, secondarily, the temporal or natural
social order resulting from the influence of Catholic doctrine on
politics and economics and from the embodiment of that influence
11
in social institutions/ Prom the birth of the Catholic Church
on Calvary and the solemn promulgation of her mission at the
first Pentecost, the Kingdom of God in its essence has been pre
sent in the world. As a result of the gradual acceptance of the
role of t h e Church by t h e Temporal Representatives of Christ the
King, the social institutions of States and nations became deeply
permeated with the influence of the Supernatural Life of Christ,
it was only then that the Kingdom of God or the rule of Christ
the King in its integrity could be said to exist. The Kingdom of
God or t h e rule of Christ the King is present in its integrity only
in so far as the whole social life of States, political and economic,
is permeated with the influence of the Church. To put it in other
terms, Christ fully reigns only when the programme for which
He died is accepted as the one true way to peace and order in the
world, and social structures are evolved that are in harmony with
it.
The Kingdom of God in its essence is always with us, but the
influence of the Church on politics and economics, in other words
the extension of the Kingdom of God in its integrity, has varied
with the centuries. Hroadly speaking, the 13th century has
been, so far, the high-water mark of that influence. Since then,
until recently, there has been steady decay. No particular tem
poral social order, of course, will ever realize all that the Church
is capable of giving to the world. I\ach of them will be defective
for several reasons. First of all, the action of the Church, wel
comed by some Catholics, will he opposed by the ignorance, in
capacity and perversity of others. Secondly, even if all Catholics
did accept fully, they could only reflect some of the beauty of the
Gospel as the saints reflected some of the infinitely imitable holi-
HI Cf. .splendid article hy Fabhe Journefc hi No en cf Vetera, 1931.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 59
ness of Christ. Thirdly, there would still remain the vast num
bers of non-Catholics to be won for Christ and whose social life
would have to be organized under His rule. It is towards this
latter goal that every generation of Catholics is called upon to
work. The aim is not, needless to say, to bring back the Middle
Ages, for the river of time docs not turn back in its course, but
the aim is to impregnate a new epoch with the divine principles
of order so firmly grasped in the 13th century. For the sake of
clearness, instead of the expression, the Kingdom of God in its
integrity, it is better to use the expression, the rule of Christ the
King in its fulness or integrity. We shall, therefore, in future
speak of the Kingship of Christ or the rule of Christ the King.
Before, however, we attempt to set forth the outline:* of the
organization which would be seen in the world, if it fully lccepted
the rule of Christ the King, it will be well to explain briefly the
correct notions of Politics and Economics, according to St.
2)
Thomas. <
ST. THOMAS AND POLITICS.

Politics is the science which has for object the organization of

the State in view of the complete Common Good of the citizens in
the natural order, and the means that conduct to it. As *he final
end of man is, however, not merely natural, the State, charged
with the temporal social order, must ever act in such wise as not
only not to hinder but to favour the attaining of man's supreme
end, the vision of God in Three Divine Persons. Political thought
and political action, therefore, in an ordered State, will respect the
jurisdiction and guidance of the Catholic Church, the divinely in
stituted guardian of the moral order, remembering that what is
morally wrong cannot be politically good. In connexion with this
latter point we may quote the words of Pope Pius X I :
(2) Pope Pius XI, following Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius X, orders
us to go first to St. Thomas: " It was said of old to the Egyptians who
were in need of corn. Go to Joseph, so to all who hunger for truth we
would say, Oo to Thomas for the food of sound doctrine that will sus
tain the soul unto everlasting life. . . . There is no doubt that Theology
reached the apex of its dignity in the works of Aquinas, who combined
an absolute knowledge of divine things with a force of intellect
wonderfully fitted for philosophical argument. Wherefore, in our
schools both of Philosophy and Theology, St. Thomas holds the .supreme
mastership. . . . And since he is so clearly perfect in his theology, he
gives secure reasons and precepts, not only for the direction of man's
individual life, but likewise for domestic and civil society. Thus he
our source for economic and political science. . . . If in private, in
public, and in international relations all these things that Thomas lays
down were kept holy and inviolate, nothing more would be needed to
1
reconcile man to The Peace of Christ in the kingdom of Christ ' which
the whole world so greatly desires" (Encyclical Letter, Studiorttm
Decern, 1923).
 60 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

" It is part of the trend of the day to sever more and more not
only morality, hut also the foundation of law and jurisprudence,
from true belief in God and from His revealed commandments.
Every positive law, from whatever law-giver it may come, can
be examined in the light of the natural law, as to its implications,
and consequently as to its moral authority to bind the conscience.
The laws of man that are in direct contradiction to the natural law
bear a terrible initial defect that no violent means, no outward
display of power can remedy. By this standard must we judge
the principle: 'What helps the people is right/ A right meaning
may be given to the sentence, if it is understood as expressing
that what is morally illicit can never serve the true interests of
the people. But even ancient paganism recognised that the sent
ence, to be perfectly accurate, should be inverted and read: ' Never
is anything useful, if it is not at the same time morally good. And
not because it is useful is it morally good, but because it is morally
good, it is also useful' (Cicero, De Officiis, FIT, 30). Cut loose
from this rule of morality, that principle would mean, in interna
tional life, a perpetual state of war between the different nations.
In political life within the state, since it confuses considerations
of utility with those of right, it mistakes the basic fact that man
as a person possesses God-given rights, which must be preserved
from all attacks aimed at denving, suppressing, or disregarding
thcm."<3>
Therefore, the natural or temporal Common Good should always
be aimed at by those in authority in the way best calculated to
favour family life, in view of the development of true personality,
in and through the Mystical Hody of Christ. Political action and
legislation, especially in economic matters, must ever seek to
strengthen family life and, accordingly, must not only not admit
divorce, but must always aim, as far as possible, at benefiting
citizens through their families. True political science will insist
not only that the exercise of political power be according to the
principles above outlined, but that the mode of accession to power
and the means employed to retain power be in perfeel accord with
the moral law. Finally, the Society of Nations must be brought
about not by the ruin of all that is involved in the Catholic con
cept of native-land, but by the union of all States in the recogni
tion of the rule of Christ the King through the Catholic Church,
the only supranational society.
In some well-known passages of his work. On the Governance
of Iinlers, St. Thomas sums up the aims of a good ruler of a
(i)

(3) Encyclical Letter, On the Persecution of the Church in (rertnanv

(1937).
M De Uegimine Principum lib. I, cap. XV. The authentic portion
%

of the work does not extend beyond the middle of the fourth chapter
of the second book. The rest is the work of Ptolemy of Lucca. For a
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IX INTEGRITY 61

State as follows: "Because the happiness and moral rectitude of

the present life have as end the happiness of heaven, it belongs
to the ruler to procure the common good of the people in such
wise as to enable them to obtain celestial happiness. Accordingly,
he ought to command what leads thereto and, as far as possible,
forbid what is opposed to it. The road that leads to true happi
ness and the obstacles to be encountered thereon are made known
to us by the divine law, and it is the office of priests to teach that
law, according to what we read in the Prophecy of Malachias, II,
7\ 'For the lips of the priest shall keep knowledge, and they
shall seek the law at his mouth.' . . . The Ruler, therefore,
instructed in the divine law, should make it his chief aim to see
that the people subject to him should be able to live a good life.
. . . Now that a man may lead a virtuous life two things are re
quired. The chief requisite is virtuous action (for virtue is that
by which one leads a good life). The other requisite, which is
secondary and quasi-instrumental in character, is a sufficiency of
material goods, the use of which is necessary for virtuous action."
In the preceding chapter St. Thomas had pointed out that the
ministry of guiding rulers of peoples belongs in an especial manner
to the Vicar of Christ: "There is a certain good e x t r a n e o u s to
man as long as he is living his mortal life here below, namely,
final happiness, which is to be attained after death in the possess
ion of God. For, as the Apostle says: ' As long as we are in the
15
body we are far from the Lord.' ' Hence the Christian man,
for whom that happiness has been bought with the blood of Christ,
and who, in order to attain it, has received the pledge of the Holy
Ghost, needs additional spiritual care to guide him to the harbour
of eternal salvation, and this care is bestowed on the faithful by
the ministers of Christ's Church. . . . Since man by a virtuous
life is ordained to a higher end, which consists in the possession
of God, as we have pointed out above, the end of men living to
gether in society is the same as that of the individual man. Ac
cordingly, the final end of m e n living together in society is not

clear o u t l i n e of the whole question, cf. the. I n t r o d u c t i o n to the t r a n s l a

t i o n of the a u t h e n t i c p o r t i o n in the St. Michael's College Philosophical
t e x t s , by Rev. G e r a l d B. P h e l a n (Sheed a n d W a r d ) . Cf. also article
by Professor A. O ' R a h i l l y in /. E. Record, J u n e , 1928..
I T is well to m e n t i o n i n p a s s i n g t h a t the a u t h o r of the n o n - a u t h e n t i c
PORTION OF the De Segimine Pri?icipuvi, after h a v i n g gone so far as t o
say ( L I B . I L L , c. 10) t h a t the s p i r i t u a l -power a n d a c t i o n of Pt. P e t e r
t

AND h i s successors gives existence, power a n d action to the t e m p o r a l

j u r i s d i c t i o n of princes, i m m e d i a t e l y adds t h a t in all the examples he
m e n t i o n s , the Popes have i n t e r v e n e d in t e m p o r a l m a t t e r s only on
a c c o u n t of some breach of the m o r a l law (ration* delicti). Cf. La Juri-
diction de Vftglixc sur la Cite, p. 189, where l'abbe J o u r n c t quotes St.
ROBERT B e l l a r m i n e .
) I I Cor., V, 6.
62 TI1K M Y S T I C A L 150DY O F CHRIST

t o live v i r t u o u s l y b u t b y l e a d i n g a v i r t u o u s life t o a t t a i n t o t h e
p o s s e s s i o n of G o d . If t h i s e n d c o u l d b e a t t a i n e d b y t h e p o w e r of
h u m a n n a t u r e , t h e n it w o u l d be p a r t of t h e d u t y of t h e k i n g t o
d i r e c t m e n t h e r e t o . . . . lUit b e c a u s e m a n d o e s n o t a t t a i n h i s
e n d , t h e P e a t i f i e V i s i o n , by h u m a n p o w e r , b u t by t h e p o w e r of
G o d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e w o r d s of St. P a u l : ' IIy t h e G r a c e of G o d ,
0
life everlasting,* "'' a c c o r d i n g l y , the t a s k of l e a d i n g h i m t h e r e t o
is a m a t t e r n o t f o r h u m a n g o v e r n m e n t b u t for d i v i n e . Jt b e l o n g s
t o t h a t K i n g W h o is n o t o n l y M a n b u t G o d , n a m e l y , t o O u r L o r d
J e s u s C h r i s t , W h o b y m a k i n g m e n t h e s o n s of God c o n d u c t s t h e m
t o t h e g l o r y of h e a v e n .
" T h i s t h e n is t h e k i n g d o m w h i c h h a s b e e n c o m m i t t e d t o
C h r i s t ' s r u l e a n d w h i c h shall n o t p a s s a w a y , on a c c o u n t of w h i c h
H e is called in S c r i p t u r e not o n l y P r i e s t b u t K i n g , as w e r e a d in
J e r e m i a s ( X X I I I , 5 ) : ' T h e k i n g shall r e i g n a n d h e s h a l l b e w i s e . '
H e n c e a r o y a l p r i e s t h o o d i> d e r i v e d f r o m Mini a n d , b e s i d e s , all t h e
f a i t h f u l w h o b e l i e v e in C h r i s t , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y a r e H i s m e m b e r s ,
a r c called k i n g s a n d p r i e s t s . \ c o o r d i n g l y , _ t h e m i n i s t r y of t h i s
k i n g d o m h a s b e e n confided not t o e a r t h l y k i n g s b u t t o p r i e s t s , in
o r d e r t h a t t h e r e m i g h t be a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s p i r i t u a l a n d
temporal matters. In an e s p e c i a l m a n n e r it h a s b e e n e n t r u s t e d
t o t h e chief p r i e s t , t h e S u c c e s s o r of S t . P e t e r , t h e V i c a r of C h r i s t ,
t h e R o m a n Pontiff, t o w h o m all t h e r u l e r s of C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e s
o u g h t t o be s u b j e c t a s t o O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t H i m s e l f . For
t h o s e w h o h a v e c h a r g e of i n t e r m e d i a t e e n d s m u s t be s u b j e c t t o
h i m w h o h a s c h a r g e of l e a d i n g m e n t o t h e i r u l t i m a t e e n d a n d
( 7 )
be g u i d e d by h i m . "

ST. T H O M A S AND ECONOMICS.

" l i a s any o t h e r m a s t e r explained b e t t e r than St. T h o m a s the
n a t u r e , m e t h o d a n d d i v i s i o n of p h i l o s o p h y ? . . . T h e o r d e r of
v o l u n t a r y a c t s b e l o n g s t o M o r a l P h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h is d i v i d e d i n t o
t h r e e p a r t s ; t h e first c o n s i d e r s an i n d i v i d u a l m a n ' s o p e r a t i o n s
o r d a i n e d to an e n d , a n d is called monastic; the second considers
t h e o p e r a t i o n s of a d o m e s t i c g r o u p a n d is called economic; the
t h i r d c o n s i d e r s t h e o p e r a t i o n s of m a n in a c i t y o r s t a t e a n d is c a l l e d
M ( S )
political (Comment, in Ethic., Lect. I ) .
K t y m o l o g i c a l l y , e c o n o m y is t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e h o m e a n d
t h e f a m i l y . K c o i i o m i e s is t h e s c i e n c e , w h i c h s t u d i e s t h e c o m p o n
e n t cells of the S t a t e , n a m e l y , f a m i l i e s , in t h e c o n s t i t u e n t r e l a t i o n s
of t h e i r m e m b e r s a n d in t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s of e x i s t e n c e . " K c o n o m y ,
<s) Rom., VI, 23.
l t M
(?) St. Thomas uses the word king for the ruler, r e m a r k i n g t h a t
J;
t h e term " k i n g is a p p l i e d to the " supreme ruler in t e m p o r a l
affairs."
<8> Encyclical Letter of Pope P i u s XT, Studiortim Ihtcem, On St.
Thomas mCuide of Studies VI H a H a e , Q. 47, a.11 : I l a H a e , Q.50.
a.3.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 63

as its name indicates, studies the order of the human household,

arranging, according to their respective values, persons ami
9
things."< > It aims at elucidating, primarily, the personal relations
which constitute the family, the relations of husband and wife,
parents and children, masters and servants, and then, secondarily,
the relations that follow from the conditions of existence of the
family, namely, the mutual relations of human persons owing to
their need of external goods or real wealth. On the one band,
our nature brings us into relation with earthly resources which,
by taking account of their nature and laws, we have to transform
into real wealth capable of satisfying our corporeal needs. Such
are the relations of men with minerals, stone, lime, copper, iron,
petrol; with the flora and fauna that occupy the earth, air and
water; with the nerves and muscles of our own bodies. On the
other hand, from this necessary utilization of things, follow per
sonal social relations between human beings: relations between
cultivators of the soil and artisans, between employers rrid em
ployed, between industrialists and merchants, between buyers and
sellers. All these relations, however, arc between human persons
whose well-being is bound up with strong family life. Needless
to say, the organization of family life, in view of providing its
members with sufficient material resources, is, though secondary,
a very important element of economics.
It is because of our material condition and of our need for
material wealth that Economics and an Economic Science arise.
We may thus speak of man as homo occononricus. This means
that man is such by his nature that the qualification of ut*vuonti-
cus (economic) belongs to his species. I U U the huna* omnumdcua
(economic man) of the classical economists has quite a different
signification. They make it the fundamental notion of a science
presented as autonomous. Their " economic man " is a fictitious
entity constructed on the pleasure-seeking principle, according to
which man naturally seeks the maximum of satisfaction at the
cost of the minimum of effort. The " economic man " is man con
sidered as withdrawn from any other influence but that and sub
jected to its exclusive and absolute domination. Such a man re
cognizes no moral obligation and is impervious to patriotism and
love of family. This fiction is formulated in John Stuart Mill's
description of Political Economy. Political Economy for him is
the science which maps out the laws of social phenomena result
ing from the combined operations of humanity in relation to the
production of wealth, in so far as these phenomena have not been
modified by the pursuit of any other object. Mill admits that man
is human and social, while at the same time, because of his Liber
alism, he withdraws man's pursuit of wealth from subordination

9
< ) Philosophic Economique* by J. Vialatoux, p. 78.
04 RILK MYSTICAL I'.ODY OF CHRIST

to ethics or moral science. Man's pursuit of wealth must be in

order, and it is not to Mill, but to St. Thomas, that we must go
11
to learn about that order. He is our source for economic and
0
political science."^ '
In modern limes on account of the reversal of order, by which
men are sacrificed to production, and production, distribution and
exchange are sacrificed to money, many writers have given the
title of Political Economy to what Aristotle and St. Thomas called
the art of money-making. This art is in reality merely an auxiliary
art intended to be at the service of the family and of the State.
In the former context it subserves Economics, in the latter Poli
tics. The art of manipulating money must be in close dependence
on genuine economic and political science. Why is this? Practical
.Sciences or arts are arranged in hierarchical order according to the
hierarchical order of their ends. As the end of the art of money-
manipulation is subordinate t o the end of Politics and Economics,
those engaged in the manipulation of money must be subordinate
to those charged with the political and economic welfare of the
State, in view of the Common Good. It is not for bankers to
decide what the Common Good of the State demands. That is
the function of the political rulers. Hankers are subjects not
rulers. It is a reversal of order if they become rulers instead of
subjects, and every reversal of order leads to disastrous conse
quences.
As St. Thomas points out, a sufficiency of material goods is
necessary for the virtuous life of the average human being. Hence
we can understand the reason for the dignified place assigned to
the science of the production, distribution and exchange of natural
wealth, and to the auxiliary art of the proper utilization of money
or artificial wealth. This text of St. Thomas is referred to by Pope
Pius XI, where the Pope speaks of the necessity of every citizen
having an opportunity t o earn an honest livelihood, on account
of the demands of the Common Good. " For then only," he writes,
" will the economic and social organism be soundly established and
attain its end, when it secures for all and each those goods which
the wealth and resources of nature, technical achievement, and
the social organization of economic affairs can give. These goods
should be sufficient to supply all needs and an honest livelihood
and to uplift men to that higher level of prosperity and culture
which, provided it be used with prudence, is not only no hindr
11
ance but is of singular help to virtue."* *
STATE AND FAMILY.
In his treatment of Economics as the science of the family, St.
Thomas is in complete opposition to the tendencies of an epoch
do) Encyclical Letter, S t u d i o r u w Durr.nt.
Encyclical Letter, Quttflrayrftimo A n n o .
 KiNGSlIJP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 65
like t h e p r e s e n t , w h e n t h e p r i o r i t y of t h e f a m i l y o v e r t h e S t a t e
is l o s t s i g h t of o r d e n i e d a n d t h e h u m a n p e r s o n is r u t h l e s s l y s a c r i
ficed t o m o n e y - m a k i n g . H e a l w a y s k e e p s in v i e w t h e f a c t , d i s
c o v e r a b l e even by n a t u r a l r e a s o n , t h a t " D o m e s t i c a n d family life
is m o r e i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d u p w i t h h u m a n n a t u r e t h a n p o l i t i c a l
life *'ti2> a s pw c a s] tg i t r e v e a l e d t r u t h , t h a t " m a r r i a g e is a
e r e a

s a c r a m e n t , b e c a u s e it is a h o l y s i g n w h i c h g i v e s g r a c e , s h o w i n g "
f o r t h a n i m a g e of t h e m y s t i c a l n u p t i a l s of C h r i s t w i t h the
C h u r c h . T o t h e f a m i l y t h e h u m a n p e r s o n is confided, a s a n
i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r of t h e cell o r f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l u n i t , t o b e
t r a i n e d a s a m e m b e r of C h r i s t . W e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n t h e l a w
w h i c h g o v e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n t o t h e t w o s p e c i e s
of n a t u r a l s o c i e t y , t h e f a m i l y a n d t h e S t a t e . A c c o r d i n g t o it, t h e
individual is for s o c i e t y , a s t h e p a r t is for t h e w h o l e , t h e h a n d
for t h e b o d y , b u t s o c i e t y in i t s t u r n is for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
perso?i. W e m a y now say, proportionately, that the fundamental
a n d m o r e l i m i t e d s o c i e t y of t h e f a m i l y is in t h e w i d e r a n d m o r e
d e v e l o p e d s o c i e t y of t h e S t a t e a s t h e p a r t is in t h e w h o l e a n d ,
f r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w , is s u b j e c t t o it, b u t t h a t , f r o m a n o t h e r
p o i n t of v i e w , t h e f a m i l y w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e p r i m a r y b e n e r i t s of
g e n e r a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n is s u p e r i o r t o t h e S t a t e w h i c h
h a s for o b j e c t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n life. " T h e f a m i l y is
m o r e n e c e s s n r y t h a n civil s o c i e t y , b e c a u s e t h e f a m i l y is o r d a i n e d
t o t h e a c t s i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r life, n a m e l y , g e n e r a t i o n a n d n u t r i
t i o n . T o s a v e t h e S t a t e , a f a t h e r of a f a m i l y m a y b e a s k e d
t o g i v e his life in b a t t l e , b u t t h e w h o l e o r d e r of t h e S t a t e is m e a n t
to b e a t t h e s e r v i c e of t h e f a m i l y , a n d t h r o u g h it, of t h e h u m a n
( 1 5 )
person.
T h i s is t h e t e a c h i n g of P o p e P i u s X I in h i s E n c y c l i c a l
On the. Christian Education of Youth. " I t m u s t be b o r n e in m i n d
t h a t t h e o b l i g a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y t o b r i n g u p c h i l d r e n , i n c l u d e s n o t
o n l y r e l i g i o u s a n d m o r a l e d u c a t i o n , b u t p h y s i c a l a n d civic e d u c a t i o n
a s w e l l , p r i n c i p a l l y in s o f a r a s it t o u c h e s u p o n r e l i g i o n a n d ' m o r a l
ity.
" A c c o r d i n g l y , in t h e m a t t e r of e d u c a t i o n , it is t h e r i g h t , o r

(12) Comment. in_ E t h i c , Lib. V I I I , Lect. X I I . " S o c i e t a s a u t e m

domestiea . . . est p r i o r q u a m societas eivilis . . . u n d e p a t e t quod homo-
n a t u r a l i u s est a n i m a l conjugate q u a m p o l i t i c u m . " (The family . . . is
p r i o r to_civil society . . . whence i t manifestly follows t h a t the demand
for family life is more deeply rooted in h u m a n n a t u r e than t h a t for
civil society).
(13) Encyclical Letter of P o p e Leo X I I I , Arcamun Bivvnae Sapientia.(
(1880).
" Societas domestiea est e t i a m magis necessaria (quam societas
eivilis) q u i a societas d o m e s t i e a o r d i n a t u r ad actus necessarios v i t a e ,
scilicet srenerationem et n u t r i t i o n e m " CUnnnunt. in AV///>.. Lot*, cit.).
15
< > Cf. a r t i c l e by l'abbe J o u r n e t in La Vie fntelleetuelle. October-
December, 1929.
G
 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

to s p e a k m o r e c o r r e c t l y , it is t h e d u t y of t h e S t a t e t o p r o t e c t in
i t s l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e p r i o r r i g h t s . . . of t h e f a m i l y a s r e g a r d s t h e
Christian e d u c a t i o n of i t s o f f s p r i n g , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a l s o t o r e
s p e c t t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l r i g h t s of t h e C h u r c h in t h i s s a m e r e a l m
of C h r i s t i a n e d u c a t i o n .
" I t a l s o b e l o n g s t o t h e S t a t e t o p r o t e c t t h e r i g h t s of t h e child
"itself w h e n t h e p a r e n t s a r e f o u n d w a n t i n g e i t h e r p h y s i c a l l y o r
m o r a l l y in t h i s r e s p e c t , w h e t h e r b y d e f a u l t , i n c a p a c i t y , o r m i s
conduct, since . . . . t h e i r r i g h t t o e d u c a t e is n o t an a b s o l u t e
.and d e s p o t i c o n e , b u t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e n a t u r a l a n d d i v i n e l a w ,
a n d t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t a l i k e t o t h e a u t h o r i t y a n d j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e
C h u r c h , a n d t o the v i g i l a n c e a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c a r e of t h e S t a t e
in v i e w of t h e C o m m o n G o o d . B e s i d e s , t h e f a m i l y is not a p e r f e c t
.society, t h a t is, it h a s not in itself all t h e m e a n s n e c e s s a r y for i t s
full d e v e l o p m e n t . In s u c h c a s e s , e x c e p t i o n a l n o d o u b t , t h e S t a t e
does n o t p u t itself in t h e p l a c e of t h e f a m i l y , but m e r e l y s u p p l i e s
deficiencies, a n d p r o v i d e s s u i t a b l e m e a n s , a l w a y s in c o n f o r m i t y
w i t h t h e n a t u r a l r i g h t s of t h e child a n d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l r i g h t s
of the Church.
" In g e n e r a l , t h e n , it is t h e r i g h t a n d d u t y of the S t a t e t o p r o
t e c t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s of r i g h t r e a s o n a n d f a i t h , t h e m o r a l
.and r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n of y o u t h , b y r e m o v i n g p u b l i c i m p e d i m e n t s
t h a t s t a n d in t h e w a y . It p e r t a i n s t o t h e S t a t e , in v i e w of t h e
C o m m o n G o o d , t o p r o m o t e in v a r i o u s w a y s t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d i n
s t r u c t i o n of y o u t h
" O v e r and above this, the S t a t e can exact, and t a k e m e a s u r e s
to s e c u r e t h a t all its c i t i z e n s h a v e t h e n e c e s s a r y k n o w l e d g e of
t h e i r civic a n d political d u t i e s , a n d a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of p h y s i c a l ,
intellectual and moral culture, which, considering the conditions
lGJ
of o u r t i m e s , is r e a l l y n e c e s s a r y for t h e C o m m o n G o o d . " *

THK ROLK OF MONEY IN ECONOMICS.

T h e a r t of m a n i p u l a t i n g m o n e y , a c c o r d i n g to St. T h o m a s , is
m e a n t t o be in close d e p e n d e n c e on g e n u i n e e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
s c i e n c e . It d o e s not, of c o u r s e , f o r m a n integral p a r t of it, b u t it
p l a y s t h e r o l e of an aa.iitiartf a r t , f u r n i s h i n g to p o l i t i c s a n d e c o n o
mics the i n s t r u m e n t they need. T o u n d e r s t a n d St. T h o m a s ' s
t e a c h i n g a b o u t m o n e y w e m u s t b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e A n g e l i c
D o c t o r did n o t deal w i t h a n y p a r t i c u l a r p a r i of t h e D i v i n e P l a n f o r
ordered h u m a n life, i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e w h o l e . T h a t p l a n as a
w h o l e w a s a l w a y s s p r e a d o u t b e f o r e h i s m i n d like a v a s t p a n o
rama. It w a s c l e a r l y p r e s e n t t o h i m w h e n t r e a t i n g of m o n e y i n
h i s C o m m e n t a r y on A r i s t o t l e ' s Politics, a n d in the Samma Thco-

Hfi) Encyclical Letter, Diriui Illius Maaistri.

 KINGSHJP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 67

logica where he treats of the same subject with considerable ad

l7
ditions. < >
The order of the Divine Plan set forth by St. Thomas is the
reverse of the disorder which prevails at present. Nowadays, the
human person is subordinated to the production of goods or real
wealth, and the production and distribution of real wealth are
subordinated to money or token wealth. For St. Thomas, money
is meant to facilitate families in procuring by exchange the suffici
ency of material goods required for the virtuous life of their
members, that is, for the ordered development of the human per
sonalities composing the family. The relation of real wealth to
personality is set forth in the text of the treatise, On the Govern
ance of Princes, which has already been quoted more than once
because of its importance. "That a man may lead a good life,
two things are required. The chief requisite is virtuous action.
. . . The other requisite, which is secondary and quasi-instru
mental in character, is a sufficiency of material goods, the use of
18
which is necessary for virtuous action."* * Again the Angelic
Doctor writes: " For the imperfect happiness that can be obtained
in this life, external goods are necessary: not that they belong to
the essence of happiness, but inasmuch as they serve as instru
ments for the attainment of happiness, which consists in a virtu
ous life. . . . For in this life man needs the things the body
requires for the pursuit of contemplation as well as for the virtues
ly
of the active life."< >
The subordination of money or token wealth to the production
and distribution of natural wealth is indicated in the Snmma
Theologica: "Natural wealth is that by which natural wants are
supplied, for example, food, drink, clothing, vehicles, dwellings,
and such like. Artificial wealth is that which is not a direct help
to nature, as for instance, money. This was invented by the art
of man, for the convenience of exchange by serving as a common
20 41
measure of things saleable."' * And again he writes: Those
things cannot be considered as real wealth which, if man's senti
ments happen to change, are no longer of any value or utility for
the satisfaction of human needs. Such is the case with coins or

ttf) Cf. Notes by Pore tip icq, O.P., in the translation of the Snmma
Theologica published by the Pevue dea Jeunes, La Justice, vol. I, p. 272.
The Commentary of St. Thomas on the Politics of Aristotle is authentic
up to and including Lib. I l l , Lect. VI; the rest is the work of P**trus do
Alvernia. Cf. article by Professor A. O'TCahilly in /. E. Record,
December, 1927.
(18
) De Pegimine Principum, Lib. I, eap. XV.
<w> la Ilae, Q.4, a.7.
(20) Ta Ilae, Q.2, a.l. c.
" The Philosopher [Aristotle] say* in / Politic tap. 5 and 0, that
bread, wine and the like are natural wealth, while money is artificial
wealth " (Ha ITae, Q.188, a.7, ad 5).
68 T H E MYSTICAL, BODY OP CHRIST

t o k e n w e a l t h , w h i c h a r e w o r t h n o t h i n g , if t h o s e w h o u s e t h e m
change their minds. T h e y b e c o m e u s e l e s s f o r all t h e p u r p o s e s
of life, if t h e r u l e r of t h e c o m m u n i t y d e c r e e s t h a t t h e y a r e w i t h o u t
21
v a l u e . " * > S t . T h o m a s s a w c l e a r l y t h a t it w a s w h a t w e w o u l d
n o w call t h e l e g a l s t a t u s g i v e n b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t s t a m p w h i c h
m a k e s a coin a c c e p t a b l e a s m o n e y , n o t t h e m e t a l o r o t h e r s u b
s t a n c e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e s t a m p . T h e s u b s t a n c e of w h i c h m o n e y
is m a d e is n o t i m p o r t a n t . W h a t is s u m m e d u p so a c c u r a t e l y a n d
s u c c i n c t l y h e r e is t r e a t e d at s o m e l e n g t h in t h e C o m m e n t a r y o n
A r t i s t o t l c ' s P o l i t i c s , B o o k I. L e t us f o l l o w S t . T h o m a s ' s r e a s o n
ing.
In L e c t . V I , t h e A n g e l i c D o c t o r p o i n t s o u t t h a t o n e a r t c a n
b e a t t h e s e r v i c e of a n o t h e r in t w o w a y s , e i t h e r b y p r e p a r i n g t h e
matter t h e o t h e r r e q u i r e s o r b y p r e p a r i n g t h e instrument it n e e d s .
T h e a r t w h i c h m a k e s t h e c o m b o r o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t u s e d in w e a v
i n g s e r v e s t h e a r t of w e a v i n g in t h e s e c o n d w a y , w h i l e t h e a r t
w h i c h p r e p a r e s t h e b r o n z e for t h e s c u l p t o r s e r v e s t h e a r t i s t in
t h e first. T h e a r t of m a n i p u l a t i n g m o n e y (ars pecuniativa) serves
E c o n o m i c s r a t h e r by w a y of p r e p a r i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t it r e q u i r e s ,
t h a n b y f u r n i s h i n g i t s m a t t e r . " M o n e y a n d all f o r m s of w e a l t h
a r e i n s t r u m e n t s of E c o n o m i c s , " w r i t e s S t . T h o m a s , t h e t r u e m a t
t e r of E c o n o m i c S c i e n c e b e i n g t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s of t h e h u m a n
b e i n g s t h e m s e l v e s w h o m a k e u s e of t h e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of w e a l t h .
T h e p o s s e s s i o n of r e a l w e a l t h is n a t u r a l t o m a n , c o n t i n u e s S t .
T h o m a s in L e c t . VI L b e c a u s e food a n d s u c h t h i n g s a r e n e c e s s a r y
f o r h u m a n life, b u t t h e p o s s e s s i o n of m o n e y is n o t f r o m n a t u r e
itself, for m o n e y h a s b e e n i n v e n t e d b y t h e a r t of m a n , t u r n i n g
t o a c c o u n t t h e e x p e r i e n c e of life. T h e p o s s e s s i o n of m o n e y in
o n e p a r t i c u l a r r e s e m b l e s t h e p o s s e s s i o n of r e a l w e a l t h , n a m e l y ,
i n a s m u c h a s b y i t s m e a n s t h e n e c e s s a r i e s of life can be e a s i l y p r o
c u r e d in a n o r d e r e d s o c i e t y . M o n e y w a s invented precisely to
f a c i l i t a t e t h e e x c h a n g e of g o o d s . By m e a n s of it, f a m i l i e s c a n
p r o c u r e , b y t h e p r o c e s s of e x c h a n g e , f a r m o r e e a s i l y t h a n b y t h e
m o r e p r i m i t i v e f o r m of b a r t e r , t h a t sufficiency of n a t u r e ' s g o o d s
r e q u i r e d for a v i r t u o u s life. M o n e y , b e i n g a p e r m a n e n t p r o o f t h a t
t h e o w n e r of it is o w e d g o o d s o r s e r v i c e s by t h e c o m m u n i t y , c a n
e a s i l y be r e t a i n e d till t h e t i m e of f u t u r e n e e d , if t h e o w n e r h a p
p e n s n o t t o b e in i m m e d i a t e w a n t of a n y t h i n g . " T h e coin is
44
( a c t s as) a s u r e t y , " w r i t e s St. T h o m a s , g u a r a n t e e i n g t h a t a m a n
w h o is n o t in n e e d of a n y t h i n g at p r e s e n t , will be a b l e t o p r o
(22
c u r e w h a t be m a y r e q u i r e in t h e f u t u r e on p r e s e n t i n g t h e c o i n . " >
M o n e y is t h u s a p e r m a n e n t l y a c c e p t a b l e c l a i m for g o o d s a n d s e r
v i c e s . B y t h a t is m e a n t , of c o u r s e , t h a t m o n e y is a s o c i a l l y a c c e p t
a b l e i n s t r u m e n t e n a b l i n g its p o s s e s s o r t o set up a claim for o r t o

21
< > Comment, in Polity Lect. V I I .
(22) Comment, h Hfhic, Lib. V, Lect. I X .
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 69

make a demand for what is for sale in the community. It does

not confer upon its possessor a claim upon any definite goods in
the community.
T H R E E W A Y S OF DEALING IN -MONEY.
Money, that is, some intermediary or medium of exchange
acceptable to both parties, became indispensable, when things be
gan t o be exchanged between people living at a great distance
from one another. I'ronze, iron and silver soon came to serve as
intermediaries because they were useful everywhere, and certain
quantities of them could be easily transported, while their dura
bility and their relative rarity made them very adaptable for the
purpose of an exchange-medium. At first, the quantities of these
metals had to be measured and weighed, but afterwards they were
( 2:|)
stamped to indicate the quantity. ' Then, gradually, as foreign
1
trade developed, there grew up the art of money-changing/-* J
that is, the art of exchanging the currency or medium accepted in
one country for the currency or medium accepted in another. Thus
we have two ways of dealing in money (artes pecunialivae)ex
changing money for goods, and money for money.
The first of these ways of dealing in moneyexchanging money
for goodsis the servant of Economics, inasmuch as by it the
iicquishion of what is necessary or useful for human life is facili
tated. Money, as we have seen, is easily transported in the place
of goods. This art of acquiring money by the sale of goods and
keeping it till the need of other purchases arises and then utiliz
ing it is in no way defective. " This form of exchange is not
reserved to merchants or traders. It is more especially carried
on by the heads of households or by rulers of states in view <>f
f25J
providing families or states with the necessaries of life/'
The second mode of dealing in money is by exchanging money
for money, for example, the currency of one country for that of
another. In this way, money is acquired by means of money. If
this is done "not on account of the necessities of life, but for
profit . . . . it panders to the greed for gain which knows no
(23) The process of exchange by means of an exchange medium with an
intrinsic value may be said to be only a simplified form of barter. We
.shall see later that one of the defects* o f metals like gold and silver as
currency or exchange-medium is the difficulty of obtaining enough of
them to increase the flow of money in proportion to the people's increas
ing ability to produce ical wealth. Cf. Money Creators, by G, W.
Coogan, p. 15.
11
(24) Cum denarii non pint a nafcura, ut dictum est, [ars] numinu-
Iaria quae est permutatio denariorum, non est a natxira" (Comment, in
Polity Lib. I, Leet. VII). The term ars campsoria (qua utuntur camp-
sores denariorum) is also employed by St. Thomas to designate the
F a m e art or habitus.
'25) Ha Hae, Q.77, a.4, c.
 70 Till-; M Y S T I C A L J i O D Y O F CHRIST

l i m i t a n d t e n d s to infinity. . . . If, h o w e v e r , a n y o n e s e e k s t h a t
m o d e r a t e p r o f i t w h i c h h e m a k e s in t r a d e for t h e u p k e e p of h i s
f a m i l y o r e v e n t o h e l p t h e p o o r o r if a n y o n e e n g a g e s in t h e b u s i
n e s s of m o n e y - c h a n g i n g for t h e p u b l i c g o o d , in o r d e r t h a t h i s
c o u n t r y m a y be p r o v i d e d w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r i e s of life, a n d s o d o e s
n o t m a k e gain the end at which he a i m s but simply looks u p o n it
a s t h e r e w a r d of b i s l a b o u r , t h e n s u c h t r a d i n g is q u i t e l e g i t i m
f r 1
a t e . " - ' Cardinal Cajetan, the learned c o m m e n t a t o r on St. T h o m a s ,
w r i t e s : " S i n c e it is e v i d e n t f r o m e x p e r i e n c e that, m a n y S t a t e s
w o u l d lack m a n y necessaries unless t h e r e w e r e m e r c h a n t s to s u p
p l y t h e m , a n d s i n c e t h e s e m e r c h a n t s c o u l d n o t c a r r y on b u s i n e s s
w i t h o u t m o n e y - c h a n g i n g , it is n e e d f u l a n d r i g h t t h a t t h e a r t of
m o n e y - c h a n g i n g s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o b e e x e r c i s e d in S t a t e s , n o t
i n d e e d for its o w n s a k e , b u t i n a s m u c h a s it m i n i s t e r s t o K c o n o m i c s
and Politics. Thus m o n e y - c h a n g e r s not only may g u a r d t h e m
s e l v e s a g a i n s t loss in t h e e x e r c i s e of t h e i r t r a d e b u t m a y e v e n
m a k e a profit as a r e w a r d for t h e i r i n d u s t r y , for t h e y c a r r y o n a
b u s i n e s s t h a t is b o t h l a w f u l a n d u s e f u l t o the S t a t e . S t .
T h o m a s ' s r e a s o n i n g is b a s e d o n t h e fact t h a t t o e n g a g e in t r a d e
f o r t h e s a k e of g a i n , t h o u g h n e i t h e r n e c e s s a r y n o r g o o d in i t s e l f
(honest inn), d o e s not i m p l y a n y t h i n g v i c i o u s o r c o n t r a r y t o v i r
t u e . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o p r e v e n t t r a d i n g f r o m b e i n g
( 2 8 )
d i r e c t e d to a g o o d e n d a n d s o b e c o m i n g l e g i t i m a t e .
T h e r e a s o n w h y t h i s s e c o n d w a y of d e a l i n g in m o n e y e x
c h a n g i n g m o n e y for m o n e y (ar* nunrmalaria)is rightly looked
u p o n w i t h d i s t r u s t a n d d i s f a v o u r is g i v e n a t l e n g t h by S t . T h o m a s
in t h e Con)nientarti on the Polities a n d in t h e Sionrna Theologica.
I t is b e c a u s e of t h e e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g d a n g e r of its b e i n g a b u s e d b y

W>> Ibid. iSt. T h o m a s .-.peaks of e x c h a n g i n g money for money (denar

iorum ad d(narioa) or goods for money (fjuarumcumque rerura ad
denarios), for he is t r e a t i n g of t r a d i n g for profit in general.
c27) ])c Cwnhiix, cap. 5. Of course, as we shall see l a t e r , s e t t l e m e n t
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e balances must be controlled by the G o v e r n m e n t
of a country, in o r d e r to p r e v e n t a t t a c k s on the currency of the c o u n t r y
a n d the m a n i p u l a t i o n of its price level for p r i v a t e gain. TJie Govern
ment- is b o u n d t o p r o t e c t the c u r r e n c y a n d keep the price level stable
for the sake of the Common Good.
<28i Pere ttpicq. (>.1\, in his note on H a I l a e , Q.77, a.4, i n the
E d i t i o n published by /,// Herut r/es Jctnus, p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s second
p a r t of the article is something new a n d u n p a r a l l e l e d in St. T h o m a s ' s
w r i t i n g s . It the first time t h a t the Angelic doctor sets out to j u s t i f y
commerce and t r a d i n g as such. He does i t -discreetly but clearly a n d
definitely. In the first p a r t of the article he renews the c o n d e m n a t i o n
of it by Aristotle, which he had aecepled in Comnu ntnrt; on the. Politics
(Lib. I, beet. V I I I ) : cf irfrtt t'xfa* -nummutaria ju*tf rituperatur, non
cuim ifita -pccu-niatjra cat secundum vatu-ram, etc. In the second p a r t ,
he s t a n d s o u t a g a i n s t the a u t h o r i t y of A r i s t o t l e and justifies the com
mercial development of the KUh century, lie takes account of the
Common Good of society, which Aristotle had failed to keep before his
m i n d in thi* connexion.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 71

fallen nature. Man is a fallen being. This is clearly visible in the

functioning of his passions, which he finds difficult to control.
St. Thomas points out that nature imposes a certain limit on
instinctive desires, which are always for something finite and
determined, and always aim at maintaining the order required for
life. We see this plainly in the case of animals. When reason,
however, instead of controlling the passions, puts itself at their
service, it will introduce infinity, in a certain way, into their crav
ing for satisfaction and make them absolutely insatiable, so sacri
ficing the good of the whole being in a vain attempt to make the
finite infinite. Reason can set up as an end what is only a means.
Money and all forms of wealth are only means intended to satisfy
the needs of life. If the amassing of money is made the end of
commercial transactions, then " he who longs for riches can desire
them, not merely up to a certain point, but he can simply aspire
23
to be as rich as ever he can."' ' As the end is desired for its own
sake and not merely to a certain degree, "he who fixes the end
of life in amassing wealth will have a longing for riches ad
infinitum; whereas a man who desires wealth just for the needs
(30)
of life wants only enough to satisfy these needs."
St. Thomas shows that concupiscence or desire can be infinite
in two ways. He begins by distinguishing* between a natural or
ordered desire and an anti-natural o r disordered one. The anti-
natural desire is the result of the infinity introduced by reason into-
material longings. Then follows the text quoted: "Hence he
who longs for riches can desire them not merely up to a certain
point, but he can simply aspire to be as rich as ever he can." He
then goes on to say that another reason can be assigned why some
desires are finite, while others are infinite: " The desire of the
end is always infinite, for the end is always sought after for itself
{per se). Hence better health is more desirable and so on inde
finitely. . . . The desire of that which is a means to the end is
not infinite, if it is regulated by what is suitable for the attainment
r
of the end. So the man for w hom money has become an end, has
an insatiable desire for it, whereas the man who desires money in
view of the needs of life desires sufficient for his needs, but not
33
beyond. And the same holds for the desire of other things."* '
Commercial operations must always be examined in the light
of the principle set forth by St. Thomas in his Commentary on
Aristotle's Politics. "The longing to attain a legitimate end is
without limit, whereas the desire of what is a means towards the
end is not limitless, but is measured and determined in view of
9
i* ' la liar;, Q.30, a.J, c. " The universal which reason i*ra^ps is in
a certain way infinite, inasmuch as it contains potentially an infinite
number of singulars or individuals " (Ibid., ad 2),
F> IBID.
(3D Cf. VommfHt. #// P o l i t y Lib. I, cap. 6
72 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OE CHRIST

the end. Thus a doctor's desire to heal his patient is limitless;

he does not, however, give the greatest possible quantity of medi
cine, but measures the dose according to the requirements of the
a2J
case, in view of the patient's complete return to health."< The
desire of gain is the desire of what is by nature a means. It
must not be erected into an end, for that is disorder.
Money or token wealth, it cannot be loo often repeated, is
meant to be subservient to the development of human personality
through Our Lord Jesus Christ, in accordance with social or legal
and commutative justice. If it becomes the end, it simply means
that man is pandering to his individuality, in other words, he is
becoming the slave of his passions instead of developing his
personality. The appetite of matter is always for other forms,
irrespective of their intrinsic power to elevate; it is a desire for
"otherness" as such, for what is new or the latest fashion, but
not necessarily for what is better or nobler. This disordered de
sire for money as an end is the root-cause of the furious rhythm
of modern life. "The desire for natural riches is not unlimited,
because they suffice for nature in a certain measure. But the de
sire for artificial wealth is unlimited, for it is the slave of dis
ordered concupiscence."^)
In addition to the two ways of dealing in money already men
tioned, St. Thomas refers to a third form. This mode of dealing
in money is called usury, by which iiiuney begets money. This,
he says, is most justifiably condemned and held in detestation, for
i:Ml
it is in the highest degree contrary to nature. Notice the grad
ation in the Angelic Doctor's appreciation of these three forms of
trading in money. The firstexchanging money for things useful
for human lifeis natural, for in it dealing in money is subject to
Economics, the science of the well-being of the household or fam
ily. The secondexchanging money for moneyis very liable to
perversion, for it can easily become the slave of disordered self-
seeking and thus be turned against right order. A very great deal
of what is termed speculation in modern limes, if not all, is a
perversion of this second mode of making money. Those who

(32) Comment,
:J3
in Polity Lib. 1, Lect. VIII.
< > la Hae, Q.2, a. I, ad 3.
St. Thomas More alludes to this folly IN his OWN inimitable fashion:
"And of a truth while a man desireth riches not for any good godly
purpose but for only worldly wealth, it must needs he that ho shall have
little conscience in the getting; but by all evil ways that he can invent
shall labour to get them and then shall be either niggardly heap them
up together (which is as you wot well damnable) or wasrefnlly mis
spend them about worldly pomp, pride and flattery with occasion of
many sins more. Ami that is yet much wore damnable " (The Third
Boole of Comfort against Tribulation* by St. Thomas Move, Chap. XIT).
<(
Maxime praeter naluram (Comment, in / V . . Lib. I, Lect.
VIII)
 KINGSHIP OF CIlRIvST IN INTEGRITY 73

e n g a g e in it p u r s u e m e r e l y u n l i m i t e d p e r s o n a l g a i n i n s t e a d of
t r y i n g to a d v a n c e the C o m m o n Good by facilitating the p r o d u c t i o n
a5)
a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of w h a t p e o p l e n e c d . < It is a l s o t r u e t h a t t h i s
s e c o n d m o d e of d e a l i n g in m o n e y c a n r e n d e r s e r v i c e t o s o c i e t y b y
a i d i n g S l a t e s a n d f a m i l i e s t o p r o c u r e t h a t sufficiency of m a t e r i a l
g o o d s r e q u i r e d for t h e v i r t u o u s life of t h e i r m e m b e r s . T h i s is
e s p e c i a l l y t h e c a s e , for e x a m p l e , w h e r e t h e i d e a l of self-sufficiency,
s o m u c h i n s i s t e d u p o n b y S t . T h o m a s in his t r e a t i s e o n G o v e r n
< ; U i i
m e n t , c a n n o t be a t t a i n e d by a S t a t e . A c c o r d i n g l y , this s e c o n d
m o d e , given certain conditions, can be quite legitimate. T h e third
m o d e , h o w e v e r , can n e v e r b e l a w f u l . T h i s m e t h o d of t r a f f i c k i n g
in m o n e y , n a m e l y , b r e e d i n g m o n e y by m e a n s of m o n e y , w e m u s t
n o w e x a m i n e , in o r d e r t o s e e c l e a r l y w h a t S t . T h o m a s m e a n s b y
usury.

USURY.

S t . T h o m a s ' s t r e a t i s e On Evil [De Malo) is well c a l c u l a t e d

t o b r i n g h o m e to all t h e n a t u r e of u s u r y . " A r i s t o t l e , " he
w r i t e s , " d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o uses t o w h i c h a t h i n g m a y
b e p u t . T h e r e is. first of all, t h e p r i n c i p a l or special use for w h i c h
t h e o b j e c t is d e s t i n e d a n d t h e n t h e s e c o n d a r y o r g e n e r a l use. T h u s
t h e p r i n c i p a l use o f f o o t w e a r is t o p r o t e c t t h e feel, w h e r e a s t h e
s e c o n d a r y u s e is to s e r v e a s an e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m . In t h e c a s e
of m o n e y , it is the o t h e r w a y r o u n d , for its p r i n c i p a l use is to
s e r v e a s an e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m , a n d it is for t h i s p u r p o s e t h a t it
h a s b e e n i n v e n t e d ; i t s s e c o n d a r y u s e s a r e m a n i f o l d , for it m a y ,
for e x a m p l e , b e d e p o s i t e d a s a p l e d g e for s o m e t h i n g or p u t u p
for s h o w . W h a t e v e r is e x c h a n g e d for s o m e t h i n g else m a y be
s a i d t o be u s e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e s u b s t a n c e of the o b j e c t e x
c h a n g e d is d e s t r o y e d , in t h e s e n s e t h a t it is l o s t for him w h o h a s
p a s s e d it t o t h e o t h e r . T h a t is t h e r e a s o n w h y a p e r s o n w h o
g i v e s h i s m o n e y to a n o t h e r in e x c h a n g e for s o m e t h i n g , so e m p l o y
ing the m o n e y a c c o r d i n g to its p r o p e r and principal use. and w h o
w a n t s t o g e t in r e t u r n for it s o m e t h i n g o v e r a n d a b o v e the c a p i t a l
(alvtd extra sortem), s i n s a g a i n s t j u s t i c e . If, h o w e v e r , t h e o w n e r
of a s u m of m o n e y r e m i t s it t o a n o t h e r for s o m e o t h e r u s a g e in
w h i c h t h e m o n e y is n o t d e s t r o y e d (in t h e s e n s e t h a t it h a s n o t
c e a s e d to be the p r o p e r l y of t h e first o w n e r ) , it is t h e n a s s i m i l a t e d

35
< > T h e finis operis, to use the. scholastic term, that is, the gain or
profit I I I K O M I T I ) t a i i H ' N tpied .\-{ ' NRMA IAT ionis I'm is), N a!-o tli-- finis
operant is. ^ The fini.s operant!* should he die Common Clood (. . . .
cum aliqitis negotiation!, intendit propter puhiiram atitifatcnt). Cf.
I l a H a e , Q.77. a.4, with C o m m e n t a r y of Pore Spicq, 0 , J \ , i n the E d i t i o n
of La. R e n t e des James.
m ) ])e Regimine Prinripnm, Book I I , C h a p t e r I I I . AVe shall t r e a t
of tin's later.
 74 THK MYSTICAL RODY OF CHRIST

to t h e o t h e r t h i n g s w h i c h a r e n o t c o n s u m e d by b e i n g u s e d b u t c a n
(37
b e l e g i t i m a t e l y h i r e d o u t for a t i m e or l e t on l e a s e . " >
St. T h o m a s a p p l i e s this d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d
t h e s e c o n d a r y u s e to t h e c a s e of m o n e y in t h e Summa Theo-
logicaS^ H e p o i n t s <out t h a t in t h e primary or p r i n c i p a l u s e of
m o n e y , t h e u s e of it is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e p r o p r i e t o r s h i p o r
o w n e r s h i p of it, so it w o u l d b e u n j u s t t o sell t h e t w o s e p a r a t e l y
a n d to d e m a n d s o m e t h i n g o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e s u b s t a n c e of t h e
m o n e y , for t h e use of it, s i n c e . t h e p r i m a r y u s e of it c a n n o t b e d i s
t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the s u b s t a n c e of t h e m o n e y . W h e n m o n e y is
e m p l o y e d in e x c h a n g e , t h e o w n e r s h i p of it is given away b y t h a t
v e r y fact, a n d t h e r e f o r e no o t h e r c o m p e n s a t i o n can be a l l o w e d in
j u s t i c e for m o n e y t h u s e x c h a n g e d , e x c e p t t h e s t r i c t e q u i v a l e n t of
:iiil
t h e s u m h a n d e d o\'crJ In i t s first o r p r i m a r y u s e , m o n e y is d e
s t r o y e d i n t h e s e n s e that it n o l o n g e r b e l o n g s to t h e p e r s o n w h o
l e n d s it. T h e r e f o r e he w h o d e m a n d s s o m e t h i n g s i m p l y for l e n d
i n g m o n e y , a s k s s o m e t h i n g for t h e u s e of m o n e y w h i c h d o e s n o t
b e l o n g to him. J l e w a n t s s o m e t h i n g f o r n o t h i n g . T h i s is a g a i n s t
( 4 0 )
the natural l a w , a n d , of c o u r s e , it is a l s o f o r b i d d e n b y e c c l e s i a s
f41
tical l a w . > M o n e y (in its p r i m a r y u s e ) is like w i n e o r w h e a t
a f u n g i b l e t h i n g , a s it is t e c h n i c a l l y c a l l e d f o r in r e p a y m e n t t h e
i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t is a m a t t e r of i n d i f f e r e n c e , p r o v i d e d t h e q u a n t i t y
and q u a l i t y be s a t i s f a c t o r y .
" M o n e y , " a g a i n w r i t e s St. T h o m a s , " h a s , a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s
t o t l e (Ethic., L i b . V, C a p . 5; Pofit. t L i b . J, C a p . 3 ) , b e e n i n v e n t e d
p r i n c i p a l l y in o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e the p r o c e s s of e x c h a n g e . A c c o r d
i n g l y , its s p e c i a l and d i s t i n c t i v e end is t o be c o n s u m e d , t h a t is to
s a y , e x p e n d e d , a s is t h e c a s e in b u y i n g a n d s e l l i n g . On t h i s a c c o u n t
it is in itself u n j u s t t o r e c e i v e p a y m e n t for t h e . u s e of m o n e y w h i c h
h a s , t h r o u g h a l o a n , b e c o m e t h e p r o p e r t y of a n o t h e r . T h i s is w h a t

W D( Mala, Q.J3, a.4. sol. 1 5 .

'^ ( l a Ilae, Q.7,S, a. I : n.-2. ad 5.
139) Cf. Usury sub Judivu h.V Kev. J- JL McLaughlin, O.S.B., in The
Clergy lttvicv\ January. 1935. This article is an excellent exposition
of the Church's teaching and of the doctrine of St. Thomas. It is in
perfect agreement with the conclusions of P e r e Spicq, O . P . , in his
notes on I l a I l a e , Q.7H, in the Edition of La IN rue des Jeunest.
HO) {See Merkelhach, 0 . 1 \ , Summa Theoloyiae Moralis, vol. I I , no.
J
573._ Noklin, S.J., De J raeccyfis. no. 5 7 7 , shows clearly how usury is
against the n a t u r a l j a w , and answers objections that might be made to
this leaching.
<ti) (-ode.r ./urist'tntouiri, Can. 1 5 1 3 . " If a fungible thing'is given
to someone to lie h i s and he is to return the like quantity of t h e same
goods later on, no profit can he taken by reason of this c o n t r a c t / '
t

Fungible things are, those of which one may be freely used instead of
the other in paying debts or making restitution. The individual object-
in such cases is a matter of indifference provided the quantity a n d t h e
quality he satisfactory, for example, wine, wheat, money. A fungible
thing, of course, has an existence independent of lender a n d borrower.
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST I S INTEGRITY 75
42
is c a l l e d usury.< > A n d o n e is o b l i g e d t o r e s t o r e t o its o w n e r
w h a t e v e r h a s b e e n r e c e i v e d in u s u r y , j u s t a s in t h e c a s e of o t h e r
( 4 3 )
goods unjustly acquired."
U s u r y is, t h e r e f o r e , p r o f i t t h a t is u n j u s t l y r e c e i v e d f r o m a l o a n
(mntuwm) ; it c o n s i s t s in t a k i n g s o m e t h i n g s i m p l y for the a c t of
lending. P o p e B e n e d i c t X I V c o n d e m n e d t h e t a k i n g of i n t e r e s t
e v e n o n a p r o d u c t i v e l o a n , d e c l a r i n g : " (1) t h a t k i n d of sin, w h i c h
is c a l l e d u s u r y , a n d w h i c h h a s i t s p r o p e r s e a t a n d p l a c e i n t h e
c o n t r a c t of l o a n {mutuum), c o n s i s t s in t h i s , t h a t a n y o n e s h o u l d ,
o n t h e g r o u n d of t h e l o a n itself, w h i c h f r o m its n a t u r e d e m a n d s
t h a t o n l y s o m u c h be r e p a i d a s w a s r e c e i v e d , i n s i s t on g e t t i n g
b a c k m o r e t h a n [ t h e b o r r o w e r ] r e c e i v e d , a n d so c o n t e n d t h a t , in
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e l o a n itself, a c e r t a i n g a i n is d u e t o him, o v e r
a n d a b o v e t h e p r i n c i p a l . A c c o r d i n g l y , all g a i n of t h i s s o r t , w h i c h
e x c e e d s t h e p r i n c i p a l , is illicit a n d u s u r i o u s .
" ( 2 ) N o r m a y a n y b o d y f o r t h e s a k e of e x o n e r a t i n g h i m s e l f
f r o m t h a t g u i l t , avail h i m s e l f of t h e p r e t e x t , t h a t t h e g a i n itself
w a s n o t exorbitant and excessive but moderate, not great but very
s m a l l ; or t h a t the p e r s o n from w h o m he d e m a n d e d that gain
s o l e l y b y r e a s o n of t h e l o a n , w a s n o t p o o r b u t r i c h , o r
that he did not propose to allow the borrowed sum to lit idle,
but intended to invest it most profitably, in order to inereasc his
wealth or to purchase new estates, or to conduct gainful enter
prises^^
T h e distinction b e t w e e n p r o d u c t i v e and non-productive loans
w a s i n t r o d u c e d b y C a l v i n , w h o w a s t h e first to b r e a k openlv w i t h
the Catholic Church's laws against usury. C a l v i n , f o l l o w e d in
t h i s b y t h e j u r i s c o n s u l t , D u m o u l i n , a l l o w e d u s u r y in t h e c a s e of a
(45
p r o d u c t i v e I o a n . > F o r S t . T h o m a s , m o n e y is n o t p r o d u c t i v e a s
s u c h (formaliter) f b u t it is s o virtually. The mastery over nature
w h i c h m a n h a s a c q u i r e d i n m o d e r n t i m e s e n a b l e s t h i s virtus or
( 4 l J )
p o w e r to be readily actualized.
( 4 2 ) T h i s is u s u r y i n the technical sense. The word is a l s o used to
d e s i g n a t e an e x o r b i t a n t r a t e of interest, even though there m a y be an
e x t r i n s i c t i t l e . " W h a t e v e r is t a k e n beyond w h a t an extrinsic title
7
allows seems to be t a k e n simply o n account of the- loan itself. ' Cf
Merkelbach, op. c i t , no. 572.
<43) j j H a e . Q.78, a.l. W i t h r e g a r d to the comparison between
a

t h i s t e x t of the S u m m a a n d I I I Sent., dist. 37, q. l, art. 61, cf. Pere

Spicq, O.P., op. cit., p. 475.
(44) Encyclical Letter, Vix pervenit (1745). A decree of the Holy
Office (29th J u l y , 1836), a p p r o v e d by P o p e Gregory X V I , declared t h a t
t h i s L e t t e r , o r i g i n a l l y sent only to the Bishops of I t a l y , was b i n d i n g
on the U n i v e r s a l Church.
1 {l
Cf. P e r e Spicq, O.P., o p . cit., p . 478, and L Enci/clique Vix Per-
venit*" by PAhbe T i b e r g h i e n , p . 29.
45
< > Cf. article by Rev. G. B. O'Toole in Catholic Worker (U.S.A.) ;
Pere Spicq, O.P., op. cit., p. 467.
11 M
(40) Q j habet p e c u n i a m . . . habet lucrum in v i r t u t e
u (la Ilae
Q. 82, a.4, sol. 1-2). Cf. P e r e Spicq. op. cit,, p p . 350. 479, 483.
 76 Till-; M Y S T I C A L M O D Y OK CHRIST

A c c o r d i n g l y , for St. T h o m a s , it is u s u r i o u s a n d , as s u c h , for

b i d d e n 1>y t h e s e v e n t h c o m m a n d m e n t , t o sell m o n e y w i t h t h e
a g r e e m e n t t h a t a l a r g e r q u a n t i t y of m o n e y shall be r e t u r n e d for
it. " . M o n e y , " he s a y s , " m a y not be sold for a s u m e x c e e d i n g t h a t
17
h a n d e d over/*'* ' " T h e u s u r e r w i s h e s in a s i n g l e t r a n s a c t i o n t o e x
c h a n g e 100 for Z105. T h i s is the w r o n g n e s s that t h e C h u r c h h a s
s e e n to be f o r b i d d e n bv G o d ' s n a t u r a l l a w ot j u s t i c e . Is it a s i n g l e
transaction? Y e s . J u s t as b i d i n g g o o d s a n d p a y i n g m o n e y for
t h e m m o n t h s a f t e r is a s i n g l e e x c h a n g e , so b o r r o w i n g a n d p a y i n g
is a s i n g l e e x c h a n g e ; a n d in b o t h t r a n s a c t i o n s , equal m u s t b e e x
( 1S)
c h a n g e d for e q u a l . " -
T h e n a g a i n , m o n e y by its n a t u r e is m e a n t to f a c i l i t a t e e x
c h a n g e s of g o o d s in v i e w of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p e r s o n a l i t y
t h r o u g h o r d e r e d h u m a n living. It is b y n a t u r e a m e a n s n o t a n
e n d . X o w , in t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s w e h a v e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as u s u r i o u s ,
m o n e y f r o m b e i n g a m e a n s is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o an e n d . T h e m u l
t i p l i c a t i o n of o p e r a t i o n s t h u s p e r v e r t e d a n d d i s o r d e r e d c a n n o t b u t
be f r a u g h t w i t h d i s a s t e r for s o c i e t y . " W h a t is m o s t d i s c o n c e r t
i n g for t h e a u t h o r of t h e P o l i t i c s | A r i s t o t l e | in such t r a n s a c t i o n s
is p r o b a b l v n o t w h a t h a s b e e n so o f t e n s a i d , n a m e l y , t h a t m o n e y
s h o u l d b e g e t p r o g e n v , but that t o k e n w e a l t h w h i c h is d e s t i n e d lo
aid us t o s a t i s f y o u r m a t e r i a l n e e d s s h o u l d b e c o m e an e n d . s o that
'll is no l o n g e r a m e a n s but t h e o b j e c t t o w a r d s w h i c h all s t r i v i n g
is d i r e c t e d . T h i s is for h i m s o m e t h i n g a n t i - n a t u r a l a n d a b s u r d .
T h i s p e r v e r s i o n is all the m o r e m e n a c i n g , b e c a u s e o t t h e r e a d i
n e s s w i t h w h i c h e x c h a n g e s can be m u l t i p l i e d b \ m e a n s wf m o n e y
a n d also b e c a u s e o f t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o w h i c h it g i v e s rise t o g o <m
m a k i n g a d d i t i o n a l p r o f i t s w i t h t h e n u n rev o n e h a s alreadv
9 1
amassed.""
T h e r e m a y , h o w e v e r , be a l e g i t i m a t e r e a s o n for r e c e i v i n g t i r o -
lit on t h e o c c a s i o n of m a k i n g a l o a n , b e c a u s e of s o m e i n c i d e n t a l
c o s t lo t h e l e n d e r - loss, e x p e n s e , l a b o u r , r i s k , e t c . These are
called extrinsic titles. T h e y a r e " s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e x t e r n a l to
t h e i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e of t h e l o a n - c o n t r a c t , s e p a r a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,
t h a t e n t i t l e t h e l e n d e r to c h a r g e i n t e r e s t on o t h e r g r o u n d s t h a n
t h e l o a n itself. A m o n g t h e s e e x t r i n s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o r t i t l e s a r e
e s p e c i a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( 1 ) R e s u l t i n g loss t o t h e l e n d e r , w h o for
this r e a s o n is e n t i t l e d to i n d e m n i f y h i m s e l f \dfiinuuni emer(jcns\\

(Hi " Ad q u a r t u m dh-eiuhnn quod p e e u n l a nou potest v e n d i p r o

pecunia a m p l i o r i quam sit q u a n l i l a s pecuniae tmituatne, q u a e restitu-
urida e s t " (11a I k u \ . a.2, ad 0 .
U) Article by leather .McLaughlin, O.S.ll,, \. W i t h re.ira.rd to
p <
1
the question of tin lapse, of lime, ef. notes by P e r e Spieq in the E d i t i o n
of Ln Rtritc des Jeinias, p . 464.
ly
t' > Lt Traifi " d< f'si/ro " de Robert d*. ConrruiK p p . vi-vii, bv C
Lefcvre.
 KFXGSHIP OF CHRIST IN IXTKGRITY 77
49a
(2) Gain given up by the lender [lucrum cessans] ;< > (3) Risk of
losing the whole or part of his principal [periculitm sortis]; (4)
Liability to a penalty or forfeit imposed for deferring payment of
the loan beyond the time agreed upon [poena conventionalis].'^ ) 50

Moral theologians usually add as another extrinsic title that of

the civil law (lex civilis or praemiiem let/ale).
When money is used in its secondary use, where the ownership-
of the money is retained for the purpose of trade or investment
(locatio), the owner has a right to a share of the profits accruing
from the business; and of course, if the enterprise results in a loss,
u
he must bear his share. He who entrusts a sum of money to
a merchant or industrialist and forms a kind of society with him
does not transfer the ownership of the money to the other, but
retains it, so that he shares in the risks attached to the merchant's
commercial ventures or the industrialist's business proposition.
Accordingly, he will have the right to claim some of the profits
resulting therefrom as they are in part due to the utilization of
51
his property."* *
For St. Thomas, the root difference between a non-interest-
bearing or free loan (mutuitm) and an interest-bearing investment
(focatio) is the axiom that a thing bears fruit for its owner (res
fructificat domino). Since the ownership passes to the borrower
in a free loan (mutuum), no interest may be charged, according
to the Angelic Doctor, whether the loan be for production or con
sumption. In an investment (locatio), interest may be taken, be
cause the ownership of the money is retained by the lender.
"Thus money' has two uses. In the first [the primary use],
the housewife's kind of exchange, the use of the money goes with
the ownership. When you give a man the use of the money, you
give him the money itself. . . . In such exchanges inequality is
injustice. This St. Thomas calls the proper and principal use of
money, inseparable from the ownership. The trader sometimes
has the use of other people's money also, and must pay a share of
profits to the owner of the money. The money can fructify only
for its owner. In the trader's hands, money is used as the material
i&i) p t M v Spicq. ( ) . 1 \ , deals wiih the question of I n m t m vrsxan*
(gain sacrificed bv the lender) as a n extrinsic title, on p p . 468, 461), 484.
(50) Article by Rev. G. B. O'Toole, N.T.D., in Cotholir Worhr, U.S.A.
(5i; This principle governing the second use of money is expressed
in the Code of Canon Law : " But in lending a fungible thing it is not
in itself wrong to stipulate for the legal interest unless this is known
to be excessive, or even for a higher interest if there be a just and
adequate reason " (Canon 1543). Notice the distinction between the
giving (or the transfer of ownership) of a fungible thing in the first
part of the Canon (quoted in note 41) and the lending of it in the second
part.
Cf. article bv Uev. J. B. McLaughlin, O.S.B.. p. Vl \ Pere Spicq, op.
cit, p p . 349, 350.
 78 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t b y w h i c h profit is m a d e . T h e u s e is s e p a r
a t e d f r o m t h e o w n e r s h i p in e v e r y i n v e s t m e n t [ s e c o n d a r y u s e ] .
J t is plain t h a t w h e n S t , T h o m a s w a s p r o v i n g t h a t t h e u s e c a n
n o t b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e o w n e r s h i p a n d sold s e p a r a t e l y , h e m e a n t
u s t o n o t i c e t h a t h e w a s h e r e s p e a k i n g of t h e first u s e o n l y , . . .
n o t of t h e u s e in w h i c h t h e o w n e r e n t r u s t s his m o n e y t o a m e r
c h a n t o r t r a d e r to u s e in bis b u s i n e s s . . . . In t h e first n o p r o f i t
c a n be m a d e b y e i t h e r p a r t y . I n t h e s e c o n d t h e t r a d e r o r c r a f t s
m a n m a k e s p r o f i t s f o r t h e o w n e r s of t h e m o n e y h e is u s i n g . . . .
" St. T h o m a s points out the crucial q u e s t i o n which decides w h a t
k i n d of c o n t r a c t is m a d e . W h o n o w o w n s t h e m o n e y ? A n d t h e
t e s t : If t h e m o n e y is l o s t , w h o b e a r s t h a t l o s s ? H e is t h e o w n e r .
I n a l o a n : h e r e is t h e m o n e y , t o s p e n d a s y o u will. T h a t m a k e s
y o u t h e o w n e r , for I h a v e t r a n s f e r r e d t o y o u m y r i g h t -to s p e n d
i t I n a n i n v e s t m e n t : h e r e is t h e m o n e y , t o u s e in y o u r b u s i n e s s
a s w e a r r a n g e d . T h a t l e a v e s m e t h e o w n e r . In i n v e s t i n g m o n e y
in t h e b u s i n e s s of p r o d u c t i o n o r e x c h a n g e , I e n t r u s t m y m o n e y t o
y o u r u s e in t h e b u s i n e s s . Y o u r g a i n is t h e i n c r e a s e of b u s i n e s s
a n d profit f r o m h a v i n g a l a r g e r c a p i t a l w i t h w h i c h t o w o r k . M y
g a i n is a s h a r e in t h e profit. A n d t h e e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n us is
t h a t 1 g i v e y o u a t r a d i n g - u s e of m y m o n e y : y o u g i v e m e a p r o
( 5 2 )
p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e of e a c h y e a r ' s p r o f i t s w h e n t h e r e a r e a n y . "
H e r e it is w e l l t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o a p o i n t u p o n w h i c h w e
shall h a v e to dwell a little m o r e a t l e n g t h l a t e r on. T h e m o n e y
about which the moral theologians and canonists speak and on
w h i c h t h e y s a y i n t e r e s t m a y be t a k e n is a p h y s i c a l c o m m o d i t y .
L i k e all f u n g i b l e t h i n g s it h a s a n e x i s t e n c e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e
lender and borrower. Interest and extrinsic titles p r o p e r l y apply
t o m o n e y s o e x i s t i n g , b u t t h e y d o not p r o p e r l y a p p l y t o t h e c r e a
tion of m o n e y b y t h e b a n k e r s . W h e n m o r a l t h e o l o g i a n s s p e a k of
m o n e y a s a f u n g i b l e t h i n g , t h e y s u p p o s e it to h a v e a n e x i s t e n c e
i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e l e n d e r a n d t h e b o r r o w e r . W h e n a m o d e r n
b a n k e r c r e a t e s a d e p o s i t in f a v o u r of a b o r r o w e r , h e is n o t l e n d i n g
pre-existing money. H e is b r i n g i n g m o n e y i n t o existence
in t h e a c t of lending. - T h e ferm interest cannot pro
p e r l y be a p p l i e d to b a n k - c h a r g e s for t h e i s s u e of b a n k - m o n e y .
" T h e expression bank-interest," writes Professor O'Rahillv, " i s
a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of Jin old w o r d m a s q u e r a d i n g in a n e w m e a n i n g .
. . . ( S o r r o w i n g , t o o , c o v e r s : M ) t h e t r a n s f e r of p r e - e x i s t i n g
c l a i m s l e g i t i m a t e l y e a r n e d by t h e h o l d e r s : ( 2 ) t h e c r e a t i o n of n e w
m o n e y - c l a i m s . . . . T h e G o v e r n m e n t d o c s not a n d c a n n o t b o r r o w
p r e - e x i s t i n g m o n e y f r o m t h e b a n k s ; all it c a n d o is t o p a y t h e m
( 5 : i )
for c r e a t i n g n e w m o n e v . "
<52> A r t i c l e in Tin Vl< nju / A ' W . Jan. 1935. bv Rev. J. B. Mc-
Lauirhlin, O.S.J}., pp. 19. :>0, 21.
Mont if. pi). 10*2. 5(il, MO.
" Money, as Mich, apart from it* m a t e r i a l record, is something
 KINGSHIP O F C H R I S T LY INTEGRITY 79

W h e n bankers g r a n t loans, they bring exchange-medium into

existence, they create money. T h e y are not simply lending ex
c h a n g e - m e d i u m h a v i n g a n e x i s t e n c e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e m a n d of
( 5 4 )
the b o r r o w e r s . T h e c r e a t o r s , a t t h e r e q u e s t of o r w i t h t h e
p e r m i s s i o n of t h e S t a t e , a r e e n t i t l e d to d u e r e m u n e r a t i o n for t h e
services rendered. T h a t is n o t u s u r i o u s . As far b a c k as t h e
F i f t h L a t e r a n C o u n c i l , t h e q u e s t i o n w a s s e t t l e d t h a t a c h a r g e for
w o r k i n g e x p e n s e s w a s n o t u s u r i o u s n o r w a s it an i n c i t e m e n t t o
o t h e r s t o p r a c t i s e u s u r y . C h a r i t a b l e f u n d s , called //tariffs pietatis,
w e r e at w o r k , lending to the poor without interest, but m a k i n g a
c h a r g e to cover w o r k i n g expenses. W i t h o u t this c h a r g e , the
o r g a n i z e r s w o u l d h a v e h a d t o m e e t the p e r p e t u a l d r a i n of w o r k i n g
e x p e n s e s a n d b a d d e b t s , a f t e r h a v i n g h a d to p u t up t h e initial s u m
f o r t h e p u r p o s e of h e l p i n g t h e b o r r o w e r s . The Pope, Leo X,
( 5 5 )
g a v e this d e c i s i o n . Of c o u r s e , in this c a s e , t h e c h a r g e w a s for
t h e w o r k i n g e x p e n s e s i n v o l v e d in l e n d i n g p r e - e x i s t i n g m o n e y -
c l a i m s , b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e h o l d s g o o d in r e g a r d t o t h e e x p e n s e s in
v o l v e d in i s s u i n g o r c r e a t i n g m o n e y a n d k e e p i n g a c c o u n t s

T H E P R O P E R USE OF MONEY.
H a v i n g s e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t w a y s of d e a l i n g in m o n e y , let u s n o w
g i v e a n o u t l i n e of t h e f u n c t i o n of m o n e y a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r i n
c i p l e s of S t . T h o m a s . A c c o r d i n g to the Angelic Doctor, m o n e y
h a s b e e n i n v e n t e d " for t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of e x c h a n g e by s e r v i n g
, , ( 5 ( 1 )
a s a m e a s u r e of t h i n g s s a l e a b l e . It is, t h e r e f o r e , b y its n a t u r e
a n i n s t r u m e n t d e s t i n e d t o h e l p in p r o v i d i n g t h a t sufficiency of
g o o d s r e q u i r e d b y f a m i l i e s for t h e v i r t u o u s life of t h e i r m e m b e r s .
T h i s it is i n t e n d e d t o do b y f a c i l i t a t i n g p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
a n d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e a c t i n g as a s t a b l e m e a s u r e of v a l u e . First
of all, t h e n , m o n e y is m e a n t for p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . It is
u t t e r l y a g a i n s t its n a t u r e if t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of
g o o d s m u s t c o n f o r m t o t h e e x i g e n c i e s of m o n e y - m a k i n g i n s t e a d
of t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d . M o n e y is m e a n t t o be t h e s e r v a n t of
E c o n o m i c s , n o t t h e m a s t e r . If it b e c o m e s t h e m a s t e r , p r o d u c t i o n

immaterial, a moral relationship instituted by man. It is a socially

recognised right-to-buy transferable from one person to another. It is
issued or created as a person makes a promise or creates a contractual
relationship. The State, representing the Community, issues money,
which is usually recorded on bits of paper or pieces of-metal, but may
be recorded merely by a .few figures in ink on the books of the Central
Bank. The hanks issue money by hank notes and still more by mere
entries on their hooks, which we transfer to one another by cheques,
that is, by directing the banker to alter his book e n t r i e s " (Professor
O'Rahilly/in The Standard, April IT, 1042).
(54) With regard to creation of money or exchange-mediumbv bankers,
cf. Money, ppi 80, 118. 290. 29B, 477, 480. by Professor O'Rahilly.
(55) l ter
n midtipJires (Mav 4, 1515).
<56> la Hae, Q.2, a.l, c.
80 THE M Y S T I C A L IIODY O K CIIRTST

and distribution will decay, the potentialities of the State's re

sources will not be realized, and family-life will suffer.
Secondly, it is the duty of the State to see that money is a
stable measure of value. In other words, just as the State must
maintain stable measures of weight and length, in view of com
mutative justice in buying and selling, so it must aim at stability
of the price level, the price of a thing being the expression of its
exchange-value in terms of money. " It is .true,** writes St.
Thomas, "that it is the same with money as with other things,
namely, that one does not always get what one wants for it, be
cause it is not always endowed with the same purchasing-power,
that is, it is not always of the same value. Hut nevertheless,
matters should be so arranged that it should be steadier in value
than other things. . . . As a measure used for estimating the
value of other things, -money must keep the same valve, since the
value of all things must be expressed in terms of money. Thus
exchanges can readily take place and, as a consequence, communi
57
cations between men are facilitated."* *
Fluctuations in the price level make social life extremely diffi
cult. St. Thomas insisted that stability of the price level should
be the object of the State's unceasing vigilance, though this was
more difficult of attainment in his day when the exchange medium
consisted mainly of metal coins, the substance of which was avail
able in quantities not commensurate with the rate of progress in
{5tn
the production of goods. Of course, needless to say, the State
must see to it that the manipulators of money do not get control
of the government. Money is meant to be an instrument of Poli
tics not the master of the State. If the government does not com
pel the bankers and money-changers lo practise the virtue of social
justice, namely, that justice which has for object the Common
Good, the welfare of the whole nation will suffer grievously. If
usury and the alteration of the price-level by alternate " b o o m "
and " slump " arc permitted to go unchecked, then the real sov
ereignly in the State will inevitably pass into the hands of the
manipulators of money. The next stage will be a move to bring
national sovereignty under the domination of some international
organization subject to finance. That will make permanent and
world-wide the anti-Christian perversion of order involved in the
subordination of human persons to production, and of production
and distribution to finance.

(57)Comment, in- JSthic, Lib. V, Lect. IX.

(68) Pcre Spicq, O.P., op. eit, p. 431, mentions the monetary reforms
of St. Louis, King of France, as contemporaneous with St. Thomas's
insistence on the, necessity of the stability of the price level. He also
alludes to the rise in prices in the second half of the 13th century, in
spite of the increase in production, because silver and gold were made
available in still g r e a t e r abundance.
 KINGSHIP O F CHRUST IN 1NTKGRITY 81

ST. T H O M A S AND T H E IDEAL OF NATIONAL

SELF-SUFFICIENCY.

I n his t r e a t i s e on the Governance of Princes, the A n g e l i c D o c t o r

w r i t e s : " T h e r e a r e t w o w a y s in w h i c h an a b u n d a n c e of the t h i n g s
it r e q u i r e s c a n be s u p p l i e d to a S t a t e . T h e first, w h i c h w e h a v e
a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , is m e t w i t h w h e r e the soil is s o fertile t h a t i t
a b u n d a n t l y p r o v i d e s for all t h e n e e d s of h u m a n life. T h e s e c o n d
is b y t r a d e , by w h i c h t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of life a r c b r o u g h t to t h e S t a t e
f r o m d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s . It is q u i t e c l e a r that t h e f o r m e r m e a n s is
the better. F o r the h i g h e r a t h i n g is in t h e s c a l e of b e i n g , t h e
m o r e fully self-sufficient it is. s i n c e w h a t e v e r n e e d s a n o t h e r ' s h e l p
is b y t h a t v e r y fact s h o w n t o be d e f e c t i v e . I>ut t h a t S t a t e is m o r e
fully self-sufficing w h i c h is s u p p l i e d w i t h all t h a t it n e e d s f r o m
i t s o w n t e r r i t o r y , t h a n is o n e w h i c h m u s t o b t a i n i t s s u p p l i e s f r o m
a b r o a d by t r a d e . A S t a t e w h i c h h a s an a b u n d a n c e of food f r o m
i t s o w n t e r r i t o r y \> in a m o r e dignified p o s i t i o n t h a n o n e w h i c h
is s u p p l i e d by m e r c h a n t s . It a p p e a r s to be in g r e a t e r s e c u r i t y
a l s o , f o r t h e i m p o r t i n g of s u p p l i e s from a b r o a d can be easily h i n d
e r e d , w h e t h e r o w i n g lo t h e u n c e r t a i n issue of w a r s o r t o the m a n y
d a n g e r s of t h e r o a d s , a n d t h u s t h e S t a t e m a y be v a n q u i s h e d
t h r o u g h lack of f o o d . A g a i n , t h i s m e t h o d is. b e l t e r for social m o r
ality. F o r t h e c o u n t r \ w h i c h n e e d s c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t s for its
support must tolerate continuous intercourse with foreigners . . .
w h o , h a v i n g been b r o u g h t u p u n d e r d i f f e r e n t l a w s a n d c u s t o m s ,
b e h a v e in m a n y w a y s d i f f e r e n t l y from t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e
c o u n t r y , so t h a t t h e s e l a t t e r a r e s p u r r e d on to act s i m i l a r l y , a n d
social life is d i s t u r b e d . A g a i n , if t h e c i t i z e n s d e v o t e t h e i r lives t o
t r a d e , t h e w a y will be o p e n e d to m a n y v i c e s . F o r , s i n c e t h e a i m
of t r a d e r s is e s p e c i a l l y t o m a k e m o n e y , f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t r a d e
l e a d s t o t h e a w a k e n i n g of g r e e d in t h e h e a r t s of t h e c i t i z e n s . T h e
r e s u l t is t h a t e v e r y t h i n g in t h e S t a t e will be p u t up for sale, m u t u a l
c o n f i d e n c e will be d e s t r o y e d a n d an a t m o s p h e r e f a v o u r a b l e t o
deceit a n d f r a u d c r e a t e d . I C v c r y o n c , g r o w i n g c a r e l e s s a b o u t t h e
C o m m o n G o o d , will s e e k o n l y b i s o w n a d v a n t a g e . T h e . c u l t i v a t i o n
of v i r t u e will d e c l i n e , s i n c e h o n o u r , the r e w a r d of v i r t u e , will be
b e s t o w e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y u p o n all c o m e r s . F l c n c e , in such a
S t a t e , s o c i a l m o r a l i t y will i n e v i t a b l y suffer . . . .
" A c c o r d i n g l y , it is b e t t e r t h a t a S t a t e s h o u l d be s u p p l i e d w i t h
food a n d w h a t e v e r it n e e d s f r o m its o w n t e r r i t o r y t h a n t h a t it
s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e l y d e p e n d e n t on t r a d e . T h i s d o c s n o t m e a n ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t m e r c h a n t s s h o u l d be a l t o g e t h e r e x c l u d e d from t h e
S t a t e , f o r it is n o t e a s y t o find a S t a t e so well p r o v i d e d w i t h all
t h a t it n e e d s in e v e r y d e p a r t m e n t t h a t it c a n d o w i t h o u t f o r e i g n
trade. T h e n , in a d d i t i o n , m a n y of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s w o u l d lose
h e a v i l y , if t h e i r s u r p l u s c o u l d n o t be m a r k e t e d e l s e w h e r e b y
H
 82 THK MYSTICAL J10DY OF CHRIST

traders. Hence a well-balanced Stale will have recourse to trade

(59)
and traders in moderate fashion."
Legitimate trading, then, is meant to be carried on with a view-
to supplementing the native resources of a country. Much of our
modern trade is the result of the desire to get interest from weak
er nations, by compelling them to accept loans from and buy the
goods of the lending country, A modern loan from a foreign
country, in addition to upsetting the price-level of the borrowing
country, leaves the way open to the enslavement of the inhabit
ants to finance. Wars are frequently brought about by the en
deavour to force a people to accept a loan, that is, to purchase
goods in the creditor country. "To put it quite bluntly, the pur
pose of wars is to compel weaker nations to take surpluses off
the hands of the stronger, running up debts, if need be, in order
to pay for them. Then the threat of future war is necessary to
ensure that the debts and the interest mi them shall not be repu-
dialed."""*
(69) Op. cit, Lib, II, cap. III.
<60) The Role of Mourn, liy Frederick iSoddy, ). I k

APPENDIX.
U S U R Y AND COXFKSSORS.
In Chapter XIX, 1 insist upon Pope Leo XI IPs teaching in
Rcrum Nnvarum- that usury is actually being practised under an
other guise by covetous men with disastrous consequences for the
economic life of nations and individuals, as it has contributed
powerfully to place control in the bands of a few. I there put
forward as probable an explanation of what Pope Leo XTTI
meant by thai oilier form of present-day usury. With regard to
this whole question, in addition to Canon 1543, the Instruction on
Usury, sent in 1873 by the Sacred Congregation for the Propa
gation of the Faith, to its dependent Uishops, Vicars and Prefects
Apostolic, must be borne in mind. This Instruction consists of
copies of all the answers on the subject given by Rome since 1780,
together with /'ope MenedicVs XIY's Knoyclical, IV./' pcrvnil, of
1745, and a brief summing up of the position at the time. In his
able article, Usury Sub Judice, in The Clergy Iteview (January,
1935), the Rev. J. 11. McLaughlin. O.S.Ib, gives an outline of this
summary as follows:
I. No profit whatever can be taken from a loan (mutuunt)
merely because of the lending.
II. If there is another title, not found in the very nature of
every loan, profit may be taken.
I IT. When the only visible title to take profit or interest on a
loan is that the law of the land allows it, this title can
 KINGSHIP OF CHRIST IN INTEGRITY 83

be taken as sufficient in practice; and confessors must not

disquiet penitents about it so long as this question remains
sub judice [undecided] and ihe Holy Sec has not ex
2)
plicitly decided it.<
IV. This tolerance cannot be invoked to cover the slightest usury
exacted from the poor; nor excessive rates beyond the
limits of natural justice.
V. " Excessive " rates cannot be defined by a general :igure,
since in each case we must consider each and every cir
cumstance of place, person, and time.
Father McLaughlin then adds the following interesting com
ments: " So the problem of usury is still sub judice, and has been
for centuries. In the series of answers, the warning constantly
recurs that penitents are not to be disquieted about taking the
legal interest, provided that they are willing to obey the decision
of the Holy See when it comes. And a decision has been asked
for repeatedly, but Rome has steadily refused to give it. A typical
answer, in 1840: As to usury in general, consult the decrees already
given. As to the execssiveness of the profit, consult the ttishop,
who will weigh the circumstances and the practice prevailing
among conscientious men at the time of the transaction, and say
what is to be done.
"The appeals for a decision arose, of course, from differences
of opinion among the clergy; and Rome, as always, protected the
freedom of each side to defend its own opinion on an undecided
question; but not to defend cxircmcsthat all interest is lawful,
that no interest is l a w f u l - n o r 1 0 injure charity by calling the
opposite opinion heretical. She also protected the freedom of the
individual conscience, to take the interest which one side thought
lawful. A confessor who thought it unlawful might tell penitents
his private opinion, but must leave them to act on their own opin
ion. Similarly a confes.M>r w h o saw no harm in taking interest
might express his opinion and stale his reasons, but must not
preach them as being the teaching uf the Church. For the Church
has not yet spoken.
"The position, therefore, is that there is a problem of usury
which troubles consciences, and the Church has not decided it.
Nor will she until discussion among theologians has been deep
enough and accurate enough to lay bare the dividing line between
' that fruit which is drawn from nmncj by just right, and therefore
can he kept both in law and in EOIIM-iencc; and that other fruit
which is drawn from money wrongly, and therefore must be ad
,(2)
judged to be repaid, boih by law and by conscience7
U) Donee qnaestio hace *nh jttdirr prnd*nt< nee 8. tiedes ipsam
t\rpliel(e definicrit.
W Benedict XIY, Vir prrrenit.
 CHAPTER IV.

PROGRAMME OF INTEGRAL ACCEPTANCE

OF THE KINGS11LP OF CHRIST.

SOCIAL OR PRACTICAL MODKRXISM.

M a n y a c k n o w l e d g e in t h e o r y t h e p a r a m o u n t R i g h t s of G o d a n d
ihcir own c o r r e s p o n d i n g duties. T h e y k n o w that Christ the K i n g ,
b y t h e v o i c e of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , h a s s e t f o r t h t h e D i v i n e P l a n
e m b o d y i n g t h o s e r i g h t s , b u t in p r a c t i c e t h e y act a s if t h e y h a d
never been proclaimed. The}' know that thev should stand for
those r i g h t s as one united body u n d e r Christ their Head, b u t in
s t e a d , t h e y a l l o w t h e m s e l v e s to b e p u l l e d h i t h e r a n d t h i t h e r b y t h e
o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c forces w o r k i n g a g a i n s t the Divine P l a n for
o r d e r , a n d t h e y p a y l i t t l e o r n o h e e d t o t h e fact t h a t all t h o s e
e f f e c t s a r e r e s u l t i n g in t h e m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t r e a t m e n t of h u m a n
b e i n g s a s m e r e i n d i v i d u a l s , n o t a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . T h i s c o n
t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e w a s d e p l o r e d in s t r i k i n g t e r m s
b y P o p e P i u s XI in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , On tin' Peace of Christ
14
in ffte Ki))(f<io))h of Christ. I low m a n y there a r e / ' he w r o t e ,
' ' w h o a c c e p t a n d p r o f e s s t h e C a t h o l i c t e a c h i n g in m a t t e r s r e g a r d
i n g civil a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e d u t y of o b e y i n g it, r e g a r d i n g t h e r i g h t s
of p r o p e r t y o r t h e r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l
labourers, the mutual relations between Slates or b e t w e e n e m
ployers and employed, r e g a r d i n g the relations b e t w e e n the eccles
i a s t i c a l a n d civil p o w e r , t h e r i g h t s of t h e H o l y S e e a n d t h e R o m a n
P o n t i f f , t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s of R i s h o p s , a n d , finally, t h e r i g h t s of t h e
Creator, R e d e e m e r and Lord, Christ Himself, over m e n and n a
t i o n s . Y e t t h e s e v e r y s a m e m e n , in t h e i r w r i t i n g s a n d p r o n o u n c e
m e n t s a n d in t h e i r w h o l e m a n n e r of life, a c t a s if t h e t e a c h i n g a n d
o f t - r e p e a t e d p r e c e p t s of t h e S o v e r e i g n P o n t i f f s , L e o X I I I, P i u s
1
X a n d B e n e d i c t X V . h a d lost tbei " efficacy o r w e r e c o m p l e t e l y o u t
of d a t e . In all t h i s W e r e c o g n i s e a k i n d of m o r a l , j u r i d i c a l a n d
s o c i a l M o d e r n i s m , a n d W e c o n d e m n il as s t r o n g l y a s W e clo
dogmatic Modernism. T h o s e t e a c h i n g s and p r e c e p t s to w h i c h
W e h a v e r e f e r r e d m u s t be i n s i s t e d u p o n , a n d t h e a r d o u r of f a i t h
a n d divine c h a r i t y , which alone can secure their p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d
i n g a n d o b s e r v a n c e , m u s t be a r o u s e d in t h e s o u l s of all m e n . In
t h e e d u c a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n Y o u t h it is O u r w i s h t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s
 PROGRAMME OP KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 85

be particularly attended to, especially in the case of those who

1
aspire to Holy Orders."* *
Having studied the meaning of Christ's Kingship in its integrity
and the correct notions of Politic* and Kconomics, let us now see
what the acceptance of the fulness of Christ's Kingship will mean
in practice.

SOCIAL A C C E P T A N C E OF T H E DIVINE PLAN.

First of all, States and Nations are meant to acknowledge Uie

Catholic Church as the supernatural and supranational Mystical
Ilody of Christ and to unite with Christ as Priest in the renewal of
the humble submission of Calvary in the 1 loly Sacrifice of the Mass.
Sfuffs and Nations as such, that /.*, //v organized developments of
human life dependent on God, are bound to worship God in th'
wag He has indicated that He wants to be worshipped. " ft is a
sin for the State not to have a care for religion . . . or out of many
forms of religion to adopt that one which chimes in with its
fancy; for we are bound absolutely to worship God in th; t way
which He has shown to be His Will.*'*-'
Pope Leo N1IJ in his Fncyclical Letter, On Human Liberty,
writes: " Since, then, the profession of one religion is necessary in
the State, that religion must be professed which alone N true and
which can be recognized without difficulty, especially in Catholic
Stales, because the marks of truth are. as it were, engraven
(:il
upon il." He had previously, in the same Fncyclical, rjigniatizcd
false "liberty of worship, as it is called/' saying: "This kind of
liberty, if considered in relation to the State, clearly implies thai
there is no reason why the Stale should offer any homage lo God,
or should desire any public recognition of llim: that no one form
of worship is to be preferred to another, but that all stand on an
equal fooling, no account being taken of the religion of the people,
even if they profess the Catholic Faith. . . . Justice, therefore,
forbids, and reason itself forbids, the State to be godless, or lo
adopt a line of action which would end in godlessnesv--namely,
to treat the cations religions (as thvg call thenn alike, and to he-
store upon, them prowiscifottslg equal rights and privileges." Pope
Pius XII points out that where " the divine authority and the
influence of its laws are set aside, it necessarily follows that the
1
T'th Modernists, condemned Uy Pope Pius X in the Encyclical
Letter, Paxcrndi. (11)07). distinguished in one and the same hwi'ividlr-il
between the heliever and the scientist or iho historic critic, ami said that
iho critic could deny or leave out of aciount what the holiover accepted.
It was a revival in modern form of ihe. old error of the two truth*.
Pope Pius Nl here condemns a. similar sectioning of life in practice..
W Cf. Pope Leo XIIPs Enc.vlieal Loiter, Immortalc D</\ tin the.
Christian (!ait*titvtion of State*, already quoted in Chapter I.
;l)
Enr\clie;il Letter. L*h/ r u t s /'rtrrshtitifsiiittHtir.
86 THE MYSTICAL B O D Y OK C H R I S T

civil p o w e r u s u r p s t h o s e a b s o l u t e . . . r i g h t s w h i c h b e l o n g t o
4
t h e C r e a t o r a l o n e "< >
W e m u s t g r a s p firmly t h e g r e a t t r u t h t h a t G o d H i m s e l f . c a m e
down into the world a n d elaborated a Divine Plan for m a n k i n d ' s
o r d e r e d r e t u r n t o H i m , t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y ,
t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . W h e n w e r e a l i z e t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h i>
the o n e society divinely instituted for r e t u r n to G o d , t h e n w e
s h a l l r e a d i l y s e e t h a t t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d d e m a n d s t h a t t h e
S t a t e , b e i n g a c r e a t u r e of G o d , s h a l l a c k m > w l e d g e t h e C h u r c h .
T h e n , t o o , w e s h a l l h a v e n o difficulty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t P o p e
L e o X I I I s a y s in h i s E n c y c l i c a l L e t t c r . On Catholicity in tkr
United States: * ' T h a n k s | f o r t h e p r o s p e r o u s c o n d i t i o n of C a t h o
l i c i t y ] a r e d u e t o t h e e q u i t y of t h e l a w s w h i c h o b t a i n in A m e r i c a
a n d t o t h e c u s t o m s of y o u r w e l l - o r d e r e d R e p u b l i c . F o r t h e C h u r c h
a m o n g s t y o u , u n o p p o s e d by t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d G o v e r n m e n t of
your Nation, fettered by no hostile legislation, protected against
v i o l e n c e b y t h e c o m m o n l a w s a n d t h e i m p a r t i a l i t y of t h e t r i b u n a l s ,
is f r e e t o live a n d a c t w i t h o u t h i n d r a n c e . Y e t , t h o u g h all t h i s is
t r u e , it w o u l d b e v e r y e r r o n e o u s t o d r a w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t in
A m e r i c a is t o b e s o u g h t t h e t y p e of t h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e s t a t u s of
t h e C h u r c h , o r t h a t it w o u l d b e u n i v e r s a l l y l a w f u l o r e x p e d i e n t f o r
t h e S t a t e a n d C h u r c h t o b e . a s in A m e r i c a , separated and
divorced ."^
" T h a t C h u r c h a n d S t a t e o u g h i t o b e s e p a r a t e d is a n a b s o l u t e l y
false a n d p e r n i c i o u s e r r o r . I ' a s e d a s it is o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t
t h e S t a t e s h o u l d n o t m a k e p r o f e s s i o n of a n y r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p ,
t h i s d o c t r i n e is, first of a l l , a g r a v e i n s u l t t o A l m i g h t y G o d . F o r
t h e C r e a t o r of m a n k i n d is a l s o t h e P o u n d e r of h u m a n s o c i e t i e s ,
a n d H e p r e s e r v e s t h e m j u s t a s H e m a i n t a i n s i n d i v i d u a l s in e x i s t
ence. T o give H i m due honour, w e o w e H i m then not only pri
v a t e v e n e r a t i o n , b u t public a n d social w o r s h i p . Resides, this
t h e s i s i n v o l v e s t h e u n c o n c e a l e d d e n i a l of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r .
I t l i m i t s t h e a c t i o n of t h e S t a t e e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e p u r s u i t of p u b
lic p r o s p e r i t y d u r i n g t h i s life, t h o u g h t h i s is o n l y t h e p r o x i m a t e
raison d'etre of p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t i e s . . . . S i n c e t h e p r e s e n t t e m
p o r a l o r d e r of t h i n g s is s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e c o n q u e s t of m a n ' s s u
p r e m e a n d a b s o l u t e g o o d , e t e r n a l h a p p i n e s s , t h e civil a u t h o r i t y
o u g h t n o t o n l y n o t to h i n d e r t h a t v i c t o r y b u t s h o u l d e f f i c a c i o u s l y
r>)
contribute thereto."<
A s a n e x a m p l e of t h e t y p e of r e l a t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d e x i s t b e
tween Church and State, we m a y take the Lateran Convention:
" T h i s m i g h t w e l l be a s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e t o a l l , " s a y s P o p e P i u s
X I , " o f h o w , e v e n in t h i s O u r o w n clrfy ( i n w h i c h , s a d t o s a y , t h e
a b s o l u t e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e civil p o w e r f r o m t h e C h u r c h , a n d i u -
' *' Enoycl ical Lei te i , Sauna i I'aal it irat as.
(5) Encyclical L e t t e r , Lo-nyiniiue, Oceani.
,( )
> Encyclical L e t t e r of Pope P i u s X . V<lit n t ' - n t c r , 1Kb F e b . . 1906.
 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 87

d e e d f r o m e v e r y r e l i g i o n , is s o o f t e n t a u g h t ) , o n e s u p r e m e a u t h o r
ity can be united and associated with the o t h e r w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t
t o t h e r i g h t s a n d s u p r e m e p o w e r of e i t h e r , t h u s p r o t e c t i n g C h r i s t
(7
ian p a r e n t s from p e r n i c i o u s evils and m e n a c i n g ruin/' >
I n a f a m o u s p a s t o r a l l e t t e r , Cardinal M e r c i e r w r o t e as f o l l o w s :
11
I n t h e n a m e of t h e G o s p e l , a n d in t h e l i g h t of t h e E n c y c l i c a l s
of t h e l a s t f o u r P o p e s , G r e g o r y X V I , P i u s I X , L e o X I I I a n d P i u s
X , 1 d o n o t h e s i t a t e t o affirm t h a t this i n d i f f e r e n c e to r e l i g i o n ,
w h i c h p u t s o n t h e s a m e level t h e r e l i g i o n of d i v i n e o r i g i n a n d
t h e r e l i g i o n s i n v e n t e d b y m a n , in o r d e r t o i n c l u d e t h e m all i n t h e
s a m e s c e p t i c i s m , is t h e b l a s p h e m y w h i c h , f a r m o r e t h a n t h e s i n s
of i n d i v i d u a l s a n d f a m i l i e s , c a l l s d o w n G o d ' s c h a s t i s e m e n t s o n
8
society."* *

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T OF T H E SPIRITUAL KINGSHIP
OF T H E CHURCH'S RULERS. '

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e D i v i n e P l a n , S t a t e s
a n d N a t i o n s will a c k n o w l e d g e t h e r i g h t of t h e R u l e r s of t h e
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , t h e P o p e a n d t h e P i s h o p s , a s t h e visible r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s of t h e S p i r i t u a l K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t , t o d e c i d e w h a t
f a v o u r s o r o p p o s e s t h e D i v i n e L i f e of G r a c e c o m i n g from C h r i s t
as Priest. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e social life of a S t a t e o r of
t h e n a t i o n a l life of a n a t i o n is n o t t h e c o m p l e t e final e n d of t h e
S t a t e o r N a t i o n . T h e c o m p l e t e final e n d of e v e r y S t a t e is t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e n a t i o n a l life in such w i s e , as n o t o n l y n o t t o
h i n d e r b u t t o f a v o u r t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life of i t s c i t i z e n s . N a t i o n a l
life is t h u s m e a n t to f a v o u r t h e l i v i n g of life a s m e m b e r s of
C h r i s t . E a c h n a t i o n h a s its o w n w a y of b e i n g C h r i s t l i k e , , a s w e
s e e in i t s fully r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m e m b e r s , i t s s a i n t s .
L o y a l t y t o t h e C h u r c h will l e a d t o l o v i n g a c c e p t a n c e of t h e
g u i d a n c e of h e r R u l e r s . P o p e L e o X I I I , in h i s E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r ,
On the Christian Constitution of States, points out that " the
C h u r c h of C h r i s t is t h e t r u e a n d sole t e a c h e r of v i r t u e a n d g u a r d
( 9 )
i a n of m o r a l s . " H e e n l a r g e s u p o n this a n d u p o n t h e role of t h e
P o p e a n d t h e B i s h o p s a s S p i r i t u a l G u i d e s a n d a s R u l e r s , in h i s
L e t t e r , On. the Chief Duties of Christians as Citizens: " In d e f i n i n g
r
t h e l i m i t s of t h e o b e d i e n c e o w e d t o t h e p a s t o r s of s o u l s , b u t m o s t
of all t o t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e R o m a n Pontiff, it m u s t n o t be s u p
p o s e d t h a t it is o n l y t o be y i e l d e d in r e l a t i o n t o d o g m a s of w h i c h
t h e o b s t i n a t e d e n i a l c a n n o t be d i s j o i n e d f r o m t h e c r i m e of h e r e s y .
N a y , f u r t h e r , i t is n o t e n o u g h s i n c e r e l y a n d firmly t o a s s e n t t o
d o c t r i n e s w h i c h , t h o u g h n o t defined by a n y s o l e m n p r o n o u n c e m e n t
of t h e C h u r c h , a r e b y h e r p r o p o s e d t o belief, a s d i v i n e l y r e v e a l e d ,

<7) Encyclical L e t t e r , CaHi Connubii, On Christian Marriage.

W The Lesson of Events.
Jmmortalc De>.
88 T1IK M Y S T I C A L UODY OF CHRIST

in h e r c o m m o n a n d u n i v e r s a l t e a c h i n g , a n d w h i c h t h e V a t i c a n
C o u n c i l d e c l a r e d a r e to he b e l i e v e d w i t h C a t h o l i c a n d d i v i n e f a i t h .
R u t t h i s l i k e w i s e m u s t he r e c k o n e d a m o n g s t t h e d u t i e s of C h r i s t
i a n s , that, they allow themselves to he ruled and directed by the
authority and leadership of the bishops, and above all of
the Apostolic See. , . . W h e r e f o r e , it b e l o n g s t o t h e P o p e to
judge authoritatively what things the Sacred Oracles contain, as
well a s w h a t d o c t r i n e s a r e in h a r m o n y , a n d w h a t in d i s a g r e e m e n t ,
w i t h t h e m ; a l s o for t h e s a m e r e a s o n , t o s h o w f o r t h w h a t t h i n g s
a r e t o b e a c c e p t e d a s r i g h t , a n d w h a t t o he r e j e c t e d a s w o r t h
l e s s ; w h a t it is n e c e s s a r y to d o a n d w h a t to a v o i d d o i n g , in o r d e r
to attain eternal salvation. F o r o t h e r w i s e , t h e r e w o u l d be no
s u r e i n t e r p r e t e r of t h e c o m m a n d s of G o d . n o r w o u l d t h e r e be a n y
1 1 0 1
safe guide s h o w i n g m a n the w a y he should l i v e . "
" I f t h e n a t u r a l l a w , " w r i t e s P o p e L e o X I I I , " e n j o i n s on us
t o love d e v o t e d l y a n d to d e f e n d t h e c o u n t r y in w h i c h w c h a d
b i r t h , a n d in w h i c h w e w e r e b r o u g h t u p , s o t h a t e v e r v g o o d citi
z e n h e s i t a t e s n o t lo face d e a t h for h i s n a t i v e l a n d , v e r y m u c h
m o r e is it t h e u r g e n t d u t y of C h r i s t i a n s lo he e v e r q u i c k e n e d by
like feelings t o w a r d s the Church. L o r t h e C h u r c h is t h e h o l y
c i t y of t h e l i v i n g G o d . b o r n of G o d H i m s e l f , a n d b y H i m b u i l t u p
and established. . . . W e are bound then to love dearly the
c o u n t r y w h e n c e w e h a v e r e c e i v e d t h e m e a n s of e n j o y m e n t t h a t
t h i s m o r t a l life a f f o r d s , b u t w e h a v e a m u c h m o r e u r g e n t o b l i g a
tion to l o v e , w i t h a r d e n t l o v e , t h e C h u r c h to w h i c h w e o w e t h e
life of t h e s o u l , a life t h a t will e n d u r e for e \ e r . L o r it is f i t t i n g
t o p r e f e r t h e g o o d of t h e soul l o t h e w e l l - b e i n g of t h e b o d y , i n a s
m u c h as d u t i e s t o w a r d s G o d a r e of a m o r e h a l l o w e d c h a r a c t e r t h a n
those t o w a r d s men. M o r e o v e r , if w e w o u l d j u d g e a r i g h t , t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l l o v e for t h e C h u r c h a n d t h e n a t u r a l l o v e of o u r o w n
c o u n t r y p r o c e e d from t h e s a m e e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e , s i n c e G o d H i m
self is t h e i r a u t h o r a n d o r i g i n a t i n g c a u s e , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b e t w e e n
01
t h e d u t i e s t h e y r e s p e c t i v e l y e n j o i n t h e r e c a n be n o c o n f l i c t . ' * '
P o p e P i u s XI h a s t h e s a m e d o c t r i n e . " T h e r i g h t o r d e r of
C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y , " b e w r i t e s . " d o e s n o t d i s a p p r o v e of l a w f u l l o v e
of c o u n t r y , a n d a s e n t i m e n t of j u s t i f i a b l e n a t i o n a l i s m : on t h e c o n
t r a r y , it c o n t r o l s , s a n c t i f i e s , a n d e n l i v e n s t h e m . If, h o w e v e r ,
P g o i s m , a b u s i n g t h i s love oi c o u n t r y a n d e x a g g e r a t i n g t h i s s e n t i
m e n t of n a t i o n a l i s m , i n s i n u a t e s ilsel f i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
p e o p l e a n d p e o p l e , t h e r e is no e x c e s s t h a t will not s e e m j u s t i f i e d :
and that which b e t w e e n individuals would be judged b l a m e w o r t h y
by all, is n o w c o n s i d e r e d lawful a n d p r a i s e w o r t h y , if if is d o n e
in t h e n a m e of t h i s e x a g g e r a t e d n a t i o n a l i s m . I n s t e a d of t h e
g r e a t l a w of l o v e a n d h u m a n b r o t h e r h o o d , w h i c h e m b r a c e s a n d
h o l d s in a s i n g l e family all n a t i o n s a n d p e o p l e s w i t h o n e F a t h e r
( I 0 1
Sapicnfiae Christ ianae.
i m
Encyclical Letter, Sapient inr Christ.ianae.
 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 89

w h o is in h e a v e n , t h e r e e n t e r s h a t r e d , d r i v i n g all to d e s t r u c t i o n :
I n p u b l i c life, s a c r e d p r i n c i p l e s , t h e g u i d e of all social i n t e r c o u r s e ,
0
are trampled upon." -'
A g a i n t h e s a m e P o n t i f f w r i t e s : " T h e C h u r c h f o u n d e d by t h e
R e d e e m e r is o n e f o r all p e o p l e s a n d n a t i o n s . B e n e a t h h e r v a u l t ,
t h a t like G o d ' s firmament a r c h e s o v e r t h e w h o l e e a r t h , t h e r e is
a p l a c e a n d h o m e for all p e o p l e s a n d t o n g u e s , t h e r e is r o o m for t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of all t h e p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t i e s , p o i n t s of e x c e l l e n c e ,
m i s s i o n s , a n d c a l l i n g s , t h a t G o d h a s a s s i g n e d to i n d i v i d u a l s a n d
13)
peoples."<
T h e d u t y of C a t h o l i c s to t h e i r n a t i v e c o u n t r y is not m e r e l y a
negative o n e , n a m e l y t h e a v o i d a n c e of e x a g g e r a t e d n a t i o n a l i s m ,
w h i c h is o n e of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of the r e v o l t a g a i n s t the D i v i n e
P l a n for o r d e r . C a t h o l i c s m u s t positively love their n a t i \ e land
a n d m u s t s t r i v e to d e f e n d it n o t o n l y a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l e n e m i e s ,
b u t also a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l i s t i c forces t h a t a r e striving to disrupt
its internal o r g a n i z a t i o n .

THK DUTY OF STATES T O W A R D S RELIGIOUS

O R D E R S AND CONGREGATIONS.

in a S t a t e fully r e s p e c t f u l o f the l o n g i n g of C h r i s t the K i n g

for t h e diffusion o f t h e D i v i n e Life of G r a c e , a n d t h e bringing of
all m e n into s u b j e c t i o n to I lis S a c r e d R o y a l t y , t h e R e l i g i o u s Orders
a n d C o n g r e g a t i o n s of the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h will be r e s p e c t e d and
t h e i r a c t i o n f a v o u r e d . 'The C o n t e m p l a t i v e O r d e r s d i s c h a r g e t h e i r
f u n c t i o n of l o v i n g a n d s e r v i n g the Illessed T r i n i t y , w h i c h is
h u m a n i t y ' s highest d u t y : j h e Active O r d e r s and Congregations
a i m a t g r a d u a l l y p e r m e a t i n g S o c i e t y w i t h t h e i d e a of m e m b e r s h i p
of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y . P o p e L e o X I I I in his L e t t e r of Dec.
2 3 r d , 1900, to t h e C a r d i n a l A r c h b i s h o p of P a r i s , p o i n t s out the
o r i g i n a n d o b j e c t of t h e R e l i g i o u s O r d e r s . " T h e R e l i g i o u s O r d e r s ,
a s e v e r y o n e k n o w s , " w r i t e s t h e l e a r n e d Pontiff, " h a v e t h e i r o r i g i n
a n d t h e r e a s o n of t h e i r e x i s t e n c e in t h o s e s u b l i m e e v a n g e l i c a l
c o u n s e l s w h i c h our D i v i n e R e d e e m e r g a v e t o t h o s e , w h o . in e v e r y
s u c c e e d i n g a g e , w o u l d a t t a i n to C h r i s t i a n perfection--- to t h o s e
b r a v e a n d g e n e r o u s s o u l s w h o by p r a \ e r a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n , b y
p i o u s a u s t e r i t i e s a n d the o b s e r v a n c e of c e r t a i n r u l e s , e n d e a \ o u r to
c l i m b t o the h i g h e s t s u m m i t s of the s p i r i t u a l life. H o r n and c r a d l e d
u n d e r the a c t i o n of the C h u r c h , w h o s e a u t h o r i t y g i v e s s a n c t i o n
to their g o v e r n m e n t and administration, the Religious O r d e r s
f o r m a c h o s e n p o r t i o n of the (lock of J e s u s C h r i s t . . . . T h e i r
v o w s , m a d e f r e e l y a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y , . . . h a v e ever been r e
g a r d e d a n d r e s p e c t e d b y p e o p l e in e v e r y a g e a s s a c r e d t h i n g s a n d

<12; Encyclical Letter, (writuit Christ,' computet.

(13) Encyclical Letter, Mit t*rrntiendcr Snrgt, On the /Vv.-v cut ion
of thf (7/inch in Cr'rinan//.
90 THK MYSTICAL HODY OF CHRIST

s o u r c e s of t h e r a r e s t v i r t u e . T h e i r o b j e c t is t w o f o l d : first, t h e
r a i s i n g of t h o s e w h o t a k e t h e m t o a h i g h e r d e g r e e of p e r f e c t i o n :
a n d s e c o n d l y , by p u r i f y i n g a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e i r s o u l s , t o p r e
p a r e t h e m f o r a m i n i s t r y w h i c h is e x e r c i s e d for t h e e v e r l a s t i n g
s a l v a t i o n of t h e i r n e i g h b o u r a n d f o r t h e a l l e v i a t i o n of t h e n u m b e r
l e s s m i s e r i e s of h u m a n i t y . . . . S o m e , d e v o t e d t o t e a c h i n g , in
s t r u c t t h e y o u n g in s e c u l a r k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s of r e l i
gious v i r t u e a n d duty, upon w h i c h public peace a n d the welfare
of S t a t e s a b s o l u t e l y d e p e n d . O t h e r s , c o n s e c r a t e d t o v a r i o u s w o r k s
of c h a r i t y , afford effective aid t o e v e r y p h y s i c a l a n d m o r a l m i s e r y
in t h e n u m b e r l e s s h o u s e s w h e r e i n t h e y t e n d t h e s i c k , t h e infirm
and the aged, the orphan, the d e r a n g e d , and the incurable, with
o u t a l l o w i n g the clanger or u n p l e a s a n t n e s s of their w o r k o r the
i n g r a t i t u d e they m a y meet with to dampen their c o u r a g e o r check
their ardour."
T h e s a m e P o n t i f f b a d p r e v i o u s l y laid d o w n t h e d u t y o f S t a t e s
t o w a r d s t h e Religious O r d e r s " w h i c h b a s e arisen by the C h u r c h ' s
a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e p i e t y of C h r i s t i a n m e n , " s a y i n g : " I n t h e i r r e
l i g i o u s a s p e c t , t h e y c l a i m r i g h t l y t o be r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e C h u r c h
a l o n e . T h e r u l e r s of t h e S t a t e a c c o r d i n g l y h a v e n o r i g h t s o v e r
t h e m , n o r c a n t h e \ c l a i m an}- s h a r e in t h e i r c o n t r o l ; o n t h e c o n
t r a r y , it is t h e d u t y of t h e S t a t e t o r e s p e c t a n d c h e r i s h t h e m . a n d .
0 1
if n e e d b e , t o d e f e n d t h e m f r o m a t t a c k . " '
In a s t r i k i n g p a s s a g e . P o p e L e o X I I I speaks of the u l t i m a t e
r e a s o n f o r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of r e l i g i o u s , n a m e l y , t h e o r g a n i z e d
o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Rife, in w h i c h s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s p l a y
s o i m p o r t a n t a p a r t . " T h e sad r e a l i t y . " h e w r i t e s , " i s b r o u g h t
o n l y t h e m o r e vividly b e f o r e men'** e y e s , t h a t t h e t r u e r e a s o n
for w h i c h R e l i g i o u s a r e p e r s e c u t e d is t h a t d e e p - s e a t e d h a t r e d
w h i c h the w o r l d c h e r i s h e s a g a i n s t the Catholic C h u r c h , the Citv
1
of G o d ; t h a t t h e real i n t e n t i o n i - . if p o s s i b l e , t o n u l l i f y in s o c i e t v
t h e h e a l i n g a c t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t f r o m w h i c h s u c h b e n e f i c e n t r e
s u l t s u n i v e r s a l l y flow. N o o n e is i g n o r a n t of t h e fact t h a t r e l i
g i o u s of b o t h s e x e s f o r m a c h o s e n b o d y i n t h e C i t y of G o d ; t h a i
t h e y r e p r e s e n t p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s p i r i t a n d t h e m o r t i f i c a t i o n of
J e s u s C h r i s t ; t h a t , b y t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e F v a n g c l i c a l C o u n s e l s ,
t h e y tend to c a r r y Christian v i r t u e t o the s u m m i t of perfection
a n d t h a t , in a m u l t i t u d e of w a y s , t h e y p o w e r f u l l y s e c o n d t h e a c t i o n
of t h e C h u r c h . H e n c e it is n o t a s t o n i s h i n g t h a i t o - d a y , a s in
o t h e r times, u n d e r o t h e r iniquitous forms, the City of the W o r k !
r i s e s a g a i n s t t h e m , a n d chiefly t h o s e m e n w h o , b y a s a c r i l e g i o u s
c o m p a c t , a r e m o s t i n t i m a t e l y united and most servilely bound to
l5
h i m w h o is P r i n c e of t h i s w o r l d . " ' >

14
< ) E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Re mm- Nova rum.
0 5 ) L e t t e r to the S u p e r i o r s of the Relii<u- O r d e r - a n d hHlitut'^
of F r a n c e . .Tune 2$th, 1 0 0 1 .
 PROGRAMMK OK KINGSHIP OP CHRIST 91
THE DUTY OF STATES WITH REGARD TO

SECRET SOCIETIES

What then should be the attitude of fully ordered States to

secret societies, and particularly to Freemasonry? It should be
one of uncompromising opposition. To enter a society, in which
men surrender their wills blindly and unreservedly to the heads
of the society, in other words, to profess unqualified obedience to
them, is an immoral net, contrary to man's God-givev rational
nature. Men thereby implicitly declare that they arc ready to
carry out unqucstioningly whatever their leaders enjoin, no mat
ter what may be its relation to the moral law. Such an act is
more irrational still if the leaders are unknown, and matters are
still worse if an oath is taken to maintain secrecy about the pro
ceedings of the society and to obey those unknown leaders. " N o
man has a right to put himself under the command of another
without the reserve of his own conscience and of the moral law.
. . . A man who takes an unconditional oath in a secret society
may never be told to do anything wrong. That is not the point.
P>y such an oath he binds himself to do anything without reserve,
nr
whether it be right or wrong. . . ." " There is no parallel be
tween an oath taken in a secret society and the vows taken by
religious. "The vow of obedience in "Religious Orders is in no
sense a blind or unreserved vow. It is a vow taken with vision
and reserve. It is a vow to obey on condition that what >s com
manded is according to the Constitutions of the Order, all of
which must be explained to the Novice before be is allowed to
pronounce his vows. Hence the vow of obedience in a Religious
Order applies only to actions in which there is no sin. A member
of a Religious Order, if ordered to go against the ordinary laws
of morality, to tell a lie, for instance, would not only not be bound
lo obey, but would be bound not to obey"* ) Moreover, the Con
17

stitutions of every Religious Order and Congregation an* guar

anteed by the Church in the name of Christ the King.
The faithful of the Catholic Church are forbidden under pain
of excommunication to become members of the Masonic Society
or similar associations plotting against the Church or the civil
authorities. This excommunication is incurred ipso facto and abso
lution from it is reserved to the Holy See in simple form.08) flie
faithful are gravely forbidden, though not under pain of excom
munication, to become members of secret societies which oblige
their associates to take an oath never to divulge the secrets of

no) Irish Jtviari/, January, 1940, pp. 3, 4.

07) Ibid.
iW Code.?- Juri* Canonivi. Canon 2335.
92 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Ihc association and to give unqualified obedience lo hidden

9
leaders." '
The supreme perversion o f order in this respect seems to he
reached by entering the Masonic Society. It is already a revolt
against Chri*i the King t o profess blind and unqualified obedience
to any body of men. but it is a still more heinous revolt against
Him, when one docs so by becoming a member of a society which
makes open profession of naturalism. The Masonic .Society not
only inculcates indifference to the Divine Life o f Grace, but puts
itself above the Mystical lbnly of Christ. \ s there are only two
camps here below, to revolt against ChriM the King is to enter
the camp of Satan.
"After the human race," writes Hope Leo XIII, "through the
envious efforts of Satan, bad been guilty of the unspeakable crime
of turning away from God, the Creator and the Giver of heavenly
blessings, it became divided into two distinct and mutually hos
tile camps. One of these steadily combats for truth and virtue,
the other for all that is opposed to virtue and truth. The former
is the Kingdom of God on earth, namely, the True Church of
Jesus Christ. . . . The latter is the Kingdom of Satan, under
whose sway and in whose power are all those who. following the
baneful example of their leader and of our first parents, refuse
to obey the divine and eternal law. . . . The two armies have
always been engaged in conflict down the age*. . . . In our day,
however, the partisans of evil seem to be drawing closer together
and, as a body, to be animated with extraordinary energy, under
the leadership and with the assistance of the widely diffused and
strongly organized association known as Freemasonry. Xo longer
concealing their designs, with the greatest audacity they are
egging one another on to attack God Himself . . .
"From the anti-social character of the errors We have men
tioned, it is clear that very great dangers lie ahead for states. . . .
Nay more this complete change and revolution are being deliber
ately planned and openly extolled by numerous allied bodies of
Communists and Socialists. X o u \ to their plans, not only is the
Masonic Sect not opposed, hul it funks n/ton them trith tin greatest1

favour, since its /ninci/tat tenets are quite in. harmony with them.
. . . Knowing these things, both prince* and people would act in a
manner completely in accord with prudent statesmanship and ab
solutely indispensable for public welfare, if, instead of uniting
with the hreemasons lo overthrow the Church, they joined forces
with the Church to resist their attacks. . . . To your fidelity
and vigilance We commend in a special manner the young, who
are the hope of human society. Let their formation be Ihc chief
(T9j Cf. Pniminer, O.P., Mamiale J aria Kcclr .<iustir/\ p. 338, where
the decree of the. Holy Office of May 10th, 1884, is referred to, in the
CfiM* of .societies; forlnddi'ii hut not under uain uf excommunication.
 P R O G R A M M K OP KINGSHIP OP CHRIST 93

o b j e c t of y o u r s o l i c i t u d e a n d l e i t h e r e b e n o l i m i t t o t h e z e a l a n d
w a t c h f u l n e s s y o u d i s p l a y in o r d e r t o k e e p y o u n g p e o p l e f r o m
m a s t e r s a n d s c h o o l s w h e r e t h e p e s t i l e n t i a l influence of t h e M a s o n i c
s e c t is t o b e f e a r e d . U n d e r y o u r g u i d a n c e , let p a r e n t s , r e l i g i o u s
t e a c h e r s a n d p r i e s t s h a v i n g t h e c h a r g e of s o u l s , avail of e v e r y
o p p o r t u n i t y , in t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n s of C h r i s t i a n D o c t r i n e , to w a r n
t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d t h e i r p u p i l s of t h e c r i m i n a l n a t u r e of t h e s e
s o c i e t i e s , s o t h a t t h e y m a y l e a r n in g o o d t i m e t o b e w a r e of t h e
m a n y d e c e i t f u l a r t i f i c e s b y w h i c h t h e i r r e c r u i t i n g - a g e n t s a r e ac
c u s t o m e d to e n s n a r e people. And those who prepare the y o u n g
f o r t h e fitting r e c e p t i o n of t h e S a c r a m e n t s will act w i s e l y , if t h e y
i n d u c e e a c h a n d all of t h e m to t a k e t h e r e s o l u t i o n n e v e r to e n t e r
a n y s o c i e t y w i t h o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e of t h e i r p a r e n t s , o r t h e a d v i c e
{ ( )
of t h e i r p a r i s h p r i e s t o r s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r . " ' - '
" S o m e s e e m to i m a g i n e t h a t t h e s e P a p a l C o n s t i t u t i o n s d o n o t
hold w h e r e the [Masonic or similar] sects are permitted by the
civil p o w e r s . . . . S u c h s u b t e r f u g e s a r c v a i n , as is e v i d e n t f r o m
t h e w o r d s of P o p e P i u s I X : ' It is O u r w i s h t h a t t h e M a s o n i c S o
c i e t y a n d all a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h e s a m e c l a s s be held as f o r b i d d e n
a n d r e p r o b a t e b y all t h e f a i t h f u l of C h r i s t to w h a t e v e r c o n d i t i o n
o r s o c i a l s t a n d i n g t h e y m a y b e l o n g , a n d in w h a t s o e x e r c o u n t r y
they m a y be.' . . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e t o be
h e l d a s r e p r o b a t e a n d f o r b i d d e n , b e c a u s e . . . t h e y a r e of t h e i r
o w n n a t u r e u n n a t u r a l a n d u n l a w f u l . F o r . . . by u n n a t u r a l a n d
t r e a c h e r o u s m e a n s , t h e y s e t u p w i t h i n t h e b o s o m of t h e S t a t e
a n o t h e r o r g a n i s m completely distinct from the natural and lawful
21
o r g a n i s m of t h e State."< > '
P o p e P i u s I X p o i n t e d o u t h o w o p p o s e d to t h e R i g h t s of G o d
a r e t h e s o - c a l l e d " l i b e r t i e s " of c o n s c i e n c e a n d of t h e p r e s s :
" Y o u well k n o w , Venerable R r c t h r e n , that there are m a n y at the
p r e s e n t t i m e , w h o , a p p l y i n g t o civil s o c i e t y t h e i m p i o u s a n d a b
s u r d p r i n c i p l e of N a t u r a l i s m , a s it is called, d a r e to p r o c l a i m t h a t
t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of t h e s t a t e a n d t h e p r o g r e s s of c i v i l i z a t i o n
a b s o l u t e l y d e m a n d t h a t h u m a n s o c i e t y s h o u l d be c o n s t i t u t e d a n d
g o v e r n e d w i t h o u t a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n for r e l i g i o n , j u s t as if i t did
n o t e x i s t , o r at l e a s t t h a t n o d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u l d be m a d e b e t w e e n
t r u e a n d false r e l i g i o n s . . . . G i v e n this u t t e r l y false idea of t h e
c o n s t i t u t i o n of s o c i e t y , t h e y d o not h e s i t a t e to p u t f o r w a r d t h e
v i e w w h i c h is n o t o n l y o p p o s e d to t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , b u t v e r y
p e r n i c i o u s for t h e s a l v a t i o n of s o u l s , an o p i n i o n w h i c h G r e g o r y
X Y I . O u r P r e d e c e s s o r , called a b s u r d . T h i s is t h e v i e w t h a t lib
e r t y of c o n s c i e n c e a n d of w o r s h i p is t h e s t r i c t r i g h t of e v e r y
m a n , a r i g h t w h i c h s h o u l d b e p r o c l a i m e d a n d affirmed b y l a w in

Encyclical Letter, Jlnmamnn

<20> genus, A p r i l 20th, 188-1.
21
< > I n s t r u c t i o n on p a p a l c o n d e m n a t i o n s of Freemasonry in Art a.
Sanctae Set?)*, vol. I, q u o t e d by Rev. E, Cahill, S.J., in Frectnasanrj/
and the Anti-Christian Movement, p . 225..
94 VI IK M Y S T I C A L PODY OF CHRIST

every properly constituted state, and that, in addition, citizens

have the right to the fullest liberty, unrestrained by ecclesiastical
or civil authority, of expressing and publishing, whether orallv
or in print or any other way, for all to bear and read, any ideas
they may have. When they rashly make these statements, they
do not realize or recall to mind that they are advocating a liberty
1
of perdition (St. Augustine, Kp. 105)." **'
Pope Gregory XVI spoke of the liberty of the press or of
publication as " the most deadly ami most execrable that can be
conceived/* He deplores the fact that men arc to be found who
hold that the "deluge of error to which this so-called liberty gives
rise is abundantly compensated by the publication of an odd book
in defence of truth and religion." " What sane man/' he adds,
" will ever dare to hold that poisons should be freely" spread abroad,
publicly sold and hawked about, nay even, swallowed greedily,
because forsooth, there exists a remedy to which one may have
recourse and which has occasionally saved from death those who
( 2;n
have had recourse to it." * Again. Pope Leo XIII insists that
" i t is contrarv lo reason that error and truth should have equal
rights."***)

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF T H E DIGNITY OF
CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

Given whole-hearted allegiance to Christ the King, States and

Nations will recognize the unity and indissolubility of the mar
riage contract, foundation of the Christian family, which in its
turn is the nucleus of society. If we seek the reason why the
marriage contract is one and indissoluble, it is, in the last resort,
because the union of husband and wife is meant to mirror forth
to the world the union of Christ and His Mystical Hody. St.
Paul was called upon by God to be the Apostle of a Mystery,
namely, the great mystery of Christ and (he Church which is
symbolically expressed in Christian marriage: " the husband is
the bead of the wife as Christ is the Head of the Church
(Kphesians, V, 23). As the Church can never be separated from
Christ, so Christian marriage is indissoluble. Divorce is Satan's
supreme effort lo get human beings to deny and deride that union,
but every sneer at "old-fashioned ideas" of marriage and every
legislative enactment which glorifies the unmarried companion
and puis her on the same level as the legitimate wife and help
mate are steps taken under bis direction, consciously or un
25
consciously. < >
2
<'*) Encyclical Letter, Quanta cura.
24
Encyclical Letter, Mirari uos.
< ) Encyclical Letter. f,ibcrtas.
(25) Recent war lojrislalion in Germany and England is specially
alluded to in this paragraph, written in the spring of 1940.
 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 95

I n n u m e r a b l e a r e t h e t e x t s in w h i c h t h e S o v e r e i g n ' P o n t i f f s
have exalted Christian marriage. O n l y a f e w will be q u o t e d .
" M a r r i a g e , " w r i t e s P o p e L e o X I I I , " i s a s a c r a m e n t , b e c a u s e it
is a h o l y s i g n w h i c h g i v e s g r a c e , s h o w i n g f o r t h a n i m a g e of t h e
M y s t i c X u p t i a l s of C h r i s t w i t h t h e C h u r c h . . . . Since t h e h u s
b a n d r e p r e s e n t s C h r i s t , a n d s i n c e t h e wife r e p r e s e n t s t h e C h u r c h ,
let t h e r e a l w a y s b e , b o t h in h i m w h o c o m m a n d s a n d in h e r w h o
o b e y s , a h e a v e n - b o r n l o v e g u i d i n g b o t h in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d u t i e s .
F o r -the h u s b a n d is t h e h e a d of t h e w i f e a s C h r i s t is t h e H e a d of
t h e C h u r c h . . . . D i v o r c e s a r c in t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e h o s t i l e t o
t h e p r o s p e r i t y of f a m i l i e s a n d S t a t e s , s p r i n g i n g a s thev do from
t h e d e p r a v e d m o r a l s of t h e p e o p l e , a n d , a s e x p e r i e n c e s h o w s us,
o p e n i n g o u t a w a y t o e v e r y k i n d o f e v i l - d o i n g a l i k e in p u b l i c a n d
{2G)
in p r i v a t e l i f e . " " I f w e w i s h / * w r i t e s in his t u r n P o p e P i u s
X I , " w i t h all r e v e r e n c e to i n q u i r e i n t o t h e i n t i m a t e r e a s o n of
t h i s d i v i n e d e c r e e [of i n d i s s o l u b i l i t y ], V e n e r a b l e U r e t b r e n , w e
shall e a s i l y s e e it in t h e m y s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n m a r
r i a g e w h i c h is fully a n d p e r f e c t l y verified 'in c o n s u m m a t e d m a r
r i a g e b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n s . F o r a s t h e A p o s t l e s a y s in his L p i s t l e
to t h e E p h c s i a n s ( V , 3 2 ) , t h e m a r r i a g e of C h r i s t i a n s r e c a l l s t h a t
most perfect union which exists between Christ and the
37
Church."' *
P o p e P i u s X H d e p i c t s t h e h a p p i n e s s of t r u l y C h r i s t i a n f a m i l y
life a n d d e p l o r e s t h e r a v a g e s of d i v o r c e , in a l o v e l y p a s s a g e of
h i s L e t t e r t o t h e H i e r a r c h y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in 1 9 3 9 : " W h a t
c a n t h e r e b e <ui e a r t h m o r e s e r e n e a n d j o y f u l t h a n t h e C h r i s t i a n
family? T a k i n g its o r i g i n a t t h e a l t a r of t h e L o r d , w h e r e love
has been proclaimed a holy and indissoluble bond, the Christian
f a m i l y , n o u r i s h e d in t h e s a m e l o v e b y s u p e r n a l g r a c e , is c o n s o l i
dated and receives increase. . . . Tranquil walls resound with
no q u a r r e l l i n g voices n o r do t h e y w i t n e s s the s e c r e t m a r t y r d o m
w h i c h c o m e s w h e n h i d d e n i n f i d e l i t y is laid b a r e ; u n q u e s t i o n i n g
t r u s t t u r n s a s i d e t h e s l i n g s of s u s p i c i o n ; s o r r o w is a s s u a g e d a n d
j o y is h e i g h t e n e d by m u t u a l a f f e c t i o n . W i t h i n t h o s e .sacred p r e
cincts, children are considered not h e a v y burdens but sweet pledges
of l o v e : n o r e p r e h e n s i b l e m o t i v e o f c o n v e n i e n c e , n o s e e k i n g a f t e r
s t e r i l e p l e a s u r e b r i n g a b o u t t h e f r u s t r a t i o n of t h e gift of life, n o r
c a u s e t o fall i n t o d i s u s e t h e s w e e t n a m e s of b r o t h e r a n d s i s t e r .
. . . It is a l s o s u p r e m e l y n e c e s s a r y t o s e c l o it t h a t t h e d o g m a of
t h e u n i t y a n d i n d i s s o l u b i l i t y of m a t r i m o n y b e k n o w n in all i t s
r e l i g i o u s i m p o r t a n c e , a n d t h a t it is s a c r e d l y r e s p e c t e d b y t h o s e
w h o m a r r y . . . . O h ! ] f o n l y y o u r c o u n t r y h a d c o m e t o know
f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e of o t h e r s r a t h e r t h a n from e x a m p l e s a t h o m e ,
of t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of ills w h i c h d e r i v e f r o m t h e p l a g u e of
divorce!"
<26) Encyclical Letter, Arcanum Divinac, HS80).
27
'' > Encyclical Letter, Casti t'onnubii, On Christian Marriage.
96 Till-; M Y S T I C A L BODY OF CHRIST

RECOGNITION O F EDUCATION AS T H E F O R M A T I O N
OF MEMBERS OF CHRIST.

T h e C h r i s t i a n f a m i l y is t h e cell p r e p a r e d b y G o d f o r t h e f o r m
a t i o n of c h i l d r e n as m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e r e t h e
r u l e of C h r i s t t h e K i n g is fully a c c e p t e d , t h e w h o l e e d u c a t i o n a l
s y s t e m of t h e c o u n t r y will a i m , a b o v e all, a t i n c u l c a t i n g t h e g r e a t
r e a l i t y of m e m b e r s h i p of O u r L o r d ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y . " T h e p r o
p e r a n d i m m e d i a t e e n d of C h r i s t i a n e d u c a t i o n , " w r i t e s P o p e P i u s
X I , " is t o c o - o p e r a t e w i t h d i v i n e g r a c e in f o r m i n g t h e t r u e a n d
p e r f e c t C h r i s t i a n , t h a t is, to f o r m C h r i s t H i m s e l f in t h o s e r e g e n e r
a t e d b y B a p t i s m , a c c o r d i n g .to t h e e m p h a t i c e x p r e s s i o n of t h e
A p o s t l e : ' M y little c h i l d r e n , of w h o m I a m in l a b o u r a g a i n , u n t i l
( 2 P )
C h r i s t b e f o r m e d in y o u / F o r t h e t r u e C h r i s t i a n m u s t live a
s u p e r n a t u r a l life in C h r i s t . . . a n d d i s p l a y it in all his a c t i o n s
' t h a t t h e life a l s o o f l e s u s m a v be m a d e m a n i f e s t in o u r m o r t a l
flesh.'W)
" T h e family holds directly from the C r e a t o r the mission a n d
hence the right to educate the offspring, a right inalienable be
c a u s e i n s e p a r a b l y joined to the strict o b l i g a t i o n , a r i g h t a n t e r i o r
t o a n y r i g h t w h a t e v e r of civil s o c i e t y a n d of t h e S t a t e , a n d t h e r e
t;i0
f o r e i n v i o l a b l e on t h e p a r t of a n y p o w e r on e a r t h . " > All o t h e r
e d u c a t o r s a r e s i m p l y c o - o p e r a t o r s a n d a u x i l i a r i e s of t h e p a r e n t s in
t h e f o r m a t i o n of C h r i s t in c h i l d r e n . P o p e L e o X I I I i n s i s t s t h a t
t h e R i g h t s of God i m p o s e d u t i e s on p a r e n t s to e d u c a t e t h e i r
c h i l d r e n p r o p e r l y . T<i t h e s e d u t i e s c o r r e s p o n d i n v i o l a b l e h u m a n
(;J1)
r i g h t s , w h i c h n o p o w e r on e a r t h c a n w h i t t l e d o \ v n . . . .
A t e a c h e r n e v e r is a n d n e v e r can be a civil s e r v a n t a n d s h o u l d
n e v e r r e g a r d h i m s e l f o r a l l o w h i m s e l f t o be s o r e g a r d e d . What
e v e r a u t h o r i t y he m a y p o s s e s s to teach and control children and
t o c l a i m t h e i r re s p e c t a n d o b e d i e n c e , c o m e s t o h i m f r o m G o d .
t h r o u g h t h e p a r e n t s , a n d n o t t h r o u g h t h e S t a t e , e x c e p t in s o f a r
M ( 3 2 )
a s t h e S t a t e is a c t i n g on b e h a l f of t h e p a r e n t s .
T o f o r m J e s u s in t h e v o t i n g . H i s Life of G r a c e a n d t h e D i v i n e
P l a n for itb c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d m u s t b e t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t
in t h e t e a c h i n g of e v e r y s u b j e c t , a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . " T h e m e r e
fact that a school," w r i t e s P o p e Pius X I , " g i v e s s o m e religious
i n s t r u c t i o n ( o f t e n e x t r e m e l y s t i n t e d ) d o e s n o t b r i n g it i n t o a c c o r d
w i t h t h e r i g h t s of t h e C h u r c h a n d of t h e C h r i s t i a n f a m i l y , o r m a k e
it a fit p l a c e for C a t h o l i c s t u d e n t s . T o b e t h i s , it is n e c e s s a r y t h a t
all the fear/tiny and the whole oryanizatlon of the school, and its
teachers, syllabus and te.rt-books in every branch, be r e g u l a t e d b y

<afl> Gal.. IV, IS).

(29) I I ( o r . , IV. 2.
(30) Encyclical L e t t e r , Uirini J Hi as M agist ri.
<3t) Cf. Encyclical L e t t e r , Officio Sanctis*} mo.
(32) P r o n o u n c e m e n t of the English H i e r a r c h y (no. 7), Low Week, 1929.
 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRTST 97
the Christian spirit, under the direction and maternal supervision
of the Church; so that Religion may be in very truth the found
ation and crown of the youth's entire training; and this in every
grade of school, not only the elementary but the9 intermediate
and the higher institutions of learning as well. To use the words
of Leo XIII: ' I t is necessary not only that religious instruction
be given to the young at certain fixed times, but also that every
other subject taught, be permeated with Christian piety. If this
is wanting, if this sacred atmosphere does not pervade and warm
the hearts of masters and scholars alike, little good can be ex
pected from any kind of learning, and considerable harm, will
often be the consequence ' . " ( 3 8 )
What a difference it would make, for example, in the teaching
of History, if it were taught from God's point of view and if its
theme were the acceptance and rejection by States and Nations
of the Mystical Body of Christ, with an account of the conse
quences ! Again, such points a s : the lengthy naturalistic resistance
of the Roman Empire to God's Plan for order by its persecution
of the Mystical Body of Christ, with its own consequent inevit
able exhaustion; the development of a new literature with a loft
ier note under the action of supernatural charity; the gradual
permeation of Roman Law with the Catholic spirit, all these would
be stressed in the teaching of Latin.
Particular attention would be paid to philosophy. Pope Pius
XI in the Encyclical, On the Christian Education of Youth, from
which we have been quoting, says: "The noble traditions of the
past require that the youth committed to Catholic schools be
fully instructed in the letters and sciences in accordance with the
exigencies of the times. They also demand that the doctrine im
parted be deep and solid, especially in sound philosophy. . . . In
this connection, Christian teachers should keep in mind what Leo
XIII says in a pithy sentence: * Greater stress must be laid on the
employment of apt and solid methods of teaching, and what is
still more important, on bringing into full conformity with the
Catholic faith, what is taught in literature, in the sciences, and
above all in philosophy, on which depends in great part the right
(34
orientation of the other branches of knowledge.' " > When deal
ing with the restoration of Catholic philosophy, Pope Leo XIII
points out that "whosoever seeks a reason for the troubles that
disturb public and private life must come to the conclusion that
a fruitful cause of the evils which now afflict, as well as of those
which threaten us, lies in this: that false conclusions concerning
divine and human things, which originated in the schools of phil
osophy, have crept into all the orders of the State, and have been
<33) Encyclical Letter, Divini Jllius Magistri.
(34) Cf. Encyclical Letter, Inscrutabili.
I
98 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

accepted by the common consent of the masses/' Hence, later in

the same Encyclical, Pope Leo reminds the Bishops that his
" first and most cherished idea is that yon should all furnish to
studious youth a generous and copious supply of those crystal
rills of wisdom flowing in a never-ending and fertilizing stream
from the fountain-head of the Angelic Doctor.
"Many are the reasons why we are so desirous of this. In
the first place, since, in the tempest that is on us, the Christian
faith is being constantly assailed by the machinations and craft
of a certain false wisdom, ttU youth, but especially those who are
the growing hope of the Church, should be nourished on the strong
and robust food of doctrine, that so, mighty in strength and armed
at all points, they may become capable of advancing the cause of
35
religion with force and judgment."' !
Thus, every boy and girl would leave school convinced of the
great truth that as a member of Jesus, the whole of life with all
its attitudes and decisions must be lived in subjection to Christ,
They would be trained to realize that Our Lord is always seek
ing to speak and act through them for the furtherance of His Life
throughout the -whole Body and for the incorporation of those
who are not yet members. They would never forget that Christ's
members are not isolated units and arc not meant to consider
themselves as such. Catholics of all countries are meant to act
as a solid phalanx for the Divine Plan for Supernatural Life.
" Above the brotherhood of humanity and of fatherland," said
Pope Pius XI in a text already quoted, " there is the infinitely
more sacred and more precious brotherhood of the Mystical Body
of Christ." That bond transcends class and frontier. Catholic
Youth should also come forth from school into the world with a
clear vision of the fact that, if they do not mould the social organ
ization of the world, political and economic, so as to have the
supernatural spirit of the Mystical Body prevail, the world will
be moulded by the organized forces striving for the elimination
of Supernatural Life and for the spread of Naturalism.

SOLIDARITY OP T H E MYSTICAL BODY REFLECTED

IN ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION.

Where the Divine Plan for order is accepted, the supernatural

union of the Mystical Body will be reflected, not only in the way
that masters and servants, employers and employed treat one
another, but also in the organization of the production, distribu
tion and exchange of the material goods of which, as we have
seen, a sufficiency is normally required for the development of

t35) Encyclical Letter, Aeterni Patris.

 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 99
36
l i u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . < > I n o r d e r t h a t t h o s e m a t e r i a l g o o d s which
a r e d e s t i n e d for t h e u s e of t h e h u m a n r a c e , m a y s e r v e t h e i r e n d
i n o r d e r l y f a s h i o n a n d b e a v a i l a b l e in g r e a t e r a b u n d a n c e , a n d ( h a t
p e a c e f u l c o n d i t i o n s f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n p e r
s o n a l i t y m a y p r e v a i l , p r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p of p r o d u c t i v e w e a l t h m u s t
37 14
be f a v o u r e d a n d safeguarded.* * P o p e L e o X I I I insists that the
g r e a t l a b o u r q u e s t i o n c a n n o t b e solved s a v e b y a s s u m i n g a s a
p r i n c i p l e t h a t p r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p m u s t be held s a c r e d and inviol
a b l e . T h e l a w , t h e r e f o r e , s h o u l d f a v o u r o w n e r s h i p , a n d i t s policy
s h o u l d b e t o i n d u c e a s m a n y a s p o s s i b l e of t h e h u m b l e r class t o
become owners. M a n y e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s will follow from t h i s :
a n d first of all, p r o p e r t y will c e r t a i n l y b e c o m e e q u i t a b l y divided.
. . . A f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e will b e in t h e g r e a t e r a b u n d a n c e of
t h e f r u i t s of t h e e a r t h . . . a n d a t h i r d a d v a n t a g e w o u l d s p r i n g
f r o m t h i s : m e n w o u l d c l e a v e t o t h e c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e v w e r e
3 8
born."' )
P o p e L e o X I 1 1 e m p h a s i z e d t w o o t h e r v e r y i m p o r t a n t poim>.
T h e first is t h a t t h e d i f f u s i o n of p r o p e r t y a n d t h e h o l d i n g of it
s h o u l d n o t b e m a d e difficult b y t a x a t i o n . " T h e S t a t e / ' he s a y s ,
" " w o u l d b e u n j u s t a n d c r u e l if u n d e r t h e n a m e of t a x a t i o n i: w e r e
11
t o d e p r i v e t h e p r i v a t e o w n e r of m o r e t h a n is fitting/"^ Taxa
t i o n is t h e chief m e a n s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e F a b i a n ( S o c i a l i s t ) S o c i e t y
T r a c t N o . 127, " to m a k e p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e t h r o w u p t h e r-p-mge
a n d q u i t . " T h e s e c o n d is t h a t h o l d i n g of e v e n a little p r o p e r t y
favours independence and g u a r d s the w e a k e r and poorer m e m b e r s
o f t h e c o m m u n i t y f r o m a s t a t e of c o m p l e t e s u b j e c t i o n t o g r e e d y
s p e c u l a t o r s a n d h e a r t l e s s m a n i p u l a t o r s of m o n e y . " Thr first
c o n c e r n of a l l , " h e w r i t e s , " is t o s a v e t h e p o o r w o r k e r s f m n t h e
c r u e l t y of g r e e d y s p e c u l a t o r s , w h o u s e h u m a n b e i n g s a s m e r e
4 0
i n s t r u m e n t s of m o n e y - m a k i n g . " * *
P o p e P i u s X I lays d o w n the s a m e principles, dwelling even
m o r e a t l e n g t h u p o n t h e e v i l s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c o n t r o l of c r e d i t
b y a ( r e l a t i v e l y ) few p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , a s w e shall s e e l a t e r .
" ' T h e r i g h t to p o s s e s s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y / w r i t e s P o p e Leo.
X I I I in Rerum Xovanttn, ' i s d e r i v e d f r o m n a t u r e , n o t from m a n :
a n d t h e S t a t e h a s by n o m e a n s t h e r i g h t to a b o l i s h it, but o n l y t o .
i l
(36) The enjoyment of the good things of the e a r t h a n d the lawful
p l e a s u r e s a t t a c h e d to t h e i r use- may even serve to increase virtue a n d
to recompense i t . . . (iod is the a u t h o r of nature, a n d of grace. He
does n o t wish one to he an obstacle to the other '" (Leo X l l f , S>t)>remi
Apostohrius, Sept. 1, 1883).
(37) I I I l a e , Q.66, a.2. Cf. ]) > Prinri pit's Funrtionis
a ( Social i.. Pm-
prietatis Privatae, by P. J. Perez G a r c i a , O.P., np. 70, 77.
(38)^ Encyclical Letter. Iterant. lYararunt. On the Condition of the
Working Classes,
<39) I b i d .
(40) Encyclical L e t t e r , lie runx Novarum, On the Condition of the
Working Classes.
 100 THE MYSTICAL BODY O b CHRIST

c o n t r o l i t s u s e a n d b r i n g i t i n t o h a r m o n y w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s of
the public g o o d / H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e civil a u t h o r i t y a d j u s t s
o w n e r s h i p t o m e e t t h e n e e d s of t h e p u b l i c g o o d , it a c t s n o t a s a n
e n e m y b u t a s t h e f r i e n d of p r i v a t e o w n e r s . . . . T h e r e is a d o u b l e
d a n g e r t o b e a v o i d e d . O n t h e o n e h a n d , if t h e s o c i a l a n d p u b l i c
a s p e c t of o w n e r s h i p b e d e n i e d o r m i n i m i z e d , t h e l o g i c a l c o n s e
q u e n c e is ' i n d i v i d u a l i s m / a s i t is c a l l e d ; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e
r e j e c t i o n o r d i m i n u t i o n of i t s p r i v a t e a n d i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r
i (41
n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d s to s o m e f o r m of c o l l e c t i v i s m / " >
T h e s o l i d a r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s of C h r i s t will s h o w i t s e l f in t h e
f o r m a t i o n of G u i l d s o r V o c a t i o n a l G r o u p s , f o r p r o d u c t i o n , d i s
4 2
t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e / * T h e G u i l d s of t h e M i d d l e A g e s p r e
v e n t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s a t a n i c s p i r i t of t h e c l a s s - w a r a s
w e i l a s t h e u p r i s e of t h e e v i l s d u e t o u n c h e c k e d c o m p e t i t i o n a n d
r u t h l e s s individualism. T h e y helped to m a i n t a i n the s a n e o r i e n t
a t i o n of s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c life, a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h , m o n e y is
f o r p r o d u c t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n is f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e h u m a n
p e r s o n a l i t y of m e m b e r s of f a m i l i e s . T h e d u t y i n c u m b e n t o n e m
ployers a n d employees to r e s p e c t o n e a n o t h e r as h u m a n p e r s o n s
a n d f e l l o w - m e m b e r s of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y , t h e d u t y of p r o
p e r t y - o w n e r s t o k e e p p r i m a r i l y in v i e w t h e C o m m o n G o o d b y t h e
o b s e r v a n c e of social j u s t i c e , a n d t h e d u t y of all c i t i z e n s t o r e s p e c t
p r o p e r t y , all t h e s e t h e G u i l d s i n c u l c a t e d . P o p e L e o X T I I d e p l o r e s
t h e i r s u p p r e s s i o n in t h e E n c y c l i c a l , Rervm. N o v a m n t , a n d longs for
their r e t u r n in a form a d a p t e d to m o d e r n c o n d i t i o n s : " T h e anci
r
e n t w o r k i n g m e n ' s g u i l d s , " h e w r i t e s . " w e r e a b o l i s h e d in t h e l a s t
c e n t u r y , a n d n o o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n t o o k their place. Public insti
tutions a n d the very laws have set aside the ancient religion.
H e n c e b y d e g r e e s it h a s c o m e t o p a s s t h a t w o r k i n g m e n h a v e b e e n
s u r r e n d e r e d , all i s o l a t e d a n d h e l p l e s s , l o t h e h a r d - h e a r t c d n e s s of
e m p l o y e r s a n d t h e g r e e d of u n c h e c k e d c o m p e t i t i o n . . . . T h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all [ a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r t h e r e
t u r n of s o c i a l j u s t i c e ] a r e w o r k i n g m e n ' s u n i o n s , for t h e s e v i r t u a l l y
i n c l u d e all t h e r e s t . H i s t o r y a t t e s t s w h a t e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s w e r e
b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e artificers* g u i l d s o f o l d e n t i m e s . T h e y w e r e
t h e m e a n s of a f f o r d i n g n o t o n l y m a n y a d v a n t a g e s t o t h e w o r k
m e n t h e m s e l v e s , b u t in n o s m a l l d e g r e e o f p r o m o t i n g t h e a d v a n c e
m e n t of a r t , a s n u m e r o u s m o n u m e n t s r e m a i n t o b e a r w i t n e s s .
S u c h u n i o n s s h o u l d be a d a p t e d to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h i s o u r
43
age."< >

(40 Encyclical Letter, Quadragesima A unit, On the Social Order.

42
< > I n a n excellent p a m p h l e t , The i'r./i.f/ioi/s Gilds and their Swppres-
$ion by Oiga H a r t l e y (English C . T . S . ) . it .is stated t h a t " t h e word
y
1
' Gild ' is the Anglo-Saxon word m e a n i n g p a y m e n t / T h e spelling-
' G u i l d / t h o u g h common, is i n c o r r e c t / '
(43) P o p e Leo X I I I was r e f e r r i n g to the suppression of the G u i l d s
(Les Corporations Ouvritres) in F r a n c o a n d elsewhere a t the F r e n c h
 PROGRAMME OP KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 101

P o p e P i u s X I i n s i s t s u p o n t h e d u t y of S t a t e s t o r e - e s t a b l i s h
v o c a t i o n a l g r o u p s . " O n a c c o u n t of t h e evil of i n d i v i d u a l i s m , " h e
w r i t e s , " things have come to such a pass that the highly developed
s o c i a l life, w h i c h o n c e flourished in a v a r i e t y of p r o s p e r o u s i n s t i
tutions organically linked with each other, has been damaged
a n d all b u t r u i n e d , l e a v i n g t h u s v i r t u a l l y o n l y i n d i v i d u a l s a n d
t h e S t a t e . . . . N o w t h i s is t h e p r i m a r y d u t y of t h e S t a t e a n d
of all g o o d c i t i z e n s , to a b o l i s h conflict b e t w e e n c l a s s e s w i t h d i v e r
g e n t i n t e r e s t s , a n d so foster a n d p r o m o t e h a r m o n y b e t w e e n the
v a r i o u s r a n k s of s o c i e t y . T h e aim of social l e g i s l a t i o n m u s t t h e r e
f o r e be t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of v o c a t i o n a l g r o u p s . S o c i e t y t o - d a y
still r e m a i n s in a s t r a i n e d a n d t h e r e f o r e u n s t a b l e a n d u n c e r t a i n
s t a t e , being founded on classes with contradictory interests and
h e n c e opposed to e a c h o t h e r , and c o n s e q u e n t l y p r o n e to e n m i t y
a n d s t r i f e . . . . T h e d e m a n d a n d s u p p l y of l a b o u r d i v i d e m e n
o n t h e l a b o u r - m a r k e t into t w o classes, as into t w o c a m p s , and the
b a r g a i n i n g ' b e t w e e n t h e s e p a r t i e s t r a n s f o r m s this l a b o u r - m a r k e t
i n t o a n a r e n a w h e r e t h e t w o a r m i e s a r e e n g a g e d in c o m b a t . . . .
u
T h e r e c a n n o t b e q u e s t i o n of a n y p e r f e c t c u r e , e x c e p t t h i s
o p p o s i t i o n be d o n e a w a y w i t h , a n d w e l l - o r d e r e d m e m b e r s of t h e
social b o d y c o m e i n t o b e i n g a n e w , v o c a t i o n a l g r o u p s n a m e l y ,
b i n d i n g m e n t o g e t h e r n o t a c c o r d i n g to t h e p o s i t i o n t h e y o c c u p y

devolution. The Guilds were suppressed in England at the- so-called

Reformation. " There seems tu be. a curious conspiracy of silence about
the suppression and spoliation of the English gilds in the oilicial Pro
testant- histories of the Reformation. Historians have plenty to say
about the suppression of the convents and monastic institutions; the
destruction of the gilds is not mentioned, but neither is their existence.
John Richard Green in his Short History of the English People does
mention the existence of Gilds, when he is writing of the Middle Ages;
he says not a word about (he wicked and wanton rapacity that sup
pressed them when he writes of the- Reformation. . . . If the case for the
suppression of the convents and monasteries was false and feeble, there
was no case_ at all f o r suppressing the gilds, and, i<o do Henry V I I I
justice, he did not attempt to make out a case: he coolly said he needed
their money. ^ The Act of .'57 Henry V I I I , passed in 1545, stated that
the confiscation of -public property it authorized was necessary ' f o r
the maintenance of the present war ' and into one group to be robbed
went 'colleges, free chapels, cbanfries, hospitals, fraternities, brother
hoods, and guylcles.' The Act of Edward VI, (J. 14, devised by Somerset,
Avas rather more cunning. It attacked the doctrine of Purgatory,
pleading that the Gilds' benefactors were burdened with the 'super
;
stitious use of^ prayer* and Masses for ihe souls of the dead. To
camouflage the fact_ that lie vn< plundering public property, Somerset
inserted a h i n t of Gramma)* schools into his act of spoliation
There were already Grammar schools, some of them actually supported
by the Gilds . . . . the ruffians who devised this wholesale robbery
h
("Somerset and the other courtiers'] gorged themselves on the plunder
{The Religious (//Ids and their Suppression, bv Olga Hartley p p
19, 20). Cf. The WorZ'inrpnen's Guilds of the Middle Ages, by the pre
sent writer (The Fui uin Pre^, Cork).
102 T H E MYSTICAL P.ODY O F CHRIST

in t h e l a b o u r - m a r k e t , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i v e r s e f u n c t i o n s w h i c h
t h e y e x e r c i s e in s o c i e t y . . . . T h e s e g r o u p s , in a t r u e s e n s e a u t o
n o m o u s , a r e c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e , if n o t e s s e n t i a l t o civil
s o c i e t y , a t l e a s t its n a t u r a l a n d s p o n t a n e o u s d e v e l o p m e n t . . . .
In t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s t h e c o m m o n i n t e r e s t s of t h e w h o l e g r o u p
must p r e d o m i n a t e ; and a m o n g these interests the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
is t h e d i r e c t i n g of t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e g r o u p t o t h e c o m m o n g o o d .
. . . I t is h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y t o n o t e t h a t w h a t L e o X I I I t a u g h t
c o n c e r n i n g t h e f o r m of p o l i t i c a l g o v e r n m e n t , c a n , in d u e m e a s u r e ,
be applied also to v o c a t i o n a l g r o u p s . H e r e too, m e n m a y c h o o s e
w h a t e v e r form they please, provided that both justice and the
4
c o m m o n g o o d be t a k e n i n t o account."*-* ' A c c o r d i n g l y , in o r d e r
t o m a i n t a i n t h a t h e a l t h y f a m i l y life w h i c h is i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e
w e l l - b e i n g of t h e S t a t e , v o c a t i o n a l g r o u p s m u s t b e r e v i v e d .

MONEY IS AN I N S T R U M E N T OK ECONOMICS.
T h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r c a l l s for a m o n e t a r y s y s t e m s o
o r g a n i z e d a s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e of m a t e r i a l
g o o d s in v i e w of t h e v i r t u o u s life of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t in h a p p >
f a m i l i e s . M o n e y is f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e
of m a t e r i a l g o o d s , a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e
of m a t e r i a l g o o d s a r c m e a n t t o f a v o u r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n
p e r s o n a l i t y in C h r i s t . T h e r e is a n a n t i - C h r i s t i a n a s well a s a n
a n t i - n a t u r a l p e r v e r s i o n iti t h e e x i s t i n g r e v e r s a l of o r d e r b y t h e
s u b o r d i n a t i o n of h u m a n p e r s o n s t o p r o d u c t i o n a n d of p r o d u c t i o n
a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n to finance H o w h a s this p e r v e r s i o n of o r d e r
been b r o u g h t about?
T o k e e p m o n e y , w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is m e a n t t o b e a n
i n s t r u m e n t of e c o n o m i c s , in i t s p r o p e r p l a c e in s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
t w o t h i n g s s h o u l d b e t h e o b j e c t of t h e s t r i c t e s t v i g i l a n c e o n t h e
p a r t of t h e a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e S t a t e . T h e first is t h e p r e v e n t i o n
of u s u r y . T h e s e c o n d is t o w a t c h o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n of m o n e y a s
a s t a b l e m e a s u r e of e x c h a n g e . T h e p r e v a l e n c e of u s u r y a n d v i o l
ent fluctuations in t h e g e n e r a l p r i c e level of a c o u n t r y h a v e d i s
a s t r o u s r e p e r c u s s i o n s on h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y , family-life a n d pri
v a t e o w n e r s h i p , a n d finally l e a d t o t h e d o m i n a t i o n of t h o s e w h o
m a n i p u l a t e t h e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m and to terrible i n t e r n a t i o n a l
s t r u g g l e s . T h e u p r i s e of L i b e r a l i s m c o n s e q u e n t o n t h e r e n d i n g
of t h e C a t h o l i c u n i t y of E u r o p e in t h e 16th c e n t u r y , t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e m o d e r n s y s t e m of m o n e y - c r e a t i o n a n d
m a n i p u l a t i o n of g e n e r a l p r i c e l e v e l s , h a v e led, n o t o n l y t o t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p r o p e r t y in r e l a t i v e l y f e w h a n d s , b u t a l s o t o t h e
c o n t r o l of t h o s e few a n d of t h e S t a t e itself b y t h e m o n e y e d in
terests.
E n c y c l i c a l Letter, Quwlraiitjimt* Anno, 0>> the Social Order.
T h e Encyclical Letter of JJCO X I T I to which Pins XI refers is I tamo Hat t
DEI, Or-, the Christum Constitution of Sf.afn.
 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 103

W H A T IS MEANT BY LIBERALISM?
L i b e r a l i s m d o e s n o t c o n s i s t m e r e l y in w i t h d r a w i n g t h e c r e a t i o n
a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n ' o f m o n e y f r o m s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o p o l i t i c s b u t in
t h e f u r t h e r s t e p of w i t h d r a w i n g b o t h p o l i t i c s a n d finance f r o m
s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e m o r a l l a w , n a t u r a l a n d r e v e a l e d , b i n d i n g on
( 4 5 )
m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . P e r h a p s w e m a y best describe Liberalism
b y s a y i n g t h a t it c o n s i s t s in e r e c t i n g s o m e p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n o r
a s p e c t of h u m a n a c t i v i t y , e c o n o m i c o r p o l i t i c a l , i n t o a s e p a r a t e
d o m a i n w i t h i t s o w n a u t o n o m o u s e n d c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of
t h e final e n d of m a n a s a m e m b e r of C h r i s t . T h e g r e a t l i b e r a l i s t i c
p r i n c i p l e of t h e o r t h o d o x E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s ,
A d a m S m i t h , M a l t h u s , R i c a r d o , S t u a r t Mill, Bastiat, Q u e s n a y
a n d t h e P h y s i o c r a t s , w a s t h a t e c o n o m i c affairs, i n c l u d i n g , of
c o u r s e , t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m , w e r e g o v
e r n e d b y p h y s i c a l l a w s of n a t u r e , w h i c h n o p o l i t i c a l l a w s h o u l d
a t t e m p t t o r e g u l a t e i n v i e w of f a v o u r i n g m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t .
" A t the t i m e w h e n t h e n e w social o r d e r w a s b e g i n n i n g , " w r o t e
u
Pope Pius XI, t h e d o c t r i n e s of r a t i o n a l i s m h a d a l r e a d y t a k e n
firm h o l d of l a r g e n u m b e r s , a n d a n e c o n o m i c s c i e n c e a l i e n TO t h e
t r u e m o r a l l a w h a d s o o n a r i s e n , w h e n c e it f o l l o w e d t h a t f r e e r e i n
( 4 G )
w a s given to h u m a n a v a r i c e . " L i b e r a l i s m is r a t i o n a l i s m a o p l i e d
to politics a n d finance.
W e n e e d n o t be s u r p r i s e d t h e n t h a t u s u r y h a s c o m e b a c k in
another form. In t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Return Novarum, Pope
L e o X I I I , i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r h a v i n g d e p l o r e d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of
the guilds, g o e s on to s a y : " P u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s and the v e r y l a w s
4
<&) H i s t o r i c a l l y , the refusal to accept the d u e .subordination of
politics to the o r d e r established by C h r i s t has been followed by t h e
w i t h d r a w a l of m o n e y - m a n i p u l a t i o n from d u e s u b o r d i n a t i o n to politics.
F a l l e n m a n c a n n o t m a i n t a i n the r a t i o n a l order of life except by accept
i n g due s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o God t h r o u g h o u r L o r d Jesus Christ.
(46) Encyclical L e t t e r . Quadragesima Anrno, On the Social Order. All
the above-mentioned economists were influenced by J o h n Locke's Nom
i n a l i s m a n d L i b e r a l i s m , of which the f o u n d a t i o n s are l a i d in his Essay
Concerning Human Understanding. T h a t work as well as Mill's Prin
ciples of Political Economy are on the I n d e x .
" W h a t Natu7-alists o r Rationalists a i m a t in philosophy, that the
s u p p o r t e r s of Liberalism, c a r r y i n g o u t the p r i n c i p l e s laid d o w n by
N a t u r a l i s m , are a t t e m p t i n g in the d o m a i n of m o r a l i t y a n d politics.
The f u n d a m e n t a l _ doctrine^ of Rationalism is the supremacy of the
h u m a n reason, which, refusing d u e submission to the divine and e t e r n a l
reason, p r o c l a i m s its own independence a n d constitutes itself the sup
reme p r i n c i p l e a n d source a n d j u d g e of t r u t h . Hence these followers
of L i b e r a l i s m d e n y the existence of a n y d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y t o which
obedience is d u e , a n d p r o c l a i m t h a t every man is the law to himself;
from which a r i s e s t h a t ethical system which they style independent
morality, a n d which, u n d e r the guise of liberty, exonerates man from
any obedience t o the c o m m a n d s of God, a n d substitutes a boundless
1
l i c e n c e " ( P o p . Leo X I I I , Encyclical Letter, Libertas, On Human
Liberty).
 104 'nil- MYSTICAL B O D Y OK CHRIST

have s e t aside the a n c i e n t religion. H e n c e by d e g r e e s it h a s c o m e

t o p a s s t h a t w o r k i n g m e n h a v e b e e n s u r r e n d e r e d , all i s o l a t e d a n d
h e l p l e s s , t o t h e h a r d h e a r t e d n e s s of e m p l o y e r s a n d t h e g r e e d of
unchecked competition. T h e mischief has been increased by
rapacious usury, which, a l t h o u g h m o r e than once condemned by
t h e C h u r c h , is n e v e r t h e l e s s , u n d e r a d i f f e r e n t g u i s e , b u t w i t h t h e
l i k e i n j u s t i c e , still p r a c t i s e d b y c o v e t o u s a n d g r a s p i n g m e n . T o
t h i s m u s t b e a d d e d t h e u p r i s e of p o w e r f u l m o n o p o l i e s c o n t r o l l i n g
e n t e r p r i s e s w o r k e d b y c o n t r a c t a n d all b r a n c h e s of c o m m e r c e ; s o
t h a t a s m a l l n u m b e r of v e r y r i c h m e n h a v e b e e n a b l e t o l a y u p o n
t h e t e e m i n g m a s s e s of t h e l a b o u r i n g p o o r a v o k e l i t t l e b e t t e r t h a n
47
s l a v e r y itself."* '
F l u c t u a t i o n s in t h e p r i c e - l e v e l s of c o u n t r i e s h a v e b e e n f a r m o r e
v i o l e n t s i n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of m o d e r n b a n k i n g t h a n b e f o r e i t .
A f e w e x t r a c t s f r o m t h e e x c e l l e n t p a m p h l e t b y A . N . F i e l d , The
Untaught History 0/ Money, will i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t in t h e c a s e
of G r e a t B r i t a i n . " U p t o r o u n d a b o u t 1660 all m o n e y t r a n s a c
t i o n s in E n g l a n d , " h e w r i t e s , " w e r e e f f e c t e d b y h a n d i n g o v e r coin.
After that date banking began, and cheques and bank-notes came
i n t o u s e , a n d w h a t is k n o w n a s b a n k c r e d i t b e g a n t o p r e v a i l . T h e
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , w h e n all m o n e y b u s i
n e s s w a s d o n e , w i t h t h e K i n g ' s m o n e y a n d n o n e a t all w i t h b a n k
m o n e y , w a s t h e g r e a t s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e s . T h e r e w a s o n e n o t o r i *
o u s m o n e y j u g g l e in t h i s e a r l i e r p e r i o d , w h e n H e n r y V I ] I in 1542
d e b a s e d t h e c o i n a g e b y a l l o y . A s a r e s u l t p r i c e s r o s e b y 2 0 t o 25
p e r c e n t i n five y e a r s , a n d b y 1551 a p o u n d w o u l d b u y o n l y a b o u t
h a l f of w h a t i t b o u g h t n i n e y e a r s b e f o r e . . . . T h e a b s e n c e of
s l u m p s a n d b o o m s , e v e r y few y e a r s , such as w e n o w k n o w , w a s
n o t d u e t o a n y s u p e r i o r m e r i t in m e t a l c o i n s o v e r p a p e r m o n e y ,
b u t s i m p l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t it w a s i h e c o n s t a n t c a r e of t h e C r o w n
t o m a i n t a i n a sufficient q u a n t i t y of m o n e y in c i r c u l a t i o n f o r t h e
people's needs. There were very stringents laws against the ex
p o r t of c o i n . . . .
" A f t e r 1650 b a n k i n g a n d b a n k c r e d i t c a m e i n t o t h e p i c t u r e ,
a n d t h e p r i c e - l e v e l j u m p s f r o m ISO t o a b o u t 3 2 0 in 1750 s h o o t i n g
u p i n t h e n e x t fifty y e a r s t o a b o u t 560. A l a t e r p r i c e - l e v e l c h a r t
a t h a n d , c o v e r i n g t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1780 to 1932 ( a n d t a k i n g p r i c e s
i n 1913 a s 1 0 0 ) , s h o w s a c o n t i n u o u s s e r i e s of e n o r m o u s f l u c t u a
t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t . . . . B y 1913 t h e level h a s c r e p t u p t o 100
a g a i n . T h e n a f t e r t h e G r e a t W a r it s o a r s t o 225 in 1 9 2 0 : d r o p s
b a n g d o w n t o a b o u t 100 in t h e n e x t y e a r , r u n s a l o n g a r o u n d t h i s

(47) P o p e Leo X I I I then s p e a k s of the Socialist a n d Collectivist

r e a c t i o n to the abuse of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y . T h i s movement, as we shall
see l a t e r , is u n d e r the control of n a t u r a l i s t i c s u p r a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a
t i o n s , a n d t h u s , by its opposition to C h r i s t t h e K i n g a n d the super
n a t u r a l D i v i n e P l a n for order, is d r a g g i n g the w o r k i n g m a n d o w n to a
.state worse than the slavery from which Our D i v i n e L o r d freed him.
 P R O G R A M M E OF KJNGSHJP OF CHRIST 105

figure f o r a f e w y e a r s a n d t h e n in 1930 is a w a y o n a s l i d e d o w n
in t h e w o r l d d e p r e s s i o n t o 66 in 1932, t h e l o w e s t p o i n t in a c e n
t u r y a n d a half. . . . A f t e r t h e b a n k e r s w e r e in t h e i r s t r i d e ,
B r i t i s h h i s t o r y is o n e l o n g p r o c e s s i o n of t h e m o s t v i o l e n t m o n e t a r y
fluctuations, w i t h i n c e s s a n t d i s t u r b a n c e of p r i c e s , a n d r u i n o u s
r e s u l t s . . . . T h a t is t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h a v i n g t h e C r o w n
control m o n e y to preserve justice, and having private bankers
c o n t r o l it f o r t h e i r o w n selfish a d v a n t a g e a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e
nation."
Rapid fluctuations in t h e p r i c e - l e v e l a r e d i s a s t r o u s in t h e i r
effects e s p e c i a l l y o n s m a l l e r b u s i n e s s e s . T h e rise of p r i c e s s w i n d l e s
all c r e d i t o r s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of d e b t o r s . All c o n t r a c t s f o r f u t u r e
periodic p a y m e n t s for services, such as w a g e s , salaries, interest,
a n d r e n t s , a n d t h o s e fixed b y l a w o r c u s t o m s u c h as t r a n s p o r t f a r e s ,
postal services, a n d professional fees, are vitiated, w i t h c o n s e q u e n t
l o s s t o t h o s e w h o r e c e i v e m o n e y . T h e fall of p r i c e s b y t h e c a l l i n g
in of l o a n s a n d t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of c r e d i t s w i n d l e s all d e b t o r s f o r
t h e b e n e f i t of c r e d i t o r s . I t r e s u l t s in b a n k r u p t c i e s a n d f o r e c l o
s u r e s , u n e m p l o y m e n t , a n d t h e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of w e a l t h in t h e
I4{?
h a n d s of a f e w , w h o a r e t h e r e a l c o n t r o l l i n g p o w e r in t h e S t a t e . '
I n t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , (Juadragesin/o Anno, Pope Pius
X I s p e a k s a t s o m e l e n g t h of t h e t e r r i b l e p o w e r wielded
in o u r d a y s b y t h o s e w h o c<mtn>1 finance a n d t h e n g o e s o n
t o d e p i c t t h e evils r e s u l t i n g f r o m this d i s o r d e r . " In t h e first
p l a c e , t h e n , it is p a t e n t t h a t in o u r d a y s n o t a l o n e is w e a l t h a c c u
m u l a t e d , b u t i m m e n s e p o w e r a n d d e s p o t i c e c o n o m i c d o m i n a t i o n is
c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e h a n d s of a f e w , a n d t h a t t h o s e few a r c f r e
q u e n t l y n o t t h e o w n e r s , b u t o n l y t h e t r u s t e e s a n d d i r e c t o r s of
invested funds, w h o a d m i n i s t e r ihem at their own good pleasure.
This p o w e r becomes particularly irresistible when exercised by
t h o s e w h o , b e c a u s e t h e y h o l d a n d c o n t r o l money, a r c a b l e a l s o to
g o v e r n c r e d i t a n d d e t e r m i n e i t s a l l o t m e n t , for t h a t r e a s o n s u p
p l y i n g , so t o s p e a k , t h e l i f e - b l o o d to t h e e n t i r e e c o n o m i c b o d y , a n d
1
U S " A s one well-known w r i t e r o n these subjects h a s pointed cur,
the money facto]" is like the tide* of t h e ocean, and commodity d e m a n d -
a n d - s u p p l y f a c t o r i s like the waves of the sea. . . . The f i d e s arc the
big factor d e t e r m i n i n g the level o f the water, and t h e wa\e.s a com
p a r a t i v e l y small factor even hi the g r e a t e s t storm. The money-factor is
like the tides, a n d is the p r i n c i p a l t h i n g i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e price-level '"'
T
(The Truth About New Zealand, by A. N . Field, p. 134). Cf. The. .Role
of Money, by Professor Sorldy, p p . 71-75.
" A p r o p e r ' p r o p o r t i o n between different wages i s also a m a t t e r o f
i m p o r t a n c e , a n d with this is i n t i m a t e l y connected a p r o p e r u r o p o r t i o n
between the prices obtained for the p r o d u c t s o f the v a r i o u s economic
g r o u p s , a g r i c u l t u r a l , i n d u s t r i a l , and s o forth. Where this- h a r m o n i o u s
p r o p o r t i o n is _ kept, men's v a r i o u s economic activities combine and
u n i t e i n t o a single organism a n d become members of a common bodv,
l e n d i n g each other m u t u a l help a n d service '' (Encyclical Letter.
Quadragesima Anno),
 106 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

g r a s p i n g , a s it w e r e , in t h e i r h a n d s t h e v e r y s o u l of p r o d u c t i o n ,
so t h a t n o o n e d a r e b r e a t h e a g a i n s t their will. T h i s a c c u m u l a t i o n
of p o w e r , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n o t e of t h e m o d e r n e c o n o m i c o r d e r , is
a n a t u r a l r e s u l t of l i m i t l e s s f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n , w h i c h p e r m i t s t h e
s u r v i v a l of t h o s e o n l y w h o a r e t h e s t r o n g e s t , w h i c h o f t e n m e a n s
t h o s e w h o fight m o s t r e l e n t l e s s l y , w h o p a y l e a s t h e e d t o t h e d i c
t a t e s of c o n s c i e n c e . T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p o w e r h a s led t o a
t h r e e f o l d s t r u g g l e for d o m i n a t i o n .
" F i r s t , t h e r e is t h e s t r u g g l e for d i c t a t o r s h i p in t h e e c o n o m i c
s p h e r e i t s e l f ; t h e n t h e fierce b a t t l e t o a c q u i r e c o n t r o l of t h e S t a t e ,
s o t h a t i t s r e s o u r c e s a n d a u t h o r i t y m a } ' be a b u s e d in t h e e c o n o
m i c s t r u g g l e ; finally, t h e c l a s h b e t w e e n S t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s . . . .
U n b r i d l e d a m b i t i o n for d o m i n a t i o n h a s s u c c e e d e d t h e d e s i r e f o r
g a i n ; t h e w h o l e e c o n o m i c life h a s b e c o m e b a r d , c r u e l , a n d r e l e n t
l e s s in a g h a s t l y m e a s u r e . . . . T h e S t a t e . . . h a s b e c o m e a
s l a v e b o u n d o v e r to t h e s e r v i c e of h u m a n p a s s i o n a n d g r e e d . As
regards the relations of peoples among themselves a double stream
has issued forth, from this one fountain-head; on the one hand,
economic Nationalism or even economic Imperialism-; on the.
other, a not less noxious and detestable Internationalism or inter
national Imperialism in financial affairs, which holds that where
a man's fortune is, there is his country."
W h a t P o p e Pius XI m e a n s by " E c o n o m i c N a t i o n a l i s m or
I m p e r i a l i s m " is t h e a c t i o n of a S t a t e w h i c h p l a c e s its p o w e r
a t t h e s e r v i c e of s o m e of its f i n a n c i e r s a n d industrialists,
in o r d e r t o i n v a d e o r e v e n e n s l a v e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s e c o n o
mically. To take one example, a bitter struggle went on
for y e a r s for M e x i c a n oil b e t w e e n t h e Standard Oil Com
pany of America on t h e o n e side a n d t h e Mexican Eagle t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e Royal Dutch Shell r e p r e s e n t i n g the British E m p i r e on
t h e o t h e r . W e r e a d in The World-Struggle for ()il b y P . de la
y

T r a m a r y e , t h a t " T h e S t a n d a r d Oil p r a c t i c a l l y e n j o y e d a m o n o
p o l y in M e x i c o u p to t h e t i m e w h e n t h e d e p o s i t s a t T a m p i c o w e r e
d i s c o v e r e d . P r e s i d e n t D i a z , to p u t a n e n d to t h e m o n o p o l y , g r a n t
ed i m p o r t a n t c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e B r i t i s h firm of P e a r s o n , w h i c h
s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s f o u n d e d t h e Mexican Eagle. These concessions
w e r e t h e s i g n a l for t h e n e w s p a p e r c a m p a i g n w h i c h w a s let l o o s e
a g a i n s t P o r f i r i o D i a z in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d for t h e o u t b r e a k
of t h e M a d c r i s t i n s u r r e c t i o n in S o n o r a a n d C h i h u a h u a . Rocke
f e l l e r a n d P e a r s o n m a d e w a r on e a c h o t h e r w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e
M e x i c a n Condotfieri. T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s u p p o r t e d M a d e r o , Great.
B r i t a i n P o r f i r i o Diaz."<>

Those who wisli t o read more about the history of the s t r u g g l e for
Mexican oil w i l l find a n a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n i'n Ludwell D e n n y ' s
America Co/ujjie.rs Britain ( p p . 2-40-252). F o r the effect of the struggle on
religion and for Masonic r e s p o n s i b i l i t y j r e g a r d t o the religious' per-
n
 PROGRAMME OF KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 107

T H E RETURN" TO T H E GOSPEL.

S t . P a u l s u m s u p t h e G o s p e l a s t h e w o r k of r e - c a p i t u l a t i o n o r
( 5 0 )
r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of all t h i n g s in C h r i s t . The h u m a n race has
been given a new Head, the Second Adam. Under Him, through
s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e of t h e r o l e of H i s M y s t i c a l P o d y , t h e i n d i v i d u a l
m e m b e r s of t h e r a c e a r e t o b e b r o u g h t i n t o s u p e r n a t u r a l u n i o n
with the Blessed Trinity. I t is o n l y by t h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l u n i o n
that- a h u m a n b e i n g is fully in o r d e r in t h e a c t u a l w o r l d . We
h a v e j u s t s e e n in o u t l i n e w h a t social a c c e p t a n c e of t h e D i v i n e
Plan entails. I t is s i m p l y t h e g e n e r a l p r o g r a m m e of t h e r e i g n
of C h r i s t t h e K i n g w h i c h h a s b e e n e l a b o r a t e d b y H i s C h u r c h , in t h e
c o u r s e of c e n t u r i e s , in v i e w of e n a b l i n g all m e n t o live a s u p e r
n a t u r a l life, in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n of s u b m i s s i o n to
t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y a l o n g w i t h C h r i s t in H o l y M a s s . B y the s a c r a
m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r of B a p t i s m , t h e s o u l - s t r u c t u r e of e a c h i n d i v i d u a l
is m a d e c o n f o r m a b l e t o t h a t of O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t a n d is e n
a b l e d t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life of t h e H e a d , a s a p l a n t
b y i t s i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e is f i t t e d for t h e p r o c e s s of i n c o r p o r a t i n g
i n t o i t s e l f t h e e l e m e n t s of v e g e t a t i v e life. N o w , j u s t a s a p l a n t
n e e d s a f a v o u r a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r its d e v e l o p m e n t , so d o c s t h e
S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of t h e b a p t i z e d C h r i s t i a n . I t is w i t h a v i e w t o
c r e a t i n g this favourable e n v i r o n m e n t that the Catholic Church lays
d o w n t h e p r i n c i p l e s of p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d
d r a w s the general conclusions therefrom, without, however, de
t e r m i n i n g t h e m o d e of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s 10 p a r
ticular circumstances.
T h u s , t h e C h u r c h d o e s n o t p r e f e r o n e of t h e t h r e e f o r m s of
G o v e r n m e n t , M o n a r c h y , A r i s t o c r a c y , or Democracy, to the others,
b u t s h e d o e s i n s i s t t h a t w h a t e v e r f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t a p e o p l e m a y
g i v e itself, C a e s a r s h a l l a c k n o w l e d g e t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r .
" T h e C h u r c h / ' w r i t e s P o p e L e o X I I I , " a l w a y s t h e g u a r d i a n of
h e r o w n r i g h t s a n d m o s t o b s e r v a n t of t h o s e of o t h e r s , h o l d s t h a t
it is n o t h e r p r o v i n c e t o d e c i d e w h i c h is t h e b e s t a m o n g s t m a n y

secution in Mexico, the books No God Next Door, by Rev. Michael

K e n n y , S.J., a n d Mexico, the Land of Mood-drenched Altars, by F r a n c i s
C. Kelly, s h o u l d be read. F r o m the Catholic Herald (London) of J a n .
24, 1941, we l e a r n t h a t the New York Herald Tribune h a d published
a recent a n n o u n c e m e n t of an offer by twenty U . S . b a n k e r s to p u t
M e x i c a n i n d u s t r i e s on their feet a g a i n by a loan of 100 million dollars.
<(
T h e p l a n is believed to be c o n t i n g e n t on action by P r e s i d e n t Camacho
to p r o t e c t profits a g a i n s t a n y a t t e m p t s to continue the Mexican revolu
tion."
(so) Cf. E p h e s i a n s , I . 3-10. " Blessed bo the God a n d F a t h e r of our
L o r d Jesus C h r i s t . . . Who h a t h p r e d e s t i n a t e d us unto the a d o p t i o n of
c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h J e s u s C h r i s t u n t o Himself . . . according to his good
pleasure, which he h a d purposed in him, in the d i s p e n s a t i o n of the
fulness of times- to re-establish all things in Christ, t h a t aro in heaven
a n d on e a r t h . "
108 THK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

d i v e r s e f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t a n d civil i n s t i t u t i o n s of C h r i s t i a n
S t a t e s , a n d a m i d t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s of S t a t e r u l e s h e d o e s n o t
d i s a p p r o v e of a n y , p r o v i d e d t h e r e s p e c t d u e t o r e l i g i o n a n d t h e
o b s e r v a n c e of g o o d m o r a l s b e u p h e l d . B y s u c h a s t a n d a r d of
c o n d u c t s h o u l d t h e t h o u g h t s a n d m o d e of a c t i n g of e v e r y C a t h o l i c
( 5 1 )
be d i r e c t e d . " A g a i n , t h e C h u r c h d o e s n o t s a y h o w c l a s s e s in
s c h o o l s s h o u l d be a r r a n g e d o r t i m e - t a b l e s p l a n n e d , b u t s h e d o e s
i n s i s t t h a t t h e w h o l e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a C a t h o l i c s c h o o l a n d i t s
t e a c h e r s , s y l l a b u s a n d t e x t - b o o k s in e v e r y b r a n c h s h o u l d p r o m o t e
f 5 2 J
t h e h a r m o n i o u s f o r m a t i o n of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . The Church
a l s o i n s i s t s u p o n t h e n e e d of p r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p of p r o p e r t y a n d
u p o n t h e f o r m a t i o n of g u i l d s o r v o c a t i o n a l g r o u p s , b u t " p r o v i d e d
t h a t t h e n a t u r a l and divine law be observed, t h e public a u t h o r i t y ,
in v i e w of t h e c o m m o n g o o d , m a y s p e c i f y m o r e a c c u r a t e l y w h a t
is licit a n d w h a t is illicit f o r p r o p e r t y - o w n e r s in t h e u s e of t h e i r
5 3 1
possessions.'^ T h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h s t a n d s for t h e i n t e g r a l o b
s e r v a n c e of t h e 7 t h C o m m a n d m e n t a n d c o n d e m n s u s u r y , b u t it is
n o t for the Church to indicate the precise m e t h o d by which this
is t o b e d o n e , o r t o l a y d o w n h o w s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e s is t o b e s e
c u r e d a n d a r b i t r a r y m a n i p u l a t i o n s of t h e v o l u m e of e x c h a n g e -
m e d i u m to be excluded.

T H E CHURCH'S P R O G R A M M E EOR T H E RIGHTS

OE GOD.
T h e X a t u r a l i s m of t h e F r e n c h R e s o l u t i o n w h i c h p u t t h e r i g h t s
of m a n in t h e p l a c e of t h e R i g h t s of G o d r e s u l t e d in t h e diffusion
of a n u m b e r of e r r o r s o p p o s e d t o t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r . As
all t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c a g e n c i e s so s k i l f u l l y m a r s h a l l e d by J e w r y a n d
F r e e m a s o n r y w o r k e d z e a l o u s l y for t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e s e
e r r o n e o u s d o c t r i n e s , m a n y C a t h o l i c s w e r e led a s t r a y . P o p e P i u s
IX c a t a l o g u e d t h e s e e r r o r s in t h e Syllabus, so g i v i n g Catholics
w h a t w e m a y call a negative t e s t o f fidelity to t h e K i n g s h i p of
C h r i s t . S i n c e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h a t s p l e n d i d d o c u m e n t , w i t h
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of w h i c h e v e r y C a t h o l i c s h o u l d be f a m i l i a r , t h e
s u c c e e d i n g P o p e s h a v e e l a b o r a t e d a positive p r o g r a m m e of r e s p e c t
for t h e R i g h t s of God by i n t e g r a l fidelity t o C h r i s t t h e K i n g .
T h e Supernatural Life of the Mystical Body lias b e e n t r e a t e d
of b y P o p e L e o X I I ! in his K n c y c l i c a l s on t h e R e u n i o n of C h r i s t e n -

Encyclical Letter, Sapientiae Ghristianae. Of. Encyclical L e t t e r ,

Immortalc Dei.
(52) Of. Encyclical L e t t e r , Divwi Jllius MagiMri. On the % Christian-
Education of Youth.
(53) P o p e P i u s X I , Encyclical L e t t e r , Quadragesima Anuo O the, x n

Social Order.
(54) T h e t e x t of the Syllabus a n d a brief c o m m e n t a r y on the e r r o r s
c o n t a i n e d in i t will he found in The Mystical Bod if of f'hrisf in- tin-
Modern World, p p . 120-142.
 P R O G R A M M E O F KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 109
55
dom< > a n d o n C h r i s t O u r Redeemer,<*g) a s w e l l a s b y P o p e P i u s
5 7
X I in h i s L e t t e r s o n R e p a r a t i o n t o t h e S a c r e d H e a r t / * a n d on
58
T r u e R e l i g i o u s U n i t y . < > T h e o b l i g a t i o n of social acceptance of
t h e D i v i n e P l a n h a s b e e n e x p l a i n e d b y P o p e L e o X I I I in h i s t e a c h
59 (60
i n g o n H u m a n L i b e r t y , < > t h e C h r i s t i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n of S t a t e s >
61
a n d t h e C h i e f D u t i e s of C h r i s t i a n s a s Citizens.* * Pope Pius X
G2
d e a l s w i t h t h e s a m e m a t t e r in h i s a d m i r a b l e L e t t e r o n t h e S i l I o n / >
, 6 3 )
a n d P o p e P i u s X I in his E n c y c l i c a l o n t h e P e a c e of C h r i s t .
T h e C a t h o l i c c o n c e p t of yatria or native land has been dealt
w i t h b y P o p e P i u s X I in h i s E n c y c l i c a l s on t h e K i n g s h i p of
6 4 6 5
C h r i s t / ) a n d on t h e T r o u b l e s of O u r T i m e s / * a f t e r P o p e L e o
( ( i G )
X I I I h a d s p o k e n of it in s u c h a d m i r a b l e t e r m s . Pope Pius XI
has stressed the sublime t r u t h t h a t Catholics m u s t look upon the
s t r u g g l e t o r e - c h r i s t i a n i z e p u b l i c life as a c o m b a t t o be w a g e d ,
u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of C h r i s t t h e K i n g , b y e v e r y m e m b e r of H i s
67
M y s t i c a l Body.< > H e h a s a l s o t r e a t e d of "the C h r i s t i a n S o c i a l Cell,
6 8 6 9
t h e F a m i l y / * f o l l o w i n g P o p e L e o X I I I / ) a n d of t h e P e r s o n a l i t y
of t h e C h i l d , in his l o f t y t e a c h i n g o n t h e C h r i s t i a n E d u c a t i o n of
7 0
Youth/ )
A p o s i t i v e economic programme with regard to p r o p e r t y , pro
d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d in t h e E n c v c l i c a l L e t
7 1 7 2 7 3 1
t e r s of P o p e s L e o X I I I / ) P i u s X / ) a n d P i u s X T / ' P o p e L e o .
(55) Praeclara G ratulationis Publicae.
(56) Tametsi.
(57) Miserentissimus Redemptor.
(58) Mortalium Animos. T h e b e a u t i f u l Encyclical L e t t e r of Pope
P i u s X I I , Mystici Corporis Ecclesiae, reached the p r e s e n t writer too
l a t e to be u t i l i z e d in t h i s book.
(59) Libertas.
t&O) lmmortale Dei,
61
< ) Sapientiae Christianae.
62 i!
< > T h i s L e t t e r stresses the folly of a t t e m p t i n g to establish upon
e a r t h above t h e head of the C a t h o l i c Church, the reign oi justice, a n d of
c h a r i t y by m e a n s of agents from everywhere, of all religions a n d of no
t

r e l i g i o n , with o r w i t h o u t creed, p r o v i d e d they forget what d i v i d e s them,

t h a t is, t h e i r r e l i g i o u s and philosophic convictions, and p r o v i d e d they
place a t the common service what u n i t e s them, namely, a noble idealism,
a n d m o r a l force d e r i v e d ' no m a t t e r whence.'
(63) Ubi Arcano Dei.
(64) Quas Primas.
(65) Garitate Ghristi Compidsi.
(66) Sapientiae Christianae.
(67) jj i Arcano Dei and Quas
D Primas.
68
f * Casti Connubii.
(69) Arcanum Divinae Sapientiae.
<70) Divini lllim Magistri.
?1
( ) Serum No varum. On the Condition of the Working Classes, a n d
Graves de Commwni, On Christian Democracy.
(72) f{ n Dalla Prima, On the Social Question : Singuhiri Qnadam,
On Working men's Associations, Catholic and Mixed; 11 Per mo Pro-
posito. On Christian Social Action.
<73) Quadragesimo Anno, On the Reconstruction- of Society.
 110 TIIIC M Y S T I C A L BODY 01* C H R I S T

X I I F p o i n t e d o u t t h a t u s u r y h a d c o m e b a c k in a n o t h e r g u i s e a n d
C 7 4 )
t h a t it w a s l e a d i n g t o t h e e n s l a v e m e n t of t h e m a n y b y t h e f e w .
P o p e P i u s XI s h o w s t h a t t h e evil r e s u l t s of u s u r y a n d t h e c o n t r o l
of w h a t is called c r e d i t h a v e g r o w n a p a c e s i n c e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of
ttemnt. XnrannnW) Not only individuals are n o w enslaved but
S t a t e s t h e m s e l v e s a r c in t h e p o w e r of t h o s e w h o c o n t r o l f i n a n c e .
In t h e s p h e r e of international relations, Pope Benedict X V
s e n t a P e a c e N o t e t o t h e l e a d e r s of t h e b e l l i g e r e n t p e o p l e s e n g a g
ed in t h e W o r l d W a r , on A u g u s t 1st, 1917, o u t l i n i n g c o n c r e t e p r o
p o s a l s a s t h e b a s i s for a j u s t a n d d u r a b l e p e a c e . T h e P o p e ' s p l a n
w a s r e j e c t e d a n d a n a t u r a l i s t i c L e a g u e of N a t i o n s w a s set u p f r o m
(7<i)
w h i c h t h e Y i e a r of C h r i s t w a s r i g i d l y e x c l u d e d . In 1940, w h e n
t h e w o r l d is a g a i n at w a r , it is p a t h e t i c t o r e a d t h e c o n t e m p t u o u s
t e r m s in w h i c h t h e M a s o n i c P r e s i d e n t of t h e L n i t e d S t a t e s d i s
m i s s e d Pope Benedict's P e a c e P l a n . " T o deal w i t h such a p o w e r
( G e r m a n y I/' w r o t e P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n , " b y w a y of p e a c e , u p o n t h e
p l a n p r o p o s e d b y His H o l i n e s s , w o u l d , a s far a s w e c a n s e e , i n v o l v e
a r e c u p e r a t i o n of its s t r e n g t h a n d a r e n e w a l of its policy, a n d w o u l d
m a k e it n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e a p e r m a n e n t h o s t i l e c o m b i n a t i o n of
the Nations against the G e r m a n people w h o are its instru
, , ( 7 7
ments, > T h e P e a c e of V e r s a i l l e s a n d t h e L e a g u e of N a t i o n s ,
inspired by pure N a t u r a l i s m , have certainly not a v e r t e d the w a r
o n 'dceoum of w h i c h P o p e B e n e d i c t X V ' s p l a n w a s h a u g h t i l y c a s t
aside. P o p e P i u s XI p o i n t e d o u t , in t h e K n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , 0?? the
Peace of Christ in the Kingdom of Christ, t h a t t h e o n e h o p e of
i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e a n d c o n c o r d lies in t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e m o r a l
a u t h o r i t y of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . " I t a l o n e , " he w r o t e , " i s a b l e
t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p e a c e of C h r i s t , n o t o n l y at t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , b u t
a l s o to c o n s o l i d a t e it for t h e f u t u r e , by a v e r t i n g t h o s e n e w d a n g e r s
of w a r to which W e h a v e ^already r e f e r r e d . "

J?< rum Xovaruin.

f
75j Qvadragesimo Anno a n d Cariiate Christi Compulsi.
7tl
< > Cf. Socief-e dt.x Nations, Supcr-iutat Moron tii que, by Leon de
P o n c i n s . He shows t h a t the destruction of the A u s t r i a n E m p i r e as well
as the s e t t i n g u p of the L e a g u e of N a t i o n s was systematically p r e p a r e d
at a Masonic Congress held at P a r i s in J u n e , 1917.
t77) Benedict A T , Pope of Peace, by Rev. H . E. G. Rope, M.A. On
p a g e s 12(> a n d 1-27 of this work F a t h e r Rope alludes to the well-known
efforts of the Czecks, M a s a r y k a n d Benes, to s e t the G r e a t W a r p r o
l o n g e d in 1 9 1 7 and the peace proposals of the E m p e r o r Charles of
A u s t r i a rejected. Benes avowed t h a t he p r e f e r r e d the Anschluss w i t h
G e r m a n y (o the p r e s e r v a t i o n of what r e m a i n e d of the K i n g s h i p of
C h r i s t in the A u s t r i a n E m p i r e . H e has had the Anschluss since. I t is
n o t q u i t e certain t h a t Masaryk was a Ma-son t h o u g h he always favoured
N a t u r a l i s m , b u t the Masonic c h a r a c t e r of Benes seems c e r t a i n . Cf.
A r t i c l e in R.T.S.S., Nov. 1, 1 9 3 7 . t

F o r the Proofs of the Masonic c h a r a c t e r of P r e s i d e n t Wilson, see

the d o c u m e n t s quoted in Lps Pourquoi de la Gturre Mandiale, bv Mgr.
IT. P e l a s s u s , vol. I I , p p . 391-393.
 P R O G R A M M E OP KINGS!Ill' OP CHRIST 111
The Catholic Church, then, is always aiming at permeating
social organization with the sense of the reality of the Superna
tural Life and of the oneness of the Divine Plan for its mainten
ance and diffusion. Through the Church, God wants to draw all
men into union with Our Lord in the renewal of the expression
of submission of Calvary in Holy Mass, and lie wants that wor
ship animated with the highest possible degree of supernatural
charity springing from Sanctifying Grace. Accordingly, He wants
society to be organized under Christ the King so as to draw as
many as possible into membership of Christ and to favour develop
ment of the Life of Sanctifying Grace that comes from Him.
Every member of Christ proclaims at Holy Mass that be intends
to work for the acceptance of the programme of Christ the King
in its integrity. Thus alone will the Rights of God, our Heavenly
Father, be fully acknowledged and the development of human
personality be adequately safeguarded.
It would be a sign of hope for the future if we had come to
the end of the period of exclusion of the Sovereign Pontiff from
the counsels of nations. The end, however, has not \ e t been
reached. At the First Hague Conference the Papacy was excluded
from the deliberations. "Again at the second Hague Confeience
in 1907, the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International
Disputes precluded the Holy Sec from officially subscribing to the
rules for mediation and arbitration. Article 94 of that Convention
laid down that the conditions on which uninvited Powers might
subsequently be invited to adhere to the Convention should be
decided by further agreement ("Pobjef d'une entente nlterienre")
among the contracting Powers. Such further agreement is still in
the future."
The Secret Treaty of London of April 26th, 1915, is one of the
most shameful incidents of modern times. Under this secret treaty,
Italy, which was at the time bitterly Judaeo-Masonic and anti-
Catholic, agreed to come in on the side of the Allies, on certain
conditions. Clause 15 of the Treaty reads:
"France, Great Britain and Russia undertake to support Italy,
in so far as she does not permit the representatives of the Holy
See to take diplomatic action with regard to the conclusion of the
peace and the regulation of questions connected with the war."
Clause 16 says: "The present Treaty is to be kept secret."
The Treaty was signed in four copies by Sir Edward Grey (Eng
land), Jules Cambon (France), Imperiali (Italy), and Beckendorff
(Russia).

(78) The Cathoh'r Church and International Order, b y A. C. F.

Beales.
 112 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

APPENDIX.

POPK BENEDICT XV'S PEACE PROPOSALS,

AUGUST 1, 1917.
7
ARBITRATION AND DIMINUTION O F A R M A M E N T S .

F i r s t , the fundamental point should be t h a t the moral force

of r i g h t s h o u l d r e p l a c e t h e m a t e r i a l f o r c e of a r m s ; h e n c e a j u s t
a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n all f o r t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s a n d r e c i p r o c a l d i m i n u
t i o n of a r m a m e n t s , a c c o r d i n g t o r u l e s a n d g u a r a n t e e s t o b e e s t a b
l i s h e d , t o t h e e x t e n t n e c e s s a r y a n d sufficient f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of
p u b l i c o r d e r in e a c h S t a t e ; t h e n , in t h e p l a c e of a r m i e s , t h e e s t a b
l i s h m e n t of a r b i t r a t i o n w i t h i t s e x a l t e d p a c i f y i n g f u n c t i o n , o n l i n e s
to be concerted and w i t h sanctions to be settled a g a i n s t a n y S t a t e
t h a t should refuse either to s u b m i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l questions t o
a r b i t r a t i o n or to accept its a w a r d s .

FREEDOM OF T H E SEAS.

T h e s u p r e m a c y of r i g h t o n c e e s t a b l i s h e d l e t e v e r y o b s t a c l e b e
r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c h a n n e l s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e s ,
b y e n s u r i n g , u n d e r r u l e s l i k e w i s e t o b e laid d o w n , t h e t r u e f r e e
d o m a n d c o m m o n e n j o y m e n t of t h e s e a s . T h i s w o u l d , o n t h e o n e
h a n d , r e m o v e m a n i f o l d c a u s e s of conflict, a n d w o u l d o p e n , o n t h e
o t h e r , f r e s h s o u r c e s of p r o s p e r i t y a n d p r o g r e s s t o all.

CONDONATION O F DAMAGES AND COST OF W A R .

A s t o t h e r e p a r a t i o n of d a m a g e a n d t o t h e c o s t s of w a r , W e
see n o w a y to solve t h e q u e s t i o n save by l a y i n g d o w n , as a g e n e r a l
principle, complete and reciprocal condonation, which would, m o r e
over, be justified by the i m m e n s e benefits t h a t w o u l d accrue from
d i s a r m a m e n t ; all t h e m o r e , s i n c e t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of s u c h c a r n a g e
solely for e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s w o u l d be i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . If, in
c e r t a i n cases, t h e r e exist, n e v e r t h e l e s s , special reasons, let t h e m
be weighed-with justice and equity.

EVACUATION O F OCCUPIED TERRITORIES.

B u t t h e s e pacific a g r e e m e n t s , w i t h t h e i m m e n s e a d v a n t a g e s
t h e y e n t a i l , a r e i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e s t i t u t i o n of
t e r r i t o r i e s n o w o c c u p i e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n t h e p a r t of G e r m a n y ,
t h e r e s h o u l d be t h e c o m p l e t e e v a c u a t i o n of B e l g i u m , w i t h a g u a r
a n t e e of h e r full p o l i t i c a l , m i l i t a r y , a n d e c o n o m i c i n d e p e n d e n c e to*
w a r d s all P o w e r s w h a t s o e v e r ; l i k e w i s e t h e e v a c u a t i o n of F r e n c h
t e r r i t o r y . C n t h e p a r t of t h e o t h e r b e l l i g e r e n t p a r t i e s , t h e r e s h o u l d
b e a s i m i l a r r e s t i t u t i o n of t h e G e r m a n c o l o n i e s .
 P R O G R A M M E O F K I N G S H I P OF C H R I S T 113

FAIR SETTLEMENT OF TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS.

A s r e g a r d s territorial q u e s t i o n s like t h o s e at i s s u e b e t w e e n
I t a l y a n d A u s t r i a , a n d b e t w e e n G e r m a n y and F r a n c e , t h e r e is
r e a s o n t o h o p e t h a t in c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the i m m e n s e a d v a n t a g e s
of a l a s t i n g p e a c e w i t h d i s a r m a m e n t , the parties in conflict will
e x a m i n e t h e m in a c o n c i l i a t o r y spirit, t a k i n g a c c o u n t , in t h e
m e a s u r e o f w h a t is j u s t a n d p o s s i b l e , a s W e h a v e b e f o r e said, o f
t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e s and, a s o c c a s i o n m a y offer, c o
o r d i n a t i n g p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s w i t h t h e g e n e r a l w e a l of the g r e a t
human society.
T h e s a m e spirit of e q u i t y a n d j u s t i c e m u s t r e i g n in the s t u d y
of the o t h e r territorial a n d political q u e s t i o n s , n o t a b l y t h o s e r e l a t
i n g t o A r m e n i a , the B a l k a n S t a t e s , and t o the t e r r i t o r i e s f o r m i n g
part o f t h e a n c i e n t K i n g d o m of P o l a n d , t o w h i c h , i n particular, i t s
n o b l e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s a n d t h e sufferings e n d u r e d , e s p e c i a l l y
d u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t w a r , o u g h t j u s t l y t o a s s u r e the s y m p a t h i e s o f
nations.
S u c h a r e t h e principal b a s e s u p o n w h i c h W e b e l i e v e t h e f u t u r e
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p e o p l e s s h o u l d b e founded. T h e y a r e s u c h a s t o
r e n d e r i m p o s s i b l e a r e t u r n o f s i m i l a r conflicts, and t o prepare t h e
s o l u t i o n o f t h e e c o n o m i c q u e s t i o n , s o i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e future
and the m a t e r i a l w e l f a r e of all t h e b e l l i g e r e n t S t a t e s .
 C H A P T E R V.

THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS AND THE KINGSHTP

OF CHRIST IN ITS INTEGRITY.
T H E RELATION H E T W E E N T H E MASS AND
T H E KINGSHTP O F CHRIST.

We have seen, then, that God's aim is lo come to dwell in

human souls in the Trinity of His Persons, through membership
of Our Lord's Mystical liody. ll is for that the world exists and
it is to promote that indwelling that He wants to draw all into
union with Our Lord in the fervent offering of the Holy Sacri
fice of the Mass. In order to favour union with Christ as Priest
in Holy Mass, God wants the world organized under Christ as
King. We have seen, too, something of what the order of the
world would be like if the Rights of God and of Christ the King
were fully acknowledged. We shall now see that at Holy Mass
all Christ's members express the determination to strive for the
integral realization of the Rights of God and of Christ the King
in the world. Thus, the more fully the Kingship of Christ is
realized, the more abundantly the life of Christ the Priest will
be diffused, and the more ardently union with Christ the Priest
in Holy Mass is cultivated, the more eagerly will His members
strive to have God's Rights acknowledged. On the other hand,
the rejection of God's Rights and of the Kingship of Christ will
lead to corruption and decay in society and, in proportion as minds
lose their hold on the great truth of membership of Christ, t o the
treatment of human beings not as persons but as mere individuals.
By the character of Baptism, we are one with Our Lord in
the unity of His Mystical P>ody, and the very character by which
wc are incorporated into that sublime unity is a certain participa
tion in His Priesthood. So when Our Lord renews the act of
submission of Calvary on the Altar, lie renews it as He now is,
that is, as Head of that Mystical Pody in which all the baptized
are one with Him. On the Cross, Christ was alone. His mem
bers were engrafted on Ilim only potentially. At the Altar, Pie
is no longer alone: it is the "whole Christ/' to use St. Augus
tine's phrase, that is, Christ and His members, who now offers
sacrifice to the Plessed Trinity, the members being co-offerers
with the Invisible Principal Offerer and His visible ministerial
 MASS AND K I N G S H I P OF CHRIST 115

offerer, t h e priest. A n d w e can be co-offerers, b e c a u s e the char

a c t e r of B a p t i s m is a p a r t i c i p a t i o n on o u r level in t h e P r i e s t
h o o d of O u r L o r d , e n a b l i n g u s t o l o o k u p o n C h r i s t ' s a c t of s u b
m i s s i o n o n t h e A l t a r a s o u r s a n d u n i t e o u r a c t of s u b m i s s i o n
w i t h H i s . T h e s u p r e m e f u n c t i o n of C h r i s t a s P r i e s t is t h e H o l y
Sacrifice of t h e M a s s , in w h i c h t h e w h o l e M y s t i c a l B o d y p r o
fesses i t s r e a d i n e s s t o s t a n d a s H e did for H i s i n t e g r a l p r o g r a m m e
for o r d e r . F o r t h a t p r o g r a m m e H e w a s o b e d i e n t u n t o d e a t h on
Calvary. All t h e b a p t i z e d a r e c a l l e d u p o n t o u n i t e a c t i v e l y in
e x p r e s s i n g s u b m i s s i o n t o G o d t h e F a t h e r in Floly M a s s a n d in
a n i m a t i n g t h a t s u b m i s s i o n w i t h all t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l l o v e of t h e i r
( 1 ) r
hearts. N o w t h e will of t h e I a t h e r is a l w a y s t h e s a m e : " T h i s
is M y b e l o v e d S o n ; h e a r y e H i m " ( S t . L u k e , I X , 3 5 ) . Every
m e m b e r of C h r i s t b y h i s a s s i s t a n c e a t M a s s d e c l a r e s his r e a d i
n e s s t o s t a n d for t h e i n t e g r a l p r o g r a m m e of t h e R i g h t s of God,
for w h i c h t h e H e a d of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y s u f f e r e d d e a t h .
C h r i s t ' s m e m b e r s a r e m e a n t to b e l o n g to H i m entirely. T h e y
o u g h t to c o m e forth from M a s s d e t e r m i n e d to m a i n t a i n h a r m o n y
b e t w e e n the submission to God the F a t h e r they have expressed
i n t h e H o l y Sacrifice a n d t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l lives. T h e y s h o u l d be
r e s o l v e d , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of C h r i s t t h e K i n g , t o p e r m e a t e
t h e w h o l e s o c i a l life of t h e S t a t e a n d c o u n t r y , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o
m i c , w i t h t h e s p i r i t of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y , s o t h a t it m a y n o t o n l y
n o t h a m p e r t h e i r e f f o r t s a n d t h e e f f o r t s of t h e i r f e l l o w - m e m b e r s
to live t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , b u t m a y f a v o u r
them. All C a t h o l i c s a r e , b y t h e fact of t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p of
C h r i s t , w h o l e - t i m e C h r i s t i a n s , a n d s h o u l d be i n t i m a t e l y c o n v i n c e d
of t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y w i t h C h r i s t a n d w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w - m e m b e r s of
H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y in t h e r e a l l y v i t a l s t r u g g l e t h a t is g o i n g on
in t h e w o r l d . Their attitude, when leaving the Church after
M a s s , is n o t i n t e n d e d to. be m e r e l y t h e negative o n e of n o t a l l o w
i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o be c a r r i e d in t h e d i r e c t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m b y
t h e c u r r e n t of life a r o u n d t h e m , b u t t h e positive o n e of s t r i v i n g
to o r g a n i z e t h e w h o l e f r a m e w o r k of s o c i e t y u n d e r C h r i s t the
K i n g a n d of i m p r e g n a t i n g t h e S t a l e , f a m i l y - l i f e , e d u c a t i o n a n d
e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n , w i t h t h e g r e a t t r u t h of h u m a n s o l i d a r i t y

_U) " T h e faithful [member of C h r i s t ] has a twofold d e s t i n y ; prim

arily a n d p r i n c i p a l l y , he is d e s t i n e d to be a d m i t t e d to the Beatific
Vision, a n d for thi> he is s t a m p e d with the seal of D i v i n e Grace . . . .
secondly, he is destined to receive and to deliver to others whatever
concerns the worship of God, a n d for this purpose he is stamped with
the s a c r a m e n t a l character. Now the whole rite of the C h r i s t i a n religion
is d e r i v e d from the Priesthood of Christ. Accordingly, i t is clear t h a t
the s a c r a m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r is in an especial way the c h a r a c t e r of Christ,
to whose P r i e s t h o o d the faithful a r e conformed by the s a c r a m e n t a l char
acters, which a r e n o t h i n g else t h a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n s after a c e r t a i n fashion
in the P r i e s t h o o d of C h r L t , d e r i - v d from Christ H i m s e l f " ( I l i a P.,
Q.63, a.3).
116 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
(2
in Christ's Mystical Body. > Their co-operation with Our Lord
is meant to enable Him, since He condescends to make use of
them, to permeate all forms of human activity, social and in
dividual, with the life of that supranational, supernatural organiz
ation, the Catholic Church. True members of Christ will feel
fully at ease in any State or Nation only when the great realities
of the loss of our Supernatural Life by the Fall and of its restor
ation by membership of the Mystical Body of Christ are acknow
ledged in the social structure of that State or Nation. Every
thing that savours of Naturalism or Anti-Supernaturalism will
have for them an odour of decay and death.
It is quite true that States or Nations do not go to heaven.
Human beings go to heaven one by one, to live in the intimacy
of the Blessed Trinity in the enjoyment of the Beatific Vision.
But the individual member of society lives under the never-ceasing
influence of his social surroundings. If Catholics content them
selves with merely inculcating the individual practice of religion
and do not seek to mould the world for Christ the King, then the
social institutions, even of countries with a Catholic majority,
will be moulded by the well-organized visible and invisible
naturalistic and anti-supernatural forces, of whose activities
many Catholics seem to be unaware. The average member of
society will then fall a ready prey to Naturalism. He will grad
ually cease to live as a member of Christ, though he may retain
some Christian customs as remnants of a once Christian out
look. Satan profits by the lack of watchfulness and energy on
the part of Catholics in regard to social organization, and by
the help of his visible subordinates, he injects the poison of
Naturalism into the social organism. Thus it has oftentimes
happened that revolutionaries, aiming at the violent installation
of a naturalistic regime, have succeeded in overthrowing the rule
of Christ the King in countries nominally Catholic, on account
of the preliminary work of corruption and weakening, system
atically carried out by the press, the cinema, the school and the
stock-exchange.
On the one hand, then, Catholics, faithful to what they pro-
fess at Mass, must ever strive to permeate the framework of
society with the influence of the Supernatural Life. In this way
the ordinary man will be helped to act always as a member of
Christ and will not find himself, from the moment he leaves the
<2) We have already seen the meaning of Naturalism in Chapter I.
it was there defined as the attitude of mind which denies the reality
of the Divine Life of Grace and of our Fall therefrom with our con
sequent liability to revolt, against the order of the Divine Life, when
it has been restored to us by our membership of Christ. This attitude
of mind also maintains (hat all social life should be organized on the
basis of the non-existence of any life higher than our natural life.
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 117

C h u r c h a f t e r M a s s , u r g e d b y a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l c u r r e n t s to revolt
a g a i n s t h i s m o s t r e a l life. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , C a t h o l i c social in
s t i t u t i o n s , g r e a t t h o u g h t h e i r i n f l u e n c e m a y b e , d o n o t suffice t o
m a i n t a i n s o c i e t y fully C a t h o l i c . T h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e r e q u i s i t e is a
f o r m a t i o n of t h e y o u t h of b o t h s e x e s t h o r o u g h l y p e n e t r a t e d w i t h
t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y a s a m i g h t y l i v i n g o r g a n i s m
e v e r s e e k i n g to b r i n g t h e w o r l d i n t o union w i t h Christ and through
( 3 J
Christ with the Blessed T r i n i t y . T h a t f o r m a t i o n a l o n e will
e n s u r e w h a t w e h a v e c a l l e d " w h o l e - t i m e C a t h o l i c i s m " a n d will
e n a b l e all t o d r a w f r o m t h e i r u n i o n w i t h O u r L o r d in M a s s a n d
H o l y C o m m u n i o n t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l love required to diffuse
t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y t h e s e n s e of s o l i d a r i t y in C h r i s t a n d of t h e
i n d w e l l i n g of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y in s o u l s , t h r o u g h i n c o r p o r a t i o n
i n t o C h r i s t . O u r L o r d will p o u r H i s L i f e i n t o s o u l s in H o l y C o m
m u n i o n , in p r o p o r t i o n a s t h e y a r e t h u s o n e w i t h H i m in m i n d a n d
w i l l , f o r p r o g r e s s in p e r s o n a l s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o r g r o w t h in h o l i n e s s
is s i m p l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s p i r i t of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y .
It w a s t h e s e n s e of t h e i r o n e n e s s w i t h t h e i r c o - o f f e r e r s a n d c o -
v i c t i m s w i t h C h r i s t in t h e M a s s t h a t s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e C a t h o l i c s
of t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s for t h e l o n g s t r u g g l e for t h e r e c o g n i t i o n
of t h e R i g h t s of G o d a n d t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t in t h e i r i n t e g r i t y .
I t w a s t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b o d i e s of t h e b a p t i z e d
a r e t h e m e m b e r s of C h r i s t t h a t b r o u g h t f o r t h t h o s e l o v e l y f l o w e r s
of c h a s t i t y a m i d s t t h e t h o r n s of p a g a n i s m , i n t h e d e c a d e n t
R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e s a m e i n s p i r i n g t r u t h is
n e e d e d in o r d e r t o w i t h s t a n d t h e s y s t e m a t i c p r o p a g a t i o n of selfish
ness a n d i m p u r i t y to w h i c h y o u n g people a r e subjected n o w a d a y s ,
a n d t o b e g i n t h e c o u n t e r - a t t a c k . F o r t h e r e t u r n of s o c i a l j u s t i c e
in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , t h e s a m e g r e a t t r u t h m u s t b e u n c e a s i n g l y
insisted upon. If w e define s o c i a l j u s t i c e in t h e m e m b e r s of a
s o c i e t y a s t h e v i r t u e b y w h i c h t h e m e m b e r s of a s o c i e t y a r e e n
a b l e d t o d i r e c t all t h e i r a c t i o n s t o w a r d s t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e
s o c i e t y , w e c a n h o p e f o r i t s t r i u m p h o v e r t h e cold, c a l c u l a t i n g
N a t u r a l i s m of L i b e r a l i s t i c I n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d o v e r t h e h a r s h , b r u t a l
11
(3) C h r i s t ' s i n c o r p o r a t e d member m u s t c o n t i n u e to grow u p i n
C h r i s t i n o r d e r t o become more a n d more conformable t o H i m . B u t
the v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h H i m includes far more t h a n this personal
s i d e ; the life in C h r i s t also signifies a p a r t i c i p a t i o n in^ H i s apostolic
work, in H i s mission. The object of the i n c o r p o r a t i o n is to u n i t e the
members a s such w i t h H i m , e n a b l i n g them t o grow u p ' u n t o t h e m e a s u r e
of the age of the fulness' of the H e a d : its f u r t h e r object being to help
them to live for C h r i s t a n d to co-operate with H i m for the increase
of the Mystical Christ. . . T h r o u g h the c h a r a c t e r of the sacraments,
each member is d e s t i n e d a n d qualified to co-operate actively with the
work of Christ. I n c o r p o r a t i o n , corresponding^ to the degree of sacra
m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r , enables t h e member t o s h a r e i n the d i g n i t y of Christ,
but i t also places him u n d e r the o b l i g a t i o n , as an i n s t r u m e n t of Christ, to
labour for the other members a n d for the g r o w t h of the whole body "
(Thp 3f retired Body of Christ, by D r . F . J u r g e n s m e i e r , pp. 225, 226).
118 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Naturalism of Materialistic Collectivism, only when Christ's*

members have again grown accustomed t o their solidarity i n Him.
When once men realize that what is done for their fellow-men i s
done for Christ and to Christ, they will readily see that social life
must be s o organized that each member of Christ may have a just
and fair opportunity of living in accordance with his sublime dig
nity. It was the realization of the great truth of the slaves'
membership of Christ that gradually brought about the abolition
of slavery in the ancient world. "It was Christianity," wrote
Pope Pius XI, " that first affirmed the real and universal brother
hood of all men of whatever race and condition. This doctrine the
Church proclaimed by a method, and with an amplitude and con
viction, unknown to preceding centuries: and with it she power
fully contributed to the abolition of slavery. Not bloody revolu
tion, but the inner force of the Church's teaching made the proud
Roman matron see in her slave a sister in Christ. It is Christian
ity that adores the Son of God, made Man for the love of man,
and become not only the ' S o n of a Carpenter' but Himself ' a
carpenter II was Christianity that raised manual labour t o
5
its true dignity."* ' The practical living of the same great truth
of our membership of Christ will be required in order to avert the
return of a worse form o f slavery in the modern world.

UNIFYING INFLUKNCK O F T H K MYSTICAL ISODY.

With the growth of fuller comprehension of the doctrine of
the Mystical Body and the spread of a more intense desire to live
life fully as members of Christ, we may hope to see many practical
consequences in the international sphere as well as in the national
life of peoples. Our Lord in the Blessed Eucharist, the Plead of
the Mystical Body, whom all His members receive in separate
hosts, is not many Chrisls but One, coming to give Himself to all.
that all may be one in Ilim in mind and will. Pope Leo XIII
emphasizes this truth at great length in the Encyclical Letter
on the Most Holy Eucharist. " This then," he writes, "is what
Christ intended when He instituted this venerable Sacrament,
namely, by awakening charity towards God, to promote mutual
charity among men. For the latter, as is plain, is by its very
nature rooted in the former, and springs from it by a kind of
spontaneous growth. Nor is it possible that there should be any
lack of charity among men, o r rather it must need* be enkindled
and flourish, if men would but ponder well the charity which Christ
has shown in this sacrament Having before our eyes tru>
noble example set us by Christ. Who bestows on us all that He
has, assuredly we ought to love and help one another t o the ut-
<*> Cf. St. Matthew, XTTT, 5 5 : S t . Mark. V I . 3.
Encyclical Lc(l<r, Dirt799 1{rjlemptnri&, O
tl J / V Cnmimnntw
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 119

most, being daily more strongly united by the strong bond of

brotherhood.
"Add to this that the external and visible elements of this
Sacrament supply a singularly appropriate stimulus to union. On
this topic St. Cyprian writes: 'In a word, the Lord's sacrifice
symbolizes the oneness of heart, guaranteed by a persevering and
inviolable charity, which should prevail among Christians. For
when Our Lord calls His Body bread, a substance which is kneaded
together out of many grains, He indicates that we His people,
whom He sustains, are bound together in close union; and when He
speaks of His Blood as wine, in which the juice pressed from
many clusters of grapes is mingled in one liquid, He likewise
indicates that we, His flock, are by the commingling of a multi
tude of persons made o n e ' (Ep. 96 ad Magnum, n.S). In like
manner the Angelic Doctor, adopting the sentiments of St. Augus
tine {Tract XXVI, in Joann., nn. 13, 17), writes, 'Our Lord has
bequeathed to us His Body and Blood under the form of sub
stances in which a multitude of things have been reduced to unity,
for one of them, namely bread, consisting as it does of many
grains, is yet one, and the other, that is to say, wine, has iis unity
of being from the united juice of many grapes; and therefore
St. Augustine elsewhere says: ' O Sacrament of Mercy, O Sign
of Unity, O Bond of Charity!' (Ilia P., Q.79, a.l). All of which
is confirmed by the declaration of the Council of Trent that Christ
left the Eucharist to His Church 'as a symbol of that unity and"
charity whereby He would have all Christians mutually joined and
united . . . . a symbol of that one body of which He is Himself
the Head, and to which Pie would have us, as members, attached
by the closest bonds of faith, hope, and charity' (Cone. Tricl, Sess.
XIII, 1 De Eucharist, c. 2). The same idea had been expressed
by St. Paul when he wrote: 'For we, being many, are one bread,
( 6 )
one body, all we who partake of the one bread' (I Cor., X, 17)."
As the unifying influence of Our Lord makes itself felt, we may
expect that Catholics all over the world will come to realize that
the unity of the Mystical Body is infinitely stronger than national
unity, that, for example, the supernatural unity between French
and German Catholics, resulting from the character of baptism,
is on an infinitely higher level than the unity between Germans
with German?, or French with French, on the merely natural na
tional level. St. Paul stresses the paramount character of this
solidarity, when he insists that natural distinctions disappear, as
it were, in comparison with it: "Where there is neither Gentile
nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, Barbarian nor Scythian,
bond nor free. But Christ is all, and in all " (Coloss., Ill, 11). The
Apostle did not. of course, mean to convey that the distinctions

W Encyclical Letter. Mirae Caritatis. On the Most Holy Eucharist.

 120 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
or the duties resulting from them disappeared in fact, for he lays
stress upon the reciprocal obligations of master and servant in
the Epistle to Philemon, but he wanted to bring home to all that
our oneness in Christ causes all the distinctions on a lower level
to dwindle into insignificance. It is only want of familiarity with
St. Paul's teaching on the Mystical Body that makes the text of
Pope Pius XI, already quoted in Chapter I, about our brother
hood in the Mystical Body being infinitely more sacred and more
precious than the brotherhood of humanity and of fatherland, seem
exaggerated to us.
The deepening of the conviction of this supernatural solidarity
will lead to a realization of the subordinate place of nationality as
a force of inspiration, but, while stressing the infinite distance
separating the natural from the supernatural, it will not deny
it fitting recognition. It is important also to point out that the
exaggerated place taken by nationality in men's lives to-day is
in part due to the need for national reactions against the cor
rupting and deforming influence of the naturalistic supranational-
ism of Jewry and Freemasonry which, since the French Revo-
tion, has usurped the place of the supernatural, supranational in
fluence of the Mystical Body. Love of country is a noble senti
ment arid there is an ordered love of our native land as of our
own race, and of their glory, which will be respectful of their due
subordination to the Mystical Body of Christ. It is true that
Satan has frequently tried to use Nationalism for his purposes,
yet when Catholics quote from Papal Encyclicals about the evils
of exaggerated Nationalism, they must not leave out of consider
ation the complementary texts wherein the Popes insist on legiti
mate love of country, and they must bear in mind the need for
a reaction against the corruption and deformation resulting from
Naturalism.
The knowledge and love of our solidarity in Christ will combat
effectively the terrible evils of the class-war, so sedulously cul
tivated by naturalistic supranationalists, in view of the enslave
ment of workingmen for their own ends. Pope Leo XIII stresses
the fact that it was to promote charity and union among men
that Our Lord instituted the Blessed Eucharist: "If any one," he
writes, " will diligently examine into the causes of the evils of
our day, he will find that they arise from this, that as charity
towards God has grown cold, the mutual charity of men among
themselves has likewise cooled. Men have forgotten that they
are children of God and brethren in Jesus Christ: they care for
nothing except their own individual interests: the interests and
the rights of others they not only make light of, bfit often attack
and invade. Hence frequent disturbances and strife between class
and class: arrogance, oppression, fraud on the part of the more
powerful: misery, envy, and turbulence among the poor. These
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 121

a r e e v i l s f o r w h i c h it is in v a i n t o s e e k a r e m e d y in l e g i s l a t i o n .
. . . O u r chief c a r e . . . o u g h t t o be . . . t o s e c u r e t h e u n i o n
of c l a s s e s in a m u t u a l i n t e r c h a n g e of d u t i f u l s e r v i c e s , a u n i o n
w h i c h , h a v i n g i t s o r i g i n in G o d , shall i s s u e in d e e d s t h a t reflect
t h e t r u e s p i r i t of J e s u s C h r i s t a n d a g e n u i n e c h a r i t y . T h i s c h a r i t y
C h r i s t b r o u g h t i n t o t h e w o r l d , w i t h it H e w o u l d h a v e all h e a r t s
o n fire. . . . A n d w h e r e a s it is r i g h t t o u p h o l d all t h e c l a i m s of
j u s t i c e a s b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s e s of s o c i e t y , n e v e r t h e l e s s i t
is o n l y w i t h t h e efficacious a i d of c h a r i t y , w h i c h t e m p e r s j u s t i c e ,
t h a t t h e e q u a l i t y w h i c h S t . P a u l c o m m e n d e d (2 Cor., V I I I , 14),
a n d w h i c h is s o s a l u t a r y f o r h u m a n s o c i e t y , c a n be e s t a b l i s h e d a n d
m a i n t a i n e d . T h i s t h e n is w h a t C h r i s t i n t e n d e d w h e n H e i n s t i t u
ted this v e n e r a b l e S a c r a m e n t , namely, by a w a k e n i n g charitv
( 7 )
t o w a r d s God to p r o m o t e m u t u a l charity a m o n g m e n . "
Catholics m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , on t h e one hand, g u a r d a g a i n s t any
collaboration with naturalistic revolutionary movements promoted
b y J e w r y a n d F r e e m a s o n r y , w h e t h e r n a t i o n a l l i k e M a z z i n i ' s Young
Italy o r s u p r a n a t i o n a l l i k e S o c i a l i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m , a n d o n t h e
o t h e r hand, t h e y m u s t be careful n o t to support disordered n a t u r
a l i s t i c n a t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e e f f o r t s of J e w r y a n d F r e e
masonry. O u r L o r d J e s u s Christ has a positive supernatural pro
g r a m m e t o w e r i n g far above the disorders, divisions and confusion
to w h i c h N a t u r a l i s m inevitably gives rise. Catholics must en
d e a v o u r t o g r a s p fully w h a t O u r L o r d is a i m i n g a t w h e n H e is
s e e k i n g t o h a v e t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y a c c e p t e d in
t h e life of t h e S t a t e , in t h e f a m i l y , in e d u c a t i o n , a n d in e c o n o m i c
o r g a n i z a t i o n . H e is s t r i v i n g f o r e v e r w i d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in, a n d
p r o f o u n d e r c o m p r e h e n s i o n of, t h e H o l y Sacrifice of t h e M a s s , in
v i e w of d e e p e n i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l u n i o n w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y in
s o u l s . T h e y will t h e n h a v e a k e e n e r p e r c e p t i o n of t h e u l t i m a t e
a i m of r e v o l u t i o n a n d will b e q u i c k e r t o s e e t h e s i g n s t h a t h e r a l d
its a p p r o a c h .

T H E U L T I M A T E AIM OF REVOLUTION.

J u s t a s t h e m e m b e r s of t h e h u m a n b o d y a r e a l w a y s m e a n t t o
f u n c t i o n in s u c h w i s e a s t o p r o m o t e t h e C o m m o n G o o d , w h i c h i t is
t h e office of t h e h e a d t o d i s c e r n , s o C a t h o l i c s , a s m e m b e r s of t h e
v a s t o r g a n i s m of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y , m u s t a l w a y s s t r i v e t o f u r
t h e r t h e p r o g r a m m e of C h r i s t t h e i r H e a d a n d i m p r e g n a t e s o c i e t y
7
<> Encyclical L e t t e r , Mirae Caritatis, On the Most Holy 'Eucharist.
St. T h o m a s p o i n t s o u t t h a t " The f r u i t of this s a c r a m e n t ' [ t h e Blessed
M
K u c h a r i s t ] is the u n i t y of the Mystical Body ( I l i a P., Q.73, a.3, c).
" By this S a c r a m e n t we enter i n t o communion with Christ, p a r t a k i n g
of H i s Flesh a n d c o m i n g u n d e r the influence of H i s D i v i n i t y , a n d by
I t we e n t e r i n t o c o m m u n i o n a n d u n i o n with one a n o t h e r / ' he a d d s in
the following article.
 122 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
S i
w i t h t h e s p i r i t of m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t . ' The Christian organiz
a t i o n of s o c i e t y s u s t a i n s t h e o r d i n a r y m a n in t h e difficult t a s k of
l i v i n g h i s d a i l y life in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a c t of s u b
mission to the Blessed T r i n i t y he m a k e s at M a s s . In fact, this
o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y u n d e r C h r i s t is i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r t h e a v e r
a g e m a n , f i r s t l y , b e c a u s e of t h e t e n d e n c y of t h e n a t u r a l life of
t h e f a l l e n c h i l d r e n of t h e first A d a m t o r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e i r S u p e r
n a t u r a l Life and imperil their true happiness, and, secondly, be
c a u s e t h e r e a r c o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s in e x i s t e n c e r e a d y t o
p a n d e r t o t h e s e l f - c e n t r e d n e s s of h u m a n b e i n g s a n d t h u s s t r i v e t o
hurl t h e m a g a i n s t Christ the K i n g a n d the S u p e r n a t u r a l Life. T h e
C h r i s t i a n f r a m e w o r k of s o c i e t y is m e a n t to s e r v e a s a b u l w a r k
against these organized naturalistic or anti-supernatural forces,
t w o of w h i c h a r e v i s i b l e , w h i l e o n e is i n v i s i b l e . T h e i n v i s i b l e h o s t
is t h a t of S a t a n a n d h i s f e l l o w - d e m o n s : t h e visible f o r c e s a r e t h o s e
9
of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a n d F r e e m a s o n r y . ' ^ T h e y a i m , first, a t d e -
s u p e r n a t u r a l i z i n g social life, p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c , s o t h a t , f r o m
t h e m o m e n t h e l e a v e s C h u r c h a f t e r M a s s , t h e a v e r a g e h u m a n being-
will find h i m s e l f i m p e d e d in his e f f o r t s to live his life a s a m e m b e r
of C h r i s t . W h e n t h a t p r o c e s s h a s g o n e on l u n g e n o u g h t o h a v e
s t i r r e d u p t h e s e e d s of r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e in a
l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e social o r g a n i s m , t h e n t h e a t t a c k o n t h e M a s s
itself is b e g u n . T h e r e v o l t of t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i s m a s s u c h a g a i n s t
t h e M a s s , t h e s u p r e m e l y a c c e p t a b l e a c t of w o r s h i p of t h e B l e s s e d

<8) I t is the S a c r a m e n t of Confirmation which fully equips the

member of C h r i s t , i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o Mini by B a p t i s m , for this work
of m o u l d i n g society. T h i s S a c r a m e n t brings him t o the p e r f e c t age
of s p i r i t u a l life by conferring an i n t e r i o r s t r e n g t h of soul, as St. T h o m a s
i l
p o i n t s o u t (111 a l \ , Q.72, -i.5, ('on)irtnatiu i at nuotldam apiritualt
augment um promovens hominem- in spiritualem octatetn perfect-am
When a m a n h a s a t t a i n e d to full d e v e l o p m e n t , he m u s t work n o t -for
himself alone but for others a n d the whole Mystical Body. ("Homo
autem cam ad p< rfectam aetatem pcrvenerit, incipit jam communicare
(tctiones suas ad alios; antea, vero quasi singidariter sihi ipsi vivit "
( I l i a P . , Q.72, a.2). The forehead of the person being confirmed is
m a r k e d with the sign of the Cross to signify his being e q u i p p e d to d o
b a t t l e for the s u p e r n a t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of society, not only a g a i n s t
invisible enemies, but a g a i n s t those who are visiblv banded together for
its overthrow (Cf. I l i a P., Q.72, a.4. 5).
9
< ) M o h a m m e d a n i s m is left o u t of account, because it is question in
this work of the s t r u g g l e for a n d a g a i n s t the Divine P l a n within the
c o u n t r i e s where the D i v i n e P l a n was accepted a n d which a r e still at
least n o m i n a l l y C h r i s t i a n . M o h a m m e d a n i s m conquered c e r t a i n coun
t r i e s t h a t were once C h r i s t i a n , b u t i t is an outside t h i n g , so f a r as
E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a are concerned. Of. The Great Heresies, by H.
Belloe, p p . 73-140.
Of course.^ not every member of the two visible n a t u r a l i s t i c bodies,
I lit* .Jewish Nation and Freemasonry, is full v aware of what he im-
p l i e i t l y s t a n d s for by the fact of his m y m h ^ s h i p of these .groups. These
bodies are, as ^uch, n a t u r a l i s t i c or a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l . T h a t i> the point
here stressed.
 MASS AND KTNGSHIP OF CHRIST 123

Trinity and, it possible, its complete elimination, is the ultimate

aim of revolution.
Revolutions against the Catholic Church and the Mass are not
spontaneous uprisings of the people. They are movements skil
fully prepared a long time in advance by the naturalistic forces
above-mentioned and their subordinates. " Revolution is an art,"
writes Oldstock Ryder in The Great Conspiracy, " but the Revo
lutionaries would have us believe that it is a natural cataclysm, as
inevitable as a volcanic eruptiona spontaneous up-rush of popular
revolt against insufferable wrongs. . . . The art of Revolution
is that by which a small but well-organized minority compels an
unwilling but unorganized majority to submit to the overthrow
of the State and the dictatorship of a few professional agitators
who grasp power in the name of the People. The method remains
the same to-day as it was in 1789-1793, first, to create a Revolu
tionary atmosphere by exploiting the existing grievances or hard
ships of any part of the population. Secondly, where none exist,
popular grievances must be created Thirdly, having thus
prepared the stage, demonstrations must be organized which will
give the movement an appearance of being a spontaneous uprising
of the masses. Fourthly, trade and industry must be hampered
and ultimately paralysed by strikes and revolutionary threats,
creating widespread unemployment and discontent. . . . Lastly,
forces of aliens, criminals and hooligans must be enlisted and
armed to overpower the forces of the State and to terrorize the
law-abiding majority into submission. And this tragic farce is to
be enacted in the name of the whole people, and is applauded as
a noble revolt against tyranny and injustice." The poor deluded
actors on the stage of revolution are, perhaps in the majority of
cases, unaware that they are the instruments of higher forces.
The steps outlined in the quotation from Oldstock Ryder have
now been expressed more succinctly, thanks to the development
of the art of revolution in the hands of those who control Russia.
The programme of Moscow was outlined very accurately in The
Times of 3rd May, 1938, as follows: "Loudly as the Tkireelona
Government may denounce the unprovoked aggression of General
Franco's rebels, their mentors in Moscow have already claimed
the instigation of the Civil War as a triumph of their own sub
versive diplomacy. For this is one of the essential stages of the
desired revolution which must, it is dogmatically asserted, follow
the same course in every country. These steps to the compulsory
millenium, are four in number: the first is the United Front; the
second, strikes and disorders; the third, civil war: and the fourth,
10
Soviet Government."* ' The first three of these stages corres
pond to the steps outlined by Oldstock Ryder. The fourth is not

(10) Jtrrtffttfifthttri/ S o c i a l i s m . p. 58, by Arnold Lutm.

 J24 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a s t a g e in t h e a d v a n c e t o p o w e r . I t is in r e a l i t y t h e t a k i n g o v e r
of p o w e r b y t h e R u l e r s of R u s s i a a f t e r t h e y h a v e s u c c e s s f u l l y
u t i l i z e d t h e n a t i v e s in t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t a g e s . Both Oldstock
R y d e r ' s a n d M o s c o w ' s s t a t e m e n t s of t h e s t e p s r e q u i r e d for t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n d e a l w i t h t h e l a s t o r final s t a g e s of t h e
advance to p o w e r by the hidden plotters and s c h e m e r s .
P r e v i o u s l y , h o w e v e r , w h e r e v e r t h e p e o p l e of a c o u n t r y h a v e
a c c e p t e d t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r , a l o n g p e r i o d of a g i t a t i o n is
u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o d i m i n i s h t h e a t t a c h m e n t of t h e p e o p l e t h e r e t o .
A s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e D i v i n e P l a n c o m p r i s e s
t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s : R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e t r u t h of t h e C a t h o l i c
C h u r c h a s t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , N a t i o n a l L i f e r e s p e c t f u l
of d u e s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y , C h r i s t i a n M a r r i a g e ,
C h r i s t i a n E d u c a t i o n , P r i v a t e O w n e r s h i p of P r o p e r t y w i t h G u i l d
o r V o c a t i o n a l G r o u p O r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d finally, a n e x c h a n g e -
m e d i u m f u n c t i o n i n g f o r t h e C o m m o n G o o d a s a s t a b l e m e a s u r e of
things saleable and, therefore, n o t abandoned to the manipulations
of p r i v a t e s p e c u l a t o r s . T h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r r e v o l u
t i o n will c o n s i s t , t h e n , in l o o s e n i n g t h e h o l d of m i n d s u p o n t h e s e
p r i n c i p l e s of o r d e r b y t h e i n c u l c a t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m , a n d in
w e a k e n i n g wills. As Our L o r d always aims at h a r m o n i o u s func
t i o n i n g of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d t h e n a t u r a l , s o S a t a n a i m s a t d i v i
sion a n d discord, w i t h a view to disorder and decay. All t h e
m e a n s t h a t t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y will p e r m i t will b e e m
p l o y e d in t h i s w o r k : c i n e m a , p r e s s , r a d i o , stock-exchange,
s p e c u l a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t f o r m s of a s s o c i a t i o n for a m u s e m e n t , a n d
so on.
I n t h e p r o c e s s of d i s r u p t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n will be p a i d
t o t h e i n c u l c a t i o n a n d p r o p a g a t i o n of i m p u r i t y . St. J o h n C h r y s o s -
t o m p o i n t s o u t t h a t " it is i m p o s s i b l e f o r a n y o n e w h o l e a d s a n
( l u
i m p u r e life n o t t o g r o w w e a k in t h e f a i t h . " St. T h o m a s A q u i n a s ,
i n h i s t u r n , i n s i s t s t h a t t h e h i g h e r f a c u l t i e s of m a n , n a m e l y , t h e
i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d t h e w i l l , a r e d i s t u r b e d m o s t of all b y s i n s of i m
p u r i t y . I n i t s effect on t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h i s v i c e is p r o d u c t i v e of
b l i n d n e s s a s w e l l a s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n , w a n t of r e f l e c t i o n a n d i n c o n
s t a n c y . O n t h e will it p r o d u c e s : o n t h e o n e b a n d , l o v e of self
a n d h a t r e d of G o d , W h o is l o o k e d u p o n a s s t a n d i n g in t h e w a y
of p l e a s u r e s ; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , l o v e of t h e t h i n g s of t h i s life
along with carelessness and recklessness about eternal happi
2
ness." *
T h e d e m o n s k n o w b o w difficult it is for h u m a n b e i n g s to e x t r i
( 1 ; i l
c a t e t h e m s e l v e s from t h e m e s h e s of t h i s v i c e , s o w e c a n well
u n d e r s t a n d w h y , in view of t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a r e v o l u t i o n , e v e r y
m e a n s will b e e m p l o y e d to p r o p a g a t e s i n s of t h e llesh, s u c h a s
(ID St. J o h n Chrysostom, Serni. I, De Verbis Apost.
(12) H a I l a e , Q. 153, a.5, c.
Th, TTae, Q.73. a.5, ad 2.
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 125
the cinema, the press in both pictures and advertisements, the
new forms of dress and recreation for youth, and so on. The
instructions of the Italian Masonic Alta Vendita, taken from the
documents captured in 1846, are well known: " Let us spread vice
broadcast among the multitude. Let them breathe it through their
five senses, let them drink it in and become saturated with it. . *. .
Make men's hearts corrupt and vicious and you will have no more
Catholics. Draw away priests from their work, from the altar
and from the practice of virtue. Strive skilfully to fdl their minds
and occupy their time with other matters. . . . Large-scale
corruption is our aim, the corruption of the people through the
clergy and of the clergy by us, a corruption such that it will en
able us to lay the Church in the tomb. Recently one of our
friends, laughing at our projects, said to us: 'To overcome the
Catholic Church, you must begin by suppressing the female sex.'
There is a certain sense in which the words arc true; but since
we cannot suppress woman, let us corrupt her along with the
Church. . . . The best poniard with which to wound the Church
14
mortally is corruption."* * When human beings have been brutal
ized by impurity, they will allow themselves to be enslaved with
out making any attempt to react. The resistance to the propa
gation of Aveakness and selfishness through impurity must be
firmly grounded upon the doctrine of our membership of, and
solidarity in Christ. TCvery sin is a betrayal of the cause of the
t

Mystical P>ody.

THK SOLIDARITY OF THK MYSTICAL BODY AND

THE DUTY OF CATHOLICS.
It is pathetic to see Catholics accepting the purposely mis
leading statements in the newspapers about the cause of the fer
ocious attacks on the Mass and on priests and nuns, during revo
lutionary outbreaks in different countries. These attacks are
ascribed to the peculiarly excitable character of the inhabitants
of these countries, stirred up by the sight of the wealth of the
Church and the Religious Orders, and by the fact that the priests
and nuns were " reactionary" and opposed to " progress." The
same stories are repeated about country after country, and it is
curious to see Catholics in neighbouring countries swallowing
them, without reflecting that the same things will be said about
themselves, when the turn comes for the attack on the Super
natural Life of their country. Surely it is time for Catholics to
grasp the fact that there are organized anti-supernatural forces,
visible and invisible, and to gird their loins for the struggle be
fore their Good Friday dawns. A greater sense of the suprana-
(H) Cretineau-Joly, USglise Romaine en- face de la Revolution, vob
II, pp. 128-129.
126 THK MYSTICAL BODY OK CHRIST

tional solidarity of the Mystical Body of Christ should be incul

cated in the teaching of history.
Again, when the Hierarchy of a country make a pronounce
ment concerning the attack on the Supernatural Life of that coun
try, it is sad to see Catholics in other countries upholding their
own views of the interests of Our Lord in that country, in oppo
sition to the representatives of Christ the King. A flagrant inst
ance in recent history was in regard to the Collective Letter of
the Spanish Hierarchy of July 1, 1937. The writings of certain
non-Spanish Catholics, on that occasion, furnished a clear proof
of the great need for a fuller realization of the meaning of the
Kingship of Christ and of the solidarity of Christ's members. The
case is even worse when the Holy Father makes a solemn pro
nouncement about a persecution being waged on Our Divine Lord
in a particular country, or countries. It is particularly painful to
hear such statements being denied or questioned by Catholics,
because it shows that the concept of the Mystical Body is even
more obscured in their minds. Let us take for example the words
of Pope Pius XI to the College of Cardinals on Christmas Eve,
1937: " W e must call things by their right names. In Germany
there is in fact a religious persecution. For long they tried to
make us believe that there was no persecution. We know, how
ever, that there is a persecution, nay more, that there has rarely
been a persecution so serious, so painful and so disastrous in its
widespread effects. This is a persecution in which neither the
exercise of force, nor the pressure of threats, nor the subterfuges
of cunning and artifice, have been spared.'* How can Catholics
continue to assert that the Church is not persecuted in Germany?

CATHOLIC SOLIDARITY IS WEAKENED BY INDIVIDUALISM

AND NATURALISM.

The individualism of the so-called Reformation has propagated

the idea that we come into relation with Our Lord as isolated
units. The so-called Reformation, however, did not attempt to
set up a supranational organization in the place of the Catholic
Church. It simply resulted in the separation of different sections,
calling themselves National Churches, from the One True Church
of Christ. The setting-up of a supranational organization was
reserved for the French Revolution of 1789. Modern History,
since thai Masonic Revolution, is, to a large extent, an account of
the diffusion of the principles of 1789 throughout Europe and
America. The spread of these principles has resulted in the dom
ination of the naturalistic supranationalism of Freemasonry, be
hind which has been gradually emerging the still more strongly
organized naturalistic supranationalism of the Jewish Nation.
" Russia" or " Moscow" is merely a prolongation of the prin-
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 127
ciples of 1789 and a materialistic adaptation of them to action, on
051
the part of these naturalistic organizations.
Catholics must endeavour to permeate national reactions with
the spirit of the Mystical Body of Christ. We come into contact
with Our Lord J e s u s Christ, not as isolated individuals, hut as
forming one living organism with Him, and wc arc meant to
work in harmonious union for God's Rights, according to His
programme, always bearing in mind that it is only through the
Supernatural Life coming from Christ that national as well as
individual selfishness can be effectively combated. There should
be perfect union amongst Catholics with regard to the general
principles and universal conclusions of Christ's programme. "The
defence of Catholicism, indeed," writes Pope Leo XIII, " neces
sarily demands that in the profession of doctrines taught by the
Church all shall be of one mind and all steadfast in believing;
and care must be taken never to connive, in any way, at false
opinions, never to withstand them less strenuously than truth
allows. . . . Let this b e understood by all that the integrity of
the Catholic faith cannot be reconciled with opinions verging on
Naturalism or Rationalism, the essence of which is utterly to
devitalize Christianity, and to instal in society the supremacy of
man to the exclusion of God. Further, it is unlawful to follow
one line of conduct in private and another in public, respecting
privately the authority of the Church, but publicly rejecting it.
... In these our days it is well to revive the examples of our
forefathers. First and foremost it is the duty of all Catholics
worthy of the name and desirous of being known as most loving
children of the Church . . . to endeavour to bring back all
civil society to the pattern and form of Christianity which We
nQi
have described."
Catholics may differ about the best manner of applying these
principles and embodying the conclusions in social organization,
but these differences must not cause them to forget that they
must approach the discussion of all these questions as mem
bers of one Body with a vast programme accepted by all.
" It is scarcely possible," writes Pope Leo XIII in the same
Encyclical, ** to lay down any fixed method by which these ptvr-
U6) In The liultrs of liussia (Third Edition, p. 55), i t is pointed out
t h a t the form and method followed by national reactions against
Judaeo-Masonry show traces in some cases of the process of deforma
tion to which the^ nations have been subjected. Germany's reaction
under the leadership of Prussia, as we shall see later in Chapter XVI,
is permeated with the spirit of the 16th century revolt against the
unity of the Mystical Body of Christ, and with the pantheism of Fichte
and Hegel. These are facts of history of which Catholics should be
fully aware.
UG) Encyclical Letter. Immortade Dei, On the Christian Constitution
of States.
 128 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

poses a r e to be attained, b e c a u s e the m e a n s a d o p t e d m u s t suit

places and times widely differing from one another. Neverthe
l e s s , a b o v e all t h i n g s , u n i t y of a i m m u s t be p r e s e r v e d , a n d s i m i l a r
i t y m u s t be s o u g h t a f t e r in all p l a n s of a c t i o n . B o t h t h e s e o b j e c t s
w i l l b e c a r r i e d i n t o effect w i t h o u t fail if all will f o l l o w t h e g u i d
a n c e of t h e A p o s t o l i c S e e a s t h e i r r u l e of life a n d o b e y t h e b i s h o p s
( i 7 )
w h o m t h e H o l y G h o s t h a s p l a c e d t o r u l e t h e C h u r c h of G o d . "
I t is q u i t e t r u e t h a t " in m e r e m a t t e r s of o p i n i o n i t is p e r m i s s
i b l e t o d i s c u s s t h i n g s w i t h m o d e r a t i o n , w i t h a d e s i r e of s e a r c h i n g
into the truth, without unjust suspicion or a n g r y recriminations
. . . ( a n d ) in m a t t e r s m e r e l y p o l i t i c a l , a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e b e s t
f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h i s o r t h a t s y s t e m of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a
18
d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n is l a w f u l . " ' * But all Catholics must take
account of the organized naturalistic opposition to the programme
of Christ the King for which they stand and make sure that their
divisions over secondary points will not lead to any of them be
ing pulled into the anti-supernatural camp and used as pawns
in the struggle against Christ the King and the Supernatural Life
of the country as a whole. A l a s ! w h a t h a p p e n s o n l y t o o o f t e n is
t h a t differences which a r e m e r e l y political cause t h e m to lose
s i g h t of t h e m a i n s t r u g g l e . I g n o r a n c e of m e m b e r s h i p of t h e s u p e r
n a t u r a l o r g a n i s m of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y a n d i t s m i s s i o n a l l o w s
m e r e l y p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s t o b e c o m e of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e . W h e n
t h e i n t e r e s t s of O u r L o r d a r c t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e o r g a n i z e d a n t i -
s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s , all d i v i s i o n s s h o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y c e a s e .
P o p e L e o X I I I i n s i s t s u p o n t h i s c l o s i n g u p of t h e C a t h o l i c
r a n k s i n t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , On the Chief Duties of Christians
as Citizens. " T h e r e is n o d o u b t , " h e w r i t e s , " b u t t h a t in t h e
s p h e r e of p o l i t i c s a m p l e m a t t e r m a y e x i s t f o r l e g i t i m a t e differ
e n c e s of o p i n i o n , a n d t h a t , t h e s i n g l e r e s e r v e b e i n g m a d e of t h e
r i g h t s of j u s t i c e a n d t r u t h , all m a y s t r i v e t o b r i n g i n t o a c t u a l life
t h e i d e a s b e l i e v e d l i k e l y t o be m o r e c o n d u c i v e t h a n o t h e r s t o t h e
g e n e r a l welfare. . . . Religion should, on the c o n t r a r y , be ac
c o u n t e d b y e v e r y o n e a s h o l y a n d i n v i o l a t e ; n a y in t h e v e r y p u b l i c
o r d e r of S t a t e s . . . it is a l w a y s u r g e n t , a n d i n d e e d t h e m a i n
preoccupation, to take t h o u g h t h o w best to consult the interests
of C a t h o l i c i s m . W h e n e v e r t h e s e a p p e a r b y r e a s o n of t h e e f f o r t s
of a d v e r s a r i e s t o b e i n d a n g e r , all d i f f e r e n c e s of o p i n i o n a m o n g
Catholics should forthwith cease, so that, like t h o u g h t s and coun
s e l s p r e v a i l i n g , t h e y m a y h a s t e n t o t h e a i d of r e l i g i o n , t h e g e n
e r a l a n d s u p r e m e g o o d t o w h i c h all else s h o u l d be r e f e r r e d

(17) Encyclical Letter, Immortale Dei. " This -likewise m u s t be reck

oned a m o n g s t the duties of C h r i s t i a n s t h a t they allow themselves to be
r u l e d a n d d i r e c t e d by the a u t h o r i t y a n d leadership of bishops, a n d above
all of tho Apostolic See " ( E n c y c l i c a l Letter, Sapientiae Christianae,
On the Chief Duties of Christians as Citizens)*
'13) Encyclical Letter, fvvmortale Dei.
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 129
This is not now the time and place to inquire whether and how
far the inertness and internal dissensions of Catholics have con
tributed to the present condition of things; but it is certain at
least that the perverse-minded would exhibit less boldness, and
would not have brought about such an accumulation of ills, if the
' faith that worketh by charity' (Ep. ad Gal., V, 6), had been gen
,,(19)
erally more energetic and lively in the souls of m e n .
It is pathetic now to read the Letter addressed to the Bishop
of Madrid by Pope Pius X, in 1906, on the necessity of united
action by Catholics, when those whose object was the destruction
of religion and society were seeking political power. Amongst
other things, the saintly Pontiff said: "All must remember that
nobody has the right to remain indifferent, when religion or the
public welfare is in danger. Those whose object is the destruc
tion of religion and civil society aim above all at getting control,
as far as possible, of the direction of public affairs and at having
themselves chosen as legislators. It is therefore necessary that
Catholics should strive with all their might to avert that danger."
It was only when Spain was on the brink of destruction that
Catholics came together to save their country. And even then,
how many were beguiled into the camp of Satan!
Pope Pius XI in his turn inculcates the necessity for union in
regard to guiding principles; "Thus even in the sphere of social
economics, although the Church has never proposed a definite
technical system, since this is not her field, she has nevertheless
clearly outlined the guiding principles which, while susceptible
of varied concrete applications according to the diversified condi
tions of times and places and peoples, indicate the safe way of
-procuring the happy progress of society."^ Then, in another
passage of the same letter he points out the woeful consequences
of disunion: " T o all our children, finally, of every social rauk
and every nation, to every religious and lay congregation in the
Church, We make another and more urgent appeal for union.
Many times Our paternal heart h a s b e e n saddened by the diver
genciesoften idle in their causes, always tragic in their conse
quenceswhich a r r a y in opposing camps the sons of the same
Mother Church. Thus it is that t h e revolutionaries, who are n o t
so very numerous, profiting by this discord are able to make it
more acute, a n d e n d b y pitting Catholics o n e against the other.
In v i e w of t h e events of t h e past f e w months, Our warning must
seem superfluous. We repeat it nevertheless once m o r e , for those
w h o have n o t understood, or perhaps d o not desire l o understand.
Those w h o make a practice of spreading dissension among Catho
lics assume a terrible responsibility before God and t h e Church."
U9> Encyclical Letter, Sapientiae Christianae.
(20) Encyclical Letter. Divitii Itedewptoris, On Atheistic Communism,
19th March, 1937.
Ii
130 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

PRIESTS AND CATHOLIC SOLIDARITY.

It is in order to facilitate such unity of action amongst Catho
lics and lo emphasize before the world the infinite dignity of the
Supernatural Life and the paramount claims of the Head of the
Mystical Bod}'- that Bishops and Priests are recommended to keep
themselves above parly-politics. "Certainly nobody/' wrote Car
dinal Gasparri, Secretary of State of Pope Pius XI, "would deny
the right of Bishops and Parish Priests to have, as private citi
zens, their personal opinions and political preferences, so long as
these are in harmony with the dictates of an upright conscience
and with the interests of religion. It is no less evident that, as
Bishops and Parish Priests, they must remain aloof from party-
struggles, keeping themselves on a plane superior to every purely
political contention. . . . In doubtful cases, as well as in all
those where the action of the Bishop or the Parish Priest might
compromise the religious interests committed to their care, the
enlightened zeal of faithful pastors of souls will not hesitate to
2
stand aside."* "
Undue emphasis upon particular controverted questions dur
ing their theological course and too little attention to the central
unifying doctrines of the Mystical Body of Christ and of the life-
blood of that Body, namely, Sanctifying Grace, may have the
effect of hampering some priests in keeping things in their proper
perspective. The really important thing is to grasp the relation
of the controverted points to the central unifying doctrines just
mentioned and, at the end of one's course, to have a synthetic
view of the Divine Plan for order in the world through member
ship of Christ's Mystical Body, and to have accustomed oneself to
weighing everything, including the controversies, from "the point
of view of God's Rights and of the interests of Our Head.
St. Thomas, the official theologian of the'Catholic Church, al
ways looked at things from the side of God and of His Rights.
When a priest's mind is trained in this fashion, he will so form
young Catholics that they will be accustomed to think of them
selves as they really are, that is, as members of one Body en
gaged in a struggle for the organization of the world under Christ,
their Head. ITcwill be "all things to all m c n / ' ^ l that is, he will
be sympathetic to the right elements in the aspirations of all
men, in order to aid them to bring these aspirations iiito harmoni
ous subjection to the interests of the Mystical Body of Christ.
(2U Letter of October 2. 1922, to the Italian Hierarchy. The same
recommendation to keen themselves " aloof from contentious political
disputes and from divisions in local administrative bodies," is made to
" the Irish clergy, especially to Parish Priests and those having the
care of souls, without prejudice to the right they enjoy as private
citizens . . . (Maynooth Statutes, No. 32, 1927).
(22) I Cor., IX, 22:
 MASS AND KINGSHIP OF CHRIST 131
He will train them to keep in proper perspective the different
factors that may tend to divide them from their fellow-Catholics,
such as, membership of a political party or of a certain school or
college union. These things are all very secondary and must not
be allowed to obscure the view of the great primary truth of our
membership of Christ, in whom we arc all one, and the duty
incumbent upon all Catholics not to allow members of organized
anti-supernatural forces to get political or economic control over
Christ's members.
Familiarity with the doctrine of membership of Christ during
his years of formation will powerfully stimulate the future priest
to cultivate detachment from earthly goods and show himself
always and everywhere interested in everything from the point
of view of the real life of Christ's members. Such detachment and
such unselfishness are especially necessary in our day in order to
win back the toiling masses for Christ. "The greatest scandal
of the nineteenth century," said Pope Pius XI to Canon Cardijn,
,(23)
"is that the Church has lost the working-class/ The spectacle
of a life lived unselfishly for Christ's members will prove an irre
sistible argument for the truth of the doctrine of our oneness in
Christ and will promote union and solidarity for the Kingship of
Christ in spite of differences on secondary matters.
The need for this supernatural unselfishness is insisted upon
by Pope Pius XI in his Encyclical Letter, On the Catholic Priest-
hood: "Surrounded by the corruptions of a world" he writes,
"in which everything can be bought and sold, the Catholic priest
must pass through them utterly free from selfishness. He must
holily spurn all vile greed of earthly gains, since he is in search
of souls, not of money, of the glory of God, not his own
He is not indeed forbidden to receive Fitting sustenance. , . . The
Lord ordained that they who preach the Gospel should live by
the Gospel' (I. Cor., IX', 14). But . . . . a priest must expect
no other recompense than that promised by Christ to His Apost
les Woe to the priest who, forgetful of these divine
promises, should become 'greedy of filthy lucre' (Tit., 1, 7) . . .
Judas, an Apostle of Christ . . . . was led down t o the abyss of
iniquity precisely through the spirit of greed for earthly things.
Remembering him, it is easy t o grasp how this same spirit could
have brought such harm upon the Church throughout the cen
turies \ priest who is poisoned by this vice (of greed)
. . . . will, consciously or unconsciously, make common cause
with the enemies of God and of the Church, and co-operate in
their evil designs.
" On the other hand, by sincere disinterestedness the priest can
hope to win the hearts of all. For detachment from earthly goods,

(23) Quoted in Jesns-Ouvrier^ Doctrine et Culte, par l'abbl J. B. Bord.

132 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

if i n s p i r e d b y lively f a i t h , is a l w a y s a c c o m p a n i e d b y t e n d e r c o m
p a s s i o n t o w a r d s t h e u n f o r t u n a t e of e v e r y k i n d . T h u s t h e p r i e s t
b e c o m e s a v e r i t a b l e f a t h e r of t h e p o o r . M i n d f u l of t h e t o u c h i n g
w o r d s of H i s S a v i o u r : " A s l o n g a s y o u d i d it t o o n e of t h e s e m y
< 2 4 )
l e a s t b r e t h r e n , y o u did it t o m e , ' h e s e e s in t h e m , a n d , w i t h p a r
25
t i c u l a r a f f e c t i o n , v e n e r a t e s a n d l o v e s J e s u s C h r i s t Himself."* *

124) St. M a t t . , XXV, 40.

25
( ) Encyclical L e t t e r . Ad (Jatholici SacerdotiL
 PART II.

T H E ORGANIZED O P P O S I T I O N TO T H E MYSTICAL

BODY OF CHRIST,
and
TO T H E DIVINE P L A N FOR ORDER.

CHAPTERS VIX.
 CHAPTER VI.

THE ORGANIZED OPPOSITION TO THE MYSTICAL

BODY OF CHRIST.

T h e r e is unorganized o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e in
e a c h o n e of u s , o w i n g t o t h e F a l l . T h i s u n o r g a n i z e d o p p o s i t i o n
of i n d i v i d u a l s i n e v i t a b l y l e a d s t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of l i t t l e a n t i - s u p e r
natural groups here and there, even without the concerted action
of v a s t o r g a n i z e d f o r c e s . B u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s c o n c e r t e d
a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l a c t i o n o n t h e p a r t of organized b o d i e s is s o f a r
r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n of t h e a v e r a g e C a t h o l i c t h a t
it n e e d s t o b e s p e c i a l l y s t r e s s e d a n d its aim m a d e c l e a r . T h a t is
the r e a s o n for these c h a p t e r s .
W e h a v e s e e n a l r e a d y t h a t s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is m e a n t t o b e p e r
m e a t e d w i t h t h e r e a l i t y of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of C h r i s t , in v i e w of a i d i n g u s t o b r i n g o u r d a i l y life i n t o
h a r m o n y w i t h o u r p r o t e s t a t i o n of l o y a l t y t o t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y ,
in u n i o n w i t h C h r i s t a s P r i e s t , in H o l y M a s s . B y t h i s p e r m e a t i o n
of s o c i e t y w i t h t h e r e a l i t y of m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t , t h e K i n g s h i p
of C h r i s t i n i t s i n t e g r i t y is a c k n o w l e d g e d . W e have also seen
t h a t , c o n v e r s e l y , a s s i s t a n c e a t M a s s in u n i o n w i t h C h r i s t a s P r i e s t
u r g e s us t o s t r i v e t o r e a l i z e t h e K i n g s h i p of O u r L o r d in i t s i n
t e g r i t y , in a C h r i s t i a n f r a m e w o r k of s o c i e t y . The Christian
f r a m e w o r k of s o c i e t y is d e s t i n e d n o t o n l y t o a i d u s i n a t t a i n i n g
union w i t h Christ but to serve as a b u l w a r k against the assaults
of t h e f o r c e s o r g a n i z e d a g a i n s t o u r S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e . These
f o r c e s a r e t h r e e i n n u m b e r , o n e b e i n g invisible, t h e o t h e r t w o v i s
ible. T h e i n v i s i b l e h o s t is t h a t of S a t a n a n d t h e o t h e r f a l l e n a n g e l s ,
w h i l e t h e v i s i b l e f o r c e s a r e t h o s e of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a n d F r e e
m a s o n r y . T h e J e w i s h N a t i o n is n o t o n l y a visible o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
b u t i t s n a t u r a l i s t i c o r a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r is o p e n l y p r o
claimed, by its refusal to accept t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s a n d b y
its l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o a n a t u r a l i s t i c m e s s i a n i c e r a . T h e M a s o n i c
S o c i e t y o r g r o u p of S o c i e t i e s is a visible o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t i t s
n a t u r a l i s t i c o r a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r is s e c r e t o r c a m o u
flaged. T h e N a t u r a l i s m o r A n t i - S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m of i t s e n d , a s
well a s of i t s r i t u a l a n d s y m b o l i s m , is c l e a r l y g r a s p e d b y o n l y
r e l a t i v e l y f e w of t h e i n i t i a t e d . T h e p a n t h e i s t i c d e i f i c a t i o n of
m a n , w h i c h is t h e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s N a t u r a l i s m , is t h e s u p r e m e
s e c r e t of F r e e m a s o n r y . B o t h of t h e s e visible s o c i e t i e s , h o w e v e r ,
 136 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

m a k e u s e of s u b t e r f u g e a n d s e c r e c y i n t h e i r modes of a c t i o n
a g a i n s t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of t h e n a t i o n s of t h e w o r l d .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e m o s t v i t a l l y r e a l s t r u g g l e in t h e w o r l d is t h a t
w a g e d by those naturalistic or anti-supernatural armies, under
t h e l e a d e r s h i p of S a t a n , a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o a c c e p t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l
L i f e of G r a c e , p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e L i f e of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y ,
u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of O u r L o r d J e s t i s C h r i s t . T h i s v i t a l s t r u g g l e
is d e p i c t e d in s t r i k i n g t e r m s b y P o p e L e o X I I I in t h e o p e n i n g
s e n t e n c e s of t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , On Freemasonry. "After the
h u m a n r a c e , t h r o u g h t h e e n v i o u s e f f o r t s of S a t a n , h a d b e e n g u i l t y
o f t h e u n s p e a k a b l e c r i m e of t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d , t h e C r e a t o r
a n d G i v e r of h e a v e n l y b l e s s i n g s , it b e c a m e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o d i s
t i n c t a n d m u t u a l l y h o s t i l e c a m p s . O n e of t h e s e s t e a d i l y c o m b a t s
f o r t r u t h a n d v i r t u e , t h e o t h e r for all t h a t is o p p o s e d t o v i r t u e
a n d t r u t h . T h e f o r m e r is t h e K i n g d o m of G o d o n e a r t h , n a m e l y ,
t h e T r u e C h u r c h of J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d all w h o w i s h t o b e l o n g t o
i t s i n c e r e l y a n d in a m a n n e r w o r t h y of s a l v a t i o n m u s t s e r v e G o d
a n d H i s O n l y - B e g o t t e n S o n w i t h all t h e v i g o u r of t h e i r m i n d s a n d
all t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e i r w i l l s . T h e l a t t e r is t h e k i n g d o m of S a t a n ,
u n d e r w h o s e s w a y a n d in w h o s e p o w e r a r e all t h o s e w h o , f o l l o w
i n g t h e b a n e f u l e x a m p l e of t h e i r l e a d e r a n d of o u r first p a r e n t s ,
r e f u s e t o o b e y t h e d i v i n e a n d e t e r n a l l a w , a n d in a m u l t i t u d e of
w a y s either s h o w c o n t e m p t for God or r e v o l t a g a i n s t H i m .
" S t . A u g u s t i n e h a d a c l e a r v i s i o n of t h e s e t w o k i n g d o m s ,
a n d h e a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d t h e m u n d e r t h e i m a g e of t w o S t a t e s
w i t h l a w s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d , b e c a u s e of t h e c o m p l e t e l y d i v e r
g e n t ends to which the respective States tended. In a few concise,
w e l l - c h o s e n p h r a s e s h e i n d i c a t e d t h e efficient c a u s e of e a c h a s
f o l l o w s : ' T w o l o v e s h a v e f o r m e d t w o c i t i e s ; t h e l o v e of self
r e a c h i n g t o c o n t e m p t of G o d , a n e a r t h l y c i t y ; t h e l o v e of G o d
, ( 1 )
r e a c h i n g t o c o n t e m p t of self, a h e a v e n l y o n e . While the two
a r m i e s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n e n g a g e d in c o n f l i c t d o w n t h e a g e s , t h e
e q u i p m e n t of t h e c o m b a t a n t s a n d t h e m o d e of w a r f a r e h a v e v a r i e d
c o n s i d e r a b l y , a s w e l l a s t h e f o r c e a n d t h e v i g o u r of t h e a t t a c k
a n d t h e d e f e n c e . I n o u r d a y , h o w e v e r , t h e p a r t i s a n s of evil s e e m
t o be d r a w i n g closer t o g e t h e r and as a b o d y to be a n i m a t e d w i t h
extraordinary energy, under the leadership and with the assist
a n c e of t h e w i d e l y diffused a s s o c i a t i o n k n o w n a s F r e e m a s o n r y .
N o longer concealing their designs, with the greatest audacity,
t h e y a r e e g g i n g o n e a n o t h e r on to a t t a c k God Himself. They
a r e p l a n n i n g t h e u t t e r o v e r t h r o w of H o l y C h u r c h o p e n l y a n d
p u b l i c l y , w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of d e s p o i l i n g c o m p l e t e l y t h e C h r i s t i a n
n a t i o n s of t h e b e n e f i t s p r o c u r e d for t h e m b y J e s u s C h r i s t , o u r
S a v i o u r , if t h a t w e r e p o s s i b l e . . . . F r o m w h a t W e h a v e a l r e a d y
s a i d , it is indisputably evident that their ultimate aim is to root

(1) The City of God, Book X I V , c. 17.

 OPPOSITION TO MYSTICAL BODY 137

out completely the whole religious and political order of the world
which has been set up by Christianity and to replace it by another
in harmony with their way of thinking. This will mean that the
foundation and laws of the new structure will be drawn from pure
Naturalism."*
Let us now take each of these naturalistic and anti-supernatural
forces in turn.

.Encyclical Letter, Ilumanum gtn,us. A translation of this

Letter will" be found in The Kingship of Christ and Organized Natu-
ralhn^ hy the present writer.
 CHAPTER VII.

THE I N V I S F B L E ORGANIZED FORCESATAN

AND HIS FELLOW-DEMONS.

SATAN'S AXTI-SUPERNATURALTSM.

Pope Leo XIII has insisted upon the leadership of Satan in

the ceaseless warfare of Naturalism against the Supernatural Life
of Grace. Satan's headship of the camp of evil must never be
forgotten or lost sight of. This remark is particularly necessary
in our days, because the triumphs of applied science in modern
times tend to give human beings the illusion that they are the
spiritual masters of the universe and obscure rhe all-important
truth that, behind the visible veils, there are other intelligences
more powerful than theirs striving for and against Our Divine
Lord. The existence, then, of the good angel*, permanently
anchored in Supernatural Life, and of the fallen angels, always
fiercely opposed to the supernatural, must be constantly borne in
mind.
Satan everywhere combats and everywhere scek> to eliminate
the Supernatural Life of Grace, participation in the Life of the
rlessed Trinity. His act of rebellion was a refusal to depend on
the Messed Trinity for his happiness and perfection. P>y that act
he not only forfeited the Life of Grace but declared war on it.
The whole being of that pure spirit, all that relentless, untiring
energy, of which we, poor creatures of nerves and muscles, can
not form an adequate idea, is always and everywhere directed
against submission to the Blessed Trinity in supernatural love.
We change our minds and we need sleep and rest. AViib Satan it
(1)
is not s o .
It is because Satan knows how effective such institutions as

<D "To find the cause, then, of this obstinacy, it must, lie borne in
mind that the appetitive power is in all things proportioned to the
apprehensive, whereby it is moved, as the movable 1>\- it> mover . . .
Now the angel's apprehension differs from man's in this respect, that
the ^ngel by his intellect apprehends iiamovablv . . . . whereas man
by his reason apprehends movably . - . Consequently man'- will adheres
to a thins inovably . . . whereas the ansel'-i -will aWhtiv- li.wllv and
;
immovably * (la P.. Q 64. a.2).
fc
 SAT AX AXD FELLOW-DEMONS 139

t h e p r e s s , t h e c i n e m a a n d t h e m o n e t a r y s y s t e m can be, w h e n
b r o u g h t i n t o p l a y a g a i n s t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of a c o u n t r y , t h a t
h e h a s b e e n s o i n t e n t on t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m i n t o a g e n c i e s for t h e
p r o p a g a t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m . I n t h e O c t o b e r (1938) i s s u e of The
Southern Cross, w e r e a d : " A n A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t of s t a t i s t i c s h a s
m a d e a d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n of 500 films. I n t h e m h e c o u n t e d
100 m u r d e r s , 91 s u i c i d e s , 103 a d u l t e r i e s , 38 s e d u c t i o n s , 352 r o b b e r
ies a n d 4 3 f r a u d s o r s w i n d l e s . I n t h e s e 500 films t h e r e w a s t h u s
a m o r e - o r - l e s s v e i l e d d e f e n c e o r c o n d o n a t i o n of 727 m a j o r c r i m e s
or immoralities^ A Swiss citizen, Professor Malhabec, reports the
r e s u l t of a s i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n in B e r n e , w h e r e h e f o u n d t h a t of
3,300 c h i l d r e n of s c h o o l y e a r s , 1,700 w e r e m o r e - o r - l e s s r e g u l a r
cinema-goers. I n 1,250 films p r e s e n t e d for t h e i r e n t e r t a i n m e n t
t h e r e w e r e e x h i b i t e d 1,163 s e d u c t i o n s , 1,120 a d u l t e r i e s , 1,224 h o m i
c i d e s , 1,170 r o b b e r i e s , 1,171 s h o o t i n g s o r v a r i o u s m u r d e r s , a n d 765
suicides."
Satan's invariable appeal is to liberty. That is the
pretext he alleges in o r d e r to lead m e n a s t r a y . " The
e n d a t w h i c h t h e devil a i m s , " w r i t e s St. T h o m a s , " i s t h e r e v o l t
of t h e r a t i o n a l c r e a t u r e f r o m G o d This revolt from God
is c o n c e i v e d a s a n e n d , i n a s m u c h a s it is d e s i r e d u n d e r t h e p r e t e x t
of l i b e r t y [ o r a u t o n o m y ] " ( I l i a P . , Q.8, a . l ) . S a t a n , n e e d l e s s t o
s a y , is w e l l a w a r e of t h e f a c t t h a t his efforts a g a i n s t O u r D i v i n e
L o r d a n d t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of t h e w o r l d c a n n o t l e a d t o o r d e r
b u t will r e s u l t in c h a o s a n d d i s o r d e r . H i s d u p e s , h o w e v e r , d o n o t
see t h a t , a t l e a s t , n o t c l e a r l y . If, a t t i m e s , a v i s i o n of w h a t t h e y
a r e h e a d i n g f o r is m e r c i f u l l y v o u c h s a f e d to t h e m b y G o d , t h e y s h u t
t h e i r e y e s t o it, e x c e p t in r a r e i n s t a n c e s .
S a t a n ' s s i n w a s a r e f u s a l t o a c c e p t t h e t r u t h t h a t for the p e r
f e c t i o n a n d h a p p i n e s s of his b e i n g h e s h o u l d d e p e n d u p o n G o d
a n d n o t u p o n h i m s e l f a l o n e . H e w a n t e d to g e t rid of t h e d e p e n d
e n c e a n d s u b j e c t i o n w h i c h a r e i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m b i s c o n d i t i o n of
creature. T h e r e s u l t w a s a n e t e r n i t y of m i s e r y . T h e w a y of
s p i r i t u a l c h i l d h o o d of S a i n t T e r e s a of L i s i e u x w i t h its i n s i s t
e n c e o n c o m p l e t e d e p e n d e n c e o n a n d a b s o l u t e t r u s t in t h e
love of G o d , o u r F a t h e r , is in c o m p l e t e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e s p i r i t of
Satan. H e n c e w e n e e d n o t be a s t o n i s h e d at the role assigned to
t h e L i t t l e F l o w e r in t h e p r e s e n t s t r u g g l e in t h e w o r l d .
All t h e f r i g h t f u l e n e r g y , t h e n , of S a t a n ' s h a t r e d is s p e c i a l l y
d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e H o l y "Sacrifice of t h e M a s s , w h i c h is t h e r e
n e w a l of t h e e x p r e s s i o n of s u b m i s s i o n of C a l v a r y . A r r a y e d w i t h
him a n d a n i m a t e d w i t h t h e s a m e h a t r e d , t h e r e is a n a r m y of i n v i s
ible s a t e l l i t e s of t h e s a m e n a t u r e . F o r g e t f u l n e s s of t h e s e f a c t s
m a k e s it h a r d for people., w h o r e a d o n l y the n e w s p a p e r s a n d f r e
q u e n t t h e c i n e m a , t o u n d e r s t a n d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e h a t r e d of t h e
M a s s a n d of t h e p r i e s t h o o d d i s p l a y e d b y t h e C o m m u n i s t a n d
M a s o n i c " D e m o c r a c y " of S p a i n . E v e n t h e f o r m a t i o n g i v e n b y
140 TI1K M Y S T I C A L RODY O F CHRIST

" M o s c o w / ' t h a t is, b y t h e J e w s w h o c o n t r o l R u s s i a , d o e s n o t

( 2 J
suffice t o a c c o u n t f o r i t .
W e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e e n d S a t a n h a d in v i e w in
t h e C r u c i f i x i o n of O u r L o r d a n d t h e e n d h e n o w h a s in v i e w in
d i r e c t i n g and p r o v o k i n g a t t a c k s on those w h o celebrate M a s s and
t h o s e ' w h o assist thereat. S a t a n u r g e d t h e l e a d e r s of t h e J e w i s h
N a t i o n t o g e t r i d of O u r L o r d , for h e w a s c o n s c i o u s of t h e p r e
s e n c e in t h e M a n , C h r i s t J e s u s , of a n e x c e p t i o n a l d e g r e e of t h a t
S u p e r n a t u r a l Life w h i c h he h a t e s , but h e did not w a n t to e n t e r
i n t o the Divine P l a n for m a n ' s r e t u r n to o r d e r . H i s pride, h o w
e v e r , o b s c u r e d his v i s i o n of G o d ' s w a y of p r o c e e d i n g . By his
a c t i o n o n t h e m i n d s a n d w i l l s of t h e l e a d e r s of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n
a n d a g a i n on t h e p a s s i o n s of t h e c r o w d , d i s a p p o i n t e d a n d d i s
i l l u s i o n e d a t t h e s i g h t of t h e a c c l a i m e d l i b e r a t o r of I s r a e l d i s c o m
fited a n d h e l p l e s s , h e p r e p a r e d t h e w a y f o r t h e s u b l i m e d i s p l a y
of o b e d i e n c e a n d h u m i l i t y of t h e G o d - M a n on C a l v a r y . The
d e m o n s did n o t k n o w t h a t t h e a c t of s u b m i s s i o n of C a l v a r y m e a n t
t h e r e t u r n of o r d e r t o t h e w o r l d , b y t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of S u p e r n a
t u r a l Life to the h u m a n race. St. P a u l insists t h a t " I f t h e y [ t h e
p r i n c e s of t h i s w o r l d ] h a d k n o w n it, t h e y w o u l d n e v e r h a v e c r u c i
fied t h e L o r d of G l o r y " ( I Cor., I I , 8 ) . S t . T h o m a s w r i t e s : " I f
the demons had been perfectly certain that Our Lord was the
S o n of G o d a n d h a d k n o w n i n a d v a n c e w h a t t h e effect of H i s
P a s s i o n and D e a t h w o u l d be, t h e y would n e v e r have g o t the L o r d
31
of G l o r y c r u c i f i e d . " ' B u t t h e y a r e q u i t e w e l l a w a r e of t h e
m e a n i n g of t h e M a s s . All t h e i r e f f o r t s a r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s p r e
v e n t i n g its celebration, by e x t e r m i n a t i n g t h e p r i e s t h o o d , a n d
t o w a r d s t h w a r t i n g i t s e f f e c t s , b y l i m i t i n g it t o t h e r o l e of a r i t e
b e r e f t of s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r m a n ' s s o c i a l life, p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c .
If S a t a n c a n n o t s u c c e e d in c o m p l e t e l y d o i n g a w a y w i t h t h e o n e
a c c e p t a b l e a c t of w o r s h i p , h e will s t r i v e t o r e s t r i c t it t o t h e m i n d s
a n d h e a r t s of a s f e w i n d i v i d u a l s a s p o s s i b l e . One has only to

2
( > Cf. The Rulers of Russia, in which .some of the d o c u m e n t a r y
evidence is given, which proves t h a t the J e w s are the real c o n t r o l l i n g
force i n Russia.
(3) l a P . , Q.64, a r t . 1, ad 4. Cf. I l i a P . , Q.44, a r t . 1, ad 2.
Cf. also the following e x t r a c t from the Sermon of P o p e St. Leo
the G r e a t which is r e a d in the Second N o c t u r n of the Office of P a l m
S u n d a y : " If the p r o u d a n d cruel enemy [of God a n d m a n ] h a d heen
a w a r e of the merciful d e s i g n of God, he would have t r i e d to soften
the m i n d s of the JOAVS r a t h e r t h a n have sought to stir u p t h e i r u n j u s t
hatred, lest in a t t a c k i n g the liberty of action of the One Who was n o t
in his debt, all his h u m a n captives should he set free. The m a l i g n i t y
of h i s m i n d k e p t him from g r a s p i n g the t r u t h . He got the Son of
God condemned to d e a t h a n d t h a t c o n d e m n a t i o n became -a remedy for
the fall of the h u m a n r a c e . " S a t a n ' s d i s o r d e r e d p r i d e p r e v e n t e d him
from u n d e r s t a n d i n g the o r d e r e d self-sacrifieina- h u m i l i t y of God become
Man.
 SATAN AND FELLOW-DEMONS 141

look at the world to see how far he has succeeded since the French
Revolution.
SATAN'S PLANS FOR DISORDER.

Satan's refusal to depend on the Supernatural Life of the

Blessed Trinity for his happiness was at the same time a declara
tion of war on that Life. He is ever warring* against all those
ways in which, as we have seen, the rule of Christ the King is
acknowledged in society. His technique, since the so-called
Reformation hut more especially since the French Revolution,
has largely consisted in utilizing the appeal of nationality against
ordered submission to the Mystical Lody of Christ. He has de
ceitfully striven, and alas! with success, in country after country,
to persuade men that love of their country demands a refusal of
obedience to the Catholic Church. He has, of course, also utilized
the longing of the normal man for a suitable condition of life in
order to allure men into Socialist and Communist movements.
Pope Pius XI has stressed this latter point in the Encyclical Letter,
On the Troubles of Our Time: "The leaders of this campaign of
Atheism/' he writes, " turning to account the present economic
crisis, inquire with diabolic reasoning into the cause of this uni
versal misery They strive, and not without effect, to
combine war against God with men's struggle for their daily bread,
with their desire to have land of their own, suitable wages and
decent dwellings, in fine, a condition of life befitting human
t4>
beings." Satan is, however, indifferent as to the means he
employs to turn man against Christ. He will utilize any form of
Naturalism, such as the cult of blood and race, which will favour
his designs.
On the one hand, Our Divine Lord incorporates human beings
into Himself and urges them to mould the world in accordance
with His programme, so as to bring about harmonious submission
to His Father at Holy Mass. On the other hand, Satan strives to
undo the organization respectful of the Supernatural Order and Life,
and, when he has succeeded in propagating Naturalism, he will
move to the direct attack on the Mass. Accordingly, he will always
strive either to bring about what is called separation of Church
and State or to prevent their union, that is, the recognition by
the State of the Catholic Church, as the One Church divinely in
stituted, the supernatural and supranational Mystical I'ody of
Christ, the ark of salvation for all. Satan knows well the value
of social acceptance of order. That men, not only as individuals,
but as linked together in States and nations should recognize the
Catholic Church, as supernatural and supranational, and should
bow down in submission to the P>lessed Trinitv in the Plol\ Sacri-

Encyclical Letter, Ct/rih/ft Christ! Cnmpulai.

142 THIS MYSTICAL B O D Y 01- CHRIST

flee of t h e M a s s a r e u t t e r l y r e p u g n a n t t o h i m . Of c o u r s e , t h e
s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t o r d e r will be c a r r i e d o n in t h e n a m e of " p r o
g r e s s / * " e n l i g h t e n m e n t , " " l i b e r t y of c o n s c i e n c e . " a n d " d u t y t o
one's country and one's race." etc.
S e c o n d l y , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , S a t a n will o p p o s e t h e a c k n o w l e d g
m e n t of t h e r i g h t of t h e P o p e a n d B i s h o p s to d e c i d e w h a t f a v o u r s
o r o p p o s e s t h e Life of G r a c e . H e w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , d o all in h i s
p o w e r t o p r e v e n t t h e a d m i s s i o n of t h e P o p e t o t h e C o u n c i l s of
N a t i o n s a n d h e will a i m at n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n o p p o s e d to t r u e
morality. W h e n B i s h o p s insist t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of n a t i o n a l
life a n d r a c i a l c u l t u r e is m e a n t to f a v o u r t h e Life of t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of C h r i s t , h e will s t r i v e t o g e t t h e m a c c u s e d of b e i n g t h e
e n e m i e s of n a t i o n a l i t y . A s S a t a n s u c c e e d s in p r o p a g a t i n g N a t u r a l
i s m in a c o u n t r y , he p r e p a r e s t h e d i r e c t a t t a c k on the R e l i g i o u s
O r d e r s a n d C o n g r e g a t i o n s of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . Kvery revo
l u t i o n a r y g o v e r n m e n t s i n c e 1789, w i t h m o n o t o n o u s r e g u l a r i t y , h a s
d e c r e e d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of t h e s e O r d e r s a n d C o n g r e g a t i o n s .
S a t a n will, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , f a v o u r S e c r e t S o c i e t i e s a n d p a r t i c u l
a r l y t h e chief o n e , F r e e m a s o n r y , l i e will a l s o f a v o u r t h e a d m i s s
i o n of t h e j e w s to full c i t i z e n s h i p , s o t h a t t h e y m a y p r e p a r e f o r
the Natural Messias.
T h i r d l y , S a t a n will w o r k u n c e a s i n g l y for t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of
d i v o r c e , s i n c e C h r i s t i a n m a r r i a g e is t h e s y m b o l of t h e u n i t y a n d
i n d i s s o l u b i l i t y of t h a t s u p e r n a t u r a l u n i o n of C h r i s t a n d H i s
M y s t i c a l B o d y , w h i c h h e d e t e s t s . H e will n o t o n l y a t t a c k t h e
Christian h o m e directly by divorce, b u t indirectly by the glorifica
t i o n of i m p u r i t y . L u s t will n o t be t e r m e d s e l f - s e e k i n g b u t e m a n c i
pation. I m m o r a l unions m a y be excused and even lauded o n ac
c o u n t of t h e " p a r a m o u n t d u t y t o t h e r a c e . "
F o u r t h l y , n e e d l e s s t o s a y , he will d o all in his p o w e r t o h a m
p e r t r u e C a t h o l i c e d u c a t i o n , t h a t is, t h e f o r m a t i o n of y o u n g m e n
a n d w o m e n w i t h a full s e n s e of t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s m e m b e r s of
O u r L o r d ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y . T h a t y o u n g p e o p l e s h o u l d be t r a i n e d
t o c o n s i d e r t h e L i f e of G r a c e a s t h e i r m o s t r e a l life a n d t h a t t h e y
s h o u l d be c o n v i n c e d of t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y w i t h O u r L o r d a n d w i t h
o n e a n o t h e r a r e , of c o u r s e , u t t e r l y h a t e f u l t o h i m . T h a n k s t o
such a formation they would come forth after their formative
y e a r s with an i n s i g h t into t h e efforts b e i n g m a d e to o r g a n i z e
s o c i e t y o n n a t u r a l i s t i c , t h a t is, o n a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l , l i n e s , a n d
t h e y w o u l d be alive t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e o r g a n i z e d f o r c e s w o r k
i n g for t h e a d v e n t of N a t u r a l i s m , u n d e r S a t a n ' s i n v i s i b l e g u i d
a n c e . It is a p i t y t h a t C a t h o l i c t e a c h e r s a r e n o t a l w a y s fully c o n
s c i o u s of w h a t t h e y a r c c a l l e d u p o n t o d o for C h r i s t . T h e y s h o u l d
all h a v e a n a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r
s u b j e c t in r e l a t i o n to t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d u n d e r t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of C h r i s t , a n d t h e y s h o u l d n e v e r fail t o p u t first t h i n g s first.
T h e y s o m e t i m e s f o r g e t t h a t a b o y is p r i m a r i l y a m e m b e r of
 SATAN AND FELLOW-DEMONS 143

Christ and that his formation as a prizewinner or as a footballer

is of real importance only inasmuch as it favours his standing
integrally for Christ throughout his whole life.
Fifthly, Satan will do his utmost to prevent the formation of
Guilds or Vocational-Groups which reflect in economic organiza
tion the solidarity of the Mystical I5ody. His hatred of union
and order amongst the members of Christ was gratified by the
destruction of the Guilds at the so-called Reformation in England
and at the French Revolution in France. Me knew that the re
sultant disorder would make it difficult for human beings to lead
a truly virtuous life. Jn the feverish competition of Liberalistic
Individualism, the task of making a living absorbs so much energy
that, there i> none left for the life of union with the IJlessed
Trinity. Satan foresaw with malignant pleasure the ruin of souls
that would result from this unbridled Individualism. Pope Pius
XI stresses the point in the Encyclical Letter, On Atheistic Com-
munism. "Even on Sundays and holidays/' he writes, "labour
shifts were given no time to attend to their essential religious
duties. No one thought of building churches within convenient
distances of factories or of facilitating the work of the priest.
On the contrary, laicism was actively and persistently promoted,
with the result that we are now reaping the fruits of the errors
so often denounced by Our Predecessors and by Ourselves. It can
surprise no one thai the Communistic fallacy should be spreading
in a world already to a large extent estranged from Christian
ity."^)
The same Pontiff had already pointed out, in the Encyclical
Letter, On the Social Order, how favourable t o Satan'- efforts
was the state of things that accompanied everywhere what is
termed "Industrial Progress": "Very many employers treated
their workmen as mere tools, without any concern for the wel
fare of their souls, indeed without the slightest thought of higher
interests. The mind shudders if we consider the frightful perils
r
to w hich the morals of workers (of boys and young men par
ticularly) and the virtue of girls and women, are exposed in mod
ern factories; if we recall how the present economic regime and,
above all, the disgraceful housing conditions p r o \ e obstacles to
the family tie and to family life: if we rcmemiurr ihe .insuperable
difficulties placed in the way of a proper observance of holydays.
How universally has the true Christian spirit become impaired,
which formerly produced such lofty sentiments even in uncultured
and illiterate m e n ! fn its stead man's one solicitude is to obtain
his daily bread in any way be can. And so bodily labour, which
was decreed by Providence for the good of man's body and M > U ]
even after original sin, has everywhere been changed into an

i' 5}
Encyclical Letter, Divini If*drw/tturix.
144 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

i n s t r u m e n t of s t r a n g e p e r v e r s i o n ; f o r d e a d m a t t e r l e a v e s t h e
factory ennobled and transformed, while men are corrupted and
d e g r a d e d . F o r this p i t i a b l e r u i n of s o u l s , w h i c h , if it c o n t i n u e s ,
will f r u s t r a t e all e f f o r t s t o r e f o r m s o c i e t y , t h e r e c a n b e n o o t h e r
r e m e d y t h a n a f r a n k a n d s i n c e r e r e t u r n t o t h e t e a c h i n g of t h e
6
Gospef."< >
S a t a n has profited by the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d abuses r e s u l t i n g
f r o m I n d i v i d u a l i s t i c L i b e r a l i s m t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e r u i n of m u l t i
t u d e s of s o u l s . H e f a n s t h e flames of t h e C o m m u n i s t r e a c t i o n
against these abuses with even g r e a t e r vehemence, because the
o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y u n d e r C o m m u n i s m is still m o r e r a d i c a l l y
o p p o s e d t o t h e l o v i n g s e r v i c e of G o d . " W h e r e C o m m u n i s m h a s
b e e n a b l e t o a s s e r t its p o w e r , " w r i t e s P o p e P i u s X I in t h e E n c y c l i c a l
L e t t e r . On Atheistic Commvnisiyi, " i t has striven by every poss
ible m e a n s , as its c h a m p i o n s o p e n l y b o a s t , to d e s t r o y C h r i s t i a n
civilization and the Christian religion by banishing every r e m e m b r
, ( 7 )
a n c e of t h e m f r o m t h e h e a r t s of m e n , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m t h e y o u n g /
T h e s a m e P o n t i f f h a d a l r e a d y a l l u d e d t o t h e s a t a n i c c h a r a c t e r of
C o m m u n i s t w a r f a r e o n G o d in t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : " T h i s is t h e
m o s t d r e a d f u l evil of o u r t i m e s , f o r t h e y [ t h e e n e m i e s of all
s o c i a l o r d e r ] d e s t r o y e v e r y b o n d of l a w , h u m a n o r d i v i n e : t h e y
e n g a g e o p e n l y a n d in s e c r e t in a r e l e n t l e s s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t r e l i
gion and a g a i n s t God H i m s e l f ; they c a r r y o u t the diabolical p r o
g r a m m e of w r e s t i n g f r o m t h e h e a r t s of all, e v e n of c h i l d r e n , all
r e l i g i o u s s e n t i m e n t ; f o r w e l l t h e y k n o w t h a t , o n c e belief in G o d
h a s b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h e h e a r t s of m a n k i n d , t h e y will b e e n t i r e l y
f r e e t o w o r k o u t t h e i r w i l l . T h u s w e see t o - d a y , w h a t w a s n e v e r
b e f o r e s e e n in h i s t o r y , t h e s a t a n i c a l b a n n e r s of w a r a g a i n s t G o d
a n d a g a i n s t r e l i g i o n b r a z e n l y u n f u r l e d t o t h e w i n d s in t h e m i d s t
f 8 )
of all p e o p l e s a n d in all p a r t s of t h e e a r t h . ' "
B u t a g a i n , S a t a n will a l s o r e j o i c e if, w h i l e i n c u l c a t i n g o p p o s i
t i o n to C o m m u n i s m , y o u t h a r e d r a w n a w a y from the M a s s and
religious instructions, to sports and g y m n a s t i c exercises, u n d e r
p r e t e x t of t h e p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g i n d i s p e n s a b l e for r a c i a l d e v e l o p
ment.
S a t a n will f a v o u r t h e c o n t i n u a n c e of a m o n e t a r y s y s t e m w h i c h
i n s i s t s u p o n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of food a n d o t h e r n e c e s s a r i e s of life,
in s p i l e of w i d e s p r e a d p o v e r t y , in o r d e r t o k e e p up p r i c e s a n d t h u s
m a k e s u r e of t h e " i n t e r e s t " l e v i e d o n t h e c r e a t i o n of m n n c v .
O n e of t h e a b l e s t of t h e w r i t e r s w h o h a v e e x p o s e d t h e e v i l s of
the existent m o n e t a r y system, Professor P. Soddy, has shown the
d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s p o l i c y f o r h u m a n s o c i e t y . He
w r i t e s : " In o u r d a y it is n o t t h e a g i t a t o r f o m e n t i n g c l a s s - h a t r e d
fr,
> Encyclical Lot ter, Quadragesima A nno.
TI
< Encyclical Letter. Divini 7*Vrlrmptoris.
p
' Encyclical Letter, t'uritate Christ! Comp)/Is,\ On the Trouhh-*
of our Time.
 SATAN A N D FELLOW-DEMONS 145

who can start . . . . a revolution. But empty milk into the

Potomac; import pests to destroy the cotton crop; burn wheat
and coffee as fuel; restrict the production of rubber; set up tariff-
barriers; permit trusts, federations, cartels and lock-outs; allow
trade-unions to develop ca'canny methods to reduce output; main
tain misery, insecurity and idleness, masses of unemployed who
are not allowed to better their lot by making the very things of
which they stand in need; and revolution in some form is not
probable, but certain. The ideas that govern men are outraged.
Instead of a few striking illustrations of incompetence or worse,
they begin to see universal chaos instead of order. Their insti
tutions, so far from protecting them in their peaceful avocations
on which they rely for a livelihood, appear leagued togethei to
9
keep them in . . . . unnecessary servitude and dependence."' *
Pope Pius X I had already stressed this same truth, coupling
with it a strong warning not to allow the paid Communist agitator
to spread the seeds of disorder: " W e cannot contemplate with
out sorrow," he wrote, " the heedlessness of those who seem to
make light of these imminent clangers, and with stolid indifference
allow the propagation far and wide of those doctrines fof Com
munism] which seek by violence and bloodshed the destruction
of all society. liven-more severely must be condemned the fool-
hardiness of (hose who tieglcct to remove or modify such condi
tions as exasperate the minds of the people, and so prepare .he
lf>>
way for the overthrow and the ruin of the social order."
Many Catholics, in their interpretation of this latter text, fail to
ascend to the financiers who control the volume of the exchange-
medium and who are ultimately responsible for the policy of de
struction. They see only the few rich, industrialists or others,
who have succeeded in the struggle.
Catholics are frequently deceived in regard to this point by
Communist propaganda. Following in the footsteps of Marx,
Communists carefully avoid the distinction made by the German
economist, Feder, between " Loan-Capital '* and what he called
"Creative-Capital." " A Rothschild or a Morgan," writes Wynd-
ham Lewis in Conn/ your t/earfThey are a/ire], ''makes his
money in a very different way from a Nuffield or a Ford. The
former deals in money itself, as a commodity. His business is
essentially that of a moneylender. lie makes nothing, lie toils
not, neither does he spin. But for all that he is no lily, as a rule!
The latter, on the other band, of the Nufficld-Ford type, are
creative in the >ense that they do at least make .something. . . .
Without 'Loan-Capital' there would be no Communism. The
straight Bolsheviksay a Pollit or a Strachcythough pcrfeetU
<> The Role of Money, p . 22.
HO' Encyclical Letter, ( f u m l r a u < * h n o A n n o . On iht S i n - i n ! <h<hr.

M
 146 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a w a r e of t h e d e e p s i g n i f i c a n c e of H e r r F e d e r ' s d i s t i n c t i o n , i g n o r e s
it. H e e v e n r e s e n t s i t s b e i n g m e n t i o n e d . A s a m a t t e r of f a c t
w h a t H e r r F e d e r calls a * c r e a t i v e c a p i t a l i s t / t h e R u s s i a n C o m
m u n i s t calls a ' k u l a k / K v e n H e n r y F o r d is o n l y a g i g a n t i c
' k u l a k . ' A n d of all t h i n g s on e a r t h t h e M a r x i s t h a t e s t h e * k u l a k '
most. W i t h ' L o a n - C a p i t a l , ' on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e h a s m a n y
affinities. I n d e e d , if * L o a n - C a p i t a l w e r e allowed to p r o c e e d on
i t s w a y w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e , it w o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e s u l t in
Communism
4(
I felt t h a t t h e S o v i e t w a s a l t o g e t h e r too t h i c k w i t h t h e
Capitalists It is p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e c a t e g o r y of ' c a p -
p i t a l i s t ' w i t h w h o m t h e S o v i e t E m p i r e is s o f r i e n d l y is of t h e k i n d
described by H e r r F e d e r as a ' l o a n - c a p i t a l i s t / . . . I" r e m a r k e d
t h a t t h e s e L o r d s of C a p i t a l , w h o d o n o t s e e m t o h a t e C o m m u n i s t
R u s s i a q u i t e s o m u c h a s y o u w o u l d e x p e c t , did n o t b e l o n g t o u s .
. . . \Ve g e t n o t h i n g o u t of t h e s e p e o p l e , b u t t h e y g e t a g r e a t
d e a l o u t of u s . T h e r i c h e r t h e y b e c o m e a n d t h e y a r e v e r y f e w
t h e p o o r e r w e b e c o m e . A n d it is m a t h e m a t i c a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t w e
s h a l l . a l l e n d u p on t h e d o l e , u n l e s s w e c a n s h o o t h e m o u t a n d s l a m
our door/'OU

SATAN'S H A T R E D OF THK DLESSKD EUCHARIST.

As the Blessed Eucharist contains Our Divine Lord, the Super
n a t u r a l L i f e i n P e r s o n , I t is t h e o b j e c t of s p e c i a l a n i m o s i t y o n t h e
p a r t of S a t a n . A t t a c k s on It p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in t h e p r e
p a r a t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n s in C a t h o l i c c o u n t r i e s . Historically, there
h a s b e e n a n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m o d e of p r o c e d u r e
a d o p t e d by S a t a n f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e
from P r o t e s t a n t and from Catholic c o u n t r i e s . In P r o t e s t a n t c o u n
t r i e s , on a c c o u n t of t h e p u b l i c official r e j e c t i o n of t h e D i v i n e P l a n
f o r o r d e r in t h e w o r l d , t h e g r a d u a l o u s t i n g of t h e r e m n a n t of O u r
L o r d ' s d o c t r i n e f r o m t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d t h e public life of t h e
c o u n t r y is i n e v i t a b l e . T h u s , as t h e a d v e n t of X a t u r a l i s m in t h e s e
c o u n t r i e s is o n l y a q u e s t i o n of t i m e , f o r c i b l e s t e p s h a v e n o t in
g e n e r a l b e e n t a k e n t o u p r o o t t h e p a s t . S a t a n c a n afford t o b i d e
his time, so to say. T h a t docs n o t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t h a t these
c o u n t r i e s m a y n o t b e c a l l e d u p o n t o e n d u r e t h e a g o n y of r e v o l u
t i o n . S a t a n ' s h a t r e d of belief in t h e D i v i n i t y of O u r L o r d , his
f e a r of e v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r e t u r n to t h e M a s s , t h e l o n g i n g of
t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n for t h e f u t u r e M e s s i a n i c A g e , a n y o n e of t h e s e
m a y b e r e s p o n s i b l e for a r e c r u d e s c e n c e of v i o l e n c e in t h e effort
t o u p r o o t e v e r y v e s t i g e of C h r i s t i a n i t y .
(it) L a t e r on, in C h a p t e r X V I , we shall have t o call a t t e n t i o n to
the fact t h a t J a m e s Connolly, t h r o u g h b l i n d l y following K a r l M a r x ,
never jrrasped the d i s t i n c t i o n m a d e by F e d e r a n d never realized t h a t
C o m m u n i s m is merely an i n s t r u m e n t in the h a n d s of a. section of the
Loan-Capitalists.
 SATAN A N D FELLOW-DEMONS 147

In Catholic countries, however, violent revolution is always

aimed at, in order to get rid of the existing social structure, in
which the Kingship of Christ is respected, and so to instal Natural
ism. Now, profanation, of the Blessed Eucharist has, on many
occasions at least, been part of the preparation of apostate Catho
lics to be fitting instruments of revolution or of anti-supernatural
legislation. The Reminiscences of a feminine agent of a Parisian
Lodge, published some years ago, relate how she was sent on
Spy Wednesday and Holy Thursday to collect fifteen Consecrated
f12
Hosts for the horrible profanations in the Lodge on Good Friday. )
In that very useful work. The X Rays in Freemasonry, by A.
Cowan, there is an interesting quotation from Waitc's Devil Wor
ship in France (1896) concerning these sacrilegious attacks on Our
Lord in the Blessed Sacrament. Waite was a non-Catholic, a
Rosicrucian in fact, so he cannot be suspected of partiality to the
Catholic Church

<i> Cf. Vfflue dn Dragon, p p . 109, 110. The Foreword *ays that
two manuscript copies of these MCmoircs arc in existence, bearing date,
18S5
(is) A letter in The Catholic Herald (London), 11th August, 1934,
from the pen of the Rev. J. B. Reeves, O.P., mentioned similar sacri
leges in France and England, which had come to his knowledge.
 CHAPTER VIII.

TIIK FIRST YISIDDK ORGAXIXKD NATURALISTIC

FORCKTHIC J K W I S H NATION.

T H E O N E N E S S OF TIIK D I V I N E PLAN KOR ORDER.

W e h a v e s e e n t h e onenes.s of the D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r in t h e

w o r l d . T h i s g r e a t t r u t h n e e d s to he s t r e s s e d , for t h e a g e - l o n g
s t r u g g l e of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of t h e
M y s t i c a l P>ody of O u r C o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , t h a t is, t h e N a t u r a l i s m
of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , d o e s not s t a n d o u t a s * c l e a r l y in t h e m i n d s
of C a t h o l i c s t o - d a y a s it did in f o r m e r a g e s . A g a i n a n d a g a i n ,
t h e P o p e s h a v e i n s i s t e d u p o n t h e fact t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h
is t h e a r k of s a l v a t i o n for all. F o r e x a m p l e , P o p e P i u s I X s p o k e
of t h o s e w h o w o u l d h e s a v e d t h r o u g h i n v i n c i b l e i g n o r a n c e of t h e
m
t r u e r e l i g i o n of C h r i s t , but b e u r g e d t h e R i s h o p s of t h e w h o l e
w o r l d t o d o all in t h e i r p o w e r " to k e e p m e n ' s m i n d s f r e e f r o m
t h e i m p i o u s a n d f a t a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e o p i n i o n t h a i t h e w a y of e t e r n a l
1
s a l v a t i o n c a n b e found in a n y r e l i g i o n w h a t e v e r / He insisted
<(
also that it is a w e l l - k n o w n C a t h o l i c d o g m a that n o b o d y c a n b e
s a v e d o u t s i d e t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d that t h o s e . . . . w h o a r e
k n o w i n g l y a n d w i l l i n g l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e u n i t y of t h e C h u r c h
a n d f r o m t h e R o m a n Pontiff, s u c c e s s o r of St. P e t e r . . . c a n n o t
obtain eternal salvation.

(
't) Allocution, Sinanlari qufuhna, Dili Doe., ISOL; Encyclical Letter,
Quanta vonfirifunnr inocrorc, lOl.h August, ]S(i;i. With regard to invin
cible ignorance, cf. Dcnzln<jet\ HOT.
(
-> Dvnzintjcr. 1 (>C>7.
" T h e Command of Christ to the ApoMle* to preach the g o s p e l to
'every creature' implies a corresponding obligation on the pari of all
men to hear ami obey them, and, therefore, to become member* of the
Church ; 'p reach t lie Cos pel to every creat l i r e , ' said Christ, - he
thai bellevelh not shall be condemned' (St. M ark, X V 1. 15. 1 0 ) . No
man. therefore, who, on coming to know i In- l.rue Church, refuses tr* join
it, can be saved. Neither can be be M W I I , if, having once entered the
Church, he forsake ii through here-\ <>r SELDOM . . 'Flic Church- as St.
Paul says, is t h r li \ ing bod\ whereof ChrCt is t he Head. Me w h" ^''\'er-
himsclf from fhe_ Church, severs himself from ChrCf. and cannot b"
saved, for in Christ alone is salvation*' < <hee|uin Cat/,,,!;,- .j nolot/f f ir*.
vol. T, p. 137).
l
The visible Church, by the institution and will of Christ, is * neces-
s a r v means for (he attainment, of s a h a l h m . in the smse thai everyone
iriusi belong to it- in re or in rata. Thai me;nu thai- those who are in
 T H E JEWISH NATION 149

The order of the world, then, demands the acceptance by all

men of the Supernatural Life, which is a participation in the Inner
Life of the Blessed Trinity. It is only through that Divine Life
3
that our natural life, individual and social, can be lived in order.' )
The Unique Source of that Life is Our Lord Jesus Christ, and
human beings are intended to receive communication of that Life
by being incorporated into Him through membership of the super
natural society of His Mystical Body, the Catholic Church. All
nations are meant to enter the Mystical Body of Christ and to
organize their national life so as to allow Our Lord to manifest
His treasures of supernatural sanctity in every clime and in every
latitude.
The world, as we have seen in the extract quoted from Pope
Leo Kill's Encyclical Letter, On Freemasonry, is divided into two
(4)
camps. On the one side, there is the camp of those who accept
the Supernatural Life of Grace under the leadership of Our
Lord and, on the other, the naturalistic camp which, under the
leadership of Satan, rejects that Life. The Jewish Nation is the
most strongly organized visible force in the naturalistic camp.
This fact must be emphasized more strongly than ever now that
another organized force, in the same naturalistic and anti-super
natural camp, namely, the Government set up by the National-
Socialist Party, which is in control of the German national re
action, is attacking not only the Mystical Body of Christ but also
the Jewish Nation. Jewish propaganda against National-Social
ism, when appealing to Catholics, stresses, the deadly opposition
of the "National-Socialist regime to the Catholic Church and the
anti-Catholic character of the race theory. It does not point out
that the quarrel between the National-Socialist Government and
the Jewish Nation is between two sections of the naturalistic
army, both of which are hostile to the Catholic Church. The Jews,
as a nation, refuse to accept the Divine Plan for order. They, a s
well as the National-Socialists, want to impose on God their plans
for the glory of their race and nation. They deify their own
nation. Hence both the Jewish Nation and the National-Socialist
movement reject our true divinization, through Our Lord Jesus
(5)
Christ. The ideals and aims of both these sections of the natur
alistic army are opposed to the Catholic ideal and infinitely in-

the physical or moral impossibility qf actually entering the Church are

not excluded from salvation, provided they are fully disposed to enter
the Church the moment the obstacles an* removed. Cf. Schultes, O.P.,
De Ecclesia Gatholica, pp. 270-274,
o> Cf. Ia Ilae, Q.109, a.3.
t)Encyclical Letter, Jfumanum t/ertus.
This divinization is, of course, not in the order of being, but in
the order of thought and will, through our participation, by the Grace
of Christ, in the Inner LifV of the Three Djvine Persons.
 3 5 0 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

ferior to it. And both these forces are being used by Satan to
inflict disaster on the world. There is laughter in hell when
human beings succumb once more to the temptation of the Garden
of Eden and put themselves in the place of God, whether the new
(r,)
divinity be the Jewish race or the German race.
We must now study more closely the significance of Jewish
Naturalism. There is need for clear thinking in this connexion.
We must distinguish accurately between opposition to the dom
ination of Jewish Sataralisni in society and hostility to the Jews
as a racf\ The latter form of opposition, namely, hostility to the
Jews as a race, is what is designated by the term, Anti-Semitism.
The former opposition is "incumbent on every Catholic and on
every true lover of his native land.

THK J K W I S H NATION'S R E J E C T I O N OF T H E
SUPERNATURAL MESSIAS.
The Jewish Nation was chosen by God to maintain acceptable
worship of the One True God. in preparation for the coming of
Him Who was to re-establish order in the world by the restora
tion of Supernatural Life. The Jewish Nation was at the same
time destined to be the source of the Individuality of the Super
natural Messias to come. His Personality was to be from on
high. Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Supernatural Messias, True
God and True Man. is at one and the same time the Second
Person of the Hlessed Trinity and a Jew of the house of David.
Two of the essential points of His teaching roused the stubborn
hostility of the leaders of the Jewish Nation. "The Pharisees
who formed the dominant sect in the last years of the political
existence of our nation brought about a veritable religious revo
lution amongst the Jews who followed them. To the Church of
Jesus Christ which is the development of the historical Synagogue
of Israel, to that Church which had its origin in Jerusalem and
had at first no adherents other than the descendants of Abraham,
the proud and perverse Pharisees set up in opposition a false
foreign Synagogue, founded on traditions of their own fabrication
and on the arbitrary interpretations and hairsplitting decisions
dictated by their hypocritical zeal (Ct\ St. Mark, VII, 9 and St.
Matthew. XV. 9). This has been for our unhappv nation ' a root
bringing forth gall and bitterness' (I)eut.. XXIX. 18)."^ The
"Certainly, the devil is the head of all w icked men and
all wicked men are members of this head. Was not Pilate a member of
Satan? Were not the Jews who nci'scented Christ and the soldiers who
crucified Him, members of Salan (Homily of St. Gregory for the
First Sunday of Lent).
7
< > Be JJilarmonie cntre J/figlitt e.t la Sanayogue, by the Catholic
ex-Ilabbin lh-ach, vol. J I, i*. IS i. Cf. Min\ *Landiieu\-, L'Histoire ct
Irs flistnircs dans la. fJiblc, pp. 7 G - 1 1 0 .
 THE JEWISH NATION 151

J e w s r e f u s e d , firstly, t o a c c e p t t h a t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life
of H i s M e s s i a n i c K i n g d o m w a s h i g h e r t h a n t h e i r n a t i o n a l life
and, s e c o n d l y , t h e y u t t e r l y r e j e c t e d t h e i d e a of t h e G e n t i l e N a t i o n s
b e i n g a d m i t t e d t o e n t e r i n t o t h e M e s s i a n i c K i n g d o m , on t h e s a m e
level a s t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s t h e y p u t t h e i r n a t i o n a l life a b o v e t h e
S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e a n d s e t r a c i a l d e s c e n t f r o m A b r a h a m
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e flesh o n a h i g h e r p l a n e t h a n s p i r i t u a l d e s c e n t f r o m
( 8 )
Abraham by faith. H a v i n g p u t t h e i r r a c e a n d n a t i o n in t h e
p l a c e of G o d , h a v i n g in f a c t deified t h e m , t h e y r e j e c t e d t h e S u p e r
n a t u r a l M e s s i a s a n d e l a b o r a t e d a p r o g r a m m e of p r e p a r a t i o n f o r
the n a t u r a l M e s s i a s to c o m e . " O u r L o r d spoke a heavenly lang
uage to t h e m [the J e w s ] , " w r o t e a g r e a t J e w i s h convert, F a t h e r
L i b e r m a n n , C.S.Sp., " a n d t h e y i n t e r p r e t e d H i s w o r d s in a m e a n
and ignoble fashion, a c c o r d i n g to their low and n a r r o w ideas.
..Their s o u l s w e r e h a l f - b r u t a l i z e d b y sin a n d t h e d o m i n a t i o n of
s e n s e - l i f e , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e y w e r e i n c a p a b l e of g r a s p i n g
(9
heavenly things." >
" J e w s / * w r i t e s a n o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o n v e r t , " m a y be b r o a d l y
classified a s t h e O r t h o d o x ( o r p i o u s ) J e w s a n d t h e R e f o r m ( o r
e n l i g h t e n e d ) Tews. . . . T h e O r t h o d o x w a n t . . . . a r e t u r n t o
J e r u s a l e m t h e r e b u i l d i n g of t h e T e m p l e a n d t h e r e i n s t i t u t i o n of
t h e s a c r i f i c e s u n d e r t h e m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of A a r o n .
T h e r e , in t h e H o l y C i t y , t h e y w a n t t o a w a i t t h e c o m i n g of t h e
M e s s i a n i c A g e , t h e c o m i n g of a p e r s o n a l M e s s i a h . T h e R e f o r m
J e w h o l d s t o t h e belief i n t h e M e s s i a n i c A g e , w h i l e h e r e j e c t s t h e
( ] 0
belief in a p e r s o n a l M e s s i a h . " > Another distinguished Jewish
writer, not a convert, expresses this hope as follows:
' ' T h e m o s t s c e p t i c a l w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e M i s s i o n of I s r a e l
d i s p e r s e d a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s c o n s i d e r . . . as t h e u l t i m a t e
ideal of t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of i t s d e s t i n y ,
t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a u n i o n of all p e o p l e s fully recon
ciled a n d m o r a l l y u n i t e d in a s p i r i t of d e f i n i t i v e p e a c e , s o c i a l
justice a n d fraternal solidarity. . . . J e w i s h faith aims at p r o
c u r i n g t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n of f s r a e l , s u f f e r i n g a n d d o w n - t r o d d e n ,
(
8 J G. K. Chesterton sums u p the deification of the Jewish race a n d
n a t i o n by the Jews as f o l l o w s : " T h e r e are J e \ # s h Mystics and J e w i s h
sceptics; b u t a b o u t this one m a t t e r of the s t r a n g e sacredness of his own
race,_ almost every Jewish sceptic is a Jewish M y s t i c " (The End of the
Armistice, p. 86). I t is not s t r a n g e t h a t the Jews should come to deify
their race, since they have rejected the Divine P l a n for o r d e r . I t is the
inevitable a l t e r n a t i v e . I t is, however, s t r a n g e in the sense t h a t it is a
terrible proof of the weakness of h u m a n n a t u r e since the F a l l . Of
course, the Jewish race will always r e m a i n the race from which the
Redeemer s p r a n g , and, as such, is especially d e a r to h i s Sacred H e a r t .
i( , J
T h a t is the sacredness which they, as a race, despise a n d reject.
W Commentary on St. John's Gospel, p.374.
(10) Campaigner* for Christ Handbook, p p . 29, 30, bv David Cold-
stein.
 152 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

and at the same time collaborating in the emancipation of human

ity, for which . . . it has still the ambition to be a light and an
11
instrument of salvation."* *
The Jewish ideal of a future Messianic Age is opposed to the
real order of the world in a twofold manner.
In the first place, the Jewish Nation opposes the Divine Plan
for the union of all nations in the Catholic Church, the Mystical
Body of Christ. The Catholic Church is supranational and, by the
aid of the Supernatural Life of Grace, can work at eliminating
the particular form of selfishness of each nation, so that the union
of all may be achieved in a manner perfectly respectful of the
variety of national qualities and characteristics. God wanted the
Jews as a people to accept His Only-begotten Son and be the
heralds of the supernatural, supranational Life of; His Mystical
Body. They were thus offered the privilege of proclaiming and
working for the only mode of realizing the union and brother
hood of nations which is possible since the Fall. Their pride or
lack of humility and docility caused them to set their faces against
God. When they refused to enter into His designs, God permitted
the crime of deicide and, by the supreme act of humble submission
of Our Lord on Calvary, the Life of Grace was restored to the
world. Calvary, however, was a consequence of the refusal of
the Jews to submit humbly to God the Father and accept His
Son. In his Commentary on St. Matthew, XXVI, 39, St. Thomas
quotes the opinion of St. Jerome that Our Lord, by His Prayer
in the Garden of Gethsemani, " My Father, if it be possible, let
this chalice pass from me/' asked to have the redemption of the
world accomplished without the crime of the Jews, His own
people, but bowed down to what His Father was permitting, name
ly, the abuse of their free will by that people, with all its dire
consequences for Himself and for His Mystical Body, "Neverthe
less not as I will, but as thou wilt." The Jews freely rejected
Christ before Pontius Pilate, as they freely reject Him to-day.
God the Father drew good out of evil then, as He does now, but
the rejection was and is against the order of *the world and there
fore evil. These great truths must be emphasized in face of such
blasphemies as the following: " A s a matter of fact, if, as Christ-

u o l,
a Foi rVhmel% by Julien Weill, p]). 173, 174. This writer, in
the early part of the same work, has already pointed out that, it is
Judaism rather than heresy which has prevented Christianity from
becoming the faith of the majority of believers in God, and that, instead
of Christianity "finishing" Judaism, Judaism may succeed in "finish
ing" Christianity. In other words, he hopes that, 'instead of the Jewish
Nation accepting the True, Supernatural Messias, Our Lord Jesus
Christ, the pretended supernatural influence of Our Lord .will decay
and finally disappear, making way for the naturalistic realm of the
new Messias.
 THE JEWISH NATION 153
ianiiy teaches, the Only-begotten Son of God was to be crucified
as a vicarious atonement to save the sinful world and God used the
Jews as a vehicle to bring about the crucifixion, why blame the
0 1
Jews? The fault rests with God." - The per se order or order
desired by God in accordance with His infinite holiness, was that
the Jewish Nation should receive Christ as True God and True
Man and put its natural qualities at His disposal for the undoing
of the effects of original sin. The per accidens order, or order
consequent on God's permitting the Jews freely to prefer their
national life to the acceptance of the Divine Plan, is the one in
which, in actual fact, the combat against original sin has been
waged historically, with the Jews in the forefront of the natural
(13)
istic or anti-supernatural army.
In his commentary on the text of St. Matthew, XXVII, 4 6 :
" M y God, My God, why hast thou forsaken M e ? " St. Thomas
r
w rites: " It is manifest that Our Lord utters these words as Man.
. . . The expression ' forsaken/ expresses by a simile that what
we have we have received from God. Hence, just as when anyone
is exposed to an evil or a misfortune, he is said to be abandoned or
forsaken, so when God allows man to fall into a fault or meet
with suffering, he is said to be forsaken. Accordingly, Christ is
said to be abandoned, not in the sense that He was deprived of
union with the Word, or that He was deprived of grace, but to
express that His Passion was permitted Christ says
' why? ' not out of irritation against or discontent with the Divine
Will, but to indicate a feeling of cornpassion towards the Jews.
That is why He uses the expression only after darkness has spread
over the earth. Hence He means: Why did you will that 1 should
have to undergo this passion and that they [the Jews] should be
blinded and in darkness? He at the same time expresses admira
tion for God's wonderful charity.*'
The Jewish ideal of a future Messianic Age is opposed to
God's Will in a second way. The Jews reject the Hit per natural Mes
sias and His supranational Kingdom, -while they continue to look
for another Messias. This means that they long for a Messianic

(12) Judaism by Harry Joshua Stern, p. 100.

in the War of Ideas,
(13) Theologians usually distinguish between what God wills, by or
with an antecedent act of will (votU'titas antecedent, voluntas secnndwni
N

quid), and what He wills simply and unconditionally or by a con

sequent act of will (voluntas ronserjuens, voluntas simplicitrr). "And
thus it is clear that whatever God simply or unconditionally (sim-
pliciter) wills, takes place, though that which He 'wills antecedently or
conditionally does not take place" (IaP., Q,19, a,6, ad ]). The per se. order
is what God wants in accordance with His holiness, that is, the right
and the good, hut this God wills, while at the same time permitting
man to resist, through the abuse of his free will. God wills absolutely
ox unconditionally what takes place here and now.
 154 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
age which must of necessity be purely natural. Whether this
Messias be taken to be an individual or the race, it means that
the Jews, as a nation, must strive to impose their particular na
tional form on other nations. This imposition of the Jewish Na
tional form inevitably spells decay for other traditional national
forms. The imposition by any nation of its national form on
other nations leads to the decay of the other nations, and this is
all the more emphatically the case when the attempted imposition
is accompanied by the rejection of the one true order of the world,
15
which can be achieved only through Our Lord Jesus Christ/ *
The Jewish Messianic ambition, therefore, contains a twofold
source of corruption and decay for other nations. It corrupts the
national life, on the natural level, and by its opposition to the
Supernatural Life coming from Our Lord Jesus Christ, it rejects
that succour, by which alone human life, individual and national,
can be lived in order. Father Joseph Lemann, a Jewish convert
priest, emphasizes the total lack of natural prudence displayed in
the admission of Jews to French citizenship at the French Revo
lution and contrasts the folly of revolutionaries with the super
natural foresight of the Catholic Church. "The Church is very
far-seeing/' he writes, ". . . . She would not allow a Jew to hold
any key-position in Christian society, in the 18th century any more
than in the 10th century. She would not allow a Jew, for ex
ample, to teach Christians, to sit under a crucifix as judge over
Christians, to take part in the drawing up of laws for a Christian
state. The Church's line of conduct is always the same. The
Church tolerates Jews, treats them kindly, has compassion on
them, but on condition that they remain apart in their own quar
ters and do not seek to enter into the bosom of Christian
societies. She knows well that, if they once obtain entrance, they

<Mi "hi the rabbinical apocalyptic literature the conception of an

earthly Messiah is the prevailing one, and from the end of the first
century of the common (i.e. Christian) era, it is also the one officially
accepted by Judaism . . . . His mission is, in all essential respects,
the same as in the apocalypses of the older period; he is to free Israel
from the power of the heathen world, kill its ruler,, destroy his hosts
and set up his kingdom of peace'' (The Jewish Encyclopaedia, vol.
VI1L art. Messiah).
"The. Messiah, whose, coming the Jews obstinately expect, in spite
of the fact that he obstinately refuses to appear, is to be a great con
queror who will r&duce all the nations of the world to the condition of
slaves of the Jews. The latter are destined lo return to the Holy Land
in triumph, laden with the riches taken from the non-Jews. Jerusalem
is to have a now temple, which will not be built by human hands but
will be let down from heaven, ready made and fully furnished, after
the fashion of a stasie construction " (Drach. [Jflwmonie aitre Ugli<r
et to. Synagogue* vol. T, p. 08).
M5) " Yar there is one Ood. and one mediator of God and men. the
man Chris! Jesus" (J Tim., II, 5).
 T H E JEWISH NATTON 155

will get control of the heart [of these societies! and upset its
16
proper functioning/'* '

THE TRAGEDY OF THE JEWISH XATIOX.

"The case of governments/* wrote Tope Leo XTI1, "is much
the same as that of individuals: they also must run into fatal
issues, if they depart from the way. . . . . Let Jesus he excluded,
and human reason is left without its greatest protection and
illumination: the very notion is easily lost of the end for which
God created human society Their minds busy with a
hundred confused projects, rulers and subjects alike travel a devi
ous road, bereft as they arc of safe guidance and fixed principle.
Just as it is pitiable and calamitous to wander out of the way, so
it is to desert the truth. But the first absolute and essential truth
is Christ, the Word of God, consubstantial and co-eternal with
H(17j
the Father, who with the Father is o n c . Pius XF is ju*t as
explicit as Leo XIIL " N o belief in God/' he writes, "will
in the long run be preserved pure and genuine, if it is not sup
ported by belief in Christ. . . . Belief in Christ will not be pre
served true and genuine, if not supported and protected by belief
in the Church, the pillar and the ground of truth (I Timothy. IT],
15). Christ Himself, God praised forever, has erected this pillar
of faith. His command to hear the Church (St. Matth., XVIII,
17), to hear His words and commandments (St. Luke, X, 16) in the
words and Commandments of the Church, is meant for the men
of all times and places The moral conduct of mankind is
grounded on faith in God kept pure and true. Every attempt to
dislodge moral teaching and moral conduct from the roclc of
faith, and to erect them on the shifting sands of human regula
tions, sooner or later leads the individual and the community to
38
moral destruction/^ '
These principles of Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius XI apply
with greater force to the Jewish Nation and its leaders than to
others, for they have rejected greater graces and turned against
<1G* J JEntree des Israelites dans la Societe Francaise et les Stats
Chretiens, p. 386. On pages 204 and 205 of the same work, the author
gives a list of the restrictions imposed on the Jews up to 1789, in order
to safeguard the influence of the Supernatural Messias in the social
life of Christian States. Jews were forbidden : to have Christian slaves
or servants of either sex; to open schools for Christians' or to teach
in the Universities; to have posts in the army; to have part in the
making or interpreting of laws; to be magistrates: to be owners of real
estate or to acquire property: to be chemists or hotel-keepers.
<"> Encyclical Letter, Tametsi. On Christ Our Redeemer (1900).
U 8 ) Encyclical Letter, if it hrennrnder Sort/c, On the Persecution, of
the Church in Grrm/wy.
In the^ Encyclical, Divini licdeniptavi*, the ^aiiie holy Pontiff wrote:
"Everything must crumble that i* nor grounded on the one corner stone
which is Ctirht Jesus."
 156 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

God with direr ingratitude. T h e y are Our Lord's o w n people

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e flesh. It is n o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t w e find t e r r i b l e
d i v a g a t i o n s f r o m o r d e r in t h e b o o k s o r c o d e s w h i c h t h e i r l e a d e r s
h a v e compiled to guide a n d d i r e c t their r e l a t i o n s w i t h God a n d
t h e i r f e l l o w - m e n . T h e K a b b a l a c o n t a i n s , chiefly, b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e
ly, t h e d i v a g a t i o n s f r o m o r d e r w i t h r e g a r d t o m y s t i c a l u n i o n w i t h
G o d a n d t h e g r o w t h of t h e s p i r i t u a l life. T h e T a l m u d c o n t a i n s ,
chiefly, b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y , t h e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m r i g h t o r d e r c o n
c e r n i n g social r e l a t i o n s w i t h n o n - J e w s .
I n v i e w of t h e p o s s i b l e a c c u s a t i o n of e x a g g e r a t i o n , it will b e
well to q u o t e a n u n i m p e a c h a b l e w i t n e s s w i t h r e g a r d to t h e T a l m u d .
I n h i s s p l e n d i d w o r k , De UHarmonic Enlre UEglise el la Syna
gogue, t h e K x - R a b b i n D r a c h , h i g h l y h o n o u r e d a n d d e c o r a t e d for
his learned w o r k s by Popes L e o X I I , P i u s V I I I and G r e g o r y X V I ,
w r i t e s a s f o l l o w s : " F o r a l o n g t i m e it w a s m y p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t y
to t e a c h t h e T a l m u d and explain its d o c t r i n e s , a f t e r h a v i n g a t
t e n d e d s p e c i a l c o u r s e s for m a n y y e a r s , u n d e r t h e m o s t r e n o w n e d
of c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h D o c t o r s . N o w t h a t b y t h e g r a c e of G o d
I h a v e b e e n led t o a b j u r e its f a l s e d o g m a s , 1 c a n s p e a k of it w i t h
full k n o w l e d g e of i t s c o n t e n t s , a s a r e s u l t of m y s t u d i e s , b u t I
will e n d e a v o u r t o d o so w i t h c o m p l e t e i m p a r t i a l i t y . O n t h e o n e
h a n d , I h a v e d e v o t e d t h e b e s t y e a r s of m y life t o t h e s t u d y of it,
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it m e a n s n o t h i n g t o m e n o w . I s h a l l t h e r e f o r e
s e t f o r t h b o t h w h a t is g o o d in i t a n d w h a t is d e f e c t i v e .
" T a l m u d ( m o r e c o r r e c t l y Thai mud) . . . . is a H e b r e w w o r d
u s e d by t h e R a b b i n s to signify ' d o c t r i n e ' o r ' t e a c h i n g . ' It d e s i g
n a t e s m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e g r e a t b o d y of J e w i s h d o c t r i n e , t o w h i c h
t h e g r e a t e s t d o c t o r s in I s r a e l h a v e s u c c e s s i v e l y c o n t r i b u t e d a t
d i f f e r e n t e p o c h s . Jt is t h e c o m p l e t e civil a n d r e l i g i o u s c o d e of t h e
synagogue T h e j u d i c i o u s r e a d e r of t h e T a l m u d is o f t e n
s a d d e n e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e of m a n y of t h o s e s t r a n g e a b e r r a t i o n s
i n t o w h i c h t h e h u m a n m i n d f a l l s , w h e n b e r e f t of t h e t r u e f a i t h ,
a n d v e r y f r e q u e n t l y t h e b a s e n e s s of r a b b i n i c a l c y n i c i s m m a k e s
h i m b l u s h for s h a m e . T h e C h r i s t i a n a l s o is h o r r i f i e d b y t h e i n s a n e
a n d a t r o c i o u s c a l u m n i e s w h i c h t h e i m p i o u s h a t r e d of t h e P h a r i s e e s
h u r l s a t e v e r y t h i n g he holds sacred. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e Christian
t h e o l o g i a n t h e r e i n discovers useful d a t a and precious t r a d i t i o n s
f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of m a n y difficult t e x t s of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t
u s w e l l a s f o r t h e p u r p o s e of c o n v i n c i n g o u r r e l i g i o u s o p p o n e n t s
of t h e a n t i q u i t y n o l e s s t h a n t h e h o l i n e s s of C a t h o l i c t e a c h i n g . . . .
" T h e T a l m u d is d i v i d e d i n t o t h e Misehna, c o m m o n l y called
Misna, w h i c h f o r m s t h e t e x t , a n d t h e Ghemara, w h i c h is t h e c o m
m e n t a r y a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t e x t . T h e G h e m a r a is t w o
fold, c o m p r i s i n g b o t h t h e C o m m e n t a r y of J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e C o m
m e n t a r y of I ' a b y l o n In t h e G h e m a r a , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t
a h u n d r e d p a s s a g e s w h i c h a r e i n s u l t i n g t o t h e m e m o r y of O u r
a d o r a b l e S a v i o u r , t h e m o r e t h a n a n g e l i c p u r i t y of H i s h o l y M o t h e r ,
 THE JEWISH NATION 157

t h e I m m a c u l a t e Q u e e n of h e a v e n , as w e l l as t h e m o r a l c h a r a c t e r
of C h r i s t i a n s , w h o m t h e T a l m u d r e p r e s e n t s a s p r a c t i s i n g t h e m o s t
abominable vices. T h e r e a r e also passages which declare t h a t the
p r e c e p t s of j u s t i c e , e q u i t y a n d c h a r i t y t o w a r d s o n e ' s n e i g h b o u r
d o n o t b i n d in t h e c a s e of C h r i s t i a n s ; n a y m o r e , t h e y e v e n g o s o
f a r a s t o c o n d e m n a s g u i l t y of c r i m e a n y o n e w h o o b s e r v e s t h e s e
p r e c e p t s in h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h his C h r i s t i a n n e i g h b o u r s . T h e T a l
m u d expressly forbids a J e w to save a n o n - J e w from death or to
( 1 3 )
r e s t o r e to h i m h i s l o s t p o s s e s s i o n s , e t c . , o r to l a k e p i t y on h i m .
T h e r a b b i n s d e c l a r e a l s o : ' S i n c e t h e life of a n i d o l a t o r is a t t h e
20)
d i s c r e t i o n of t h e J e w , a fortiori his goods.'< Q u o t a t i o n s of t h i s
n a t u r e c o u l d b e m u l t i p l i e d a l m o s t indefinitely. In the Mischna,
t h e r e a r e o n l y a b o u t f o u r o r five of t h e s e i m p i o u s , m a l i g n a n t , a n d
h o r r i b l y i n t o l e r a n t p a s s a g e s , a n d , in a d d i t i o n , t h e e x p r e s s i o n s
show a certain moderation.
" I n t h e e d i t i o n of t h e T a l m u d p r i n t e d in 1581 b y F r o b c n of
Basle, the C e n s o r s , M a r c u s M a r i n u s , 1 talus Brixiensis and P e t r u s
C a v a l l e r i u s , s u p p r e s s e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e p a s s a g e s w e
h a v e j u s t m e n t i o n e d , as well as t h e whole Treatise, A b o d a - Z a r a ,
w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of i d o l a t r y . A s is w e l l - k n o w n , t h e
r a b b i n s c o n s i d e r Catholics as iclolators, because t h e y give to O u r
L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t t h e w o r s h i p of l a t r i a a n d t o t h e B l e s s e d V i r g i n
( 2 1 )
a n d t h e S a i n t s t h e w o r s h i p of d u l i a . Some time afterwards,
h o w e v e r , t h e J e w s r e s t o r e d t h e s u p p r e s s e d p a s s a g e s , in a n e d i t i o n
published by t h e m at Cracow. As these passages b r o u g h t forth
i n d i g n a n t p r o t e s t s f r o m C a t h o l i c s w i t h a k n o w l e d g e of H e b r e w ,
t h e J e w i s h S y n o d , h e l d in P o l a n d in 1631. p r e s c r i b e d t h a t t h e y
s h o u l d b e s u p p r e s s e d in t h e s u b s e q u e n t e d i t i o n s . T h e f o l l o w i n g
is t h e p a s s a g e of t h e c i r c u l a r l e t t e r b y w h i c h t h e S y n o d c o m m u n i
(
c a t e d t h i s d e c i s i o n : H e n c e w e e n j o i n u p o n y o u , u n d e r p a i n of
m a j o r e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , n o t to p r i n t a n v t h i n g in t h e f u t u r e e d i
t i o n s of t h e M i s c h n a - a n d t h e G h c m a r a , r e l a t i n g to t h e a c t s of
J e s u s of N a z a r e t h C<>nse<jucntly w e o r d e r y o u
t o l e a v e b l a n k in t h e e d i t i o n s t h e p a s s a g e s t r e a t i n g o f J e s u s of
N a z a r e t h a n d t o put in p l a c e o f t h e m a circle like t h i s : (). T h i s
will be a n i n d i c a t i o n t o t h e r a b b i n s a n d t e a c h e r s t o a c q u a i n t t h e i r
p u p i l s w i t h t h e s e p a s s a g e s o n l y o r a l l y . By m e a n s of t h i s p r e c a u
t i o n , t h e l e a r n e d a m o n g s t t h e N a z a r e n c s | C h r i s t i a n s ] will h a v e
J,( 2 !
n o e x c u s e for a t t a c k i n g us on t h e p o i n t . ' -
T o t h e t e s t i m o n y of M . D r a c h . can be a d d e d t h a i o f t h e

T r e a t i s e Jhor/a-Z"ra, fot. 13 /v foi. 20 recto; t ratlin JJ ,f,.<

f

K*nn?na fol. 29 rt rao.

t

<20> Foundations of tht Faith, by J o s e p h Abbo, I I I P a r i , eliap. 25.

1 1
' - ' The Jew * in l heir a t t a c k s on our religion eon fuse thes< I w o
k i n d - of worship.
l 2)
* F r o m The International Jeu\ v o l . I l l , p p . 20-23, we can see t h a t
the r a b b i n s and other Jewish teacher- have not failed to form iheir
 158 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

f 2 2 ; ll
Ciuilta Caffoliea " : . . . . The g r e a t Jewish family dispersed
all o v e r t h e e a r t h c o n s t i t u t e s a foreign n a t i o n in t h e m i d s t of t h e
n a t i o n s a m o n g w h i c h it d w e l l s a n d is a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e s w o r n
enemy of t h e i r p r o s p e r i t y . T h e v e r y e s s e n c e of T a l m t i d i s m c o n
s i s t s p r e c i s e l y in t h e o p p r e s s i o n a n d s p o l i a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e s t h a t
g i v e h o s p i t a l i t y to t h o s e t h a t f o l l o w i t s b e h e s t s . T h i s is w h y S t .
P a u l a l r e a d y in his d a y , s p o k e of t h e J e w s a s " d i s p l e a s i n g t o
J
G o d a n d a d v e r s a r i e s of all m e n l l T h e s s . , H , 15). T h a t t h e s i n
i s t e r T a l m u d i c c o d e , in a d d i t i o n to h o r r i b l y i m m o r a l r u l e s of
c o n d u c t , e n j o i n s h a t r e d of all w h o a r e n o t of J e w i s h b l o o d a n d
e s p e c i a l l y of C h r i s t i a n s , a n d a l l o w s t h e m to be p l u n d e r e d a n d m a l
t r e a t e d a s n o x i o u s b r u t e s , a r e n o l o n g e r m a t t e r s of c o n t r o v e r s y .
T h e t e s t i m o n y of t h e g r a v e s t a n d m o s t j u d i c i o u s s t u d e n t s of
t h e Miscfuia w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e t e x t of t h e T a l m u d a n d of t h e
Gheinara w h i c h is t h e c o m m e n t a r y t h e r e o n , i n c l u d i n g t h a t of
s e v e r a l of t h e m o s t l e a r n e d r a b b i n s of t h e p a s t a n d p r e s e n t m a k e s
the m a t t e r absolutely certain.
"To c o n v i n c e t h e m o s t s t u b b o r n d o u b t e r s it will b e sufficient
p u p i l s in h a t r e d a n d c o n t e m p t of C h r i s t a n d H i s Blessed M o t h e r . Two
Jewish editorials are there quoted as follows:
" H a l f of C h r i s t e n d o m worships a J e w : the other half -worships a
Jewess."
" I f the Gospel story is correct. J u d a s was a p r e t t y d e c e n t s o r t of
fellow. I t was only after lie h a d become a c o n v e r t to C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t
he became t h a t which h a s made his m e m o r y a n accursed t h i n g for nine
teen h u n d r e d y e a r s / '
F u r t h e r on, the following e x t r a c t from the m i n u t e s of a m e e t i n g of
t h e C o m m i t t e e on F a m i l i e s of the New York B o a r d of C h i l d Welfare
is q u o t e d :
Mr. H u b b a r d : ' T h a t is one of the t h i n g s I have in m i n d , t h a t a
widow d e l i b e r a t e l y b r i n g s i n t o her home a nameless c h i l d a n d the
i n e v i t a b l e consequence of that is t h a t her l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d r e n a r e always
t h e r e a f t e r p o i n t e d out.*"
Miss S o p h i e I r e n e Loeb : 'As far as nameless c h i l d r e n a r e concerned,
Vhrtst himself was a aaai*h'-as <hild. Let us g e t a w a y from nameless
children.''
D r . D/M-voch : " . . . You a r e c o r r u p t i n g the m o r a l s of those legiti
m a t e c h i l d r e n by p e r m i t t i n g them t o r e m a i n in such s u r r o u n d i n g s /
Miss Loeb : T say t o you t h a t t h i s C o m m i t t e e , if i t t a k e s such an
a t t i t u d e as t h a t , is one h u n d r e d y e a r s behind the times.'
M r . C u n n i o n : ' A n y t h i n g a g a i n s t p u r i t y is i m m o r a l . '
Miss Loeb : ' W h a t h a s t h a t to d o w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of p u r i t y 1 W a s
the m o t h e r of C h r i s t p u r e V
Mr. Cunnion : 'Certainly/
Miss L o e b : MIe has n o n a m e /
I f it. is objected t h a t Mr. H e n r y F o r d m a d e a public r e t r a c t i o n of
The hiternwtio-nal Jew, the answer is easy. Mr. F o r d ' s r e t r a c t i o n holds
w i t h r e g a r d to the o p i n i o n s expressed a n d the views a d v a n c e d in the
book, but, of course, his p e r s o n a l r e t r a c t i o n does n o t affect the v a l u e of
t h e q u o t a t i o n s from Jewish p u b l i c a t i o n s o r the e x t r a c t s from official
d o c u m e n t s of the U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t .
'*2a 4th Oct., 1*90, pp. s-11.
 THK JEWISH NATION

to consult the work of Achilles Laurent. This hook has been

almost completely removed from circulation by the Jews,, because
it reveals in masterly fashion the secrets of Talmudism in their
application to the annihilation of Christian civilization. Besides,
we have in the past given irrefutable proofs of our aftirmaiions,
so it would be superfluous to go over them again The
other point which renders the organization of the Jews in Christ
ian countries most dangerous and multiplies a hundredfold the
aversion of which they are the object, is the superstitious belief
fostered by the Talmud that the Israelites not only constitute the
noblest race of the human species, all the others being inferior
to them, but that by full divine right the universe belongs to
them and will be theirs one day. . . . One can say that this insane
belief is the chief dogma of what they call their religion."
As the existence of the immoral ceremony called the Kol Nidre
has been called in question, it will be well to quote M. Drach
concerning it. In his book from which we have alread\ quoted
(vol. 1, p. 5 5 9 ) , we read: " Before the chorister of the synagogue
intones the first prayer of the Feast of Expiations, three men,
forming a tribunal and occupying a place in front of the assembly,
annul by their full authority all the vows, engagements and oaths
of every member of the assembly, both those of the year just
elapsed and those of the year just beginning. This is called Kol
(Col) Nidre. Some rabbins have tried to hold that this is only valid
for the future. Of course the effect would be the same, even if
this were true, since the ceremony is repeated every year. Jiut
these rabbins have been victoriously refuted by others who prove
that one can profit by it for the past as well as for the future.
. . . . According to grave and learned rabbins, a Jew is obliged
to get himself thus released only from the promises he may have
made to a fellow-Jew, for he cannot contract any obligation at all
23
towards a non-Jew."* *
In presence of this ceremony and of the official teaching of
Jewry, we can conclude that Jews who faithfully follow the prac
tices of their religion (the " g o o d " Jews, as they are sometimes
called) will strive to eliminate Our Lord's supernatural influence
from society quite as effectively as the "bad'' (non-practising)
Jews.
Such is the Talmud, the code which has been used for centuries
to mould and form the attitude of the Jewish Nation towards
other nations. Taking into account the principles laid down by
Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius XI concerning the consequences
of opposition to Our Lord Jesus Christ and His Church, we see
that it was morally inevitable that the Jewish Nation should draw
J23) According to the Givilta Gattolica (Oct., 1 8 9 0 , p. 1 5 ) , the Talmud
affirms that the three men have the same authority as the tribunal of
Moses (Treatise Rosch-Haschahann, fol. 25, 1 ) .
 160 T H E .MYSTICAL 1JODY O F CHRIST

u p s o m e s u c h code of n a t i o n a l s e l f - s e e k i n g a s w e find in t h e
Talmud. I t w a s m o r a l l y i n e v i t a b l e a l s o t h a t t h e t r u e c o n c e p t of
J e h o v a h s h o u l d b e c o m e o b s c u r e d for g r o w i n g " n u m b e r s of J e w s
a n d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d fall a p r e y t o t h e p a n t h e i s t i c d e i f i c a t i o n of
t h e i r r a c e in t h e M a r x i a n m a t e r i a l i s t f o r m a n d in o t h e r s .

T H E ANT [ - S U P E R N A T U R A L I N F L U E N C E OF T H E
J E W I S H NATION.
E v e r y J e w , in so f a r a s h e is a t o n e w i t h his r a c e a n d n a t i o n
i n l o o k i n g f o r w a r d to a n o t h e r M e s s i a h o r t o a M e s s i a n i c A g e ,
s t a n d s f o r a n a t u r a l i s t i c o r a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of
s o c i e t y . T h u s his i n f l u e n c e m a k e s for d i s o r d e r . W e m a y e x p r e s s
t h i s t r u t h in a n o t h e r w a y , i n a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e s t a t e m e n t
s o m e t i m e s h e a r d , t o t h e effect t h a t " t h e r e a r e g o o d J e w s a n d
bad J e w s . " Can we m a k e a distinction b e t w e e n " g o o d " J e w s
a n d " b a d " J e w s , in r e s p e c t of naturalistic aims a n d a n t i - s u p e r
n a t u r a l i n f l u e n c e ? It s e e m s t o be l o g i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , a s w e h a v e
s e e n . All J e w s , w i t h a v i g o u r p r o p o r t i o n a t e to t h e i r o n e n e s s w i t h t h e
l e a d e r s of t h e i r n a t i o n , r e j e c t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s , O u r L o r d
J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d s t a n d f o r a n a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of
s o c i e t y . T h e y all r e f u s e to a c c e p t O u r L o r d a s t h e M e s s i a s a n d l o o k
f o r w a r d to a Messianic A g e o r g a n i z e d w i t h o u t H i m a n d a g a i n s t
Him. It t h o s e w h o a r e t e r m e d " g o o d " J e w s c o m e t o d o m i n a t e
in s o c i e t y , t h e v will o r g a n i z e it in o p p o s i t i o n l o O u r L o r d just a s
s u r e l y a s t h o s e t h a t a r e c a l l e d " b a d " J e w s . T h e y all suffer f r o m
t h a i t e r r i b l e b l i n d n e s s (obcarratio) w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e lighl of
t r u t h w h i c h w e b e g G o d l o r e m o v e f r o m t h e i r h e a r t s in t h e t o u c h
i n g p r a y e r o f Good F r i d a y . T h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s
p r a y e r r u n s a s f o l l o w s : " Let u s p r a y a l s o for t h e p e r f i d i o u s J e w s :
t h a t o u r G o d a n d L o r d m a y r e m o v e t h e veil f r o m t h e i r h e a r t s ;
that they also m a y a c k n o w l e d g e Our Lord J e s u s Christ.
A l m i g h t y a n d E t e r n a l G o d , W h o d o s t not e x c l u d e f r o m T h y m e r c y
e v e n t h e p e r f i d i o u s J e w s : h e a r o u r p r a y e r s , w h i c h w e offer for t h e
b l i n d n e s s of t h a t p e o p l e : t h a t a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e l i g h t of T h y
t r u t h , w h i c h is C h r i s t , t h e y m a y b e d e l i v e r e d f r o m t h e i r d a r k n e s s .
T h r o u g h the s a m e Lord - J e s u s Christ, W h o livest and reignest
w i t h G o d t h e F a t h e r in t h e u n i t y of t h e H o l y G h o s t , t h r o u g h all
( 2 I )
t h e a g e s of a g e s . A m c n . " It d o e s s e e m r i d i c u l o u s t o p r a y

(2-0 T h e t r a n s l a t i o n is t h a t of the Daily Missal, by Dom G a s p a r

Lcfehvre, O.S.B.
T h e teaching of S t . T h o m a s with r e g a r d to the p r e s e n t d a y signi
ficance o f Circumcision may he helpful to some in g r a s p i n g m o r e clearly
why w e must, oppose Hie N a l u r a l i s i n of even the ' ' r e l i g i o u s " J e w s . St.
T h o m a s insists that "just as it would he a m o r t a l sin now for anyone
in m a k i n g a profession of F a i t h , to sav (hat Christ is yet to he horn,
which the fathers of old said t r u t h f u l l y a n d d e v o u t l y ; so too it would
he a m o r t a l s i n n ow to o b s e r v e tho^e ceremonies which the fathers of
v
 T H E JEWISH NATION* 161

for deliverance from blindness for the Jews and, at the same time,
allow those blind guides to direct our political and economic
arrangements.
Doubtless there are Jews in whom may be seen excellent
natural qualities and Our Lord does not refuse the aid of Divine
Grace to those who in good faith may be combating- Him and His
Church, but we must always bear in mind that the real struggle
in the world is for the overthrow of Naturalism and the return
to the Divine Plan for order. Wc have to undo the social apos-
tacy of Europe, and this makes it imperative to combat both Jew
ish and Masonic Naturalism. There are Masons too, a* well as
Jews, in whom excellent natural qualities are present, but the
Masonic Society, as such, is naturalistic. And the Jewish Nation
affirms its Naturalism much more openly.
The Jews, as a nation, are objectively aiming at giving society
a direction which is in complete opposition to the order God wants.
It is possible that a member of the Jewish Nation, who rejects
Our Lord, may have the Supernatural Life which God wishes to
see in every soul, and thus be good with the goodness God v\ants,
but, objective!//, the direction he is seeking to give to the world
is opposed to God and to that Life, and so is not good, if a Jew
who rejects Our Lord is good in the way God demands, it is in
spite of the movement in which he and his nation are engaged.
Our Lord Jesus Christ alone is the source of the goodness God
wants to see in every human being, the goodness due to partici
pation in the Inner Life of the Blessed Trinity. No Jew, in virtue
of what he objectively stands for, is >upernaturally good as Gocl
wants him to be.
Hence there would seem to be a regrettable confusion of
thought in the article on The Jews in Ireland, which appeared in
The Standard (Dublin), March 3rd. 1939. The article stated:
" The Standard stands for the practical application of Christian
principles in the public life of Ireland. , . . Doubtless there are
good Jews and bad Jews, just as there are good and bad non-Jews
in everv countrv. We may praise the good and reprobate the
bad . . '
4
The article in The Standard was perfectly correct in insisting
upon the Christian principle of exclusion of hatred of the Jews
as a race. The inculcation of that spirit of charity towards the
Jews, however, is not the only Christian principle that has a
bearing on the problem. To work for the return of society to
Christ the King, thus securing the triumph of the supernatural
old accomplished with devotion and fidelity" ( l a Ilae, Q.103, a.4).
Circumcision was a protestation that the Messias was to be born of
Abraham according to the flesh. The unity of the world and the one
ness of the Divine Plan must* never be lost sight of. If they are not
keipt well in mind, confusion of thought is the inevitable result.
2T
 162 TIIK MYSTICAL PODY OF CHRIST

spirit of the Mystical Hody in social life, is surely a Christian

principle. The Jewish Nation is an organized entity opposed to
the treatment of our fellow human beings as members of Christ.
We must therefore combat their Naturalism. Some Catholics
seem t o forget that the Jews who were plotting the crime of
deicide were so "pious" and " Ood-fearing" and " g o o d " that
they would not go into the hall of Pilate's palace, " that they might
not be defiled but that they might eat the pasch " (St. John, XVIII,
28). Pilate had to yield to their scruples and go out to them,
yet they were intent on the most awful crime ever committed.
Needless to say, there are divisions amongst the Jews in spite
of the ** ITnited Front " which they certainly present to non-Jews.
There are, for example, as well as the division into Orthodox and
Reformed, (he division between the Sephardiiri and the Askenazim
a sort of survival of the old rivalry between the Sadducees and
the Phariseesand that between the Zionists and the non-Zion
ists. Hut they all agree in the rejection of Our Lord Jesus Christ
as the Messiah and they all look forward to a Messianic era in
which they, as a nation, will play the role of " Chosen People
over the nations of the world. That is what is meant in practice
by their Naturalism. It is this naturalistic ideal of domination
of the Jewish race and nation, the inevitable consequence of their
perversion of the Divine Plan for order, that is stressed in this
book. It is, in fact, simply the consciousness of what they hold
to be their national mission. As a consequence, in every country,
they conduct themselves as a separate and distinct nation destined
to mould the others. Anyone who had occasion to observe the
world-wide efforts of the Jews at the time of the Dreyfus Case
in France is not likely to have any doubt about their national soli
darity in spite of their dispersion all over the world.
M. Orach is very instructive on this subject. Referring to
his own painful experience in trying to recover his kidnapped
children, he writes: "The police spent nearly two years in fruit
less attempts to discover what every Jew knew quite well, even
the children, not only in France and Kngland, but in every coun
try where the race of Jacob is to be found. The universally ad
mitted skill of the French police was powerless to discover the
truth, because of the secrecy and discretion which the Jews
observe in their dealings with the Go/fini [non-Jews], whenever
025
there is question of a matter of national interest.'* *
As we have seen, the Jewish Nation has gradually become the
most strongly organized non-secret visible force working for the
(25) //fhtrmonir. enfn: Ulujlise it hi Sytwynfjur., vol. I, p. 77.
It is to be noted that the ox-rabbin Drach was writing of incidents
which occurred in the year of his conversion to the Catholic Faith (1823-
1824), twenty years before the foundation of the Jewish world-wide
secret society of the B'nai B'rith.
 THE JEWISH NATION 163

elimination of the supernatural outlook in society and for the

installation of Naturalism. The supernatural outlook insists that
we arc a race whose highest life, the Divine Life of Grace, by
which the Blessed Trinity dwells in our souls, was lost by the
fall of Adam but restored by Our Lord Jesus Christ. Naturalism
denies the existence of any life higher than natural life and main
tains that social relations must be organized on that basis. As
members of Christ, we are bound to work for the return of society
to our loving Saviour. Pope Pius XI insists upon this in the
Encyclical on the Kingship of Christ.
Let us now take two examples of how our efforts to combat
Naturalism will bring us into conflict with Jews in their prepara
tions for the naturalistic Messias. The first example will deal
with the political, the second with the economic, organization of
the world.
States and nations are bound to acknowledge the Catholic
Church as the One True Church. Pope Pius XI, in the same
Encyclical Letter, shows that the naturalistic spirit has gradu
ally come to infect society, because '* by degrees the religion of
Christ was put on the same level as false religions and placed
ignominiously in the same category with them.'' Previously, Pope
Pius VII had written: " By the fact that the freedom of all forms
of worship is proclaimed, truth is confused with error, and the
holy and immaculate Spouse of Christ, outside of which there
can be no salvation, is placed on the same level as heretical sects
,,(2G)
and even as Jewish perfidy. Now, since the French Revolu
tion, States have placed erroneous religious bodies on the same
level as the Mystical Body of Christ, and the Jews have been
.admitted as full citizens of the once Christian States. "The sen
tentious maxims, which in 1789 were declared to be the synthesis
of the Rights of Man, were, in point of fact, merely the Rights of
the Jews, to the detriment of those peoples amongst whom those
271
'Rights' were enthroned."' By granting full citizenship to
members of the Jewish Nation, the State, to all intents and pur
poses, gives free rein to the naturalistic moulding process pur
sued by the Jewish Nation, in view of the elimination of member
ship of Christ and the inauguration of the new Messianic era. It
thus shows itself indifferent in the struggle between the true
Supernatural Messias, who has come, and the naturalistic'Messias,
to whom the Jews look forward.
In his work, Questions de Conscience, M. Maritain seems to
hold a different view with regard to this last point. He writes as
follows: "The emancipation of the Jews, realized by the French
Revolution, is a measure that civilized peoples, if they wish to
27
Letter, Post lata diutuma*.
* > Article in the Givilta Cattoliva, Delia questione Giudaica in
Europa, 15th Nov., 1890.
 104 TIIIC M Y S T I C A L 1JODY O F CHRIST

r e m a i n such, must c o n s i d e r as definite." T h i s is q u o t e d w i t h

a p p r o v a l b y l ' A b b c J o u r n e t in Nova et Vetera, July-September,
1939. It s e e m s to t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r t h a t t h e p r o f e s s i o n of indif
f e r e n c e t o O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t i n v o l v e d in t h a t S t a t e a t t i t u d e
is w r o n g a n d r e n d e r s i m p o s s i b l e t h a t i n t e g r a l r e t u r n t o O u r L o r d
J e s u s C h r i s t , w h i c h is t h e f o u n d a t i o n of o r d e r .
Of c o u r s e , t h e r e n e e d be n o difficulty a b o u t a l l o w i n g J e w i s h
n o n - c i t i z e n s , w h o m a y b e p e r m i t t e d to r e s i d e in a c o u n t r y n o t t h e i r
o w n , f r e e d o m of w o r s h i p in t h e i r s y n a g o g u e s . T h a t is a t o t a l l y
di(Terent tpiesiion from the o n e w i t h which w e a r e concerned.
T h e p o i n t a t i s s u e h e r e is t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c d i s o r d e r b y w h i c h , in
all r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n s s i n c e 178*), t h e S t a t e r e j e c t s t h e
D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r a n d p u t s all r e l i g i o n s on t h e s a m e level.
H a v i n g t h u s e n t e r e d t h e c a m p of t h e N a t u r a l M e s s i a s , t h e S t a t e
a s a n e c e s s a r y c o r o l l a r y , a d m i t s t h e J e w s t o full c i t i z e n s h i p a n d
a l l o w s t h e m in p r a c t i c e t o w o r k f r e e l y f o r t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e i r
o w n N a t i o n o v e r t h e n a t i v e o n e a n d to p r e p a r e for t h e M e s s i a n i c
era.
I t m a y be w e l l t o q u o t e h e r e s o m e p r o m i n e n t C a t h o l i c w r i t e r s
w h o h a v e a d v o c a t e d t h a t t h e full c i t i z e n s h i p of S t a t e s , a c c o r d e d
t o t h e J e w s b y t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , s h o u l d be w i t h d r a w n f r o m
t h e m . W e s h a l l b e g i n w i t h t h e M a r q u i s d e la T o u r d u P i n , t h e
g r e a t F r e n c h social w r i t e r . in h i s b o o k , Vers un ordre Social
Chretien, he s a y s that d o w n to the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n " t h e C a t h o
lic C h u r c h a n d t h e r u l e r s w h o g o v e r n e d a c c o r d i n g t o h e r m a x i m s
k e p t t h e J e w s a t a d i s t a n c e f r o m C h r i s t i a n s . T h e y did n o t p e r
s e c u t e t h e J e w s ; t h e } ' did n o t t r e a t t h e m a s e n e m i e s , b e c a u s e t h a t
w o u l d be r e p u g n a n t to c h a r i t y , b u t t h e y t r e a t e d ' t h e m a s f o r e i g n
e r s , t h a t is lo s a y , a s c i t i z e n s of a n o t h e r n a t i o n . T h e y did not
a t t a c k J e w i s h w o r s h i p or J e w i s h laws or J e w i s h c u s t o m s ; on the
c o n t r a r y , t h e y p r o t e c t e d t h e f r e e e x e r c i s e of t h e m , b u t o n the
c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e J e w s r e s p e c t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n of
t h e S t a t e a n d did not a t t e m p t to u n d e r m i n e it Jewish
p e r / a l y w a s a n o b j e c t of <lis( r u s t . a n d to ( h o s e J e w s w h o dis
g u i s e d t h e m s e l v e s in o r d e r to p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n S t a t e
a n d d e s t r o y ii, t h e c h a s t i s e m e n t of t r a i t o r s w a s j u s t l y m e t e d
out
f h e C h r i s t i a n | p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y | S t a l e , we. h a s t e n to r e
m a r k , did not con ten t itself m e r e l y w i t h r e p r e s s i n g J ewish
rapacity. It p r o t c c l e d i t s e l f a g a i n s t it, e s p e c i a l l y b y i t s s t r o n g
e c o n o m i c c o n s t i t u t i o n c o m p r i s i n g t h e c o r p o r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
l a b o u r a n d t h e feudal o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o p e r t y . T h a n k s t o the
f o r m e r , it p r e v e n t e d l a b o u r from b e i n g e x p l o i t e d a n d i t s fruits
c o n f i s c a t e d b y f o r e i g n c a p i t a l ; b y t h e l a t t e r , it p r e v e n t e d t h e land
f r o m b e i n g t a k e n a w a y f r o m t h e n a t i v e o w n e r s a n d k e p t the
roof o v e r I heir heads. . . T h u s t h e u s u r i o u s a r t s of t h e J e w s
 THE JEWISH NATION 165

were sometimes tolerated without the defences of the Christian

State being broken down The Jews inevitably act as
a solvent on the Christian State, because they, as a nation, con
tinue to be convinced that the Empire of the world belongs to
them [under the natural Messias to come] . . . . As the
primary condition of our emancipation, we must go back to our
ancestral mode of action and treat the Jews only as foreigners
and as dangerous foreigners."
This text of the Marquis de le Tour du Pin is cited by Mon
<28)
sieur Leon de Poncins. This distinguished Catholic authority
on the question of secret societies quotes with approval the above
passage and adds: "There remains one solution of the Jewish
problem, namely, the Ghetto Why are the Jews so power
ful to-day ? Because, deceived by seductive and insidious for
mulae, the West has allowed itself to be penetrated and impreg
nated with the Jewish mentality, a mentality which began to show
itself at the epoch of the Reformation and triumphed at the
French Revolution The domination of Israel is the con
sequence of this triumph The modern world sprung from
the Reformation and the Revolution of 1789, this world impreg
nated with the Naturalism of Freemasonry and Judaism, is dying
before our eyes."
Another distinguished author, Mgr. Henri Delassus, Doctor in
Theology, writes as follows: "The first thing to do is to change
French legislation. French law, for the last 120 years, is legalizing
a falsehood. It considers as French those who are not French,
since they are Jews. French legislation, should be in harmony
with truth. It ought to restore to the Jews their Jewish National
ity, in conformity with reason, history, justice and humanity.
The legislation introduced by the Revolution represents the Jew
as French. He is not French The Jews must cease to
be officers, magistrates, professors, civil servants, barristers,
attorneys, doctors in the public service We must repeal
the law by which Jews have been allowed to usurp the title of
French citizens and declare them deprived of French citizenship.
Without any foolish acceptation of persons, without a
trace of inhuman violence, by an abstract legal provision which
cannot wound anybody's self-love and of which, consequently,
nobody can complain, Jewish functionaries must be obliged to
resign from Government positions Tt is especially to
financial centralization that the Jews owe the greater part of their
strength. But that financial centralization could not have been
maintained if the Jews had not succeeded in securing political
centralization Accordingly, without a change in the legis-

<2*> La Mijxterieuxe. Internationale Juive (pp. 270-21%). This work

was p u b l i s h e d b y ( . J ? i \ i n c h e * n i \ Paris, ht 1936.
166 TTTK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
lation introduced by the Revolution, the restoration of the French
2
State is impossible."* **
Perhaps the most forcible testimony to the necessity of this
measure is that to be found in the series of articles contributed
to the Civilta Catloliea in October, November and December.
1890. These articles form a complete treatise on The Jewish
Qitestiott in Europe, its causes, its effects and the remedies advo
cated. After having spoken of various unsatisfactory remedies,
the writer continues: " In order that the Christian nations may
be delivered from the yoke of Judaism and Freemasonry, which
is daily growing more oppressive, the only way open to them is
to go back along the road they have traversed, to the point where
they took the wrong turning. If the Jews are not rendered harm
less by means of special laws depriving ihcm of that civil equality
to which they have no right, nothing useful or lasting will be
accomplished. In view of their presence in different countries and
their unchangeable character of foreigners in every nation, of
enemies of the people of every country that supports them, and
of a society .segregated from the societies amongst which they
live; in view of the Talmudic moral code which they follow and
the fundamental dogma of their religion which' spurs them on to
get hold of the possessions of all peoples by any means in their
power, as, according to it, they are entitled to rule the world:
in view of the fact that the experience of many centuries and
our present experience have proved conclusively that the equality
of civil rights with Christians, granted them in Christian States,
has had for effect the oppression of Christians by them, it follows
as a necessary consequence that the only way to safeguard the
rights of Christians, where the Jew< are permitted to dwell, is to
regulate their sojourn by laws such that it will be impossible for
them to injure Christians.
"This is what was done in the past. This is what the Jews
have been seeking to undo for the last hundred years. This is
what will have to be done over again, sooner or later, whether
one likes it or not. The position of power to which the laws
inspired by the Revolution have raised them in our day is digging
under their feet an abyss just as deep as the height to which they
have ascended. When the storm, which they by their display of
power arc provoking, bursts, they will be hurled down headlong
in a catastrophe as unparalleled in their annals as the elTrontcry
with which they are to-day undermining the life of the nations
that have exalted them
*' It is certain that one of the signs of the end of the world
foretold in Holy Scripture is the entrance of Israel into the one
True Fold. I'ul we are not convinced that there are indications
(29) 7,rx Pourquoi th la Cuern Mondial?., published by Desclce, De
Broiuwr o( Cu. Lillo and Paris in 1922.
 THE JEWISH NATION 167

of t h a t c o n v e r s i o n v i s i b l e a t p r e s e n t . T h i s p e o p l e s c a t t e r e d o v e r
the f a c e of t h e e a r t h is t o - d a y w h a t it b e c a m e a f t e r t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m , w i t h o u t a k i n g , w i t h o u t a p r i e s t h o o d ,
w i t h o u t a t e m p l e , w i t h o u t a n a t i v e land, a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e ,
a m o s t b i t t e r e n e m y of t h e N a m e a n d of the C h u r c h of J e s u s
C h r i s t , T r u e G o d a n d T r u e M a n , crucified by t h e i r ' a n c e s t o r s . W e
see no p r o o f s , e v i d e n t o r o t h e r w i s e , t h a t it is likely t o c h a n g e for
the b e t t e r a n d w e l c o m e a s i t s S a v i o u r t h a t J e s u s w h o m it p u t t o
death ft is c e r t a i n t h a t a t p r e s e n t t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n as a
whole s h o w s a n i n c o m p a r a b l y g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s t h e h a t
red a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a n t o w a r d s a b e n e v o l e n t
(:K)1
a t t i t u d e t o it a n d a d e s i r e t o s e e it p r o s p e r . "
ft is c l e a r f r o m the f o r e g o i n g t h a t o u r efforts t o u n d o t h e
effects of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d to p e r m e a t e t h e political
life of t h e n a t i o n s w i t h C h r i s t i a n p r i n c i p l e s will i n v o l v e us in c o n
flict w i t h J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m . It is e q u a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t w e s h a l l
have to c o m b a t J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m in o u r e n d e a v o u r s t o o r g a n i z e
economic life on t h e b a s i s of m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t .
fn r e g a r d to t h e e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e w o r l d , P o p e
Pius X I , in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , On the Social Order, insists
that " t h e n o n l y will it be p o s s i b l e t o u n i t e all in h a r m o n i o u s
s t r i v i n g f o r t h e c o m m o n g o o d , w h e n all s e c t i o n s of s o c i e t y h a v e
the i n t i m a t e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e m e m b e r s of a s i n g l e f a m i l y
and c h i l d r e n of t h e s a m e H e a v e n l y F a t h e r , and f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e y
are o n e b o d y in C h r i s t a n d e v e r y o n e m e m b e r s o n e of a n o t h e r .
To h a v e l a s t i n g p e a c e in s o c i e t y , t h e n , w e C a t h o l i c s m u s t s t r i v e
t<> b r i n g b a c k t h e g r e a t t r u t h t h a t e m p l o y e r s and e m p l o y e d m u s t
t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r as m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . It is, as w e h a v e s e e n ,
p a r t of w h a t w e p r o m i s e C h r i s t a s K i n g , w h e n w e m a k e s u b
mission t o O u r H e a v e n l y F a t h e r a l o n g w i t h C h r i s t a s Priest, a t
M a s s . N o w , t h e a i m of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n is t o s u b s t i t u t e for t h e
S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s in w h o m w e a r e m e m b e r s of o n e B o d y , t h e
rule of t h e n a t u r a l M e s s i a s . A c c o r d i n g l y , in v i r t u e of C a t h o l i c
p r i n c i p l e s , w e m u s t o p p o s e t h e e f f o r t s of t h e J e w s t o g e t c o n t r o l
(30) The special position of La Cirilta Cattolira a m o n g s t Catholic
reviews a n d the encomiums bestowed on it b y Sovereign Pontiffs deserve
to lie wore widely known. Let us m e n t i o n a few of them.
Pope P i u s I X gave the review its s t a t u s in the following t e r m s :
" B y this letter, in v i r t u e of O u r Apostolic A u t h o r i t y , We erect a n d
constitute in p e r p e t u i t y the College of W r i t e r s of the P e r i o d i c a l La
Cirilta Ctttiolivtt"
Pope Benedict XV blessed its w o r k : ' ' W e bless the fruitfu]_ Apos-
tolate which the venerable review. La t Vrilta ('uttolic.a, e a r r i e s on
7
courageously a n d u n w a v e r i n g l y on behalf of the C h r i s t i a n cause.'
Pope P i u s XI praised its devotion to the Holy See : " F r o m y o u r
assiduous activity a n d from the whole life of La Cirilta Cattotica there
radiates that special devotion to the Holy See, which h a s deservedly
won for you the benevolence and e-deem of O u r Predecessors a n d O u r s . "
]
t^ ) Encyclical Letter. Quadra ye*/mo Anno.
 168 TIIK MYSTICAK BODY 01- CHRIST

of t h e e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y . .How c a n w e s u c c e e d
in g e t t i n g e m p l o y e r s and e m p l o y e d to t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r as m e m
b e r s oi C h r i s t , if w e a l l o w social o r g a n i z a t i o n t o p a s s i n t o t h e
h a n d s of t h o s e w h o h a v e p e r s i s t e n t l y d e n i e d a n d r e j e c t e d H i s
D i v i n e M i s s i o n a n d for w h o m t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l K i n g d o m of H i s
M y s t i c a l B o d y is s i m p l y a f r a u d u l e n t a t t e m p t t o t u r n I s r a e l a s i d e
f r o m its d e s t i n y ? W e h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , to resist and d e f e a t J e w i s h
e f f o r t s (o d o m i n a t e s o c i a l o r g a n i s m s a n d m o u l d t h e m a l o n g n a t u r
a l i s t i c l i n e s , in o p p o s i t i o n t o O u r L o r d a n d H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y .
T h e G u i l d s of t h e M i d d l e A g e s , w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s e e n , r e f l e c t e d
t h e s o l i d a r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t in
economic organization, rendered wonderful services to their m e m
b e r s in t i m e s of s i c k n e s s a n d n e e d , t i n t s efficaciously p r e v e n t i n g
J e w i s h m o n e v - l e n d e r s f r o m g a i n i n g c o n t r o l of f a m i l i e s a n d p r o
perty.^)
W c t o o in o u r d a y m u s t s a f e g u a r d t h e p o o r a n d n e e d y f r o m
b e i n g t o r t u r e d b y J e w i s h m o n e y - l e n d e r s . O u r a c t i o n in t h i s c o n
n e x i o n m u s t , h o w e v e r , n o t be m e r e l y t h e n e g a t i v e o n e of c o m
b a t i n g illegalities and g e t t i n g laws Mutably a m e n d e d , b u t the
p o s i t i v e o n e of s e t t i n g u p o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h i c h will r e n d e r s e r
vices similar to those r e n d e r e d by the Guilds. Besides this safe
g u a r d i n g of t h e p o o r a n d n e e d y , t h e r e is t h e m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g
q u e s t i o n of t h e c r e a t i o n of m o n e y a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e v o l u m e
of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m u s e d b y C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e s . T h a i p o w e r m u s t
n o t b e a l l o w e d t o fall i n t o , s o m e w o u l d s a y , t o r e m a i n in, J e w i s h
h a n d s o r i n t o t h e h a n d s of n o m i n a l o r e r s t w h i l e C h r i s t i a n s , M a s o n s
a n d o t h e r s , w h o a r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n , o r in a l l i a n c e w i t h , J e w s .
W e m u s t c o m b a t J e w i s h a t t e m p t s to b r i n g u n d e r their d o m i n a t i o n
individual Catholics and Catholic countries, even m o r e vigorously
t h a n we must struggle against Freemasonry, because the Jews
f o r m a more strongly organized and m o r e cohesive naturalistic
( 3 3 )
force than Freemasonry.

T H E DUAL C I T I Z E N S H I P OF T H E JEW'S.
R e a d in t h e l i g h t of w h a t h a s b e e n w r i t t e n , t h e f o l l o w i n g o b
s e r v a t i o n s will h e l p r e a d e r s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e s i t u a t i o n of a J e w w h o b e c o m e s a c i t i z e n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
o r F r a n c e or I t a l y and, say, an I r i s h m a n w h o b e c o m e s a citizen
of o n e of t h e s e S t a t e s .
T h e m e m b e r s of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e i r p r i m
a r y a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e i r o w n n a t i o n , a r e a l s o c i t i z e n s of o t h e r n a -
(32) Of. The Workingmti/t,'* Guilds of fhe Middle. Jr/es, hv Godefroid
K u r t h (The M a r i a Hegina Scries, No. 2, T h e F o r u m P r e s s , C o r k ) .
W3) The J e w s , as wo shall see, exercise a very real a n d efficacious
p o w e r of influence in F r e e m a s o n r y a n d d i r e c t its action, t h r o u g h the
B ' n a i B ' r i t h Lodges, which d o not a d m i t n o n - J e w s , b u t whose members
a r e a d m i t t e d to o r d i n a r y Masonic Lodges.
 THE JEWISH NATION 169

tions. Given the Messianic aspirations of their own nation, they

are bound to strive for the domination of their nation over the
others, as Ihey arc firmly convinced that in this way alone justice
and peace will reign upon the earth. The positions attained by
them in the councils and legislative assemblies of other nations
must logically be for them, at least primarily, a means for ad
vancing the domination of their own people. That Christ should
reign over nations, that the influence of His Supernatural Life
should be felt in all public life, elevating and purifying it, is utterly-
abhorrent to their Naturalism.
They entertain considerable contempt for the national patriot
ism of non-Jews, though in public pronouncements they may pan
der to it for the sake of their own interests. If the Jews, for ex
ample, assisted at a peace conference merely as representatives of
a Palestinian State, their role thereat would be proportioned to
the importance of that State, but when they assist as citizens
and representatives of England, France and the United States,
then we know that English, French and American citizenship
will be utilized for the furtherance of the interests of a nation
that believes firmly that English, French and Americans are des
tined by God to be subject to it.
The primary allegiance of an Irishman, who has become a citi
zen of the United States, is to the United States. He may retain
his sympathies with Irish national aspirations, butto put it
mildlyhe is not imbued from birth with the idea that the Trish
nation is destined to rule over the Americans and all other nations.
Besides, if the irishman in question is still a Catholic and believes
firmly in the Supernatural Messias already come, he will be con
vinced that any subordination of the legitimate interests of the
nation of which he is citizen to those of any other nation will be
sinful. If, in any public capacity, he found his sympathies with
Irish national aspirations (which, as has been said, do not include
a programme of bringing other nations into subjection) coming
into conflict with the mission entrusted t o him of safeguarding
primarily the interests of the U.S.A., he would in conscience be
obliged to resign. Otherwise, he would fail in his duty to the
Supernatural Messias, Our Lord Jesus Christ. The Jew, to be
consistent, would fail in his duty to the Messias to come, if he
did not subordinate the interests of every other nation to those
of his own. There is, accordingly, a vital difference of attitude,
which has its ultimate ground in the doctrines respectively held
with regard to the Messias.
The naturalistic adventure upon which Europe embarked at the
French Revolution has been disastrous for the nations of Western
Europe, for it has simply meant, as we have seen, that they have
allowed the Jewish Nation to impose its national form upon them
 170 THK M Y S T I C A L B O D Y O F C H R I S T
(84)
and thus bring about their downfall and decay. The Jewish
religion of the Natural Messias necessarily aims at this imposi
tion of the Jewish national form. The evil was inaugurated by
the putting of all religions on the same level and the admission
<if the Jews to full citizenship. So the first step to be taken to
undo the Naturalism of the French Revolution is to withdraw
citizenship of other States from all Jews and limit them to citizen
(351
ship of one State, their o\vii.
Have the Jews a right to Palestine as the portion of the
earth's surface in which they may set up a separate State? It is
clear from all that has been said about their rejection of the true
Supernatural Messias that they can no longer lay claim to it by
Divine Right. They were assigned that part of the earth as their
inheritance on condition of their being obedient to God. They
disobeyed God's command lo hear His Son, by their rejection of
Our Divine Lord before Pilate and on Calvary, and they persist
in their disobedience. Accordingly, there can be no question of
;i right based on a divine promise. \ s the attempt to set up a
Jewish State in Palestine is an effort to dcf\ God, it has been
suggested that some other country should be set aside for the
Jewish Nation, by international agreement. In that hypothesis
all Jews should be made citizens of thai Slate only. Very strict
regulations should be made concerning the Jews sojourning in
States other than the Jewish State.
In addition the Arabs have a natural right t<> the country they
have occupied for the last thirteen hundred years. Canon Aiendzen
wrote as follows on thi aspect of t h e question, in the Catholic
(
(iazrite (London) of August. l Mn: "The Arab population, which
has occupied the country for the lasi 1.300 years, has definite and
inalienable rights which must be respected. The Jews are foreign
ers in Palestine and their intrusion seems an act of unprovoked
injustice, h would obviously be unjust if sonic great power by
force made Kngland a national home for the Danes on the strength
of that people once having been masters of this country a
thousand years ago. The Jews have practically evacuated Pales-
(3-0 "The apostasy oF the Greeks was punished by the Mohammedans
who annihilated their Empire. The instrument chosen by the anger of
heaven to punish the degenerate Christianity of our day is the Jewish
Nation. The power of the Jewish Nation goes on iner-pasing with the
spread of the evil spirit, which, in the organization of society, has sub
stituted the right* of man i'or the Iiighls of (iod" (Ciriltn f'ttttohca,
20th December, l-W, IhUu QuCsfiotit (liiuhtivu in f'Juro/ta).
cr>) TJ > writer of the article on the Jewish question in the (Jiriltn
K

('attolivft of December, I Mill), alread\ referred to, holds thai the once
Christian Stales must go back awl take the road they missed at I he
French devolution. They mu*t "take away eiputl citizenship from the
Jews, for these bitter haw no right to it." At the time that article
was written, the return of the Jews to Palestine had not yet appeared
on the horizon.
 T H E J E W I S H NATION* 171
tine since 138 A.D., and their intrusion into it after having left
it for eighteen hundred years seems unjustifiable, on any known
principle of equity. The Mandator}- Power, which at present is
the government de facto, is clearly acting against elementary
laws of fairnes> in promising to a race, alien in religion, speech
and blood, a country already occupied by another nation."
The Jewish claim to Palestine is implicitly a denial that they
have disobeyed God and missed their vocation by their rejection
of the Supernatural Messias. It is the assertion in action that
the promised Messias has not yet come and that the day of their
national domination over the world will yet dawn. The final re
sult will inevitably be another disastrous blow to their hopes.
All their naturalistic attempts to impose their will on God, instead
of accepting His, are, needless to say, doomed to failure, and every
failure involves the Jewish Nation in dire catastrophes.
In his Letter to the members of his own race, the ex-rabbin
Drach expresses these truths in touching fashion. Amongst other
things he writes: "The holy men of the Old Testament, the only
true Israelites, did not ascribe to the Messias they expected, as
the present-day Synagogue does, the mission of leading back our
exiled nation to Palestine, tfoc Promised Land, and rewarding it
with the glory of this world and the abundance of its goods, but
of bringing about our spiritual redemption, as Our Lord Jesus
Christ has really done. The prayer called the * Eighteen Bene
dictions ' which you recite three times a day furnishes an un
tt{m
assailable proof of the truth of this s t a t e m e n t .
T H E CATHOLIC CHURCH AN'l) ANTJ-SEMIT1SM.
The Catholic Church condemns hatred and want of charity
between nations as it condemns them between individuals. By
nature we are brothers and by our supernature, the Divine Life
of Grace, we are united in a brotherhood which is infinitely nobler
still. "Above the brotherhood of humanity and fatherland,** said
Pope Pius XI, in a passage already (|itoled, "there is a brother
hood which is infinitely more sacred and more precious, the bro
therhood which makes us one in Christ, our Redeemer, namely,
our kinship in the Catholic Church, the Mystical Bodv of Christ
Himself/'
The Church condemns in a more particular manner haired of
the Jews. Why is hatred of the Jewish race, as such,- especially
odious? Because they are the nation and race in which the Word
became flesh. Our, Lord is a Jew of the House of David. This
hatred is commonly designated by the term " Anti-Semitism."<37)
(3G j;Harmonic e'ntre VRathe H he St/nagor/ftf, vol. L p f)
(37) Ct The My*thal Body of Christ in ihi Modern World* p. 277,
where mention is made of the fact that the t*-riu in too wido and too
vague. Cf. article in the Civil*ri Cnttofira, \ih October, 1WX. p. 7,
where a similar remark is nnvde.
 172 TT1L M Y S T I C A L ttODY OF CHRIST

" O n M a r c h 2 5 , 192S, t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n of t h e H o l y Office a b o l

i s h e d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n c a l l e d The Friends of Israel, w h i c h in a c t i o n
a n d l a n g u a g e h a d d e p a r t e d f r o m t h e m i n d of t h e C h u r c h a n d of
t h e F a t h e r s a n d h a d a d o p t e d a m o d e of p r o c e d u r e a b h o r r e n t to
the Sacred L i t u r g y / ' The Friends of Israel fell i n t o N a t u r a l i s m ,
while ostensibly striving to o v e r c o m e J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m . Never
t h e l e s s , in t h a t s a m e d e c r e e , t h e C h u r c h i n s i s t s u p o n t h e fact
t h a t s h e " h a b i t u a l l y p r a y s for t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e w h i c h w a s t h e
c u s t o d i a n of t h e d i v i n e p r o m i s e s d o w n to J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d this,
in s p i t e of, n a y r a t h e r , o n a c c o u n t of, t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t b l i n d n e s s .
A c t u a t e d b y t h i s s p i r i t of c h a r i t y , t h e A p o s t o l i c S e e h a s p r o t e c t e d
t h i s p e o p l e a g a i n s t u n j u s t t r e a t m e n t a n d , a s it c o n d e m n s e v e r y
f o r m of h a t r e d a n d j e a l o u s y b e t w e e n n a t i o n s , so in a s p e c i a l m a n n e r
it c o n d e m n s h a t r e d of t h e p e o p l e o n c e c h o s e n b y God. T h i s h a t r e d
( 3 8 )
is c o m m o n l y d e s i g n a t e d a s A n t i - S e m i t i s m / '
T h e J e w s look u p o n t h e m s e l v e s as the " Chosen P e o p l e , " be
cause they hold that they a r e the people destined to b r i n g happi
n e s s t o t h e w o r l d in t h e M e s s i a n i c e r a y e t t o c o m e . Catholic
w r i t e r s w o u l d do well n o t to p a n d e r to this N a t u r a l i s m , b y s p e a k i n g
of t h e J e w s s i m p l y as t h e C h o s e n P e o p l e , for t h u s t h e y i n c r e a s e t h e
c o n f u s i o n of t h o u g h t in m o d e r n t i m e s . T h e J e w s w e r e c h o s e n
t o be t h e c u s t o d i a n s of t h e d i v i n e p r o m i s e s d o w n t o J e s u s C h r i s t ,
of w h o m t h e y w e r e t o be t h e f o u n t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e flesh. They
h a v e n o t c e a s e d to be t h e r a c e in w h i c h t h e " W o r d w a s m a d e
flesh," a n d , as s u c h , t h e y a r c t h e o b j e c t of s p e c i a l l o v e o n t h e p a r t
of O u r L o r d . L>ut t h e N a t u r a l i s m b y w h i c h t h e y r e j e c t O u r L o r d
a n d c o n t i n u e t o h o l d t h a t t h e h a p p i n e s s of t h e w o r l d is t o c o m e
t h r o u g h t h e i r M e s s i a n i c a s p i r a t i o n s is false a n d m u s t b e e v e r y
where combated.
If w e t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n of t h e G e r m a n racial
t h e o r i e s in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Mil hrennender Sorge, a n d in
t h e L e t t e r of t h e S a c r e d C o n g r e g a t i o n of S e m i n a r i e s of A p r i l .
1938, t h e p r e s e n t N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t h a t r e d of t h e J e w i s h r a c e is
still m o r e s e v e r e l y c o n d e m n e d , b e c a u s e it is b a s e d on b l a s p h e m o u s
and heretical presuppositions. L e t us s e e briefly w h a t t h e s e p r e
suppositions arc.
T h e S e c o n d P r o p o s i t i o n c o n d e m n e d in t h e L e t t e r of t h e S a c r e d
C o n g r e g a t i o n of S e m i n a r i e s r u n s a s f o l l o w s : " T h e v i g o u r of the
r a c e , a n d b l o o d - p u r i t y , m u s t be p r e s e r v e d a n d c u l t i v a t e d b y e v e r y
m e a n s ; a n y t h i n g t h a t c o n d u c e s t o t h i s r e s u l t is b y t h e v e r y fact
honourable and permissible." The Eourth Proposition is: " T h e
e s s e n t i a l a i m of e d u c a t i o n is t o d e v e l o p t h e c h a r a c t e r s of t h e r a c e
a n d t o i n f l a m e m e n ' s m i n d s w i t h a b u r n i n g l o v e of t h e i r o w n r a c e
a s of t h e s u p r e m e g o o d . " T h e F i f t h P r o p o s i t i o n i s : " R e l i g i o n
is s u b j e c t t o t h e l a w of r a c e a n d m u s t b e a d a p t e d to i t . " T h e S i x t h

<38) The Mystical Bod,/ of Christ in the Modern World, p . 275.

 TIIK I E W I S H NATION 173

is: "The primary source and supreme rule of the whole juridical
order is the racial instinct."
The Catholic Church teaches that all the baptized, as members
of Christ, are meant to live their lives in complete subjection to
their Head. All their political and economic activities must be
in accordance with Christ's law and wishes, in view of their
divinization in and through Christ, True God and True Man. The
minimum that the Catholic Church, which has been instituted by
Christ to speak in His Name, can demand, is that Christ's mem
bers should not be forced by society to go against their Head.
Tt is for the Catholic Church, not for any other body, to say what
is for or against Christ, that is, what is moral or immoral. Now
the National-Socialist deification of the German race teaches that
the German race, as the highest embodiment of the divine here
below, has the right to say, through its representatives and lead
ers, what is moral and what is immoral. The leaders have to
listen to the voice of the blood, the racial instinct, and enunciate
its indications to the people. This instinct never errs, even when
its decisions are against positive morality or international mor
ality. The condition of its proper functioning, however, is the
purity of the blood. Race-mixtures are disastrous and especially
39)
any mixture of Jewish blood with Nordic blood.<
While insisting upon the loathsomeness of " Anti-Semitism/'
however, we must not forget the complementary truth of the
loathsomeness of Naturalism. On the one hand, the Church con
demns race-hatred in general and hatred of the Redeemer's race
in particular. On the other hand, the Church insists, as we have
seen, on the duty of combating Naturalism in public and private
life, approves of love of native land and extols true supernatural
patriotism. We have the right and the duty to defend our coun
try and our nation against the unjust aggression of another nation.
This duty is still more strongly urged upon us when it is question
of our country's fidelity to Christ the King. We must, therefore,
always and everywhere combat Naturalism in general, and in par
ticular we must be vigilant in regard to the Naturalism of the
Jewish Nation. The tireless energy with which His own nation
pursues the elimination of the influence of the Supernatural Life
of Grace is doubly painfuj to Our Lord's Sacred Heart.
The combat against Naturalism in general and, therefore,
against the organized Naturalism of the Jewish Nation, is urged
fSW The New Facial Pagamism, p i p . 3, 4.
This question will be treated at length later on, when wc come to
examine the National-Socialist movement in its proper perspective as
a national reaction against the domination of Judaeo-Masonic natural
istic internationalism. We shall see that it has turned wrong, because
it has sought its inspiration in ideas drawn from decaying non-Catholic
Christianity and anti-supernatural philosophy.
 174 TIIK MYSTICAL T.ODY O F CHRIST

u p o n u s , for e x a m p l e , by P o p e L e o X I I I (TametsU 1900) a n d

P o p e P i u s X I (Quas Primus, 1925, a n d Quadragesimo Anno, 1931).
W e a r e w a r n e d a g a i n s t J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m e x p l i c i t l y in a w h o l e
u
s e r i e s of P a p a l D o c u m e n t s t p m \ e d by P o p e H e n c d i c t X I V . As
For U s , " w r i t e s t h a t l e a r n e d Pontiff, " i n this* m a t t e r , a s in al]
o t h e r s . W e f o l l o w t h e line of c o n d u c t a d o p t e d bv O u r V e n e r a b l e
P r e d e c e s s o r s , the R o m a n Pontiffs. A l e x a n d e r " III ( 1 1 5 9 - 1 1 8 1 )
f o r b a d e C h r i s t i a n s . , u n d e r s e v e r e p e n a l t i e s , t o e n t e r t h e s e r v i c e of
J e w s f o r a n y l e n g t h y p e r i o d o r to b e c o m e d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s in
t h e i r h o u s e h o l d s . ' T h e y o u g h t n o t , ' he w r o t e , ' to s e r v e J e w s for
p a y in a p e r m a n e n t w a y / T h e s a m e Pontiff explains the reason
for t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n a s f o l l o w s : ' O u r w a y s of life a n d t h o s e of
J e w s a r e u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t , a n d J e w s will e a s i l y p e r v e r t t h e s o u l s
of s i m p l e folk t o t h e i r s u p e r s t i t i o n a n d unbelief, if s u c h folk a r e
l i v i n g in c o n t i n u a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o n v e r s e w i t h t h e m /
I n n o c e n t III ( 1 1 9 8 - 1 2 1 6 ) , a f t e r h a v i n g m e n t i o n e d t h a t J e w s
w e r e b e i n g a d m i t t e d by C h r i s t i a n s i n t o t h e i r c i t i e s , w a r n e d C h r i s t
i a n s t h a t t h e m o d e a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s of a d m i s s i o n s h o u l d be
s u c h a s t o p r e v e n t t h e J e w s f r o m r e t u r n i n g evil for g o o d : ' W h e n
t h e y a r e t h u s a d m i t t e d o u t of p i t y i n t o f a m i l i a r i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h
C h r i s t i a n s , t h e y r e p a y t h e i r h o s t s , a s t h e p r o v e r b s a y s , like t h e
r a t h i d d e n in t h e s a c k , o r t h e s n a k e in t h e b o s o m , o r t h e b u r n i n g
b r a n d in o n e ' s l a p / T h e s a m e P o n t i f f s a y s it is fitting for J e w s
t o s e r v e C h r i s t i a n s , but n o t f o r C h r i s t i a n s t o s e r v e J e w s , a n d
a d d s : ' T h e s o n s of t h e f r e e - w o m a n s h o u l d n o t ' s e r v e t h e s o n s of
t h e b o n d - w o m a n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e J e w s , a s s e r v a n t s r e j e c t e d
by that Saviour whose death they wickedly contrived, should
r e c o g n i s e t h e m s e l v e s , in fact a m i in d e e d , t h e s e r v a n t s of t h o s e
w h o m t h e d e a t h of C h r i s t h a s s e t free, e v e n a s it h a s r e n d e r e d
them bondmen/ T h e s e w o r d s m a y be r e a d in t h e D e c r e t a l , Etsi
Judaeos, In l i k e m a n n e r , in a n o t h e r D e c r e t a l , Cum sit nimis,
u n d e r t h e s a m e b e a d i n g , De Juduris cf Sarar.nris (On J e w s a n d
S a r a c e n s ) h e f o r b i d s p u b l i c p o s i t i o n s t o be b e s t o w e d on J e w s :
* W e f o r b i d t h e g i v i n g of p u b l i c a p p o i n t m e n t s t o J e w s b e c a u s e
t h e y profit by t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s tints a f f o r d e d t h e m t o s h o w t h e m
selves bitterly hostile to Christians* If a n y o n e s h o u l d
a s k w h a t is f o r b i d d e n by t h e A p o s t o l i c S e e to J e w s d w e l l i n g in
t h e s a m e t o w n s as C h r i s t i a n s . . . he has only to read the Con
s t i t u t i o n s of t h e R o m a n P o n t i f f s , O u r P r e d e c e s s o r s , N i c h o l a s I V
( 1 2 8 8 - 1 2 9 4 ) ; P a u l IV ( 1 5 5 5 - 1 5 5 9 ) ; S a i n t P i u s V ( 1 5 6 6 - 1 5 7 2 ) ; G r e
g o r y X I I I ( 1572-1585); and C l e m e n t VIII (1592-1605), which are
r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , as t h e y a r e t o be f o u n d in t h e BuUarrum
Iio-manwm"^
A s m y r e a d e r s m a y be u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s e d o c u m e n t s , it
m a y be w e l l t o q u o t e , a s a s p e c i m e n of t h e i r t e n o r , t h e o p e n i n g
4
< ) Encyclical Letter, A quo p r i m u m (1751).
 THE JEWISH NATION 175
p a s s a g e f r o m t h e A p o s t o l i c L e t t e r , Antiqui Judacontm, of P o p e
G r e g o r y X I I I , J u n e 1, 1581. " T h e p e r v e r s i t y of t h e J e w s of
14
old," w r i t e s t h a t g r e a t Pontiff, w h i c h w a s the s o u r c e of t h e i r
c o n t i n u a l r e s i s t a n c e t o G o d ' s l o v i n g k i n d n e s s , s h o w e d itself in
even m o r e d e t e s t a b l e f a s h i o n in t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s , i n a s m u c h a s
these l a t t e r s i n n e d still m o r e g r i e v o u s l y t h a n t h e i r a n c e s t o r s did
by r e j e c t i n g t h e S o n of G o d a n d i m p i o u s l y p l o t t i n g Mis D e a t h .
H a v i n g t h u s g i v e n G o d a d d i t i o n a l c a u s e for a n g e r a n d b e c o m e
more w i c k e d even t h a n their p r o g e n i t o r s , they were driven from
their o w n c o u n t r y , d e l i v e r e d u p t o p e r p e t u a l b o n d a g e , a n d s c a t t e r e d
far a n d w i d e o v e r t h e face of t h e e a r t h . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y h a v e
n o w h e r e m e t w i t h g r e a t e r k i n d n e s s t h a n in the d o m i n i o n s of
Christian rulers. E s p e c i a l l y h a s t h i s b e e n t h e c a s e in t h e t e r r i
tories subject to the Apostolic See. T h e Sovereign Pontiffs, ever
a n x i o u s for t h e c o n v e r s i o n of t h e J e w s , h a v e r e c e i v e d them
kindly, h a v e g r a c i o u s l y a l l o w e d t h e m t o d w e l l a m o n g s t t h e i r o w n
s u b j e c t s a n d h a v e a l w a y s s t r i v e n w i t h p i o u s zeal to d r a w t h e m
to t h e l i g h t of t r u t h . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y h a v e h e l p e d t h e m t o s e
cure t h e n e c e s s a r i e s of life, h a v e ' f o r b i d d e n all to i n j u r e o r i n s u l t
t h e m a n d in t h e i r b e n e v o l e n c e h a v e b e s t o w e d m a n y p r i v i l e g e s
upon t h e m for t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e J e w s , h o w e v e r , in n o w a y
softened bv these benefits and with their ancient anti-Christian
a t t i t u d e u n c h a n g e d , d o n o t c e a s e , in t h e i r s y n a g o g u e s a n d e v e r y
where, to rage against O u r Lord J e s u s Christ now gloriously
r e i g n i n g in h e a v e n . M o v e d by an i n t e n s e h a t r e d of t h e m e m b e r s
of C h r i s t , t h e y c o n t i n u e t o p l a n h o r r i b l e c r i m e s a g a i n s t t h e C h r i s t
ian r e l i g i o n w i t h d a i l y i n c r e a s i n g a u d a c i t y / '
T h e s p r e a d of t h e s p i r i t of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n h a s c a u s e d
t h e R i g h t s of G o d t o b e o b s c u r e d . T h e y m u s t be u n e q u i v o c a l l y
p r o c l a i m e d , a n d t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p
of C h r i s t m a d e k n o w n . W e h a v e t o u n d o t h e t r i u m p h s of J u d a e o -
Masonic N a t u r a l i s m and guide aright the national reactions that
h a v e c o m e o r a r e c o m i n g e v e r y w h e r e a g a i n s t t h e d o m i n a t i o n of
the t w o n a t u r a l i s t i c I n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m s of J e w r y a n d F r e e m a s o n r y .
All this w e m u s t d o , w h i l e k e e p i n g o u r souls free f r o m h a t r e d ,
for w e c o u l d n o t face C h r i s t t h e K i n g in j u d g e m e n t , if w e h a t e d
His o w n race and nation. O u r reaction a g a i n s t J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m
m u s t be s u p e r n a t u r a l . O n e of t h e r e a s o n s w h y n o n - C a t h o l i c
w r i t e r s s o m e t i m e s fail t o m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e d a t t i t u d e w i t h r e
g a r d t o t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n is b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e a vivid r e a l i z a t i o n
of t h e c o r r u p t i o n a n d d e c a y of t h e i r n a t i o n a l life, w h i c h is t h e
i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t of J e w i s h influence. In t r y i n g t o e x p r e s s t h i s
truth and a r o u s e t h e i r peoples to defend their traditions, t h e y a r e
u n f o r t u n a t e l y liable t o e r r . U n l e s s g u i d e d by C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y
a n d T h o m i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y , n a t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s a r e in d a n g e r of
t u r n i n g w r o n g a n d p l u n g i n g still d e e p e r i n t o t h e m i r e of N a t u r a l
ism.
1/0 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

As an example of disordered reaction to Jewish Naturalism,

w e may mention Arnold Lcese's pamphlet, Race and Politics, a
Coimtcr-blast to the Masonic Teaching of Universal Brotherhood,
published by the Imperialist Fascist League. This pamphlet is
deeply impregnated with the false racial theories of Rosenberg
and German racialism in general. The moral law, binding upon
nations as upon individuals, disappears in favour of the instincts
of the Aryan Race. " The true Internationalism," we read, " is the
instinctive respect of one Aryan Nation for another." Again we
find: " The real value of the Aryan o r Nordic Race is in its in
stincts, which result from the experience of its ancestors handed
down as an hereditary memory, and may very truly be said to
be the highest form of knowledge."
A leaflet of the same League points out that the imposition
of the Jewish National form proceeds by the propagation of "crazy
cull>, unhealthy m\ .-.licism, pseudo-science and sham philosophies."
Surely it ought to be manifest to the members of the League that
Rosenberg's race theory is a typical example of a "crazy cult"
and a "sham philosophy/' leading men still further away from
Our Divine Lord.
In face of Jewish Naturalism, then, we must proclaim the
supremacy of the Supernatural Life of the Mystical Body, by
which we arc spiritual descendants of Abraham, over the natural
life of Abraham's descendants according t o the llcsb, as over
every form of national life. " All are not Israelites that are
of Israel; neither are all they that are the seed of Abraham,
4 1
children/* * * In face of Rosenberg's naturalistic deification of
the German race and bis rejection of Jewish blood as poisoned,
we must proclaim that the Mystical Ih>dy of Christ is the one
divinely-instituted supernatural society in which all. both Jew and
Gentile. Gorman and non-Gorman, find redemption. As Abraham
merited by his faith and obedience to be the ancestor of the Head
of redeemed humanity, who was, therefore, of Jewish blood; so
wc, by our faith and obedience, are his spiritual descendants,
spiritually Semites, members of the Mystical Body of Abraham's
(42)
seed. This is what Pope Pius XI emphasized when he used
the expression: " Wc are spiritually Semites," addressed to the
members of a Belgian pilgrimage in September, 1938. Pope Pius
XFs phrase is an echo of the one used by Pope Pius IX to the
Jewish convert priests, the Fathers Lemann: "You are the sons
43
of Abraham and 1 also."* )

(> Rom., IX, G, 7.

If the Arabs may be spoken of as the descendants of Ishmael,
we seo that Mohammedanism, too, goes hack to Abraham. In this case,
too, it is a question of physical descent, and the Messias,. Mahomet, has
already come.
(4.'t) "Tos e.stix fitii Ahrahac rt etjo" This is quotod in thr hook, La
 THK JEWISH NATION 177

The phrase used by P o p e Pius X I has been very frequently

quoted, in f a c t , s o f r e q u e n t l y t h a t o n e is inclined t o s u s p e c t t h a t
it is b e i n g u s e d a s p r o p a g a n d a w i t h a v i e w t o e m p h a s i z i n g o n e
aspect of t h e q u e s t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n o n e h a r d l y e v e r finds
any a l l u s i o n t o t h e p r e v i o u s p o r t i o n of t h e P o p e ' s d i s c o u r s e . P o p e
Pius X I a l s o s a i d : *' I t is i m p o s s i b l e for C h r i s t i a n s t o b e A n t i -
Semites, b u t W e a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t e v e r y o n e h a s t h e r i g h t t o
defend himself, in o i l i e r w o r d s , t o t a k e t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e c a u t i o n s
for his p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h r e a t e n s his l e g i t i m a t e
interests."
H e n c e w e find in t h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t of P o p e P i u s X I t h e t w o
c u r r e n t s w h i c h , d o w n t h e c e n t u r i e s , r u n t h r o u g h t h e official d e
(44
c l a r a t i o n s of t h e H o l y S e e c o n c e r n i n g t h e J e w s . > On the one
hand, t h e S o v e r e i g n P o n t i f f s s t r i v e t o p r o t e c t t h e J e w s f r o m
physical v i o l e n c e a n d t o s e c u r e r e s p e c t for t h e i r f a m i l y life a n d
their w o r s h i p , a s t h e life a n d w o r s h i p of h u m a n p e r s o n s . O n t h e
other h a n d , t h e y a i m u n c e a s i n g l y a t p r o t e c t i n g C h r i s t i a n s f r o m
the c o n t a m i n a t i o n of J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m a n d t r y t o p r e v e n t J e w s
from o b t a i n i n g c o n t r o l o v e r C h r i s t i a n s . T h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e
second c u r r e n t n e e d s t o b e s t r o n g l y s t r e s s e d , b e c a u s e , t o s o m e
extent, it h a s b e e n l o s t s i g h t of in r e c e n t t i m e s . C a t h o l i c s n e e d
to be m a d e f a m i l i a r , n o t o n l y w i t h t h e r e p e a t e d P a p a l c o n d e m n
ations of t h e T a l m u d but w i t h t h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n by t h e S o v e r e i g n
Pontiffs t o p r e s e r v e s o c i e t y f r o m t h e i n r o a d s of J e w i s h N a t u r a l
ism. O t h e r w i s e t h e y will be e x p o s e d t o t h e r i s k of s p e a k i n g of
Pope St. P i u s V a n d P o p e B e n e d i c t X I V , for e x a m p l e , a s a n t i -
S e m i t e s , a n d s o s h o w i n g i g n o r a n c e of t h e m e a n i n g of S u p e r n a t u r a l
Life and of t h e r u l e of C h r i s t t h e K i n g o v e r s o c i e t y .
T h e p o i n t h a s b e e n r a i s e d t h a t P o p e P i u s X I ' s a p p e a l in t h e
Encyclical L e t t e r , On the Troubles of Our Time, to " a l l t h o s e
who still b e l i e v e in G o d a n d a d o r e H i m l o y a l l y a n d h e a r t i l y " t o
unite a g a i n s t t h e e n e m i e s of r e l i g i o n is a d d r e s s e d t o t h e J e w s
who b e l i e v e in G o d a s w e l l a s t o C a t h o l i c s a n d n o n - C a t h o l i c C h r i s t -
Cause des restes d'Israel introduite au Con cite Oecumenitjue du Vatican,
by the F a t h e r s L e m a n n .
For the full t e x t of Pope P i u s X I ' s Discourse, cf. The Kingship of
Christ and Organized Naturalism, by the present writer (The F o r u m
Press, Cork).
The A n t i p h o n of the M a g n i f i c a t o f the first vespers of Q u i n q u a g e s i m a
Sunday expresses the same idea in succinct fashion. I t r u n s as fol
lows: "Noble A b r a h a m , the F a t h e r of o u r faith, offered a holocaust
on the a l t a r in the place of his s o n . "
Cf. the text of Gal., I l l , 2 9 : '/And if y u u be Christ's, then you a r e
the seed of A b r a h a m , h e i r s according to the p r o m i s e . " M. D r a c h quotes
this text when, a d d r e s s i n g his fellow-Israelites, he s a y s : " I t is only
through Jesus t h a t you can be children of A b r a h a m " {UHarmonie entre
Vftgh.Rc et la Synagogue* vol. I, -p. 25).
<W Cf. article Juifs et Chretien*, in thf Dirtionnaire Apologetique
de la Vol Chretienne.
0
 178 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

i a n s . S t a r t i n g f r o m t h i s , it is i n s i n u a t e d t h a t t h e P o p e d e s i r e s an
o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y b a s e d on c o m m o n belief in G o d . N o w , the
a p p e a l is c e r t a i n l y a d d r e s s e d t o all s i n c e r e b e l i e v e r s in G o d t o b e g
t h e m t o c o m b a t t h e C o m m u n i s t p r o p a g a t o r s of a t h e i s m a n d i r r e -
l i g i o n a n d t h u s w a r d off' t h e g r e a t d a n g e r t h a t t h r e a t e n s all, but
s u r e l y it m u s t not be t a k e n a s d e n y i n g all t h a t t h e s a m e H o l y
P o n t i f f h a d s a i d in hi?* o t h e r K n c y c l i c a l s a l r e a d y q u o t e d . If J e w s
a r e s i n c e r e in t h e i r belief in G o d , t h e y o u g h t t o c o m b a t C o m m u n
i s m , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r b e l i e v e r s in G o d , but a n a p p e a l t o t h e m to
d o s o d o c s n o t i m p l y an a c c e p t a n c e of c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e m
f o r a n a t u r a l i s t i c a n d a m i - s u p e r n a t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y .
T h a t w o u l d m e a n t h e d e n i a l of w h a t P o p e P i u s X I h a d a l r e a d y
w r i t t e n in t h e K n c y c l i c a l s , Quas Primas a n d Quadragesimo Anno,
a n d w o u l d m a k e null a n d void t h e p r i n c i p l e s s o c l e a r l y e n u n c i a t e d in
t h e l a t e r K n c y e l i c a l L e t t e r . Mit Hrennender Sorge. " B e l i e f in
G o d will not in the l o n g r u n be p r e s e r v e d p u r e a n d g e n u i n e , if
it is n o t s u p p o r t e d by belief in C h r i s t . . . . a n d belief in C h r i s t
will n o t be p r e s e r v e d t r u e a n d g e n u i n e , if it i> not s u p p o r t e d a n d
p r o t e c t e d b y belief in t h e C h u r c h . " Can w e >uppose P o p e Pius
X I t o h a v e a p p e a l e d f o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y in w h i c h be
lief i n t h e d i v i n i t y of C h r i s t a n d t h e C h u r c h , w h i c h t h e J e w s d o
n o t a c c e p t , w o u l d be r e l e g a t e d t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d ? C a n w e con
c e i v e t h a t t h e P o p e w h o s a i d " e v e r y t h i n g m u s t c r u m b l e t h a t is
n o t g r o u n d e d o n t h e o n e c o r n e r s t o n e w h i c h is C h r i s t J e s u s ' * w a s
d e s i r o u s of a n o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y b a s e d on i n d i f f e r e n c e to
45)
t h e d i v i n i t y of J e s u s ?<

REASON FOR SPKCJAL O P P O S I T I O N TO T H E

J E W I S H NATION.
Up t o C a l v a r y , t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , w h i c h w a s
10 b e f o u n d in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , w a s a c o m p o u n d of t h e self-
c e n t r e d r e s i s t a n c e lo t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e , w h i c h is t o be f o u n d
i n f a l l e n m a n , a n d of t h e h a t r e d a r o u s e d b y J e w i s h p r i d e . J e w i s h
n a t i o n a l p r i d e , w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d in t h e r e j e c t i o n of O u r L o r d a t
t h e P r a e t o r i u m a n d o n C a l v a r y , did n o t a r i s e in a g e n e r a t i o n .
It w a s a g r a d u a l g r o w t h a n d it p l a y e d its p a r t in t h e h a t r e d w h i c h
t h e J e w s d r e w o n t h e m s e l v e s b e f o r e t h e c o m i n g of O u r L o r d .
S t i l l , u p t o C a l v a r y , s a l v a t i o n w a s f r o m t h e J e w s , in t h e s e n s e
y
t h a t H e W h o w a s 10 r e s t o r e t h e Real L i f e of t h e w o r l d w as t o be
of t h e i r r a c e a n d l i e w a s t o a s k t h e m t o b e t h e h e r a l d s of the
R e a l L i f e a n d of the D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r . S i n c e C a l v a r y , t h e i r
s e l f - c e n t r e d n e s s and p e r s i s t e n t r e s i s t a n c e lo o r d e r d r a w upon them
e v e n g r e a t e r h a t r e d a n d o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e i r f e l l o w - m e m b e r s of
t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c camp. T h e i r efforts to lead t h e w o r l d to a M e s
s i a n i c e r a of definitive p e a c e , b y t h e i m p o s i t i o n of t h e i r n a t i o n a l
(4
^ ' C'f. Encyclical Letter. JJirini /frdettiptor/s, On At/teistic Com
munism.
 THE JEWISH XATIOX 179
form, a r e o p p o s e d , a s w e h a v e s e e n , n o t o n l y t o t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l
Life of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , h u t also to t h e n a t u r a l d e
v e l o p m e n t of n a t i o n a l life. T h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t is o p p o s i t i o n t o
and d i s l i k e of t h e J e w s . W h e n t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r i n i l u e n c c b e
comes m a n i f e s t t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , v i o l e n t
r e s e n t m e n t is a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e .
W e m a y e x p r e s s t h e t r u t h c o n t a i n e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h
in a n o t h e r w a y . T h e mart w h o o b s t i n a t e l y r e s i s t s D i v i n e G r a c e
will n o t r e m a i n an u p r i g h t n a t u r a l m a n . H e will s i n k d o w n t o
an i n f r a - h u m a n level a n d he will h a v e a d e b a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o n
those a r o u n d h i m . So t h e J e w i s h X a i i o n , in its o b s t i n a t e r e s i s t
ance t o t h e R e a l L i f e of t h e w o r l d , h a s d e v e l o p e d u n n a t u r a l t r a i t s
and is d r a g g i n g t h e w o r l d d o w n t o a n i n f r a - h u m a n level. A n d t h e
poor d e l u d e d a n d d e b a s e d w o r l d , in a n effort to s a v e itself, t u r n s
upon t h e J e w s w h o h a v e d o n e s o m u c h t o lead it a s t r a y .
T h e r e is a f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e i n o r i g i n b e t w e e n o p p o s i t i o n
to t h e J e w s a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . O p p o s i t i o n t o
the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is o p p o s i t i o n , led b y S a t a n , t o t h e S u p e r
n a t u r a l L i f e a n d t o t h e r e a l o r d e r of t h e w o r l d : t h e p a r t i c u l a r
o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e J e w s h a s i t s o r i g i n in a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e i r
pride a n d a g a i n s t t h e i r e f f o r t s t o i m p o s e t h e i r d o m i n a t i o n . This
pride a n d t h e s e i n o r d i n a t e a m b i t i o n s a r e the c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e i r
special r e s i s t a n c e to t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life and o r d e r of t h e w o r l d ,
at t h e i n s t i g a t i o n of S a t a n . G o d is d r a w i n g g o o d o u t of evil.
H o m e - s i c k n e s s a f t e r t h e u n i t y of t h e C h r i s t i a n w o r l d t h a t e x i s t e d
before t h e 16th c e n t u r v is g r o w i n g g r e a t e r , as the t r u e c h a r a c t e r
of t h e g o a l t o w a r d s w h i c h J e w i s h X a t u r a l i s m is l e a d i n g b e c o m e s
more evident.
A f e w e x t r a c t s f r o m t h e a r t i c l e in t h e Civiltt) CaUolicu will
help t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e p o i n t s . " W h e n X a p o l e o n \ t h o u g h t of
g r a n t i n g full e q u a l i t y of civil r i g h t s t o t h e J e w s in F r a n c e a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h i s c e n t u r y , t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d l a w y e r . P o r t a l i s , d r e w
up a d o c u m e n t . . . in w h i c h he p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , in t h e c a s e of
the J e w s , r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e s h o u l d n o t be c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e
g r a n t i n g of civil s t a t u s . ' T h e J e w s . " lie said, ' a r e n o t m e r e l y a
religious s e c t b u t a p e o p l e . T h i s p e o p l e , w h i c h f o r m e r l y h a d its
own t e r r i t o r y a n d i t s t>wn g o v e r n m e n t , h a s b e e n d i s p e r s e d , b u t
not b r o k e n u p . It m o v e s all o \ e r t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e s e e k i n g a
refuge b u t n o t a jwlria <>r n a t i v e l a n d , it is to be found a m o n g s t
all t h e n a t i o n s b u t it is n e v e r a s s i m i l a t e d , li l a k e ^ u p l o d g i n g
e v e r y w h e r e a s a f o r e i g n e r on f o r e i g n ^oil. T h a t c o m e s from t h e
n a t u r e of J e w i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s . . .
" H e n c e it s t a n d s out a s c l e a r as n o o n - d a y t h a t t h e J e w s e v e r y
where form a n a t i o n within a nation, and that, a l t h o u g h they
live in F r a n c e , G e r m a n y a n d E n g l a n d , t h e y n e v e r b e c o m e F r e n c h ,
Germans, or English. T h e y remain J e w s and nothing but J e w s .
... I t f o l l o w s a s a c o r o l l a r y of t h i s c o n d i t i o n of t h i n g s t h a t in
180 T H K M Y S T I C A L B O D Y OK CHRTST

no country has the Jew a native land, a yafrift, that is, the land
of his fathers. Accordingly, the patriotism of which he contin
ually boasts and of which be pretends to be the apostle, in order
to attain his own end of ruining and devouring" the nations that
have been foolish enough lo grant him the rights of citizenship,
is simply a monstrous imposture. Tim is the reason why the
loathsome pwfessions of spy and traitor come natural to him.
Bismarck's saying, namely, that * Cod has created the Jew to
1
serve as a spy to anybody who needs one is wU-known, as is
also thai of Count Cavottr who used t o say of a Jew, his con
fidant: * Tic is most useful to me, in order to give publicity to
whatever J want lo make known. I have hardly finished speak
ing to him, when he has betrayed me.'
"Last July, the Krcttzzcitomf/ of Merlin related the following
incident from the Mnwtoirrs of an army officer: 'During the war
of 1S70, I was attached to the Tenth Army, commanded by Gen
eral Voigts-Khctz. 100.000 tbalers had been assigned to that
general to pay spies. He returned to Merlin, however, with the
sum intact, because he could not succeed in hiring any amongst
the French. On the other hand, in the war against Austria in
1866, things were quite different. The Jews came in crowds and
sold us cheaply information about all the movements of the Im
perial Army. These Jews were subjects of Austria and therefore
voluntary spies/
"History is full of betrayals on the pari of Jews. . . . The
Jew, Goldsmit, a few ycar.s ago, stole the most closely guarded
maps of the Prussian Higher Command and sold them. The Jew,
Klootz, betrayed the Knglish General Hicks and his forces, in the
Soudan, lo the Mahdi's savage hordes. The Jew, Adlcr. betrayed
the confidence placed in him by Krajewski and delivered him over
to Prussia. The Jew, Detilz, betrayed the Duchess of Merry for
the sum of 500,000 francs. And thus it has always been down the
ages, from the Jew. Scdecia. who poisoned Charles the Bald, to
the Jewess PaVva who a short time ago, in Paris, was manoeuvring
4
to steal the plans of the Kreuch army in order to sell them."*

DIVINE PKOYIPEN0E AND TilE JEWISH NATION.

When Our ford, the supreme manifestation of the fatherhood

of God, came amongst the Jews, they turned against 1 lim and
rejected His message of Supernatural Life and peace. To have
accepted Him and the real order of (be world would have meant
that I bey were prepared to acknowledge that the domination of
their nation over others was not the supreme good and the final
destiny of the universe. This they would not do. They refused
and, as a nation, continue V* refuse lo admit the reality of the
ir
< " Op. oil., 4th Oct., HflO.
 THE JEWISH NATION 181

S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e a n d t o a c k n o w l e d g e C h r i s t as its
( 4 7 )
unique s o u r c e . A s a n a t i o n , t h e y c o n t i n u e clown t h e a g e s to
w a r a g a i n s t t h e i d e a of t h e r e b e i n g a n y h i g h e r social e n t i t y t h a n
the J e w i s h n a t i o n . T h e i r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , in so far a s it is co
o r d i n a t e d , is b a s e d o n t h e i d e a t h a t u n i t y is to c o m e t o t h e worWl,
not t h r o u g h t h e s u p r a n a t i o n a l M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s I, b u t
through t h e i r n a t i o n . T h e i r u n y i e l d i n g opposition to the Super
n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e a n d t o t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r h a s m e a n t
the e x i s t e n c e of a d d i t i o n a l w e a k n e s s a n d division a m o n g s t t h e
E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s a n d in t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d . B e c a u s e t h e n a
tions of E u r o p e h a d a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t ,
they w e r e c h a r g e d w i t h a s p e c i a l m i s s i o n to d r a w t h e r e s t of t h e
w o r l d i n t o t h e u n i t y of t h a t B o d y .
If t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n a s s u c h h a d h u m b l e d itself a n d s i n c e r e l y
r e p e n t e d a n y t i m e f o r t h e l a s t 1,900 y e a r s , it w o u l d h a v e i m m e d i
a t e l y m e a n t a n e n o r m o u s i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r s of m e m b e r s
of C h r i s t in t h e w o r l d , for t h e y w o u l d h a v e p u t t h e i r r e s t l e s s
energy i n t o m i s s i o n a r y w o r k for H i m . But alas: " A l l the day
long h a v e I s p r e a d m y h a n d s to a people that believeth not and
contradicteth m e " (Rom., X, 2 1 ; Is., L X V , 2). " T h e Messias,"
w r i t e s F a t h e r L i b e r m a n n , C.S.Sp., ' ' a p p e a r e d a m o n g s t t h e J e w s .
T h e y did n o t a c c e p t H i m . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y p e r s e c u t e d H i m .
. . . T h e y w e r e in a h u r r y t o g e t r i d of H i m . So g r e a t in f a c t
w a s t h e i r h a t r e d of H i m t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e killed H i m b e f o r e
t h e t i m e fixed b y G o d ' s e t e r n a l d e c r e e s , if t h e y h a d b e e n a b l e .
F o r t h e p a s t 1,800 y e a r s s i n c e H i s D e a t h , t h e y s e e k H i m a n d t h e y
c a n n o t find H i m . T h e y l o o k for H i m in all t h e g r e a t c a l a m i t i e s
w h i c h fall u p o n t h e m . T h e y r e j e c t e d t h e T r u e M e s s i a s , t h e O m n i
p o t e n t S o n of G o d , a n d t h e y f o u n d B a r c o c h e b a s in o n e of t h e i r
g r e a t e s t afflictions. I t w a s j u s t a n d fitting t h a t i n s t e a d of find
i n g O u r S a v i o u r t h e y s h o u l d h a v e f o u n d t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e i r
r u i n in B a r c o c h e b a s , s i n c e t h e y h a d p r e f e r r e d B a r a b b a s t o
48
Him."* * Y e t , in s p i t e of t h a t a g e l o n g o p p o s i t i o n , G o d h a s n o t
a l l o w e d t h a t n a t i o n t o d i s a p p e a r " w h o s e a r e t h e f a t h e r s , a n d of
w h o m is C h r i s t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e flesh, w h o is o v e r all t h i n g s , G o d
blessed for ever. A m e n " ( R o m . , I X , 5). T h e y have been p r e s e r v e d
b y a s p e c i a l m y s t e r i o u s d e s i g n of D i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e .

T H E T W O CAMPS.

T h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d d e m a n d s t h a t t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n s h o u l d
p a s s f r o m t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c a r m y of t h e e n e m i e s of C h r i s t i n t o t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l c a m p of t h e m e m b e r s of H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y , for,
here b e l o w t h e r e are only t w o c a m p s , the S u p e r n a t u r a l and the
Naturalistic. This g r e a t t r u t h m u s t not be obscured, no m a t t e r h o w
47)
< Cf. lira nail* e.t Natioiuilisme, by C. Barthas.
<*S) Commentary on St. Jofm's Gospel, p. 319.
 182 THK M Y S T I C A L HODY O F C H R I S T

strongly one may feci the necessity of stressing the special mys
terious design of [)i\ iue Providence in preserving the Jewish
f49)
Nation, in spite of their continued resistance to His love.
Certain phrases used by M. Jacques Maritain in T<es Jvifs par mi
Irs Nation*, a pamphlet published by Les Editions dtt Cerf of
Paris, arc, it seems to me, calculated lo obscure the clear-cut issue
(50
between Naturalism and S u p r a n a t u r a 1 i * m . ' The author writes
as follows: " T o the eyes of a Christian who remembers that the
4
promises of Cod arc without repentance, Israel continues its
sacred mission, but continues it in the darkness of the world, pre
ferred on that unforgettable occasion to faith in God. Israel,
like the Church, is in the world and yet is not of the world: but
from the day the Jews stumbled because their leaders chose the
world, Tsrael forms pari of the world, remains a prisoner and a
victim of that world it loves and of which it is not a part, of which
it never shall be or can be a pari. This is how we ought to con
template the mystery of Israel in the light of Christian Revela
tion. . . . If the world hates the Jews, it is because it feels that
they will be always supernatural! iiW* foreign to it . . . it is the
vocation of Israel which the world detests. To be bated by the
world is the glory of the Jews as it is also the glory of Christians
5 21
who live by faith."< '
Now, the world of which Our Lord speaks in the Gospel is the
entire collection of forces marshalled by Satan against the Super
natural Life of Graced" Ii is therefore the naturalistic camp, of
.which Satan is the leader. The Jews, under their rulers, entered
that camp and led the others in the attack on the Supernatural
Life in Person, Our Lord Jesus Christ. They occupy a special
place in that camp, it is hue, because of God's loving preservation
of them in spite of their obstinacy and pride, but in the conflict
which di\ides the world into two opposing armies, there must not
be any shadow of doubt about their being in the vanguard of
visible opposition to the Supernatural. We must not begin to con
sider them as a force apart as it were, opposed both to Our Lord
and to the world. They form, in the naturalistic camp to-day, as at
any time for the past l/XX* years, the most strongly organized and
most cohesive visible force. Our Lord's Sacred Heart is wrung at
the sight of His own people leading* the opposition to Him. Butour
place is with J Urn and along with those who express submission
(49; With regard to the conversion of the Jews, ef. The Mystical Body
of Christ in tin Modern World, pp. 281-287.
<50i An English translation of this pamphlet, with some additions,
has been published undev the title Ant i-Snniiixnu bv the Centenary
Proas (London).
161) Italics in text.
(3a
> Op. eit.. pp. 19. -21.
<5*1 Cf. e.g., the able worfc ,r Andre v'harae. 1/1nrredutiti des Jaift
dan* h Novvcaa Testament, pp. 212-245.
 THE JEWISH NATION 183

to G o d t h e F a t h e r in t h e M a s s . G o d ' s special P r o v i d e n c e in r e
gard t o t h e o n c e c h o s e n p e o p d e m u s t n o t m a k e us h e s i t a t e a b o u t
the c a m p t o c h o o s e w h e n B e l a K u n r e c e i v e s m a r c h i n g o r d e r s f o r
the a t t a c k o n t h e M a s s i n B a r c e l o n a a n d t h r o u g h o u t S p a i n o r ,
if he is still a l i v e , at s o m e d a t e in t h e f u t u r e , in D u b l i n a n d t h r o u g h
out I r e l a n d .
M . M a r i t a i n s p e a k s of t h e J e w s a s a m y s t i c a l b o d y in a n o t h e r
sense f r o m t h e C h u r c h , b u t h i s u s e of t h e e x p r e s s i o n t e n d s , a s T
have s a i d , t o r e n d e r o b s c u r e t h e r e a l p o s i t i o n of I s r a e l in t h e
world. H e r e a r e his o w n w o r d s in t h e s a m e w o r k : " T h e C h u r c h ,
as y o u k n o w , is n o t m e r e l y a r e l i g i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . She is,
a c c o r d i n g t o h e r o w n t e a c h i n g a b o u t herself, a m y s t e r i o u s b o d y in
which living b o n d s u n i t e souls a m o n g s t themselves and with God,
in v i e w of a d i v i n e t a s k t o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . S h e is t h e M y s t i c a l
Body of C h r i s t . N o w , in a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s e n s e , J e w i s h t h o u g h t
is c o n s c i o u s t h a t I s r a e l is, in i t s w a y , a m y s t i c a l b o d y . A r e c e n t
w o r k b y E r i c h K a h l e r , Israel vntcr den V oik em [ I s r a e l a m o n g s t
the N a t i o n s ] , i n s i s t s p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h i s p o i n t . T h e b o n d w h i c h
u n i t e s I s r a e l is n o t t h e b o n d of flesh a n d b l o o d a l o n g w i t h c o m
m u n i t y of c u s t o m s a n d h i s t o r y . I t is a s a c r e d a n d s u p r a - h i s t o r i c
bond, n o t of p o s s e s s i o n b u t of l o n g i n g for t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of a p r o
mise. . . . I s r a e l p a s s i o n a t e l y h o p e s for, l o o k s f o r w a r d to a n d
longs f o r t h e c o m i n g of G o d in t h e w o r l d , t h e K i n g d o m of God
here below. T h e J e w s w a n t , w i t h an e t e r n a l will, a will t h a t is
s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d u n r e a s o n a b l e , t o r e a l i z e j u s t i c e , in t i m e , in n a t u r e
V 5 i )
and in t h e S t a t e . '
B u t is n o t t h e d e s i r e t o i m p o s e o n e ' s will on G o d i n s t e a d of
c o n f o r m i n g o n e ' s will t o G o d ' s W i l l , t h e v e r y a n t i t h e s i s of t h e
a t t i t u d e of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s , O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d
is it n o t t h e r e f o r e n a t u r a l i s t i c ? O n e can well see t h a t it is u n
r e a s o n a b l e , b u t h o w is it t r u l y s u p e r n a t u r a l ? T h e J e w s , i n s t e a d
of a c c e p t i n g t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s a n d s t r i v i n g u n d e r H i s
l e a d e r s h i p f o r t h a t r e l a t i v e c o n d i t i o n of j u s t i c e t h a t is p o s s i b l e for
our fallen r a c e h e r e on e a r t h , w a n t a natural M e s s i a s w h o will
r e s t o r e t h e g a r d e n of E d e n h e r e b e l o w . T h e y r e f u s e t o a c c e p t
t h a t p e r f e c t j u s t i c e is r e s e r v e d for o u r r i s e n life w i t h C h r i s t in
heaven. T h i s a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e of r e v o l t l e a d s to d i s
aster for individuals and n a t i o n s .
Tn t h e S p a n i s h c r i s i s , M . M a r i t a i n s e e m e d t o lose s i g h t of t h e
fact t h a t t h e h o r r i b l e d e s i g n s of t h e J e w i s h R u l e r s of R u s s i a w e r e
a c o n s e q u e n c e of I s r a e l ' s r e f u s a l t o c o n f o r m its will t o t h e will
of God. I t w a s a l s o a s i g n of t h e d e p l o r a b l e d e c a y of t h e d o c t r i n e
of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t in t h e w o r l d t h a t a m a n of M .
M a r i t a i n ' s k n o w l e d g e a n d a b i l i t y s h o u l d s e t o u t to d i r e c t t h e
w o r l d , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of O u r D i v i n e L o r d in S p a i n ,

(54) Les Juifs parmi les Nations, p. 19.

 184 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

i n c o m p l e t e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S p a n i s h H i e r a r c h y . T h i s h e did in
t h e i n t e r v i e w r e p o r t e d in The Commonweal. ( U . S . A . ) of F e b r u a r y
3 , 1939. H e left his r e a d e r s u n d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h o s e w h o
a c c e p t e d t h e g u i d a n c e of t h e official r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of O u r L o r d
( 5 t M
i n S p a i n w e r e n o t t h i n k i n g on t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l p l a n e . Xo
w o n d e r R i g h t R e v . M g r . L . F . H a w k s w r o t e as f o l l o w s in The
Catholic Standard and. Times of P h i l a d e l p h i a : " T h e r e a r e o t h e r
q u e s t i o n s | i n t h i s i n t e r v i e w ] of a l e a d i n g c h a r a c t e r . In a n s w e r
i n g t h e m , M a r i t a i n r e p e a t s ( w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t a t p r o o f ) all
t h e a c c u s a t i o n s w h i c h have b e e n m a d e familiar to us by the vari
o u s R e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g in t h i s c o u n t r y . So f a r f r o m e x
p l a i n i n g h i s o w n p o s i t i o n , h e h a s o n l y g i v e n e x c u s e for all the
accusations that have been made against him. F o r Maritain there
i s o n l y o n e s i d e : a n d t h a t s i d e is t h e o n e o p p o s e d t o t h e c a u s e
of G e n e r a l F r a n c o . A m o r e o n e - s i d e d e x p r e s s i o n of o p i n i o n could
h a r d l y b e p r i n t e d . Tt is a l m o s t s h o c k i n g in i t s s p l e e n , t h e m o r e
s o w h e n i t is i n t e r l a r d e d w i t h c o n s t a n t a p p e a l s t o c h a r i t y a n d to
impartiality. The Commonioeal h a s d o n e a s e r v i c e in p r i n t i n g
7 T
this interview . X o Catholic need take the M a r i t a i n position seri
ously."
J E W I S H CONVERSIONS TO CHRISTIANITY.
T h i s is a n a s p e c t of t h e J e w i s h q u e s t i o n a b o u t w h i c h o n e
r e g r e t s t o b e o b l i g e d t o s p e a k , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y t o d o s o b e c a u s e
of t h e c o n f u s i o n p r o d u c e d in s o m e m i n d s o n r e a d i n g s u c h p h r a s e s
a s t h e f o l l o w i n g : " T h e s p i r i t u a l f a t h e r s of B o l s h e v i s m a r e n o n -
J e w s . I t is t r u e t h a t M a r x w a s a J e w , b u t h e w a s b a p t i z e d a t t h e
( 5 6 )
a g e of s i x . "
L e t us begin with s o m e testimonies w i t h r e g a r d to the n a t u r e
o f M a r x ' s c o n v e r s i o n a n d t h e n e x a m i n e t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n of
J e w i s h C o n v e r s i o n s . T h e first t e s t i m o n y w i l l be t a k e n f r o m t h e
w e l l - k n o w n b o o k , The Cause of World Unrest " T h e r e is o n e
(55) T h e J o i n t L e t t e r of the S p a n i s h Bishops was given t o the -world
o n the F e a s t of the Most P r e c i o u s Blood of O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t ,
Jaily 1, 1937. I n i t t h e i r L o r d s h i p s w r o t e : " T h e N a t i o n a l Movement
[of G e n e r a l F r a n c o ] has released a c u r r e n t of love which has concen
t r a t e d r o u n d the name a n d historical essence of S p a i n , -with aversion
for the foreign elements who occasioned o u r r u i n . A n d as love of
c o u n t r y , when s u p e r n a t u r a l i z e d t h r o u g h the love of J e s u s C h r i s t , o u r
G o d a n d L o r d , touches the s u m m i t s of C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y , we have wit
nessed a n o u t b u r s t of v e r i t a b l e c h a r i t y which has found its m a x i m u m
e x p r e s s i o n in the blood of t h o u s a n d s of S p a n i a r d s who have given i t
t o the c r y of 'Long lives S p a i n ! Long live C h r i s t the K i n g ! ' "
Cf. P o p e P i u s X I P s B r o a d c a s t to S p a i n , quoted on' p . 337.
5G
< ) Bolshevism is not Jewish, p. 3. T h i s p a m p h l e t is p u b l i s h e d by
t h e W o b u r n Press.
T h i s book was published in 1 9 2 0 with a preface by M r . II. A.
G-wynne. _ I n all p r o b a b i l i t y Mr. Victor E. M a r s d e n , for m a n y y e a r s
t h e Morning Post's c o r r e s p o n d e n t in Russia, had a considerable p a r t
i n w r i t i n g it. I am q u o t i n g it, because it refers to books which I have
n o t been able to procure.
 THE JEWISH NATION 185

very remarkable coincidence with regard to these two men

[Lassalle and MarxJ/' writes the author, " which has never before
been noticed. They were not only Jews; but they both, in their
youth, dedicated their lives to revenge.
"Ferdinand Lassalle (or Lassal) was born of Jewish parents
at Breslau, on April 11th, 1825. In Breslau, it should be explain
ed, the Jews were not emancipated until 1842. In his youth he
kept a diary, and that diary (for the years 1840-1) was afterwards
published by Herr Paul Lindau.
"In that diary (on February 1st, 1840) Lassalle writes: ' I
think I am one of the best Jews in existence, although I disregard
the ceremonial law. I could, like the Jew in Bulwer's Leila, risk
my life to deliver the Jews from their present crushing condi
tion.' He speaks of his childish dream ' to make the Jews armed
I at their headfree.' And on July 30th, 1840, commenting* on
certain accusations of ritual murder then being made against the
Jews, he says: *. . . the time will soon be at hand when we, in
very deed, will help ourselves to Christian blood. Aide-toi et le ciel
Vaidera. The dice are ready: it only depends on the player/
" So far Lassalle. Let us now turn to Marx.
" In his Karl Marx, His Life and Work, John Spargo says that
the true patronymic of the family seems to have been Mordechai.
Mordechai, a grandfather of Karl Marx, was a rabbi: ' one of
a long line of rabbis, unbroken from the sixteenth century until his
son Heinrich, father of Karl Marx, adopted law instead of religion
for a career. On his mother's side also, Karl Marx had a long
line of rabbinical ancestors.' But in 1824, when Karl was six
years old, Heinrich and his wife suddenly embraced Christianity,
and they with their children were baptized. Mr. Spargo tries to
make out that Heinrich forsook Judaism as a matter of convic
tion, but we can hardly credit such an explanation, and for the
following reasons: At the time Heinrich adopted Christianity the
J e w s in the Rhine Province (the Marxes lived in Trier) were
subject to extortion and mild persecution at the hands of the
Prussian officials; the Code Napoleon of March 17th, 1808, had
been issued provisionally for a period of only ten years fixing the
status of Jews in the Rhine Province; and Heinrich Marx was a
convinced disciple of that enemy of Christianity, Voltaire. More
over, Liebknecht, long the intimate associate of Karl. Marx, and
himself a Jew and a revolutionary, says in his Memoirs that the
acceptance of Christianity by the parents was compulsory, that
it was due to an official edict by the Prussian Government com
pelling all Jews holding official positions or engaged in the learned
professions to forego these or formally renounce Judaism. The
same writer says that the boy Karl felt keenly this insult to his
1
race, of which he was so proud, and that his whole life vjas a
reply and a revenge.*
 186 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

u
S p a r g o a n d t h e o t h e r b i o g r a p h e r s of K a r l M a r x n a t u r a l l y d o
n o t a c c e p t t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e i r h e r o ' s a c t i v i t i e s , a n d d o t h e i r
b e s t to discredit L i e b k n e c h t . But the s t o r y , despite their efforts,
is, a s w c h a v e s e e n , h i s t o r i c a l l y c r e d i b l e .
" H e r e then wc have a motive hitherto unsuspected by those
G e n t i l e s w h o follow t h e R e d B a n n e r t h e m o t i v e of d e s t r o y i n g t h e
C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n s in r e v e n g e for t h e w r o n g s of J u d a i s m . "
T h e s e c o n d t e s t i m o n y will be f r o m a n a u t h o r w h o h a s m a d e a
s p e c i a l s t u d y of the s e c r e t o r i g i n s of B o l s h e v i s m . H e r e is h o w
5 8 )
S a l l u s t e in Les Origines Secretes du Bolchevisme, p p . 44, 4 5 /
d e s c r i b e s the conversion of Heinrich M a r x and his f a m i l y : " M a r x ' s
f a t h e r had b e c o m e e x t e r i o r l y a c o m ert lo P r o t e s t a n t i s m , while
c o n t i n u i n g to p r a c t i s e t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n at h o m e . Young
M a r x ' s i n f a n c y w a s t h u s s t e e p e d iti t h e t r a d i t i o n s of h i s r a c e :
God lias given tfie world to the Jews. They will reign over it
for ever when the Messiah shall have come. Jews alone have the
right lo own. When the Messiah shall have come, two hundred
mules will be required to carry the keys of the trunks (or boxes)
in which the riches taken from Iho Christians -will be heaped up,
etc Of this doctrine, the y o u n g Israelite was to retain a b o v e
all t h e idea of a n e x p r o p r i a t i o n on a v a s t s c a l e , c o i n c i d i n g w i t h
t h e t r i u m p h of his r a c e . "
T h e J e w i s h w r i t e r , B e r n a r d L a / . a r e , in / / A nlisemifisme, is in
practical agreement with Salluste. He attaches no importance
to M a r x ' s conversion to P r o t e s t a n t i s m . He w r i t e s : " T h i s d e
s c e n d a n t of a line of r a b b i n s a n d d o c t o r s i n h e r i t e d all t h e l o g i c a l
v i g o u r of his a n c e s t o r s , l i e w a s a c l e a r a n d lucid T a l m u d i s l . . . .
a T a l m u d i s t w h o s t t i d i e d s o c i o l o g y a n d a p p l i e d his n a t u r a l a p t i
t u d e for e x e g e s i s to t h e c r i t i c i s m of p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y . H e w a s
full of t h a t old H e b r e w m a t e r i a l i s m w h i c h e v e r d r e a m s of a p a r a
d i s e on e a r t h a n d a l w a y s r e j e c t s (be h o p e held o u t of t h e c h a n c e
of a G a r d e n of K d e n a f t e r d e a t h . B u t he w a s n o t m e r e l y a
logician, he w a s also a r e v o l u t i o n a r y , a rebel and a b i t t e r c o n t r o
v e r s i a l i s t . J u s t like H e i n e a l s o , his g i f t s of s a r c a s m a n d i n v e c t i v e
c a m e to h i m from J e w i s h sources. . . In g e n e r a l the J e w s , e v e n
t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , h a v e k e p t t h e J e w i s h s p i r i t , a n d if t h e y h a v e
given up religion and faith, they have n e v e r t h e l e s s been f o r m e d ,
t h a n k s t o t h e i r a n c e s t r y a n d e d u c a t i o n , b y t h e influence of J e w
i s h n a t i o n a l i s m . T h i s is t r u e in a v e r y s p e c i a l w a y of t h e J e w i s h
r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s w h o l i v e d in t h e first half of t h i s | 1 9 i h | c e n t u r y .
H c i n r i c h Heine and Karl M a r x are t w o typical e x a m p l e s / '
Jt is well t o a d d t h a t M a r x w r o t e a n a r t i c l e o n t h e J e w i s h
q u e s t i o n in w h i c h he a t t a c k e d t h e J e w s w h o h a d b e c o m e w e a l t h y
a n d w i s h e d t o s e t t l e d o w n in t h e s o c i e t y of t h e i r d a y i n s t e a d of
w o r k i n g f o r t h e o v e r t h r o w of t h e w h o l e e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

(5Sj ThK hook is out of print a n d \* very d i f f i c u l t to p r o c u r e .

 THE JEWISH NATION* 187

s o c i e t y . O n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h a t a r t i c l e , s o m e w r i t e r s h a v e e v e n
( 5 9 )
s p o k e n of M a r x a s a n a n t i - S e m i t e . Salluste insists, on the
c o n t r a r y , t h a t it w a s t h e n t h a t h e s h o w e d himself m o s t profoundly
imbued w i t h the true J e w i s h r e v o l u t i o n a r y spirit.
A s r e g a r d s J e w i s h c o n v e r s i o n s in g e n e r a l , J e w i s h h i s t o r y h a s
a l a s , f a m i l i a r i z e d us w i t h p r e t e n d e d c o n v e r s i o n s s u c h a s t h a t of
M o r d e c h a i ' s ( M a r x ' s ) f a m i l y . I n t h e Dietionnaire Apologetique
de la For Chretienne^) w e \{ \ t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s c o n
nc

c e r n i n g c o n v e r s i o n s f r o m J u d a i s m :
u
From 313 A.D. to 1100 A J).
" T h e r e a r e conversions to Christianity which are not sin
c e r e a n d t h e J e w s t r y t o w e a n t h e faithful f r o m C h r i s t . This
is t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e C h u r c h f o r b i d s t h e J e w s t o h a v e C h r i s t i a n
s l a v e s , t o live on f a m i l i a r t e r m s w i t h C h r i s t i a n s o r t o hold public
positions.
il
From 1100 A.D. to 1500 A.D.
' ' S o m e J e w s p r e t e n d t o be s i n c e r e l y c o n v e r t e d . F o r c e d
conversions were (and are) against the will of die
Church. . . . I n S p a i n , d u r i n g the t r o u b l e s of 1391,
t h o u s a n d s of J e w s a s k e d for b a p t i s m . M o s t of t h e m p r e
t e n d e d to b e C a t h o l i c s e x t e r i o r l y , b u t p r a c t i s e d J u d a i s m in
secret. T h e o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , w h o h a d no illusions w i t h
r e g a r d to their sincerity, called these n e w Christians * M a r r -
anos,' which means ' d a m n e d ' or ' e x c o m m u n i c a t e d . ' and
h a t e d t h e m e v e n m o r e t h a n t h e y did the J e w s . The Spanish
Inquisition was founded in 1480 against these pretended converts
from Judaism and Maho mm e danism . . . Whenever a Jew
b e c a m e a Catholic, there was immediately a concerted attack
o n h i m t o b r i n g him b a c k . T h i s w a s t h e chief a c c u s a t i o n levelled
a g a i n s t t h e J e w s of S p a i n , b y F e r d i n a n d a n d I s a b e l l a , in t h e i r
E d i c t of E x p u l s i o n of 1492. . . . T h e P o p e s a n d t h e C o u n c i l s
a r e continually obliged to forbid Catholics to m a r r y J e w s , to
e a t w i t h t h e m , o r t o i o i n in t h e i r c e l e b r a t i o n s .
11
From 1500 A.D. to 1789 A.D.
" P r e t e n d e d c o n v e r s i o n s t o C a t h o l i c i s m o n t h e p a r t of J e w s ,
b e c o m e m o r e n u m e r o u s , e s p e c i a l l y in S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l . . . .
A l i f e t i m e of f e i g n e d c o n v e r s i o n d i d n o t c a u s e t h e J e w s a n y
remorse. I t s e e m e d q u i t e n a t u r a l t o t h e m to p r e t e n d t o b e
sincerely Catholic from g e n e r a t i o n to generation while being
r e a l l y r e a d y t o t h r o w off t h e m a s k a t t h e first o p p o r t u n i t y .
u
From 1789 to the present dag.
" T h e M a r r a n o s of S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l c o n t i n u e to lead a
d o u b l e life. C a t h o l i c s e x t e r i o r l y , the}* a r e J e w s in t h e b o s o m of

(59) " M a r x hated e v e r y t h i n g Jewish'* (Bolshevism is not Jewish,

p. 3).
(60) A r t i c l e Jidfs et Chretiens, cols. 1676-1631.
 188 T F I K MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

their families. . . . There are doubtful conversions amongst

those who, at Berlin, frequented the Salon of Henrietta Hcrz, as
also in the Lraijuv of Virtue,< i> which was inaugurated there,
fi

and in the Jewish. Association for Civilization and Science,

founded in 1819 by" Xeinz, Cans and Moser. . . . Graetz shows
that H. Heine and Boerne were Jews, Jews through and through,
that it was only in outward appearance that they had separated
themselves from Judaism, * like soldiers who adopt the dress
and flag of the enemy in order the better to strike him down
and annihilate him 'W-K . . . Karl Marx's father had abjured
Judaism with just as little conviction as Heine."
According to George Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers in The Czech Con
spiracy (p. 73), dubious conversions are very numerous to-day.
So we may have some future rivals of Karl Marx amongst the
" Christian" refugees to whom hospitality has been so freely
accorded. Pitt-Rivers writes as follows; ** By the time I reached
Vienna, motoring from Poland, in the beginning of September
(1938), mass migrations of Viennese Jewish 'refugees' to Eng
land and other parts of the British Empire were well on the way.
Approaches to the British Consulate in Vienna were blocked with
thousands of Jews clamouring for British visas. A large quota
were besieging the English Chaplaincy, applying for baptismal
certificates, in order to qualify for the special benefits and assist
ance in registering for employment in England, under the schemes
of the ' Committee for Non-Aryan Christians ' and other associated
bodies. By the unflagging and persevering efforts of the tem
porary English chaplain, the permanent resident.F^nglish chaplain
being on leave, hundreds of Viennese Jews were Aveckly being
baptised at the improvised font in the * official-chapel/ at the
English chaplain's residence, which is situated opposite the Eng
lish Church. The Church, unfortunately, was not then available,
owing to its being closed for the annual cleaning and re-decora
tions. Through the courtesy of the temporary English chaplain
I received personal assurance that the good work of * Conversion'
was proceeding with the utmost possible dispatch. I gladly under
took to testify to the work of this hard-pressed representative of
the Church of England, who. without other clerical assistance,
succeeded in converting, preparing for baptism, and baptising so
many hundreds of Jewish candidates for entry into the Anglican
community, of whom not one in a hundred could speak a word
of English. (Qualifications for Baptism were strictly laid down and
complied with. Only those were accepted who were furnished with
(a) a British visa, (b) an Attsttwis o r release from the Judiseher

ttl
< > The name was jiiven in irony.
(C2) This sentence has been suppressed in th,- Fn-nch Kdition of
Graelz's History of the Jew*.
 THK JEWISH NATION 389

K u l t u r B u n d , t h e J e w i s h C o n g r e g a t i o n , a n d ( c ) t h e G e r m a n police
p e r m i t lo l e a v e t h e countryand n o t r e t u r n . Of c o u r s e , in a d d i
tion, c o n v e r t s p a i d t h e m o d e r a t e b a p t i s m a l fees.
" I" a m i n f o r m e d t h a t i t t a k e s f o u r d a y s b e t w e e n a p p l i c a t i o n
a n d b a p t i s m , d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e t h e c a n d i d a t e s a r c en tit led t o
four h o u r s i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e t e n e t s of t h e A n g l i c a n faith and in
the C a t e c h i s m . T h i s , it m u s t be a d m i t t e d , is not t o o l o n g a p e r i o d
for t h o s e w h o c a n n o t s p e a k a w o r d of E n g l i s h . I a m i n f o r m e d ,
also, t h a t it is t h r o u g h t h e A n g l i c a n d o u r of b a p t i s m a l w a t e r s
that alien J e w s can m o s t rapidly p r e p a r e for * assimilation a n d
a b s o r p t i o n ' in t h e i r n e w E n g l i s h h o m e - l a n d , f l o w i n g w i t h m i l k
( c a n n e d in S w i t z e r l a n d a n d i m p o r t e d u n d e r a r r a n g e m e n t s of t h e
Milk M a r k e t i n g B o a r d ) , a n d hone}' ( i m p o r t e d from Russia u n d e r
M(fi3
a r r a n g e m e n t s of t h e B o a r d of T r a d e ) . >
A c c o r d i n g t o The Catholic Times ( L o n d o n ) , of J a n . 2 0 t h , 1939,
M g r . J o s e p h G r o s z . A d m i n i s t r a t o r A p o s t o l i c of S z o m b a t h e l y ,
H u n g a r y , g a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , in his first p a s t o r a l l e t
t e r of t h e y e a r , r e g a r d i n g t h e i n s t r u c t i o n of J e w i s h c o n v e r t s :
" In these d a y s , " he w r i t e s , " m a n y J e w s are t u r n i n g to the Church
a n d a s k i n g t o b e b a p t i s e d . T h e C h u r c h d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e to o p e n
h e r d o o r s t o t h o s e w h o s e e k C h r i s t in g o o d f a i t h , b u t s h e f e a r s ,
in t h e p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h a t t h e r e a r e a m o n g t h e a s p i r a n t s
s o m e w h o a r e s e e k i n g b a p t i s m , u r g e d on, n o t b y t h e m o t i v e s of
c o n s c i e n c e b u t b y f e a r of e x t r a n e o u s e v e n t s a n d b y m a t e r i a l in
terests . . . . The clergy must show great prudence. Therefore
w e o r d e r t h a t t h o s e w h o w i s h to be r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e C h u r c h m u s t
be g i v e n i n s t r u c t i o n d u r i n g t w o "or t h r e e h o u r s a w e e k for t h r e e
m o n t h s . T h i s o r d e r c a n b e s e t a s i d e o n l y in c a s e of d a n g e r of
d e a t h . W h e n t h e civil f o r m a l i t i e s h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d , p e r m i s s i o n
t o c o n f e r b a p t i s m m u s t b e s o u g h t f r o m t h e b i s h o p ; e a c h c a s e will
be e x a m i n e d s e p a r a t e l y , a n d w i t h o u t this e n q u i r y no p e r m i s s i o n
will b e g r a n t e d t o b a p t i s e J e w s . "
F o r a s i n c e r e c o n v e r s i o n to the C a t h o l i c F a i t h , h u m b l e s u b
m i s s i o n t o G o d is i n d i s p e n s a b l e . J e w i s h p r i d e i n s i s t s u p o n i m
p o s i n g t h e will of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n on God. S o l o n g as t h a t
m e n t a l i t y l a s t s , s i n c e r e c o n v e r s i o n s a m o n g s t t h e m e m b e r s of t h e
J e w i s h N a t i o n will be r a r e . Catholic writers rarely stress the
g r e a t e r h u m i l i t y t h a t is n e e d e d from m e m b e r s of t h e J e w i s h N a
tion t h a n f r o m o t h e r s , for c o n v e r s i o n a n d after c o n v e r s i o n , b e c a u s e
of t h e i n s u l t s offered b y t h e m to t h e S a c r e d H e a r t of J e s u s d o w n
the a g e s since Calvary. T h e y s h o u l d do s o . J e w i s h r e s i s t a n c e
to t h e love of G o d h a s b e e n m o r e s t u b b o r n t h a n t h a t of t h e o t h e r
n a t i o n s a n d w o u n d s t h e H e a r t of O u r D i v i n e L o r d in a w a y t h a t
t h e o b s t i n a c y of n o o t h e r n a t i o n c a n d o .
(03) F o r f u r t h e r evidence of pretended Jewish conversion-, s^e
Isabella of Spain, Chap. XV. by William Walsh.
 190 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

THE JEWISH PROBLEM, B Y LOUIS GOLDIXG.

Because of the widespread propaganda for the diffusion of

this hook, it is well lo refer to it, at least, briefly. I intend,
first of all, to point out two of the many historical inaccuracies in
the \olume and then to treat of the absolutely vital defect in the
standpoint from which the book is written, namelv, its Xatural-
ism.<G4>
1AM us begin with Mr. Golding's denial of the historical accur
acy of the four Kvangelisis. In that he follows the modern Jew
ish exegesis which is striving to make Pilate and only a small
section of the Jewish Nation, the Sadducces, responsible for the
death of Our Divine Lord. "The historical Gospels," he writes,
*' exclude from all participation in the arrest, trial and crucifixion,
the religious leaders of the people, the creators of modern Juda
7
ismthe Pharisees/ Xow it is quite clear from the four Evange
lists that there was a " United Front" amongst the different
sections of the Jewish people against Jesus. The Naturalism of
the different groups, resulting in part from their perverted desire
to rule all nations in the temporal order and in part from their
racial pride in their descent from Abraham, led to the rejection
of the Supernatural Messias, who spoke of the entrance of the
Gentiles into a kingdom higher and nobler than that of the Jewish
Nation. Wounded national pride effected the union between them
against the God-Man.
Mr. Golding asserts that " the last mention of Pharisaic con
65
tact with Jesus . . . in St. Mark is in Chapter XII, 13."< > Surely
he knows that the scene at the foot of the Cross is described in
St. Mark, XV, 31, 32. There " the chief priests mocking said with
the Scribes one to another: He saved others: himself he cannot
save. Let Christ, the King of Israel, come down now from the
Cross, that we may sec and believe." He cannot he unaware of
the fact that the Scribes were chiefly Pharisees. The Gospels
tto) It is truly amazing to find writers ignorant of the elements of
Catholic teaching and yet having the audacity to ipose as learned
exponents thereof. For example, Mr. Golding, on page 63 of this work,
says: "It was in 1215 that the Fourth Lateran Council recognised
officially the doctrine of Transubstantiation, that is, that in the
ceremony of the Holy Communion, the consecrated elements become
?
the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ. ' Mr. Golding might have
consulted some standard Catholic -work about the meaning of Tran-
substantiation and of Holy Communion as well as of a definition of
faith, before venturing to talk about the simplicity and ignorance of
Catholics as he does _ in the lines immediately following. He only
provokes a smile at his own impertinence.
(G5) Op, cit., p. 25 in note. Of course, Mr. Golding speaks of Mark,
not St. Mark. T have inserted the title of supernatural reverence
<

and distinction before the Evangelist's name.

 THE JEWISH NATION 191

bind together Scribes and Pharisees and almost confound them,

for the vast majority of the doctors of the law at the time of
ftl(J)
Christ belonged to the sect of the Pharisees.
On page 61, Mr. Golding commits another historical blunder.
"A wave of blood accusations," he write-, " .swept over Poland in
the eighteenth century, which was responsible for the dignified
Report of Cardinal Ganganelli (afterwards I'ope Clement XIV),
in which he completely exonerated Jews of all coiieeivability of
blame for such outrages." 1 am not going to deal with the whole
tu7
question of Ritual murder. > I merely want to point out here
that the statement made by Mr. Golding with regard lo Cardinal
Ganganelli's report is false. Cardinal Ganganelli sets aside a
number of accusations of ritual murder as n o t .sufficiently .sup
ported by proofs, but he accepts two cases, lie writes in his re
port: " I admit as true the case of Blessed Simon, a child of three
years, put to death by the Jews at Trent, in 1475, out of hatred
for the Faith of Jesus Christ, though that murder has been denied
by Basnage and Wagenseil, . . . I admit also as true a second
murder which took place in 1462, in the village of Kinn. in the
diocese of Brixen. Blessed Andrew, a little child, was there

(66) A complete refutation of the falsification of history of which

such Jewish writers as Professor Klausner and Mr. Uolding are guilty
concerning the death of Our Lord Jesus Christ, is to be found in the
two very able studies presented for degrees at Louvain and Paris
respectively by Tabbe Andre Charue and Tabbe C\ Barthas:
L Incredulite des Juifs dans le Souvenir Testament, par Tabbe Andre
Oharue (Dissertation for the degree of Master i n Theology in the
University of Louvain); Svangile et Nationalisme, par Pabbe* C.
Barthas (Thesis for the Doctorate in Theology at the Catholic Institute
of Paris).
Klausner is a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His
work is entitled Jesvx of ycczareth, Hi* Times,' His Life, and His
Teaching.
(67) Readers who wish to study i t will find it treated in able fashion
in the article, Juifs et. Chretiens, of the Divtiannaire Apoiogetigite de
fa Foi Chretienne and in the splendid work of H. de Vries d e Heekel-
ingen, Jvifs et Cotholiqites, pp. 66-85.
The Dictionnaire Apologetique de la Foi Chrctiume gives a list
of Papal documents dealing with the question of Ritual Murder.
"Some are favourable to the Jews," remarks the writer, "others a r e
unfavourable." Amongst the documents that are unfavourable, the
Bull Beatus Andreas (22nd Feb., 1755) of Pope Benedict XIV is very
important. On the other side, the Bull of Pope Innocent IV. of 5th
July, 1247, is well known. I make particular mention of the fact
that there are Papal documents that are unfavourable to the Jews
because of Cecil Roth's statement: 'The Catholic Church never gave
the slightest countenance to the calumny" (The Ritual Murder Libel
aixd the Jew, p. 20). Of course, the Catholic Church does not coun
tenance calumnythat is certain, but there are official documents of
the Catholic Church unfavourable to the Jews in this matter.
 192 TITK M Y S T I C A L CODY OF CHRIST

c r u e l l y d o n e l o d e a t h b y t h e J e w s o u t of h a t r e d f o r t h e F a i t h of
08
Jesus Christ."f '
T h e most i m p o r t a n t point, h o w e v e r , with r e g a r d lo M r . Gold-
i n g ' s b o o k is t h a t it a s s u m e s as f a l s e t h e g r e a t c e n t r a l t r u t h s of
t h e w o r l d , n a m e l y , that O u r L o r d Jcsu^ C h r i s t w a s t r u l y G o d a n d
truly Alan and that l i e came to r e s t o r e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life to t h e
world. T h e s e g r e a t t r u t h s a r e held by M r . Holding to be so un
w o r t h y of s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t h e d o c s n o t e v e n m e n t i o n
t h e m . Y e t the. h i s t o r y of t h e J e w i s h X a t i o n is a c o m p l e t e p u z z l e ,
unless w e grasp that they are a people w h o have missed their
v o c a t i o n . T h e y h a v e d o n e s o , b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e s o u g h t a n d still
s e e k to i m p o s e ; t h e i r will o n God i n s t e a d of s u b m i t t i n g t o t h e
Supernatural Messias whom H e has sent. T h e y refuse to accept
O u r L o r d a n d w o r iv u n d e r H i s b a n n e r f o r t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e
a n d r e a l o r d e r of t h e w o r l d . T h a t is t h e r o o t c a u s e of t h e J e w i s h
P r o b l e m , a n d t h a t p r o b l e m is e s s e n t i a l l y a n d d i r e c t l y a p r o b l e m
for t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s , especially for their leaders.
I thus deny emphatically Mr. Golding's statement t h a t "there
is n o c o n t r i b u t i o n t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s c a n m a k e t o w a r d s a s o l u
t i o n of t h e J e w i s h p r o b l e m w h i c h is n o t s o o n e r o r l a t e r p r o
nounced an exaggeration." T h e r e is o n e c o n t r i b u t i o n t h e y c a n
m a k e , namely, humble, sincere, unfeigned conversion to t h e Super
n a t u r a l M e s s i a s a n d a c c e p t a n c e of t h e i r p o s i t i o n a s o n e n a t i o n
a m o n g s t o t h e r nations. T h e only difference b e t w e e n t h e m and
o t h e r n a t i o n s will c o n s i s t in t h e i r b e i n g b u r d e n e d w i t h a d e e p e r
d e b t of r e p a r a t i o n to G o d t h e F a t h e r a n d H i s S o n , J e s u s C h r i s t ,
w h o m in t h e i r p r i d e t h e y h a v e r e j e c t e d a n d c o n t i n u e t o r e j e c t .
S u c h a c o n v e r s i o n will n e v e r b e p r o n o u n c e d a n e x a g g e r a t i o n .
T h e J e w i s h p e r s i s t e n c e in l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o a M e s s i a n i c a g e ,
while rejecting the Supernatural Messias w h o has already come,
is t h e k e r n e l of t h e J e w i s h P r o b l e m s i n c e C a l v a r y . T h e c h a n g e of
a t t i t u d e i n v o l v e d in t h e a c c e p t a n c e of o r d e r is t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e p r o b l e m w h i c h is i n c u m b e n t o n t h e J e w s ,
a n d in p a r t i c u l a r o n t h e i r r u l e r s . T h o s e l e a d e r s m i s l e d t h e i r p e o p l e ,
w h e n thev induced t h e m to reject O u r L o r d , and t h e y continue
to mislead t h e m since. T h e Gentile n a t i o n s are deeply c o n c e r n e d
in t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n ' s a c c e p t a n c e of t h e t r u t h a b o u t O u r L o r d

St. Simon is commemorated in the Roman M a r t y r o l o g y on t h e

21th March. We there read: "Passion of Si. Simon, a child who was
most, cruelly put to death by (he Jews and who a f t e r w a r d s became
famous because of the numerous miracles wrought by his i n t e r c e s s i o n . "
The Diction nnire .1 pologvt if/ iu <]<> la Foi (Jhrefiennc s p e a k s also of
Pope. ^ Pius VI Ps a p p r o v a l of (he cult of Blessed Dominic of V a l in
the -diocese of S a r a g o s s a a n d of t h a t of the holy child of L a G u a r d i a
in the diocese of Toledo, as well as of the a p p r o v a l of the S a c r e d Con
g r e g a t i o n of Riles or' the, cult of the little boy, Laurence, of M a r o s t i c a ,
in the dio'-ese of Viee.nza (1867) and of t h a t of R u d o l p h of Berne, in
the diocese of Basle ( 1 8 6 9 ) .
 THE JEWISH NATION
6 9
J e s u s C h r i s t / ' b u t , g i v e n t h e J e w i s h l o a t h i n g of t h e v e r y idea
of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l , t h e i r p r e s e n t t a s k is p r i m a r i l y o n e of self-
defence a g a i n s t t h e i n r o a d s of J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m . They must
undo t h e w o r k of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . Jn t h a t p r o c e s s , t h e }
can i n d i r e c t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d s p r e p a r i n g t h e J e w i s h m i n d a n d
h e a r t f o r s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e r e a l o r d e r of t h e w o r l d .
(69) " N o w . if the offence of them he the riches of the world, and the
d i m i n u t i o n of them, the riches of the Gentiles, how much more the
fulness of t h e m ? " (Rom., X I , 12).

A P P E N D I X.
Programme of Christ the King Programme of the Jewish
throvgh His Mystical Body, the Sation since the rejection of
Catholic Church. C-hrist before Pilate and or<
Calvary.
FIRSTLY FIRSTLY
(I) The, Cut Indie Churchy Super- < I) Tlu Jewish Nation uuder
mturaI a n d Supranational, is the Natured MLSSias will estab-
the One Way established by 1 ish union among the n a t i o n s
God for the o r d e r e d r e t u r n of T h a t necessarily involves aim
human beings to Him. All ing at the e l i m i n a t i o n of ever}
States and N a t i o n s are b o u n d to vestige of the S u p e r n a t u r a l Lift
acknowledge it as .such, and all that comes from Christ.
men of nil n a t i o n s are called
upon to e n t e r it as .Members of
Christ.
SECONDLY SECONDLY
(II) The Catholic Church is the
t ( I I ) The Jewish Nation undo
sole divinely-uppointed Guardian the Natural Alexias will decide
of the whole m o r a l law, n a t u r a l what is mora 1 and wh at it.
and revealed. immoral.
THIRDLY THIRDLY
f i l l ) Gh rist ia n Af a r r iage, the (III) Divorce and Polygamy
foundation of the Christian will t a k e the place of C h r i s t i a n
Family, as the Symbol of the Marriage.
union of C h r i s t and H i s Mystical
Body, is One and Indissoluble.
FOURTHLY FOURTHLY
(IV) Children m u s t be e d u c a t e d ( I V ) As the d o c t r i n e of member
as Members of Christ's Mystical ship of Christ is a c o r r u p t i o i
Body, so t h a t they m a y be able of the t r u e Jewish message t o tht
to look a t e v e r y t h i n g , n a t i o n a l i t y world, all trace of membership
included, from t h a t s t a n d p o i n t . of Christ and of the. Super
natural JJfe of Grave must be
rliminoted from education. Non-
Jews m u s t be t r a i n e d to accept
submission to the Jewish N a t i o n ,
a n d non-Jewish n a t i o n a l i t y m u s t
not conflict with Jewish world
wide supremacy.
194 THE MYST1CAE BODY OF CHRIST

FIFTHLY FIFTHLY
{V) Ownership of property should (V) Complete Socialization of
be widely diffused* in order to [rroptrty, either in the form of
facilitate families in 'procuring ownership of everything by the
.a sufficiency of material goods State or by the relatively few
for their members. .Unions of financiers who control the State,
owners and workers in Guild- must be aimed at. Ownership
will reflect the solidarity of the "/ propf'rly^ especially in land,
Mystical Body of Christ. makes for independence, so it
mnt ht rl{minuted.

SIXTHLY SIXTHLY
<VI) The Monetary System of a (VI) Money is the instrument by
country is meant to be at the which State-control or State-
service of production in view of socialization h brought about.
the virtuous life of Members of Instead of the correct order of
Christ in happy families. finance for production and pro
duction for Members of Christ,
men must be subservient to pro
duction and. production to fin-
'incd. State-control can be main
tained by means of financial
control.
 C H A P T E R IX.

T H E SECOND VISIBLE ORGANIZED NATURALISTIC

FORCEFREEMASONRY.

N A T U R A L I S M AND SUPERNATURALISM.
W e h a v e s t u d i e d t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t
of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , t h e n o n - s e c r e t o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e .
.Let u s n o w t u r n t o t h e s e c r e t o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e , F r e e
m a s o n r y . T h e M a s o n i c S o c i e t y , o r g r o u p of S o c i e t i e s , is, a s h a s
been a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d , a v i s i b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t i t s n a t u r a l i s t i c
or a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r is s e c r e t o r c a m o u f l a g e d . Rela
tively f e w of i t s m e m b e r s a r e a w a r e of t h e N a t u r a l i s m o r A n t i -
S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m of i t s e n d , a s w e l l a s of i t s r i t u a l a n d s y m b o l i s m .
L e t u s m a k e c l e a r , f i r s t of all, w h a t w e m e a n by the N a t u r a l i s m
of F r e e m a s o n r y .
I . A s w e h a v e s e e n , Super naturalism affirms t h a t t h e Life of
G r a c e , p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e L i f e of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y , is infinitely
h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t u r a l life of h u m a n r e a s o n a n d t h a t t h e u n i q u e
S o u r c e of t h a t L i f e in t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r is O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t .
T h e l o s s of S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e t h r o u g h t h e fall of t h e first A d a m
has b e e n r e p a i r e d t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of
the S e c o n d A d a m . Naturalism, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , affirms t h a t o u r
h i g h e s t life is t h e life of r e a s o n a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , d e n i e s t h a t
t h e r e h a s b e e n a n y s u c h t h i n g a s a fall f r o m , or loss of, S u p e r
natural Life.
I I . Supernaturalism affirms, a s is l o g i c a l , t h a t it is o n l y t h r o u g h
c u l t i v a t i o n of o u r m e m b e r s h i p of O u r L o r d ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y t h a t
we c a n b e g o o d m e n a n d t r u e a s w e o u g h t t o be. Naturalism, also
logically, affirms t h a t it is a m a t t e r of i n d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r o n e
invokes O u r L o r d J e s u s Christ, or M a h o m e t or Buddha, or nobody
at all.
I I I . Supernaturalism teaches that the Catholic Church, the
M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , is i n f i n i t e l y h i g h e r a n d n o b l e r t h a n a n y
n a t u r a l s o c i e t y , w h i l e i n s i s t i n g t h a t o r d e r e d love of c o u n t r y a n d
n a t i v e l a n d m u s t be s e d u l o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d . The naturalistic'men
tality, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , i n s i s t s t h a t t h e h i g h e s t social o r g a n i z a t i o n
is t h e i n d i v i d u a l S t a t e o r t h e w h o l e g r o u p of S t a t e s t e n d i n g t o
coalesce i n t o a W o r l d - S t a t e .
I V . The Catholic Church will a i m a t p e r m e a t i n g all social life,
political a n d e c o n o m i c , w i t h t h e s p i r i t of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y .
196 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

The State or Group of States a i m e d at 1>y N a t u r a l i s l s w i l l s e e k t o

e l i m i n a t e e v e r y v e s t i g e of S u p e r n a t u r a l Life f r o m s o c i a l o r g a n
!1
ization.'
W e s h a l l n o w s e c that all t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of N a t u r a l i s m
a r c l o b e f o u n d in F r e e m a s o n r y .

TEACHING OF THK CATHOLIC CHURCH CONCERNING

T H E XATUR \LTSM O F F R E E M A S O N R Y .

T h e t e a c h i n g <>f t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is i m p a r t e d t o u s a u t h o r i
t a t i v e l y b y P o p e L e o X I H in h i s E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r o n F r e e
t

masonry.

Freemasonry Stands for the Supremacy of Human Reason.

" F r o m w h a t W e h a v e a l r e a d y w r i t t e n , it is i n d i s p u t a b l y evid
ent t h a i t h e i r | l h e F r e e m a s o n s ' ) u l t i m a t e a i m is to u p r o o t c o m
p l e t e l y t h e w h o l e r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l o r d e r of t h e w o r l d w h i c h
h a s b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t e n c e b y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d t o r e p l a c e it
b y a n o t h e r in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e i r w a y of t h i n k i n g . This will
mean that the foundation and laws of the new structure of society
will he diawn /torn pure Natural ism. . . . N o w t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
d o c t r i n e of t h e N a t u r a l i s t s , a s is c l e a r f r o m t h e i r v e r y n a m e , is
t h a t h i t m a n n a t u r e a n d h u m a n r e a s o n m u s t be in all t h i n g s m i s
tress and guide
" S i n c e , h o w e v e r , it is t h e s p e c i a l a n d e x c l u s i v e f u n c t i o n of t h e
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t o p r e s e r v e f r o m a n y t r a c e of c o r r u p t i o n a n d to
set forth in their i n t e g r i t y the t r u t h s divinely e n t r u s t e d to her
k e e p i n g a l o n g w i t h h e r <>wn a u t h o r i t y t o t e a c h t h e m t o t h e w o r l d
a n d t h e o t h e r h e a v e n l y a i d s t o s a l v a t i o n , it is a g a i n s t t h e C h u r c h
t h a t t h e r a g e of t h e e n e m i e s of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d t h e i r m o s t
f e r o c i o u s a t t a c k s a r e chiefly d i r e c t e d . N o w , if t h e m o d e of a c t i o n
of t h e M a s o n i c S e c t in r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s be e x a m i n e d , e s p e c i a l l y
w h e r e v e r i t is m o r e at l i b e r t y t o c a s t off r e s t r a i n t , i t w i l l be
b r o u g h t h o m e o a n y i m p a r t i a l o b s e r v e r t h a t it is a i m i n g a t p u t
t i n g i n t o p r a c t i c e t h e p o l i c y of t h e N a t u r a l i s t s .

Denial of the Fall.

" B e s i d e s , s i n c e h u m a n n a t u r e is s t a i n e d b y o r i g i n a l sin a n d
is t h e r e f o r e m o r e p r o n e t o v i c e t h a n i n c l i n e d to v i r t u e , f o r a v i r -

(1) " W h a t Naturalists or nationalists aim a t in philosophy, t h a t the

s u p p o r t e r s of fAberalism, c a r r y i n g o u t the p r i n c i p l e s l a i d d o w n by
N a t u r a l i s m , a r c a t t e m p t i n g in the d o m a i n of m o r a l i t y a n d politics.
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l d o c t r i n e of Rationalism is the s u p r e m a c y of the human
reason, which, refusing d u e submission to the divine a n d e t e r n a l reason,
p r o c l a i m s its own independence a n d constitutes itself the supreme
p r i n c i p l e a n d source a n d j u d g e of t r u t h " (Encyclical L e t t e r of Pope
Leo XITT on Human Liberty).
 FREEMASONRY 197

tuous life it is indispensable lo restrain the disorderly movements

of the soul and bring the passions into subjection to lo.-son. fn
this struggle, what appeals to nature must very often be despised,
and the greatest labour and hardships must be endured, in order
that reason may always remain in triumphant control. Now, the
Naturalists and the Masons, not accepting by faith what we know
by Divine Revelation, deny that the first Adam fell. They, con
sequently, hold that free will is in no way weakened or rendered
prone to evil (Cone. Trid., Sess. VI, De Justify c. 1).
" On the contrary, exaggerating rather our natural virtue and
goodness and considering it to be the only fount and rule of jus
tice, the idea does not occur to them that there is need of con
tinual effort and unremitting attention, in order to keep in check
the revolt of our passions and to maintain them steadily under
control. This is the reason why we see human beings beset with
so many temptations to indulge in the pleasures of the senses.
This is also the explanation of the publication of journals and
pamphlets that arc both unrestrained and indecent as well as of
the awful licentiousness of stage plays and the scandalous treat
ment of artistic subjects according to the shameless laws of so-
called realism. This, too, is the pretext by which the systematic
pandering to effeminacy and luxury and the continual pursuit of
every form of pleasure, by which virtue may be lulled to sleep,
are excused or justified. . . .
" What We have said can be confirmed by a fact that is novel
not so much in itself as in its open admission. Since, in general,
no one obeys cunning and crafty schemers so readily as those
whose self-control has been sapped and broken by subjection to
the yoke of their passions, there have been found in the Masonic
Society men who have proclaimed their determination to strive
skilfully and cunningly to saturate the masses with every form of
vice, so that thus they Would be at the beck and call of their
leaders for their future projects, wo matter what may be their
nature.

P r o p a g a t i o n of Religious Indifference.
u
if those who are received into the society are not obliged
to abjure Catholic teaching explicitly, .this, instead of being an
obstacle to Masonic aims, is on the contrary helpful to them.
First of all, in this way they easily deceive the simple-niinded and
the unwary and induce many others to join their ranks. Secondly,
as all wht) present themselves from any form of religion are readily
received, Freemasons thereby incvlcate the great error of this age,
namely, that religion is a matter of indifference and that one
religion is as good as another. Such an attitude of mind is equiva
lent to the destruction of religion, and especially of the Catholic
religion, which, since it is the One True Religion, is treated with
198 T H K MYSTICAL RODY OF CHRIST

the gravest injustice and offered the worst form of insult when it
is placed on the same level as other for?ns of worship . . . .
" Although as a rule, they admit the existence of God, they
iheuiselve.s openly avow that they do not all firmly assent to this
truth and hold it with unwavering conviction. For they do not
attempt to hide the fact that this question of God is the chief
source and cause of discord amongst them; nay, it is well-known
that recently it has been the subject of a serious disagreement in
their ranks. As a matter of fact, however, they allow their mem
bers the greatest licence on the point, so that they are at liberty
to hold that God exists or that God does not exist, and those who
obstinately contend that there is no God are as heartily welcome
as those who, while asserting that there is a God, have wrong
ideas about Him, like the Pantheists. This is purely and simply
the suppression of the truth about God, while holding on to some
caricature of the Divine Nature.

Elimination of the Supernatural Life from Society.

" From the points We have summarily touched upon, it is quite
clear what the Masonic Society is and what it is aiming at.
Its chief dogmas arc so completely and manifestly at variance
with human reason that nothing more wicked can he conceived.
To wish to destroy Religion and the Church which God Himself
lias founded and which Me watches o \ c r to the end of time, to
strive to bring back, after a lapse of eighteen centuries, the cus
toms and morals of the pagans is the height of folly and outrageous
impiety. Neither is it less horrible nor more tolerable that the
benefits mercifully won by Jesus Christ, not only for men in their
individual capacity but as linked together in families and States,
should be repudiated. Kven our enemies do not hesitate to give
testimony of the very high esteem in which they hold these bene
fits. In this mad and wicked design, the implacable hatred and
thirst for vengeance with which Satan himself is animated against
< )ur Lord Jesus Christ become almost visible to our bodily
eyes. . . .
u
With regard to family-life, the leaching of the Naturalists
may be summed up as follows: Marriage belongs to the class of
commercial contracts, which can be rightly revoked at will by
those who have contracted them. The rulers of the State have
power over the marriage bond. In the education of youth, nothing
that concerns religion is lo be taught as certain and fixed. Each
one must be left free to follow whatever he may prefer, when he
has reached man's estate. All these points are fully accepted by
the Freemasons; and not only do they agree to them, but they
have long endeavoured to get them embodied in laws and institu
tions. Already in many countries, even in those supposed to be
Catholic, it has been enacted that no marriages other than civil
 FREEMASONRY 199

marriages will be considered lawful; in other places, the law allows

divorce; and in others, every effort is being made to make it law
ful as soon as possible. Thu> the lime is rapidly approaching
when the nature of the matrimonial contract will be completely
perverted. It is in danger of becoming an unstable union entered
into under the passing influence of passion and liable to be dis
solved when that influence has grown weak. With the greatest*
unanimity, the Masonic Society also endeavours to get control of
the education of the young. . . .
"In political organization, the Naturalists lay down that alt
men have the same rights and are all equal and alike in every
respect; that every one is by nature free; that no one has the
right to exercise authority over another; that it is an act of
violence to demand obedience on the part of men to an authority
not emanating from themselves. . . . They hold also that the
State should not acknowledge God ; that out of the various forms
of religion, there is no reason whg one should take precedence
over another. According to them, all should be on the same level.
Now, that these views are held also bv the Masons and that they
too want to set up States constituted in this wise is too well-known
to need proof. For a long time they have been openly striving
with all the strength and resources at their command to bring
this about; and they thus prepare the way for the bolder spirits
who are ready t< hurl society into an even worse condition, in
their mad longing in arrive at equality and community of goods,
by the destruction of all distinctions of rank and property. . . .
A number of groups of Communists and Socialists are planning
and extolling a revolutionary upheaval of this kind, and the Mas
onic Society is not only not opposed to their designs but greatly
favours them, as its principles are identical with theirs. ff they
do not endeavour to realize their aims at once and everywhere,,
this is not because they arc restrained by their teaching or for
lack of firmness of purpose, but partly on account of the strength
of that divine religion which cannot be destroyed, and partly be
cause the more balanced members of the community do not wish
to be the slaves of secret societies and vigorously resist their in
sane strivings . . . .
" What We have said . . . must be understood of the Masonic
Society as a body and inasmuch as it includes the associations
similar to it and linked up with it, but not as referring to each
of the individual members. Amongst the associates there may be
many, who, though blameworthy in having joined such associa
tions, arc yet neither themselves sharers in the crimes of these
societies nor aware of the ultimate object at which they are aim
ing. In like manner, some of the affiliated societies perhaps, by
no means approve of certain extreme conclusions, the baseness of
which appa!> them, though they would be quite consistent ini
200 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

accepting them, since they follow necessarily from their common

principles. Some of them, again, are obliged by circumstances of
time and place to l i m i t themselves to projects .less ambitious than
chey themselves would wish or than the others usually attempt
They arc not on this account to be reckoned as outside the Masonic
federation, because membership of the Masonic federation is to
be judged, not so much by acts or achievements, as by the
(2)
acceptance of a sc( of guiding principles."
FINAL AIMNATURALISTIC WORLD-STATE OR
WORLD REPUBLIC.
We have just seen that Pope Leo XIII teaches that Free
masonry is not only not opposed to the designs of the Socialists
and Communists but greatly favours them, as its principles are
identical with theirs. Now Pope Benedict X V , after having spoken
of "Naturalism, that awful pest of our epoch," went on to say:
"The advent of a Universal Republic, which is longed for by all
the worst elements of disorder, and confidently expected by them,
is an idea which is ripe for execution. Prom this republic, based
on the principles of absolute equality of men and community of
possessions, would be banished all national distinctions, nor in it
would the authority of the father over his children, or of the
public power over the citizens, or of God over human society, be
any longer acknowledged. If these ideas are put into practice,
there will inevitably follow a reign of unheard-of terror. Already,
even now,, a large portion of Europe is going through that dole
ful experience and We sec that it is sought to extend that awful
3
state of affairs to other regions."< >
That is the World-State at which Communists aim. And, as
Freemasonry has the same fundamental principles as Commun
ism, that too is the Woi Id-Republic for which Masonry is work
ing, though some Masons may be unaware of it. The logical con
clusion from the principles of the French Revolution is Commun
ism. Since all men are equal, property, the greatest source of
social inequality, must be suppressed. Some Masons resent that
logic and try to stem the tide. Their reaction, needless lo say,
will not avert the evils inherent in the principles of the Society
to which they have sworn allegiance.
MASONIC CONSTITUTIONS.
Let us now set forth the Naturalism of Anderson's Constitutions
of the FreemasonsM)
The first of the charges or obligations of the Freemasons,
(2) Encyclical Letter, Humanum genus.
(3) Motu Propria, Bon urn Sane, July 25, 1920.
(*) Anderson's New Book of the Constitutions is the oldest and most
important official 'publication of the Grand Lodgn of England.
 FREEMASONRY 201

namely, that concerning Cod and Religion, in Anderson's Consti

tutions (edition of 1723) reads as follows: "A Mason is obliged
1
by his tenure, to obey the i-.o'al law: *" and if he rightly under
stands the Art, he will never he a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious
Libertine. lUit though in ancient times Masons were charg'd in
every country to be of the religion of that country or nation, what
ever ii was, yet 'tis now thought more expedient only to oblige
them to that religion in which all men agree, leaving their par
ticular opinions to themselves; (hat is, to be ffood*men and true,
or men of Honour and Honesty, by whatever Denominations or
Persuasions they may be distinguished; whereby Masonry becomes
the Centre of Union, and the means of conciliating true Friendship
among persons that must have remained at a perpetual Distance."
Later on in Section V I on Pcliaviour u e read: . . no private
Piques or Quarrels must be brought within the door of the Lodge,
far less any Quarrels about Religion, or Nations, or State Policy,
we being only, as Masons, of the Catholic Religion above men
tioned; we are also of all Nations, Tongues, Kindreds, and Lang
uages, and are resolved against All Politicks, as what never yet
condue'd to the Welfare of the Lodge, nor ever will. This Charge
has been always strictly enjoin'd and observ'd; but especially ever
since the Reformation in Britain, or the Dissent and Secession of
these Nations from the Communion of Rome."
Two points in these " Charges " must be stressed. First of
all, belief in the existence of God is not clearly demanded or en
joined. The whole wording is redolent of that ambiguity which
is so calculated to deceive the ignorant and unwary. " Atheism is
not condemned, but just sufficiently disavowed to meet the ex
igencies of the time, when an open admission of it would have
been fatal to Masonry. It is not said that Atheists cannot be ad
mitted or that no Mason can be an Atheist, but merely that if he
rightly understands the Art, he will never be a stupid Atheist,
that is to say, he will not hold or profess Atheism in a stupid way,
for instance, by statements that shock religious feeling and bring
Masonry into bad repute. And even such a stupid Atheist incurs
(5) The Constitutions of Freemasonry or Ahiman Rezon, published
4<
by the Grand Lodge of Ireland, in 1858, adds on here as a true
Noachida." In a note it is stated that this means Sons of Noah, the
first name of Freemasons. The text of these Constitutions is that of
Anderson's second edition of 1738.
The Catholic writer, Arthur Preuss, in A Study of American Free
11
masonry, pp. 350, 351, says: It is to be regretted that Dr. Mackey
should devote so large a portion of his Encyclopaedia of Freemasonry
to the rehearsal of Masonic myths and fables; myths and fables which
have been palmed off aa facts by the writers he so justly condemns . . . .
the fable of Noah; thg fable of Euclid: the fable of Pythagoras; the
fable of King Solomon a.nd the Solomonic Temple."
Dr. Mackey's works are among the standard works of American
Freemasonry.
 202 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

n o . s t r o n g e r c e n s u r e t h a n t h e s i m p l e a s c e r t a i n i n g of t h e f a c t t h a t
he does not rightly understand the Art, a merely theoretical judge
m e n t w i t h o u t any practical sanction. Such a d i s a v o w a l tends
, , ( f i )
r a t h e r to e n c o u r a g e m o d e r n positivist A t h e i s m . The same
w r i t e r g o e s o n t o s a y : " S c a r c e l y m o r e s e r i o u s is t h e r e j e c t i o n of
A t h e i s m b y t h e B r i t i s h , A m e r i c a n a n d G e r m a n G r a n d L o d g e s in
t h e i r s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e G r a n d O r i e n t of F r a n c e . The English
G r a n d L o d g e , it is t r u e , in i t s q u a r t e r l y C o m m u n i c a t i o n of 6 t h
M a r c h . 1878 ( C h r . . 1878. I, 1 6 1 ) , a d o p t e d f o u r r e s o l u t i o n s , in w h i c h
belief in t h e G r e a t A r c h i t e c t of t h e U n i v e r s e is d e c l a r e d t o b e
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n c i e n t l a n d m a r k of t h e o r d e r , a n d a n e x
plicit p r o f e s s i o n of t h a t belief is r e q u i r e d of v i s i t i n g b r e t h r e n b e
l o n g i n g t o t h e G r a n d O r i e n t of F r a n c e , a s a c o n d i t i o n f o r e n t r a n c e
into the Knglish Lodges. Similar m e a s u r e s w e r e t a k e n by the
Irish. Scottish, and N o r t h A m e r i c a n Grand L o d g e s . But this
belief in a Great Architect is so vague and symbolical, that almost
every kind, of Atlieistu and even of 'stupid Atheism' may be
covered by it, Moreover, British and American Grand Lodges
declare that they are fully satisfied with such a vague, in fact,
merely verbal declaration, without further inquiry into the nature
of this belief, and that they do not dream of claiming for Free-
1 1
masonry that it is a ' churchy a council,'' a synod/ Conse
quently, even those are acknowledged as Masons who, with
Spencer and other Naturalist philosophers of our age, call God the
hidden, all-powerful principle working in nature."
F a t h e r G r u b c r t h e n q u o t e s e x t r a c t s f r o m v a r i o u s Masonic-
w r i t e r s a n d o r a t o r s to s h o w h o w v a g u e a n a f f i r m a t i o n a b o u t G o d
will s a t i s f y t h e M a s o n i c a u t h o r i t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a n A m e r i c a n
G r a n d O r a t o r , Z a b r i s k i e of A r i / . o n a , o n 13th N o v e m b e r , 1889, p r o
11
claimed that individual members -may believe in many Gods, if
their conscience and judgment so dictate." F a t h e r Gruber then
c o n c l u d e s : " T h u s the whole c o n t r o v e r s y t u r n s out to be m e r e l y
n o m i n a l a n d f o r m a l . . M o r e o v e r , it is to b e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e c l a u s e
d e c l a r i n g belief in t h e G r e a t \ r c h i t e c t a c o n d i t i o n of a d m i s s i o n
w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e t e x t of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e G r a n d
L o d g e of K n g l a n d o n l y in 1815, a n d t h a t s a m e t e x t s a y s : ' A M a s o n
t h e r e f o r e is p a r t i c u l a r l y b o u n d n e v e r to a c t a g a i n s t t h e d i c t a t e s
of h i s c o n s c i e n c e . ' w h e r e b y t h e G r a n d L o d g e of K n g l a n d s e e m s to
a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t l i b e r t y of c o n s c i e n c e is t h e s o v e r e i g n p r i n c i p l e
of F r e e m a s o n r y p r e v a i l i n g o v e r all o t h e r s w h e n in conflict w i t h
t h e m . . . . T h u s t h e G r a n d O r i e n t of F r a n c e is r i g h t f r o m t h e
M a s o n i c p o i n t of v i e w a s t o t h e s u b s t a n c e of t h e q u e s t i o n ;
but it has deviated from- tradition by discarding symbols and
symbolical formulae, which, if rightly understood, in no way imply

<s) A r t i c l e on " Masonry " i The Catholic Encyclopaedia,

u by Rev.
H. G r u b e r . S.J. F a t h e r ( J r u h e r ^ knowledge of the subject was u -
U

tpioHoned.
 FREEMASONRY 203

dogmatic assertions, and which cannot he rejected without injuring

the work of Masonry, since this has need of ambiguous religious
formulae, . . . F r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w the s y m b o l of t h e G r a n d
A r c h i t e c t of t h e U n i v e r s e a n d of t h e B i b l e a r e indeed of t h e u t m o s t
i m p o r t a n c e for M a s o n r y . "
T h e s e c o n d p o i n t t h a t n e e d s t o b e s t r e s s e d in c o n n e x i o n w i t h
t h e s e " C h a r g e s " is t h e f u n d a m e n t a l e r r o r of M a s o n r y , n a m e l y , its
N a t u r a l i s m . The order of the world, as has been already stated,
demands the acceptance by all men of Supernatural Life, w h i c h
is a p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e I n n e r L i f e of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y It is
o n l y t h r o u g h t h a t D i v i n e L i f e t h a t o u r n a t u r a l life, i n d i v i d u a l
a n d s o c i a l , c a n b e lived in o r d e r . The Unique Source ,,f that lAf-e
is Our Lord Jesus Christ, a n d h u m a n beiug> a r c i n t e n d e d to r e
c e i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of t h a t L i f e b y b e i n ^ i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o Mini
t h r o u g h M e m b e r s h i p of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , s u p r a n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y of
H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y , t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . All n a t i o n s a r e m e a n t
t o e n t e r t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t a n d o r g a n i z e t h e i r n a t i o n a l
life in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e D i v i n e P l a n . Sow Masonry everywhere,
English Masonry as well as French Masonry, refuses to accept the
Divine Plan for order : it puts itself above the Mystical Body of
Christ and aims at drawing all States and \utions into a natural
istic, supranational unity.
H o w d o w e p r o v e t h a t M a s o n r y refu.-e^ the D i v i n e C l a n ? A c
c o r d i n g t o t h e s e c t i o n of A n d e r s o n ' - * C o n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h wc h a v e
quoted, t h e M a s o n i c Society obliges it- m e m b e r s to o b s e r v e the
m o r a l l a w a n d t o be g o o d m e n a n d t r u e , but i n s i s t s t h a t in o r d e r
t o b e m o r a l l y g o o d m e n . it is a m a t t e r of i n d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r
G o d ' s p l a n f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of o u r S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e t h r o u g h
O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t is a c c e p t e d o r n o t . N o w . b y o r i g i n a l sin
we lost Supernatural Life, and we need Divine Grace
that wc may live an o r d e r e d life, y e t . this .society pro
claims that one can be a good own and a true man,
while remaining utterly indifferent to the Unique Source of Grace,
Our Lord Jesus Christ, and to His Divinity. T h a t is e q u i v a l e n t l y
l T
a d e n i a l of t h e Fall a n d is p u r e N a t u r a l i s m . ' T h e i m p o r t a n c e of
? 1
< ) I n the 1738 e d i t i o n of A n d e r s o n ' s Constitution*, tin n a t u r a l i s t i c
or p u r e l y r a t i o n a l n o n - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r of F r e e m a s o n r y i.s cveu
more s t r o n g l y emiphasized t h a n in the 1723 edition. In ancient t i m e s / '
11
we there r e a d , the Chrlsti-an Masons were charged to comply with the
Christian usage* of each c o u n t r y where they travelled or -worked: but
M a s o n r y being' f o u n d in all n a t i o n s , even of diverse religion*, they are
now g e n e r a l l y c h a r g e d to adhere to t h a t religion, in which all men
,?
agree, l e a v i n g each B r o t h e r his own p a r t i c u l a r o p i n i o n .
The Constitutions of Freemasonry or Ahimun Pc:on, published by
the G r a n d Lodge of I r e l a n d in 1858, as a l r e a d y stated, follows the 1738
edition of Anderson'.s Constitutions. In this volume an a p t i l l u s t r a
tion of the N a t u r a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y , t h a t is, of its systematic ifi-
culcation of indifference to O u r L o r d , th^ Unique Source of Super
n a t u r a l Life, is to he found. Th* p r a y e r s u> he u?ed in th*- v a r i o u s
204 T H E MYSTICAL CODY OF CHRIST

the Masonic Socicly in the world, as the only body capable of

bringing about union amongst men divided by their allegiance to
relatively unimportant warring sects, is implicitly understood in
;
every line of the C o n s | n u i o n s . It is explicitly afiinncd in such
places as the hellow-Crafis* or Companion Masons' song, part of
which runs a s follows:
I
Hail Masonry! thou Craft divine!
Glory of Earth, from Meav'n revealed;
Which dost with jewels precious shine,
From all but Masons* eyes concealed.
TT
As men from Unites distinguisht are
A Mason other men excels;
For what's in Knowledge choice and rare
Hut in his Breast securely dwells.
In virtue, then, of knowledge revealed from heaven, communi
cated to men by this Society which professes indifference to the
Divinity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, a Mason is raised as far above
a man who believes in the Divinity of Our Lord and accepts His
teaching, as a human being is above a brute beast. The folly of
attaching importance to membership of the Mystical Body of
Christ, in comparison with membership of Freemasonry, could
hardly be more strongly emphasized. Thus we sec that Free
masonry not only inculcates indifference to the Divine Plan for
order through membership of the Mystical Body of Christ, but
.even puts itself above the Mystical Body.
Again, the whole force of the arguments used by Masons on
behalf of the beneficent, unifying influence of Masonry seems lo
repose on the assertion that human reason inculcates religious in-
difference. For example, Lord Amplhill, Pro-Grand Master, in a
speech quoted in the History of the Uank of England Lodge, de
u
clares: I have said enough to remind you that the purpose of
Freemasonry is religious; for what is religion except the service
of God. . . . Rut do not misunderstand me: I am not saying or
thinking that Freemasonry is a religion, o r that it can take the
place of any dogmatic religion that has a name, a definite exist
ence and a creed. What 1 do say, and firmly believe is, that the
object of Freemasonry is to assist men of all creeds to live religi
ous lives and to practise more truly the religion which they pro
(8)
fess." Hence this society, which professes itself deeply religious
Lodges and Hoyal Arch Chapters and Kncampmouts of High Knightn
Templars are almost all in two alternative forms. One of these^ is
purely naturalistic: the other makes mention of Our Lord Jesus Christ.
(8) History of the Hank of England Lodge, pp. 1 3 , \% by Stephen A .
Pope.
 FREEMASONRY 205
and respectful of the service of God, avoids awakening the minds
of its members to the great objective truth that the Second Person
of the Blessed Trinity has come down into the world to indicate
precisely how God in Three Divine Persons ought to be worshipped
and served. Not only does it thus avoid calling the attention of
its members to the importance of discovering which is the One
True Religion established by God become Man, but it urges them
to disregard the matter and gloss over it as unimportant. Hence
it attempts to drive home in practice the pernicious error that
according to the natural law one religion is as good as another.
The plague of religious indifference has so weakened men's
minds with regard to God's designs that they are almost incap-
'able of seeing the awful disorder of such Naturalism. It will,
therefore, be well to dwell upon it a little.
To enter a society in which men surrender their wills unre
servedly to the heads of the society, by taking an oath of blind
obedience, is an immoral act, contrary to man's God-given rational
nature. The revolt is, however, still more heinous, when it is
question of entrance into a society making open profession of
Naturalism. As there are only two camps here below, revolt
against Christ the King is, objectively, entrance into the camp of
Satan. This Naturalism is the fundamental error of Masonry
and it is common to all the sections of Masonry, Anglo-Saxon,
French, Italian and Spanish. Corruption of the idea of God has
inevitably followed on the rejection of the one way instituted for
return to God. namely, membership of the Mystical Body of Christ.
The French Grand Orient has betrayed the presence of this cor
ruption and degradation with regard to God, more openly than
English or Irish Masonry. That is the whole significance of the
controversy about the deletion of the expression, The Great Archi
9
tect of the Universe, by the French Grand Orient.' '
Pope Leo XIII, in the Encyclical Letter, flumanum genus, has
emphatically pointed out the decay that is the morally necessary
consequence of Naturalism." "The Naturalists," he writes, "go
much further still. For. having in foolhardy fashion turned their
backs upon the right road in matters of the utmost importance,
they arc carried headlong to extremes, either on account of the
frailly of human nature, or because God justly chastizes their
pride. Thus it comes to pass that even those truths that are
grasped by the light of human reason are no longer considered by
them as indubitably c o tain. Such, for example, are the existence
of God, the complete immateriality of the human soul and its im
mortality. The Masonic sect, owing to a like error of direction,

<*) The Manifesto published in 1938 by the Duke of Connaught, in

his capacity as Grand Master of English Masonry, re-affirms the ne
ceBsity of faith in the Supreme Being for recognition by the Grand
Lodge of England, but it leaves the question exactly where it was.
206 Till-: MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

has fallen into the same peril. Although, as a rule, they admit the
existence of God, they themselves bear witness to the fact that
they all do not firmly as.-ent lo this truth or hold it with unwaver
10
ing conviction."' '
To sum up, then, the retention by the Grand Lodge of Kngland
of ihe article relating to the Grand Architect of the Universe does
not signify thai Kuglisb Masonry is Christian, for English Masonry
does urn accept the supremacy of the Mystical Body of Christ.
On the contrary, English Masonry is anti supernatural and anti-
Christian like the other sections of the Masonic Brotherhood, for
it puts Mahomet and Buddha on the same level as Christ, thus
denying Christ's role as the One Mediator.*") Neither does this
article mean that English Masonry professes belief in a transcend
ent God as we know Him, for it is compatible with acceptance of
Pantheism, thai is, with the identification of God with man. French
(Grand Orient) Masonry has shown this Pantheistic conception
of the idea of God more fully and more explicitly than English
Freemasonry. An open avowal of Atlreism or of the deification
of man would have been impolitic in England in 1878 when the
French Grand Orient deleted the paragraph referring to the ex
istence of God from its constitutions. The retention of the vague
term, " Great Architect of the Universe," enabled English Free
masonry to pose as religious, while continuing its work of sapping
the belief of Englishmen in the Divinity of Our Lord Jesus Chris I
and in the reality of that Supernatural Life of Grace coming to
us from Tlim, by which we are true men as wc ought to be.

CM) The present writer has shown from Masonic writer* of the highest
repute, such as Wilmshurst, Pike and Milton Stewart, that th*doctrine,
conveyed in veiled terms by the symbolism of Freemasonry, in Pantheism,
and that the final result to which initiation tends i* the pantheistic
v

deification of man, particular stress bring laid upon the, generative

powers of the human race. The initiation* of the ancient pagan niyste
ries and of modern Masonry are ceremonious revelations, indirect and
graduated, of the pantheistic deification of man. The*** revelations are
.made to new adepts when they have previously sworn to cleave to this
object in mind and heart and to keep the secret. uud<;r pain of death.
They thus enter objectively into Satan's camp and subject themselves to
him h i his struggle against Our Lord Jesus C'hrist. This pantheism
terminating, as it does, in the deification of the generative function
of the human race, goes far to explain the steadily increasing cult of
nakedness in the modern dcsupernaturalized world. Of. The Mystical
Body of Christ, in the Modern World, Appendix VI, pp. 3 1 0 - 3 5 1 . Of.
also Initiation- Maronniqve., by (J. Nicoullaud, and American Free
J

Masonry, bv A. Preuss, pp. 1-30 169, in which I he same doctrine is proved

conclusively.
H i ) In The Freemason of August M i l l , 7fhtf\ we read : " At a Masonic
service . . . in Parish Church of St. Andrew, Rainsbottom . . . Bro.
the Bishop of Hulme, Past Prov. (2rand Chaplain, Worcester, said the
true spirit of Freemasonry was charity. Freemasonry was not of neces
sity Christian. The Name of the Lord Jeaus Christ would not be found
 FREEMASONRY 207

" Besides," writes M. Leon de Puncins, ** it does not follow that

there are no relations between Anglo-Saxon Freemasonry and
Latin Freemasonry. America has not completely broken with the
Grand-Orient and English Freemasonry is in close louch with the
American Branch. England is also in touch with several Misonie
Branches in Central Europe which in their turn are in relation with
the Grand-Orient. In addition, England maintains direct contact
with Latin Branches of Freemasonry which in no way differ from
the Grand-Orient. If we open the English Masonic Calendar tor
1930, we find that the Grand Lodge has official relations with Por
tugal, Spain, with the remnant of Italian Freemasonry and with
Latin America.
"That cuts the ground from under all the affirmations of Eng
lish Freemasonry [about complete rupture with the Grand Orient],
for no highly-placed Mason is ignorant of the fact that Spanish,
Portuguese and Brazilian Masonries, to mention only a few, are
actively political and anti-religious after the fashion of the French
Grand-Orient. Spanish Freemasonry stirred up an international
agitation in favour of the Anarchist, Ferrer. Portuguese Free
masonry played an active part in the [Portuguese] Revolution of

in the prayers, nor in the offerings of praise, but anyone who recognized
the Supreme feeing of God, if nothing else disqualified him, might be
come a member of the great order. Though Freemasonry was ^ not
Christian, at least it was true to say that it was religious." In the issue
of March 26th, 1927, of the same periodical, we read: " Bishop Wekion,
P.G.C., erstwhile Bishop of Calcutta and Metropolitan of India, in his
Recollections and Reflections, says that Freemasonry, which is so groat
a power iu India, may be taken to establish the possibility of uniting
tihe votaries of many different religions in the common worship of one
Almighty Creator." Again, The Freemason of 3rd November, 1917,
gives an account of the installation of a Mohammedan, Brother Anik,
jus Venerable of the Wantage Lodge of London, treating the event as m.
new title to glory on the part of English Masonry. The Grand Master,
the Duke of Connaught, expressed his regret at not being able to assist
at the ceremony.
In the sot-lion " Notes on the Book of Constitutions," XW2 edition,
of The Mvsunie. Record, Sept., 1927, we find the following con.merits :
11
(3) Charges concerning God and Religion.
" Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, etc.
11
Hence not necessarily Christian.
" Therefore the Sacred Book is that which contains the Sacred LAW
A the individual concerned.
11
When any Sacred Book other than the Bible is used for the pur
pose of obligating any member of a non-Christian faith, the V.S.L.
must be in the Lodge and must be opened; for any Brother who has been
O.B. [obligated a Brother] on the V.S.L. [Volume of the Sacred Law^
has the right to insist on its presence within the Lodge. The uc of the
other sacred writings is for the convenience of the candidate.
"There is nothing to prevent a man believing also in one or more
inferior Gods provided that he acknowledges One Supreme God."
Cf. Reflections on Freemasonry, by an Anglo-Catholic, pp. 52-60.
208 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

1910, which began bv the assassination of King Carlos and his

son "<>
Sir Alfred Kohbins, who for a number of vcars was high up in
the administration of British Freemasonry, was sent to North
and South America in the Spring of 1924 as the accredited repre
sentative of the Knglish Grand Master, the Uuke of Connaught.
He gives .some interesting- evidence with regard to the links be
tween the (irand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Kngland, in his
book, Enytish-Speakiny Freemasonry. We read "therein : "From
the Gulf of Mexico l o the Slra'us of Magellan tho various national
governing Masonic bodies rue of the Latin ((irand (trient) type.
Such of the Central and South American (irand Lodges, or Grand
Orients . . . as agree with the Knglish formulae of fundamentals,
the United Grand Lodge of Kngland recognises as being in friendly
association. In four of these-Argentine. Brazil, Uruguay and
Chile Knglish-speaking and F.nglish-working lodges exist, . . .
all in friendly, all in differing relations with the Grand Jurisdiction
in whose country they reside, and to whose sovereignty, under
Masonic International Law, they arc bound to have regard
In Brazil there is no Lodge warranted by Kngland: but some fif
teen Knglish-speaking and Knglish-working Lodges exist by war
rant from the (irand Orient of Brazil, their internal affairs being
represented at that body by a (irand Council constituted
under an Anglo-Brazilian Masonic Agreement of 1912
thus in harmony with the National Grand (Orient) bodies in four
of the greatest South American countries, Knglish-speaking and
working Freemasonry has a corporate existence, fully recognised
not onlv bv those bodies but bv the United (irand Lodge of Eng
land."
M. de Poncins quotes an interview given by Sir Alfred Robbins
to The Scotsman, June 6, 1927, in which he stated that be had been
amicably received by the Grand Masters of the Grand Orients of
Brazil, Argentine and I'ruguay. He also quotes a statement by
Sir Alfred to the members of the Swiss Lodge. Helvetica, in Lon
don, to the effect that he had come back from South America with
an admiration for Latin Masonry which he would never have had
if his knowledge of it had been limited to correspondence and
11:11
reading.
Sir Alfred on pages 18 20 of his book gives clear proof of the
vagueness of meaning of the " fundamental Grand Architect of
the Universe " as well as of the fact that Freemasonry is not
41
Christian. He there writes as follows: The foundations on which
English-speaking Freemasonry so long has stood is a reverential
belief in the Eternal, with an inner realization of His revealed will
(12) JtcfusA par la I'rotse, p. 102. For documents concerning the
Portuguese Hevnhition, cf. he Portugal Ifcnait, bv M. de Poncins.
n:i* Jttfua/: par la Presxe, p p . 103, 104.
 FREEMASONRY 209

and w o r d . / / recognizes that both belief and revelation exist in

various forms T h e o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n inside a L o d g e o r
in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h M a s o n i c g a t h e r i n g s is as firmly f o r b i d d e n a s
ever. T h i s d o e s n o t p r e v e n t m e m b e r s of different d e n o m i n a t i o n s
and c r e e d s i n s t i t u t i n g L o d g e s w h i c h , n o t by r u l e b u t b y u n d e r
s t a n d i n g , a d m i t a s m e m b e r s n o n e s a v e t h o s e of t h e i r o w n belief.
In England many Lodges are entirely composed of A n g l i c a n s ,
M e t h o d i s t s a n d C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s t s , as well as of Jews; w h i l e o v e r
seas, a s h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e a r c L o d g e s of M o h a m m e d a n s ,
B u d d h i s t s a n d P a r s e e s , a m o n g t h e g r e a t e r d i v i s i o n s of t h e w o r l d ' s
14
religious t h o u g h t s "< >

OPPOSITION OF FREEMASONRY TO THE

CATHOLIC CHURCH.

T h e o p p o s i t i o n of all t h e b r a n c h e s of F r e e m a s o n r y t o t h e
Catholic C h u r c h is t h u s e s s e n t i a l a n d i n e r a d i c a b l e , for it is t h e
o p p o s i t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m t o t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life w h i c h c o m e s
from O u r D i v i n e L o r d . It is, in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o p p o s i t i o n of
A n t i - C h r i s t "to C h r i s t , h has been t h o u g h t necessary to stress
this g r e a t t r u t h , b e c a u s e of t h e s t a t e m e n t s o n e s o m e t i m e s h e a r s ,
even f r o m C a t h o l i c s , t h a t C o n t i n e n t a l F r e e m a s o n r y is q u i t e dif
ferent f r o m E n g l i s h F r e e m a s o n r y . T h e latter, they say, has no
c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e f o r m e r a n d is m e r e l y a b e n e v o l e n t a s s o c i a
tion, i n w h i c h n o n - C a t h o l i c s find f r i e n d s h i p a n d h e l p , b u t w h i c h
Catholics m a y n o t e n t e r b e c a u s e of t h e o a t h of s e c r e c y i m p o s e d
on i t s m e m b e r s . S t a t e m e n t s such as these are u t t e r l y mislead
ing. T h e y b e t r a y c o m p l e t e i g n o r a n c e of t h a t w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s
the e s s e n t i a l d e f e c t in all f o r m s of F r e e m a s o n r y , n a m e l y , i t s
Naturalism.
T h e r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r in t h e 16th c e n
tury, b y w h i c h e a c h P r o t e s t a n t S t a t e r e l e g a t e d t h e c a r e of r e l i
gion t o a S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , p r e p a r e d t h e w a y for t h e u p r i s e of a
purely n a t u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y a p i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of t h e M y s t i c a l
Body of C h r i s t . S a t a n u r g e d t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of s e t t i n g u p a s o
ciety b a s e d u p o n t h a t n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n in w h i c h all m e n a g r e e .
Thus, h e u r g e d , s i n c e m e n a r e r a t i o n a l , y o u can m a k e t h e m g o o d
and t r u e , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e w o r k for t h e b r o t h e r h o o d of m e n
uf ail n a t i o n s , s o m u c h e n d a n g e r e d b y all the q u a r r e l s b e t w e e n
Christian d e n o m i n a t i o n s . S a t a n p l e a d e d , t o o , for an o a t h of s e c r e c y ,
knowing its appeal to the curious and the a d v e n t u r o u s . Thus

U4) S t u d e n t s of I r i s h H i s t o r y would do well to read w h a t S i r Alfred

Itobbins says a b o u t the action of I r i s h M a s o n r y in connexion with the
uprise a n d collapse of the I r i s h V o l u n t e e r s in 1779-1783, on p p . 200-202.
In the o r d i n a r y histories, there is never any mention of F r e e m a s o n r y
in c o n n e x i o n wi t h the movement.
Italics in the above q u o t a t i o n s are mine.
210 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

w a s b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t e n c e a n a t u r a l i s t i c c a r i c a t u r e of t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of C h r i s t , in w h i c h m e n r e j e c t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of
G r a c e a n d , in a d d i t i o n , g o a g a i n s t t h e i r n a t u r a l r e a s o n b y a n oath
of blind obedience. T h e so-called R e f o r m a t i o n (really a Revolu
t i o n , n o t a R e f o r m a t i o n ) did n o t a t t e m p t t o s e t up a s u p r a n a t i o n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n in t h e p l a c e of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . It s i m p l y re
s u l t e d in t h e s e p a r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s , c a l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s
N a t i o n a l C h u r c h e s , f r o m t h e O n e T r u e C h u r c h of C h r i s t . The
s e t t i n g u p of a s u p r a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s r e s e r v e d for the
F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n of 1789.
M o d e r n l l i s i o r y , since that M a s o n i c o - N a t u r a l i s t i c Revolution,
h a s b e e n , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , an a c c o u n t of t h e diffusion of its prin
c i p l e s t h r o u g h o u t K u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a , r e s u l t i n g in t h e d o m i n a t i o n
of t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y , b e h i n d which
h a s b e e n l o o m i n g u p t h e still m o r e s t r o n g l y o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c
s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n . " R u s s i a " o r " M o s c o w "
is m e r e l y a p r o l o n g a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of 1789 a n d a m a t e r i a l
i s t i c a d a p t a t i o n of t h e m t o a c t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e s e n a t u r a l i s t i c
organizations. I n r e c e n t y e a r s , a s e r i e s of n a t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s in
t h e n a m e of t h e c o n c e p t of n a t i v e l a n d a g a i n s t t h e c o r r u p t i o n and
d e f o r m a t i o n c a r r i e d o n b y t h e s e n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s , h a v e been
( 1 5 J
taking place. U n l e s s t h e i n t r i n s i c evil of t h e N a t u r a l i s m of
t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , i t s p l a c e in the
s t r u g g l e of S a t a n a g a i n s t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of the w o r l d , are
c l e a r l y g r a s p e d , M o d e r n H i s t o r y s i n c e 1789 is u n i n t e l l i g i b l e .
I t is a p i t y t h a t M r . H i l a i r e Belloc, w h o h a s clone s u c h m a g
n i f i c e n t w o r k w i t h r e g a r d to t h e h i s t o r y of t h e s o - c a l l e d R e f o r m
a t i o n , has n o t clearly g r a s p e d this point. H i s t r e a t m e n t of the
s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d of s u b s e q u e n t revolu
tions suffers from the fact t h a t he ascribes the opposition between
t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d F r e e m a s o n r y , n o t t o a n e s s e n t i a l and
l o g i c a l l y i n e v i t a b l e conflict of p r o g r a m m e s , b u t t o a n a c c i d e n t a l
a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s . T h e p a s s a g e in w h i c h h e h a s e l a b o r a t e d
t h i s t h e o r y is t o be f o u n d in a n a r t i c l e o n t h e M a s o n i c h a t r e d of
y
I t a l y , in G . K s Weekly i D e c e m b e r 2 6 t h , 1935, w h i c h r u n s a s fol
l o w s : " T h e d o c t r i n e s [of F r e e m a s o n r y ] a r e h a r m l e s s e n o u g h ; but
t h e r e is t h i s a b o u t it w h i c h is r e m a r k a b l e a n d c o u l d o n l y be ex
p l a i n e d b y t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s t h a t , w h e r e v e r t h e Catholic
C h u r c h is p o w e r f u l , M a s o n r y b e c o m e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n d i r e c t i n g
t h e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s w h i c h a i m a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of C a t h o l i c society.
" T h e r e is n o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e q u a i n t H e b r a i c
r i t u a l ( i n v e n t e d a p p a r e n t l y a t t h e e n d of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y )
a n d h o s t i l i t y to t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . Still l e s s is t h e r e a n y a p p a r
e n t r a t i o n a l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e v a g u e h u m a n i t a r i a n i d e a l s w h i c h run
t h r o u g h M a s o n r y a n d t h e b o d y of C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e . T h e main
15
< ) Cf. The Rulers of Russia. ( T h i r d E d i t i o n ) , p. 55. These reactions
will be d e a l t "with in C h a p t e r X V I .
 FREEMASONRY 211
complaint is that Masonry being non-doctrinal saps organized and
doctrinal religion, but that does not explain the conflict.
"The connection between one thing and another in practical
life depends not only on links that can be rationally explained but
also upon mere association of ideas. If a man meets with insult
from another man in a red cloak the association of red cloaks with
insult would arise, though it would be slight. But if a second
man in a red cloak is rude to him and then, after some interval,
a third man in a red cloak plays a practical joke upon him, he
will come to identify the wearing of red cloaks with hostility to
himself. If a body of men whose bond is fidelity to a particular
creed are in practice constantly at loggerheads with those who
care nothing about the creed but are given to playing the flute,
the followers of the creed will inevitably get into a state of mind
where flute-playing is to them an abomination. The doctrine of
adult baptism has nothing whatever to do with the doctrine that
fermented liquor is an evil, but by an association of ideas there
arose after a few generations a permanent hostility between Bap
tists on the one hand and hearty drinking on the other.
"That is the answer to those who say that there cannot be
any real hostility between Masonry and Catholic society. It is an
hostility bred from an association of ideas which has existed so
long that it has taken on strength and struck roots and become
permanent. It has body and real existence. Go wherever you
will in any Catholic nation or polityIreland, France, Belgium,
Vienna, Portugal, Spaineverywhere you will find Masonry fur
nishes the framework, the organization and the directive, of at
tack against the social and religious tradition of the people.
" International Masonry therefore has already a natural anti
pathy to the presence of a new powerful Catholic state, such as
Italy was manifestly becoming. Still, that tendency was vague;
what made it exceedingly active was the direct attack made by
the new Italian government on the Masonic Lodges and the com
plete success of that attack. . . . Therefore it is that all over the
world (in America, for instance, where there are more Freemasons
than in all the rest of Christendom put together, in Mexico, where
the government is openly Masonic, in Bohemia, where the gov
ernment is also purely Masonic, as may be seen in the persons of
Masaryk and Bencs) Masonry is working against Italy. It is
only one of the many highly comic things about our modern press
in England that a matter of this importance is never spoken of.
. . The public is left not only ignorant of the international role
of Masonry, it is ignorant also of a thousand other things which
the newspaper monopolists have either never heard of or arrange
to keep silent about."
A connexion or an opposition based on association of images
(and ideas) is accidental. The thought of something as linked
212 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

u p w i t h o r o p p o s e d t o s o m e t h i n g e l s e a r i s e s in a m a n ' s m i n d
on the occasion of t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a n i m a g e ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t
t h o u g h t ) of t h e f o r m e r o b j e c t , b e c a u s e of s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s in the
i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e t h o u g h t of the
s e c o n d o b j e c t a r i s e s , b e c a u s e of a n a s s o c i a t i o n of s e n s e - i m p r e s s
i o n s w h i c h m i g h t h a v e b e e n q u i t e o t h e r w i s e , if t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
l i f e - e x p e r i e n c e h a d b e e n o t h e r w i s e . T h e r e is n o t h i n g in t h e n a t u r e
v
of t h i n g s io a s s o c i a t e t h e o b j e c t s . A l o g u a l o r o b j e c t i v e c o n n c x i o n
o r o p p o s i t i o n , on t h e c o n t r a r y , is o n e t h a i i - s e e n by t h e m i n d
t o be i n v o l v e d in the n a t u r e of t h i n g s : ii is e s s e n t i a l . Of t h i s lat
t e r k i n d is t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the N a t u r a l i s m of t h e v a r i o u s
s e c t i o n s of t h e M a s o n i c B r o t h e r h o o d a n d t h e S u p e r u a t u r a l i s m of
1G)
t h e M y s t i c a l Body of C h r i s t , the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . < Masonry
will s e n d u p a s m o k e s c r e e n a n d a d v a n c e t o b a t t l e b e h i n d N a
t i o n a l i t y . S c i e n c e , P r o g r e s s a n d t h e r e s t of t h e w e l l - w o r n s h i b
b o l e t h s for w h i c h so n i n n y n o n - C a t h o l i c s a n d r e c r e a n t C a t h o l i c s
h a v e crucified O u r S a v i o u r a g a i n s i n c e 1789. b u t , b e c a u s e of its
N a t u r a l i s m , M a s o n r y is a l w a y s , in t h e l a s t r e s o r t , a i m i n g a t the
e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a c t of w o r s h i p of t h e M a s s . and
of t h e D i v i n e Life p e r m e a t i n g s o c i e t y t h e r e f r o m .
T h e opposition between the Catholic Church and F r e e m a s o n r y
will b e c o m e c l e a r e r w h e n o n e r e a l i z e s (he m e a n i n g of M a s o n i c
" t o l e r a n c e . " T h e f o r m a t i o n in " t o l e r a n c e " g i v e n in t h e L o d g e s
a i m s not m e r e l y at (hat negative mental s t a t e which puts religi-
U<>) F a i h e r Gruber, IS.J., i n the article on F r e e m a s o n r y i n the
Catholic Encyclopaedia is very definite about the r a d i c a l opposition
between F r e e m a s o n r y and the Catholic Church. H e writes : " Certainly
F r e e m a s o n r y a n d ' C h r i s t i a n ' or ' Catholic ' religion are not opposed
to each other when Masons, some erroneously, others hysterically, under
s t a n d ' C h r i s t i a n ' or ' Catholic ' in the above described Masonic sense,
or when M a s o n r y itself is m i s t a k e n l y conceived as an o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n
1 7
i n s t i t u t i o n . But between ' Masonry and 'Christian or 'Catholic*
1
religion, conceived as they really are; between ' v n sect rtr ion Free-
}
vtasonry and ' dogmatic, orthodox Christianity, or (atholicism, there
is radical apposition. It is v a i n to s a y : Though M a s o n r y is officially
1
u n s c c t a r i a n / it does not p r e v e n t i n d i v i d u a l Masons from being sec
t a r i a n in t h e i r non-Masonic r e l a t i o n s ; for in its official ' u n s e c t a r i a n i s m '
F r e e m a s o n r y necessarily comhats all t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y -contains beyond
the ' universal religion in which all men a g r e e / consequently all t h a t is
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the C h r i s t i a n a n d Catholic religion. These character
istic features F r e e m a s o n r y combats not only as_ superfluous a n d merely
subjective, b u t also as s p u r i o u s a d d i t i o n s d i s f i g u r i n g the objective
universal t r u t h , which i t professes." T h i s last r e m a r k is to be found
b l u n t l y expressed in Pike's Morals and Dogma of the A. and A. Scottish
/fife, where v.e r e a d : " M a s o n r y teaches, and has pre-served in their
p u r i t y , the c a r d i n a l tenets of the old p r i m i t i v e faith which underlie
a n d are the foundation of all religions. AH t h a t ever existed have
h a d a basis of t r u t h , a n d edl have overlaid t h a t t r u t h with e r r o r s . "
T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to P i k e , the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h h a s s u p e r i m p o s e d erron
eous teachings on the t r u t h s of n a t u r a l Religion, which M a s o n r y has
preserved pure. Italics min-e.
 FREEMASONRY 213

ous truth and error on the same level, treating them both with
indifference; it aims at the production of a positive hatred of what
it calls the "intolerance" of the Catholic Church, namelv, the
Catholic Church's insistence on the oneness of the Divine Plan
for order. ^ The stressing of the importance of toleration and in
difference is intended to produce a mentality in which hatred and
contempt for the " intolerance and unyielding attitude of the
Catholic Church are blended. Why is this? Because the steadfast
hold of the Catholic Church on the one true order of the world
is utterly hateful to Satan who has rejected that order for him
self. He calls that hold upon order " intolerance " and unceasingly
inculcates hatred of it. This is the reason why Masonic orators
and writers like Pike, in Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and
Accepted Scottish Rite, continually inveigh against superstition and
point out the deadly opposition between it and glorious
Masonic light. The formation in Masonic " tolerance,"
then, is really a formation in hatred of the firmness
and strength of the Catholic Church, in standing for the
Supernatural Life and order of the world. This is the
ultimate reason why Anglo-Saxon Masonry, ostensibly so
conservative, has consistently favoured movements towards the
Left, opposed to the true order of the world. The Masonic Society
as a whole forms a solid phalanx in the naturalistic camp of Satan,
in spite of some superficial manifestations of lack of cohesion.
In the world, there are only two camps, the camp of Our Divine
Lord and the camp of Satan. Accordingly, Masonry will inevit
ably tend towards more flagrant opposition to Our Lord's pro
17
gramme for the organization of society.* * Satan will see to it.
He will strive to have the process of suggestion, to which Masons
are subjected in the Lodges, continued, until the deformation of
the intelligence and the perversion of the will have reached the
point at which he is aiming. This must be always borne in mind.
The subjects who are found not to be apt pupils are not allowed
to pass on to the higher degress: they are left under the impress
ion that, as Master-Masons, they have attained to the dignity that
(18)
is of really practical importance.
(W) This reasoning is based on the inevitable consequences of opposi
tion to God involved in Masonic Naturalism. Robison, in his celebrated
work, Proofs of a Conspiracy, confirms this a priori argument by an
a posteriori one from the evil results he had himself seen. " Accord
ingly we see," he writes. " that in every quarter of Europe where Free
masonry has been established, the Lodges have been seedbeds of public
mischief. . . . Freemasonry has been abused, and at last totally per
verted and so will and must any such secret association, so long as men
are licentious in their opinions or wicked in their dispositions " (Op.
cit., 3rd edition, pp. 464. 466).
(18J Ordinary Masons a r e ignorant of the superimposed strata of
214 THI\ MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Masons arc gradually " formed" both by personal penetration

of t h e d o c t r i n e u n d e r l y i n g M a s o n i c s y m b o l s a n d c e r e m o n i e s a n d
p e r s o n a l a c c e p t a n c e of t h e S a t a n i c c o n s e q u e n c e s t h e r e o f , a n d also
by systematic "lectures." E.ioteric initiates, w h o are largely
i g n o r a n t of e s o t e r i c M a s o n r y or t h e i n n e r s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s y m
bolic t e a c h i n g of t h e o r d e r , f o r m t h e b u l k of t h o s e w h o f r e q u e n t
{19
t h e L o d g e s . > T h e r e a l l y i n i t i a t e d , t h e esoteric M a s o n s , are t h o s e
w h o h a v e p e n e t r a t e d fully i n t o t h e h i d d e n m e a n i n g of L o d g e s y m
b o l i s m a n d w h o h a v e a c c e p t e d all t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h a t p e n e
t r a t i o n . T h a t is t h e r e s u l t of p e r s o n a l w o r k on t h e p a r t of the
( 2 0 )
i n d i v i d u a l M a s o n a n d no d e g r e e can c o n f e r i t .
T h e f o l l o w i n g is an o u t l i n e of t h e " f o r m a t i o n " g i v e n b y the
" l e c t u r e s . " T h e s u b l i m e m i s s i o n of M a s o n r y is p r o c l a i m e d t o be
t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e r e l i g i o n of T o l e r a t i o n . R e s p e c t for C a t h
o l i c i s m a s for e v e r y f o r m of C h r i s t i a n i t y is a t first i n s i s t e d u p o n ,
b u t it is p o i n t e d out t h a t i n t o l e r a n t C a t h o l i c i s m is t h e e n e m y of
genuine Christianity. As the Jesuits and o t h e r Religious Orders
interpret the Catholic religion with intolerance, M a s o n r y must
c o m b a t t h e m , in p u r s u i t of its s u b l i m e m i s s i o n . T h e n , l a t e r on,
d o g m a t i c t e a c h i n g is a s s a i l e d a s the s o u r c e of i n t o l e r a n c e , for
d o g m a is i n t o l e r a n t by n a t u r e . F i n a l l y , to s a v e h u m a n i t y from
i n t o l e r a n c e , t h e C h u r c h itself m u s t be a t t a c k e d , b e c a u s e the
C h u r c h ' s d o g m a t i c t e a c h i n g l e a d s to i n t r u s i o n s i n t o p o l i t i c s . T h e
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ' s claim t h a t all the a c t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o
m i c , of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , m u s t be .subject t o C h r i s t , is t r e a t e d
a s an i n t r u s i o n i n t o p o l i t i c s .
H o w d o e s this X a t u r a l i s m p e n e t r a t e f r o m the l o d g e s i n t o
m a s s e s of the p e o p l e : ' T h e j o u r n a l i s t in his a r t i c l e s , t h e w r i t e r
in his b o o k s , the d r a m a t i c a u t h o r a n d f i l m - p r o d u c e r in t h e i r c o m
p o s i t i o n s , the s o n g - w r i t e r in his s o n g s , t h e p r o f e s s o r in his lec
t u r e s , the t e a c h e r in his c l a s s e s , all s p r e a d a b r o a d t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c
i d e a s w i t h w h i c h t h e y h a v e been i m p r e g n a t e d in M a s o n i c r e
u n i o n s . A n d as t h e M a s o n s w h o t h u s a c t as p r o p a g a n d i s t s do not
a v o w t h a t t h e y are M a s o n s , t h e i r a c t i o n is not r e c o g n i z e d as
secret societies of which Masonry is composed. Of. Le Pouvoir Occulte
con t re. la France, by Oopiu-Albancelli, pp. 228. etc.
Of course, certain nobles and other highly-placed personages arc
advanced to the higher grades without any increase in their esoteric
M
knowledge. " They serve as birdlime for f o o l s , according to the well-
known expression of Piccolo Tigre, the conspirator of the Italian Alba
Vcndita.
19
< ) For an explanation of how it is possible to be a Mason for years
and yet be ignorant of the real secrets of Masonry, see Preuss, American
Freemasonry, Chapters I, I I .
<(
(20)^ The Masonic work properly M> called is the inner secret,
ritualistic work hy which Masons are made and educated for the outer
work, consisting in action For the welfare of mankind according to
Masonic principle* " (article by Father Cruhor. S . J . . in the Catholic
Encyclopaedia).
 FREEMASONRY 215
Masonic action. For example, the moderate paper, seemingly-
respectful of religion, may have, without its being known, its
Mason or Masons, who insert therein what it is safe to say, going
as far as is possible for the moment and biding their time till
public opinion is formed and ready to accept something stronger
In the lodges, these Masons come in contact with those who are
21)
engaged on the anti-Catholic papers.<
Besides the direct action of its own members on the public.
Masonry aims at creating sub-masonries or associations for the
propagation of its ideas. These associations vary according to
the types of intelligences for which they are destined, but, in
spite of differences, the naturalistic and anti-supernatural note is
always present. The gradations of this ever-present characteris
tic range from rabid anti-Catholicism to " broad-minded " indiffer-
entism. The Orange Society and Rotary are two examples of
such sub-masonries. In addition to the creation of associations
for the dissemination of Masonic ideas, Masonry aims at securing
entrance into and arriving at the control of associations which it
has not created. Freemasonry thus succeeds in setting in motion
a vast number of people and gets them to work for ends un
known to them. "Those who support themselves by the labour
of their hands," writes Pope Leo XIII in his Encyclical Letter on
Freemasonry, are especially exposed to the allurements of
men whose ways lie in fraud and deceit. Therefore, they ought
lo be helped with the greatest possible kindness, and to be invited
to join associations that are good, lest they be drawn away to
others that are evil. For this reason. We greatly desire that . . .
22
the guilds may be restored."' '
The forces that control Masonry proceed slowly and cautiously,
getting in the so-called " progressive " ideas. P.ut when the people
are completely blinded and powerless, the moderate leaders, who
were allowed to figure on the stage during the period of prepar
ation, disappear, and others more fanatically " progressive/' take
their places to serve their turn. It must also be borne in mind
that ministers of State are, to a very large extent, dependent upon
the permanent officials. During the years of preparation, Masonry
aims at getting hold of the key-positions on Government clerical

(21) All this naturalistic action is, of course, strengthened a hundred

fold by the influence of the organized leaders of the Jewish Natidn in
Masonry and in the Press of the world. Masonic action in dividing
and weakening is directed and inspired hy the leaders of the Jewish
Nation. For Jewish influence in Freemasonry see Freemasonry and
the Anti-Christian Movement^ by Rev, E. Cahill, S.J.. pp. 74-95. For
Jewish influence in Press, see Grossmacht Pre.xse* bv Dr. Eberlc, pp.
300-302.
(22) Cf. The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modem World, third
edition, pp. 77-113.
216 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

s t a f f s . T h u s e v e n t h e g o o d m e n w h o b e c o m e m i n i s t e r s v e r y fre
q u e n t l y find t h e m s e l v e s p o w e r l e s s t o a r r e s t t h e d o w n w a r d t r e n d .
W e h a v e s e e n the a m b i g u i t y of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s of A n d e r s o n
w i t h r e g a r d t o God a n d R e l i g i o n , a n d t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t s , w i t h
r e g a r d to o p p o s i t i o n to t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l
L i f e of t h e w o r l d , in an o a t h - b o u n d n a t u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y , in w h i c h
h a t r e d of " s u p e r s t i t i o n " a n d " i n t o l e r a n c e " is i n c u l c a t e d . L e t us
n o w p a s s o n t o c o n s i d e r t h e effect of t h e s i m i l a r l y a m b i g u o u s
l a n g u a g e with r e g a r d to political action,

FREEMASONRY AND POLITICAL ACTION.

L e t u s first t a k e t h e t e s t i m o n y of F a t h e r G r u b e r , S.J., in t h e
a r t i c l e o n F r e e m a s o n r y in t h e Catholic Encyclopaedia, from which
w e have already quoted. " A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of M a s o n i c
L a w , " h e w r i t e s , " i s t h a t ' t r e a s o n ' a n d ' r e b e l l i o n ' a g a i n s t civil
a u t h o r i t y a r e declared only political c r i m e s , w h i c h affect t h e good
s t a n d i n g of a B r o t h e r n o m o r e t h a n h e r e s y , a n d f u r n i s h n o g r o u n d
f o r a M a s o n i c t r i a l . T h e i m p o r t a n c e w h i c h M a s o n r y a t t a c h e s to
t h i s p o i n t is m a n i f e s t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t it is s e t f o r t h in A r t i c l e
I I of t h e ' O l d C h a r g e s / w h i c h defines t h e d u t i e s of a F r e e m a s o n
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e S t a t e a n d t h e civil p o w e r s . C o m p a r e d w i t h
t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n j u n c t i o n of t h e ' G o t h i c ' c o n s t i t u t i o n s of o p e r
a t i v e M a s o n r y , it is n o l e s s a m b i g u o u s t h a n A r t i c l e I c o n c e r n i n g
G o d a n d r e l i g i o n . . . . T h e s e c o n d " a r t i c l e of m o d e r n S p e c u l a t i v e
F r e e m a s o n r y (1723) r u n s a s f o l l o w s :
' O f t h e Civil M a g i s t r a t e s , s u p r e m e a n d s u b o r d i n a t e .
' A M a s o n is a p e a c e a b l e S u b j e c t t o t h e Civil P o w e r s , w h e r e -
e v e r h e r e s i d e s o r w o r k s , a n d is n e v e r t o be c o n c e r n e d in P l o t s
a n d C o n s p i r a c i e s a g a i n s t t h e P e a c e a n d W e l f a r e of t h e N a t i o n ,
n o r t o b e h a v e h i m s e l f u n d u t i f u l l y t o i n f e r i o r M a g i s t r a t e s ; for
as M a s o n r y hath always been injured by W a r , Bloodshed and
C o n f u s i o n , so a n c i e n t K i n g s a n d P r i n c e s h a v e b e e n m u c h d i s
p o s e d t o e n c o u r a g e t h e c r a f t s m e n , b e c a u s e of t h e i r P e a c e a b l e -
n e s s a n d L o y a l t y , w h e r e b y they practically a n s w e r e d the Cavils
of t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s a n d p r o m o t e d t h e H o n o u r of [ t h e ] F r a t e r
n i t y , w h o e v e r flourished in T i m e s of P e a c e . So t h a t if a B r o
t h e r s h o u l d be a R e b e l a g a i n s t t h e S t a t e , b e is n o t t o be c o u n
t e n a n c e d in h i s R e b e l l i o n , h o w e v e r h e m a y be p i t i e d a s a n u n
h a p p y m a n ; a n d , if c o n v i c t e d of n o o t h e r C r i m e , t h o u g h t h e
l o y a l B r o t h e r h o o d m u s t a n d o u g h t to d i s o w n his R e b e l l i o n , a n d
g i v e n o G r o u n d of p o l i t i c a l J e a l o u s y t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t f o r t h e
t i m e b e i n g , they c a n n o t expel him from the L o d g e and his R e
l a t i o n to it r e m a i n s i n d e f e a s i b l e /
" H e n c e r e b e l l i o n by m o d e r n s p e c u l a t i v e M a > o n r y is o n l y d i s
a p p r o v e d w h e n p l o t s a r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e peace and welfare
of the nation. T h e b r o t h e r h o o d o u g h t to d i s o w n the rebellion, b u t
 FREEMASONRY 217
only in order to preserve the fraternity from annoyance by the
civil authorities. A brother guilty of rebellion cannot be
expelled from the Lodge; on the contrary, his fellow Masons are
particularly obliged to have pity on his misfortune when he (in
person or before the courts) has to suffer from the consequences
of his rebellion, and give him brotherly assistance as far as they
can. Freemasonry itself as a body is very peaceable, but it does
not disapprove, on the contrary, it commends those brethren who,
through love of freedom and" the national welfare, successfully
plot against monarchs and other despotic rulers, while as an
association of public utility it claims privilege and protection
through kings, princes, and other high dignitaries, for the success
of its peaceful work. ' Loyalty to freedom/ says The Freemason's
Chronicle (1875, I, 81), 'overrides all other considerations' . . . .
The protestations (of loyalty to the government) of English and
American Freemasons in general may be deemed sincere, as far
as their own countries and actual governments are concerned. Not
even the revolutionary Grand Orient of France thinks of over
throwing the actual political order in France, which is in entire
conformity with its wishes. The question is, whether Freemasons
respect a lawful Government in their own and other countries,
when it is not inspired by Masonic principles. In this respect
both English and American Freemasons, by their principles and
conduct, provoke the condemnatory verdict of enlightened and
impartial public opinion. We have already above hinted that
Article II of the 'Old Charges' is calculated to encourage rebell
ion against governments which are not according to the wishes
of Freemasonry. The Freemason"s Chronicle but faithfully ex
presses the sentiments of Anglo-American Freemasonry, when it
writes: 'If we were to assert that under no circumstances had a
Mason been found willing to take arms against a bad government,
we should only be declaring that in trying moments, when duty,
in the Masonic sense, to State means antagonism to the govern
ment, they had failed in the highest and most sacred duty of a
citizen. Rebellion in some cases is a sacred duty, and none but a
bigot or a fool will say that our countrymen were in the wrong,
when they took arms against King James II. Loyalty to freedom
in a case of this kind overrides all other considerations, and when
to rebel means to be free or perish, it would be idle to urge that
a man must remember obligations which were never intended to
rob him of his status of a human being and a citizen* (The Free
masons Chronicle t 1875, 1, 81). Such language would suit every
anarchistic movement equally. The utterances in question were
made in defence of plotting Spanish Masons.
41
Only a page further on, the same English Masonic Magazine
writes: 'Assuredly Italian Masonry, which has rendered such in
valuable service in the regeneration of thai magnificent country, is
 218 T H E M Y S T I C A L B O D Y O F CHRIST

w o r t h y of t h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e ' . . . . Kossuth, w h o ' h a d been

l e a d e r in t h e r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t A u s t r i a n T y r a n n y / w a s e n t h u s i a s t i c
ally received by A m e r i c a n M a s o n s , solemnly initiated into F r e e
m a s o n r y a t C i n c i n n a t i , 2 1 s t A p r i l , 1852, a n d p r e s e n t e d w i t h a g e n
e r o u s gift. . . . G a r i b a l d i , ' t h e g r e a t e s t F r e e m a s o n of I t a l y ' ( I n
t e r n . Bull., B e r n e , 1907, 9 8 ) , a n d M a z z i n i w e r e a l s o e n c o u r a g e d
b v A n g l o - A m e r i c a n F r e e m a s o n s in t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t e r p r i s e s
(The. Freemason's Chronicle, 1882, I, 4 1 0 ; 1893, I, 1 7 5 ; 1899, I I .
4 4
34). T h e c o n s i s t e n t M a s o n / s a y s 'The. Voice" ( C h i c a g o ) , will
n e v e r b e f o u n d e n g a g e d in c o n s p i r a c i e s o r p l o t s f o r t h e p u r p o s e
of o v e r t u r n i n g a n d s u b v e r t i n g a g o v e r n m e n t b a s e d u p o n the
M a s o n i c p r i n c i p l e s of l i b e r t y a n d e q u a l r i g h t s ' (The Freemason"s
Chronicle, 1892, I, 2 5 9 ) . ' B u t / d e c l a r e s P i k e (The Inner Sanctu
ary, I V , 5 4 7 ) , ' w i t h t o n g u e a n d p e n , w i t h all o u r o p e n a n d s e c r e t
i n f l u e n c e s , w i t h t h e p u r s e , a n d if n e e d b e , w i t h t h e s w o r d , w e will
a d v a n c e t h e c a u s e of h u m a n p r o g r e s s a n d l a b o u r t o e n f r a n c h i s e
"human t h o u g h t , to give f r e e d o m to the h u m a n conscience ( a b o v e
all f r o m p a p a l u s u r p a t i o n s ) a n d e q u a l r i g h t s l o the p e o p l e e v e r y
w h e r e . W h e r e v e r a n a t i o n s t r u g g l e s t o g a i n or r e g a i n its f r e e
d o m , w h e r e v e r t h e h u m a n m i n d a s s e r t s its i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d the
p e o p l e d e m a n d t h e i r i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s , t h e r e shall g o o u r w a r m
e s t s y m p a t h i e s '."
T h e effect of t h e a m b i g u o u s n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r m a t i o n of M a s o n r y
in r e g a r d to t h e S t a t e , a c c o m p a n i e d a s it is b y d e n u n c i a t i o n s of
" t y r a n n v " a n d " u s u r p a t i o n / * c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n s
of " s u p e r s t i t i o n " a n d " i n t o l e r a n c e " in r e g a r d to r e l i g i o n , will be
3 3
t h e t e n d e n c y a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t o f a v o u r Left m o v e m e n t s / '
il
c2:i) The moral conduct of mankind is grounded on faith in God
1
kept true and p u r e ' (Encyclical Letter of Pope Pius X I , Mit bren-
nendcr Sorge, already quoted). Purity of belief in God. the Pope
says, depends upon bid ief in Christ and II is Church. Accordingly
where there is revolt against Our Lord and His Church, moral decay i<
inevitable. Masonry inevitably tends to the l^>ft, since Masons not
o n l y become members of the anti-supernatural camp of Satan, but take
an oath that is anti-rational^
M. Copin-AIbancelli pertinently r e m a r k s in his book, Le Pouroir
Occult? contrr la France^ that the statement, of principles by which
Freemasonry was'presented to the public was a masterpiece. The declar
a t i o n completely concealed the revolutionary end in view a n d thus made
certain of the toleration of the reigning powers, while drawing to the
society ;i number o f l n u i e s t p e o p l e and e \ m of Catholic--. The, society
oven made profession of principles which it intended to a t t a c k , but
at, the same time it ]>repared the way for the deformation and falsifica
t i o n of these same principle.^ by the inclusion of certain contradictory
principles. . . . On the one, hand, the first article of the s t a t u t e s pro
claimed : ' Freemasonrv stands for the existence of God a n d the
immortality of the soul. It respects the religious beliefs of all it*
adherents. I t forbids all religious discussions/ On the other h a n d ,
the same article declared that ' Freemasonry was philosophical and
progressive, a n d had, for object, the search for t r u t h , and for p r i n c i p l e ,
 FREEMASONRY 219

States in which the Divine Order of the world is acknowledged

will be classified as " tyrannies," in proportion to the extent in
which they accept Our Lord and the Supernatural Life. Accord
ingly, as the advent of Naturalism in Protestant countries is only
a question of time, the terms " tyranny," " despotism " and "usurp
ation," are not applied to them as freely and as vigorously as
they were to the realms of the Bourbons and the Hapsburgs in
days gone by. In Catholic countries, as has been already pointed
out, violent revolution is always aimed at, in order to get rid of
the existing social structure in which the Kingship of Christ is
respected.
MASONIC DECLARATIONS OF LOYALTY.
In accordance with the principle laid down in the Constitutions
concerning " Behaviour in Presence of Strangers not Masons,"
Masonry changes its attitude according to the times and the cir
cumstances. In that Constitution, which is the fourth of those
on Behaviour, it is enjoined that "you shall be cautious in your
words and Carriage, that the most penetrating Stranger shall not
be able to discover or find out what is not proper t o be intimated:
and sometimes you shall divert a Discourse, and manage it pru
dently for the Honour of the Worshipful Fraternity." M. Copin-
Albancelli in his able works, Lr Povvoir Ocntlte contre lo France,
and La Conjuration Juice con/re le Monde Chretien, points out
that, when Masonry w a s introduced into France, it began by ap
pearing t o be as anti-revolutionary as English Masonry w a s , or
(W
at least until recently, said to b e . Here are some of the de
clarations of a Masonic orator as reported by Brother . '. de
la Tierce w h o wrote, in 1747. An Apoloyj/ for the Order of Free
masons: " LeS us try to define a Ma.son in order to know him bet
ter. Represent to yourselves a man fearing God, faithful and loyal
to his King, giving to everyone his due. not doing to others what
he would n o t like t o have done l o himself, and you have the pic
ture of a true Mason. These are his mysteries and these his sc-.
s
absolute liberty of conscience. Now liberty of conscience was not abso~
lute if a m a n were obliged to proclaim the existence of God and the
immortality of the oul. In the same way, the search for truth could
a

not be prevented from questioning the religious beliefs of the members.

By means of such a programme, Freemasonry could vary according to
the wishes of its founders."
m) " I swear . . . in the presence of the (Jreai Architect of the
universe and of thi* august Lodge, to live and die in the Catholic, Apos
tolic and Roman religion in which I was born, to be faithful to my King,
against whom I will never bear arms, never to enter into any conspiracy
against the State, likewise never to infringe the laws of "Masonry in
general and the particular Constitution of this Lodge, etc., etc." (Oblig
ations of Venerable of French Lodge in the 18th centurv, as quoted in
R.I.S.S., 11th March, 1928, p. 226).
 220 THE MYSTICAL BOL>Y OF CHRIST

crets. . . . I have said that a Mason is a God-fearing man, for he

who abandons his religious duties is not a Mason. Such a being
usurps the name of Mason and has never deserved to bear it. . . .
Sacred Laws of Religion, lo you honour is due." According to
these declarations, then, Masonry would be an association of God
fearing loyal men and the same conclusion, adds M. Copin-Alban-
celli, could be drawn from many other pronouncements which were
made from the first appearance of Freemasonry to the eve of the
Revolution of 1789 and again from 1815 to 1870. Besides, the
Statutes of the French Masonic Federations formerly forbade all
political discussions in the Lodges and imposed respect for every
form of religious belief as a fundamental obligation.
"It is in this fashion," continues the same writer, "that Free
masonry begins in Catholie countries. But wait till it has suc
ceeded in getting itself accepted and you will see it seize power
and do as it did in France in 1793 and as it is doing at the present
time, namely, assassinate or banish those princes to whom it had
sworn fidelity and massacre or rob the ministers of that religion
25
whose sacred laws it had invoked.* ^ The solemn declarations
change, too, for we read in the programme of the Masonic Review,
Acacia, in 1902, that 'Freemasonry is the Counter-Church, the
Counter-Catholicism, the Church of Heresy.' The Bulletin of the
Grand Orient of France gave utterance, in 1885, to the following
' profession of faith': * We. Masons, must aim at the complete
destruction of Catholicism/ In 1902. Brother, .". Delpech, in a
speech printed in the official report, said: * The triumph of the
Galilean has lasted twenty centuries. His vogue, however, is now
on the wane in its turn. The mysterious voice which once upon
a time on the mountains of Epirus announced the death of Pan,
to-day proclaims the downfall of that deceitful God who promised
an era of justice and peace to those who believed in Him. . . .
Freemasons, it is with pleasure that wc proclaim the fact that we
have contributed to the overthrow of the false prophets. The
Roman Church, built upon the Galilean myth, began t o decay rap
idly from the time of the foundation of the Masonic Association.
Politically, Freemasons have often changed their coats, but Free
masonry has always clung firmly to the principle of the extermin
ation of all superstitions and fanaticisms.*
" Now, if, as Brother Delpech hokb, Freemasonry has
always been aiming at the destruction of the Catholic Church, what
are we to think of the declarations made by Freemasons in the
18th century and in the first half of the 1'Mh century? . . . . The
proofs of the ferocious hatred of Masonry for the Catholic Church
< ) T h e hook from which these extracts arc taken. I.e. Foucovr Occulta
25

contre la France (pp. 88, 90, etc.), was p u b l i s h e d in T910. The open
attack on CatludiciMn had been g o i n g on sinci* the b e g i n n i n g of the
century.
 FREEMASONRY 221
are so evident in our day that hypocrisy has become impossible.
Freemasonry sees this and with the same energy with which dur
ing 150 years (with the exception of the period of the Great Revo
lution), it affirmed its respect for religion, it now proclaims that
it is aiming at the overthrow of the Catholic Church. It even goes
so far as to declare that it has never varied on this point. Hence
we may conclude that, as it asserted the opposite during 150 years,
the sect lied during these 150 years."
M. Copin-AIbancelli holds that the Masonic Society is so
"cautious in Words and Carriage " at any epoch that " the most
penetrating Stranger" can discover only what the society does
not wish to conceal, with the result that its pronouncements are
in flagrant contradiction with its subsequent actions. lie says
also that many of the individual members who make the pro
nouncements may be in good faith, but being unaware of the
Jewish power over Masonry, are ignorant of the end towards
which they arc being manoeuvred. In the steady movement to the
2
Left, he stresses the iniluence of Jewish Naturalism.' '^ Ch.
Nicoullaud, another writer whom we have cited, stresses the in
fluence of Satan in the same steady movement towards the Left.
These two theses, narpely, that Masonry's movement to the Left
is due to the influence of Satan and that it is due to the action of
Jewish Naturalism, are not actually exclusive hut complementary.
It is hardly necessary to quote passages from Masonic docu
ments to show that Masonry is working for a naturalistic Federa
tion of the World. They can be found in abundance in La Dictature
de la Franc-Magonncrie en France, by Michel and G. Goyau's
work, Uhttc de Patrie et VHumanitarisme, as well, of course, as
in L. de Poncins' splendid works. Here are some taken from the
11
first-mentioned work: Freemasonry does not concede to anyone
rhe dignity of an adversary except to the Pope" (Convent. Intern,
de Bruxelles, 1904). " My Brothers . ' . , allow me to express the
hope that Freemasonry, which has done so much for the emanci
pation of the human race and to which history is indebted for
National Revolutions, will also be able to briny about that greater
Revolution which is the International Revolution' (Official Rult*
etin of (irande Loye de France^ October, 1^22). "This Interna-
national Revolution is ! r e e n i a s o u r v \s work for to-morrow" (As
sembly of Grand Loge de France, 1932) "The principal tasks of
the League of Nation* are the organization of peace, . . . the
creation of international notes the extension of pacifist

1^6) He does this in the work from which a few extracts have been
quoted, but more especially in La Conjuration Jmve contre le Monde
Ohrdtien. M. Ch. Nicoullaud, in his work UEqnsode Anti-Maconniqut\
pp. 153-159, insists upon the action of Satan on those who parody the
Divine Symbolism of Catholicism in the Lodges. M. NicouIIaud's prin
cipal work is VInitiation Macnnniqite.
222 THE MYSTICAL BODY OK CHRIST

education, relying notably on the spread of an international lang

uage, . . . . the creation of a European spirit, of a patriotism of
the League of Nations: in a word, the formation of the United
States of Europe, or rather of the Federation of the World "
(Assembly of the Grande Loge de France. 1922.)

IS BRITISH MASONRY ALSO MOVING TO THE

LEFT?
Throughout her work. Secret Societies and Subversive Move
ments, Mrs. Webster insists upon the distinction between Grand-
Orient Masonry and British Masonry. She thus shows that she
does not grasp the meaning of organized Naturalism, with its in
evitable tendency to the Left, or the fact that a society not sub
ject either to Church or State is in fundamental opposition to the
Divine Plan for order. Though she asserts on page 285 that Brit
ish Masonry is essentially an honest institution, yet, on page 293,
she expresses the fear that "should the control ever pass into the
wrong hands and the agents of (Illuminizcd) Secret Societies
succeed in capturing a number of lodges, this great stabilizing
force might become a gigantic engine of destruction." Again, on
page 325, at the end of the chapter on Secret Societies in England,
she concludes: " How, in the face of these declarations coming
from those inside the Movement, can anyone maintain that Ulu-
minism is dead and that Secret Societies present no danger to
Christian civilization?"
Grand Orient or "Continental " Masonry was once just as
patriotic as British Masonry proclaims itself to be. This latter,
too, is fundamentally, by its nature as a Secret Society, against
the order of the world and forms a section of the naturalistic
27
army. It too is condemned by the Church.< > British Masonry
is not exempt. The following pronouncement of Pope Pius IX
is quite clear and definite on the point: "If some think that the
Apostolical Constitutions anathematizing secret societies and their
adepts and abettors have no force in the countries where such
societies are tolerated by the civil authorities, they are certainly
grievously mistaken. As you know, Venerable Brethren, Wc
have already reproved and Wc now again reprove and condemn
(28)
that false and pernicious doctrine."
We may add to this statement the Letter addressed by the
291
same Pontiff l o the Bishops of Brazil some ten years later/
(27) The universality of the Papal condemnations of Freemasonry is
treated by Father Cahill, S.J., in Freemasonry and the Anti-CktUtian
Movement, pp. 131, 132, 254.
t Allocution, Midtiplices
281
inter Machination en. On. Frcrmasonry s

15th September, 1865.

29
< ) Letter, Exortae in ista ditione, April 29th, 1876.
 FREEMASONRY 223

The Brazilian F r e e m a s o n s h a d b e e n p r e t e n d i n g that the Pontifical

C o n d e m n a t i o n s a p p l i e d o n l y t o M a s o n i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s in E u r o p e ,
n o t t o t h o s e of t h e N e w W o r l d . M a s o n i c s o c i e t i e s in E u r o p e ,
t h e y s a i d , w e r e h o t b e d s of c o n s p i r a c y , w h i l e t h o s e in A m e r i c a
w e r e e n g a g e d e x c l u s i v e l y in p h i l a n t h r o p i c w o r k s a n d w e r e z e a l
o u s for t h e p r o g r e s s of c i v i l i z a t i o n . P i u s I X r e p l i e d t h a t all the
M a s o n i c A s s o c i a t i o n s in t h e O l d a n d t h e N e w W o r l d w e r e c o n
d e m n e d , e v e n t h o s e t h a t p r e t e n d e d t o be c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h
w o r k s of b e n e v o l e n c e . " I n o r d e r t h a t in s u c h an i m p o r t a n t m a t
t e r , " he w r o t e , " t h e r e m a y n o t r e m a i n a n y d o u b t o r a n y r o o m
for i l l u s i o n , W e h a s t e n t o d e c l a r e a g a i n a n d to c o n f i r m t h a t all Ihc
M a s o n i c S o c i e t i e s , b o t h t h o s e in B r a z i l and t h o s e t h a t a r e t o be
f o u n d a n y w h e r e else in t h e w o r l d , a r e p r o s c r i b e d b y t h e A p o s
tolic C o n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d all t h o s e w h o h a v e h a d t h e m i s f o r t u n e t o
g i v e t h e i r n a m e s to a n y o n e of t h e m , by t h e v e r y f a c t , fall u n d e r
the e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s e r v e d t o t h e R o m a n Pontiff. T h e A p o s
tolic C o n s t i t u t i o n s a p p l y t o all t h e s e M a s o n i c A s s o c i a t i o n s , e v e n if
a g r e a t m a n y people, either deceived themselves or seeking to
d e c e i v e o t h e r s , affirm t h a t t h e y a r c c o n c e r n e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h
30
w o r k s of b e n e v o l e n c e a n d t h e a d v a n c e m e n t of c i v i l i z a t i o n . ' ^ '
A l r e a d y in 1928, M. P i e r r e C o l m e t , o n e of the a b l e s t of c o n
t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s o n M a s o n i c q u e s t i o n s , c o m m e n t i n g in t h e
Revue Internationale des Sociites Secretes, on t h e ( t h e n ) r e c e n t
p r o m o t i o n of t h e P r i n c e of W a l e s t o t h e r a n k of F i r s t P r i n c i p a l
of t h e U n i t e d C h a p t e r of S t . J a m e s , a s a r e w a r d for h i s M a s o n i c
z e a l , s a i d : " A l a s ! in s p i t e of all a p p e a r a n c e s t o t h e c o n t r a r y a n d
l e a v i n g o u t of a c c o u n t o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s , w c b e g t o w a r n o u r E n g
l i s h f r i e n d s t h a t t h i s m e a n s t h e e n d of a d y n a s t y a n d of a w o r l d .
T h i s is n o t a p r o p h e c y , f o r t h a t w o u l d be r i d i c u l o u s o n o u r p a r t :
it is t h e l e s s o n of h i s t o r y . " I n D e c e m b e r , 1937, a r e m a r k a b l e
a r t i c l e b y t h e P o l i s h w r i t e r o n J ' u d a e o - M a s o n i c a c t i v i t i e s , E-
M a l y n s k i , a p p e a r e d in Conlre-Re'volution, the r e v i e w s o a b l y e d i t e d
b y M . L e o n d e P o n c i n s . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a few of t h e s a l i e n t
p a s s a g e s of t h i s e x c e l l e n t s t u d y of a difficult q u e s t i o n : " B r i t i s h
F r e e m a s o n r y is at t h e m o m e n t c o v e r e d by the R o y a l m a n t l e . T h e
n o b l e p e r s o n a g e s w h o b e l o n g to it a n d w h o g o v e r n it officially a r e
a g u a r a n t e e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g is c o n d u c t e d in t h e m o s t h o n o u r a b l e
f a s h i o n , . . . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s u b v e r s i v e cells s e e m t o b e u n d e r
m i n i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e of E n g l i s h M a s o n r y in an u n d e r g r o u n d m a n
n e r , a s t h e y did in t h e c a s e of t h e F r e n c h M a s o n r y of the 18th
c e n t u r y . T h e y s e e m to b e a c t i n g , in E n g l a n d a s e l s e w h e r e , w i t h
t h e t a c t a n d d i s c r e t i o n r e q u i r e d to c a r r y on Ihc w o r k of c o r r u p
tion a n d p e r v e r s i o n i m p e r c e i v e d . Are w e a c t u a l l y a s s i s t i n g a t t h e
silent p r e p a r a t i o n s 'f a n e w h i s t o r i c a l t r a g e d y w h i c h is as y e t

; j n )
( T. /,(/ F > ti <ic-M <i,tit) t<r r/r. l>v K I\ Hum Bcnoit. Vol TI pp
:;15, 516.
224 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
hidden in the depths of the lodges and does not appear on the
surface? It would be very difficult to answer categorically yes or
no. What is certain is that in England a great uneasiness is be
ginning to be felt; it bears an astonishing resemblance to the sym
ptoms indicative of the presence of a cancer in the human organ
ism before it is diagnosed clearly, something disagreeable and out
of the ordinary, but which cannot be said to be actual suffer
ing
"Certain incidents in Knglish political life, even when the Con
servatives arc in power, arc so abnormal that it is impossible to
give a rational explanation of them. At the memorable and deplor
able Paris Conference of 1929, with a Coalition Government com
posed of Conservatives and Liberals without any strictly Left ele
ments. Kngland, the country always renowned for its ' respecta
bility/ was quite ilciini icly in favour of the Bolsheviks. She
seemed, besides, to ha\e a certain partiality for all the countries,
parties and movements with pronounced socialistic, or at least
Jewish and radical, tendencies. It was pretty evident that Eng
land had become the avowed champion of Israel and of 'democ
racy* and that anything opposed to Judaism and 'democracy*
was by the very fact taboo. Still more recently, it was with
astonishment that one beheld the strange sympathy of the Eng
lish Government and of Conservative personages such as the Dean
of Canterbury and the Duchess of Atholl for the Red Government
of Valencia. The thesis which holds that Mr. Lloyd George or
Mr. Kden is the person exclusively responsible for such extraor
dinary political action seems to us untenable . . . .
"Though we can behold the French aristocrats of the 18th
century (inly through the somewhat deforming prism of history,
it is difficult to believe thai they were animated by what is called
in modern language the Masonic spirit, it seems to us still more
difficult to imagine the noble lords and honourable gentlemen who
govern England filled wiLh a spirit of destruction of the estab
lished order. On the contrary, their innate attachment to all that
is traditional sometimes even seems exaggerated, if it is permitted
to speak of exaggeration in the right direction. . . . Nevertheless,
yon will meet many of them who will speak to you of progress,
of the necessity of keeping abreast of the times, of the impossi
bility of resisting the forward movement, of broadmindedness, of
that clearsightedness which consists in canalizing the inevitable
revolutionary movement in view of the spirit of the times, by be
coming oneself a sort of revolutionary or at least a champion of
'democracy/ Exactly the same sentiments were being first whis
pered, then openly proclaimed, in the aristocratic salons of St.
Petersburg, for some years before that city became the Lenin
grad of the Jewish rogues and robbers, just as at Paris and even
at Versailles before 1789. Other Englishmen, less superficial in
 FREEMASONRY 225

character, h a v e s o m e w h a t different views. T h e y a d m i t t h a t they

have a p r o f o u n d p e r s o n a l d i s l i k e of t h e B o l s h e v i k s . . . . b u t t h e y
add t h a t p o l i t i c s a r e p o l i t i c s j u s t a s b u s i n e s s is b u s i n e s s . . . .
" T h e m e m b e r s of t h e E x t r e m e R i g h t , t h e ' D i e - H a r d s , ' as
they a r e c a l l e d , l i s t e n i n c r e d u l o u s l y , w h e n y o u s p e a k t o t h e m of
a real r e a c t i o n . T h e i r i d e a is t o f o l l o w t h e s o - c a l l e d ' p r o g r e s s '
which i n e v i t a b l y g o e s t o t h e L e f t , n o m a t t e r w h a t h a p p e n s , but
to f o l l o w it a s s l o w l y a s p o s s i b l e , p r e v e n t i n g o t h e r s , t h a t is, t h e
S o c i a l i s t s a n d t h e R a d i c a l s , f r o m a d v a n c i n g too r a p i d l y . T h a t is
the m a x i m u m of w h a t c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o s t
c o n s e r v a t i v e m e m b e r s of t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y , w h i c h is s u p
posed t o be t h e r a m p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n s of Old E n g l a n d
If w e r e a d t h e n u m e r o u s Xlenwires of t h a t e p o c h , w h i c h h a v e b e e n
p u b l i s h e d , w e shall find t h e s a m e m e n t a l a t t i t u d e , r e s u l t i n g from
Masonic initiation, before the F r e n c h Revolution, and before the
r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e m i d d l e of t h e 19th c e n t u r y . A n d if w e h a v e n o t
c o m p l e t e l y l o s t t h e f a c u l t y of m e m o r y , w e shall r e m e m b e r its
c o n s e q u e n c e s in p r a c t i c e b e f o r e t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n We
h a v e m a d e u s e of t h e w o r d ' I n i t i a t i o n / in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h r e c e i v e d
M a s o n i c u s a g e , b u t w e s h o u l d s p e a k r a t h e r of s l o w , m e t h o d i c a l
saturation/*
M a y w e n o t s e e a c o n f i r m a t i o n of M a l y n s k i ' s w a r n i n g s in a
{ 3 1 )
p a m p h l e t e n t i t l e d Britain's Lost Victory, by D. M. T o u c h e ?
W e r e a d in t h i s p a m p h l e t a n u m b e r of s t a t e m e n t s m a d e a few
y e a r s a g o b y m e n w h o a r e p r o m i n e n t in E n g l i s h p o l i t i c a l life,
s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h g o f a r t o s h o w t h a t t h e y w e r e g r i p p e d by
the v i r u s of t h e o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s . Here are some
of t h e s e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s * . " W e h a v e a b s o l u t e l y a b a n d o n e d e v e r y
idea of n a t i o n a l i s t l o y a l t y . W e a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y p u t t i n g a w o r l d
C 3 2 )
loyalty b e f o r e l o y a l t y to o u r c o u n t r y . " " E v e r y p o s s i b l e effort
( s y )
s h o u l d be m a d e t o s t o p r e c r u i t i n g f o r t h e a r m e d f o r c e s . " And
t(
w h i l e t h e s e t h i n g s w e r e b e i n g s a i d in E n g l a n d , the G e r m a n a r m y
w a s r e v i v e d b y t h e b a n k e r s of L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k , led b y t h e
34 44
B a n k of E n g l a n d / * ' * T h e g r e a t moneylenders, w o r k i n g from
L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k , d e t e r m i n e d to r e s t o r e the s t r e n g t h and
p r o s p e r i t y of B i s m a r c k ' s R e i c h in o r d e r t h a t t h e said R e i c h s h o u l d
p a y t r i b u t e t o t h e said m o n e y l e n d e r s : h e n c e t h e c o n t i n u o u s v i r u
lent a b u s e of t h e F r e n c h , h e n c e t h e d i s m e m b e r m e n t of t h e A u s t r o -
H u n g a r i a n E m p i r e , h e n c e t h e c u t t i n g - d o w n a n d final e x t i n c t i o n
of R e p a r a t i o n s . T h e m o n e y l e n d e r s , w i t h t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d
3
< D Published hy the I n d i v i d u a l i s t Bookshop, Fleet Street, London,
in 1941.
(32) M . A t t l e e a t S o u t h y o r t , October 2nd, 1934.
r

(33) Sir Stafford C r i p p s , Oct, 3, 1936. The p a m p h l e t s t a t e s (p. 19):

" The [ R u s s i a n ] C o m i n t e r n s u p p o r t e d the pacifists because pacifism,
by weakening B r i t a i n , increased the p r o b a b i l i t y of a world wa,r, to be
followed by a world r e v o l u t i o n . "
m) The WecMif lie view, M a y 30, 1940.
\i
226 THK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

a t t h e i r h e a d , o n l y m a d e fools of t h e m s e l v e s . T h e v w e r e b l i n d e d
86
b y greed."* *
A c c o r d i n g to Hilaire Belloc, then, the m o n e y l e n d e r s blundered
i n t o t h e s e c o n d g r e a t w a r (1939- ?). M a j o r D o u g l a s , as we
s h a l l s e e l a t e r , h o l d s t h a t t h e w a r n o w b e i n g w a g e d a n d t h a t of
1914-1918 a r e b o t h p a r i of a v a s t p l a n f o r t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n of
t h e w o r l d . Fie also h o l d s t h a t t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d w a s n o t lead
3r
i n g b u t led f r o m U.S.A.< >>
T h e w a r f o r e s e e n b y M a j o r D o u g l a s h a s c o m e . P e r h a p s the
b e s t d e s c r i p t i o n of its effects o n K n g l a n d is t o he f o u n d in the
f o l l o w i n g e x t r a c t f r o m ihc Catholic Herald of F e b r u a r y 6, 1942:
" T w o w a r s a r e b e i n g w a g e d a g a i n s t K n g l a n d . T h e first w c k n o w
all a b o u t . I t is b e i n g f o u g h t in K u r o p e , in A f r i c a , in A s i a . . . .
C u t t h e s e c o n d is n o l e s s i m p o r t a n t a n d n o o n e b o t h e r s a b o u t it.
O n t h i s f r o n t t h e o u t l o o k is m u c h d a r k e r . It is t h e w a r a g a i n s t
t h e s p i r i t a n d t r a d i t i o n s of K n g l a n d , a n d t h e e n e m y lies w i t h i n
o u r g a t e s . W e l l m a y G e r m a n p r o p a g a n d i s t s e x c l a i m t h a t o n one
side w e are being Americanized and on the o t h e r Sovietized.
O p e n a n y p a p e r o r p a m p h l e t , a n d y o u will l o o k in v a i n for a m e n
t i o n of ' G o d a n d M y R i g h t , ' of t h e i d e a l s of St. G e o r g e , of the
M o n a r c h y , of o u r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h e r i t a g e , of o u r C h r i s t i a n f o u n d
a t i o n s a n d f a i t h , of o u r l i t e r a t u r e , of o u r h o m e s t h a t w e r e c a s t l e s ,
o f o u r s q u i r e s , e t c . , e t c . , o r , if y o u find t h e m m e n t i o n e d , it will
g e n e r a l l y be w i t h a veiled or open s n e e r . "
W e have already r e m a r k e d that the D e c l a r a t i o n m a d e on be
half of E n g l i s h M a s o n r y b y t h e D u k e of C o n n a u g h t , in 1938, l e a v e s
t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e G r e a t A r c h i t e c t of t h e U n i v e r s e e x a c t l y a s it
w a s . T h e s a m e r e m a r k m u s t be m a d e w i t h r e g a r d t o w h a t the
manifesto says about political action. T h e English G r a n d Lodge
d o e s n o t t a k e p a r t in p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , t h e m a n i f e s t o affirms. Our
c o n t e n t i o n is t h a t i t s m e m b e r s d o s o . I t is v e r v l i k e w h a t a
m e m b e r of t h e M a s o n i c C o u n c i l (of F r a n c e ) s t a t e d t o a r e p o r t e r
of t h e n e w s p a p e r , Le Temps, in 1 8 9 9 : " W e p r o s c r i b e all political
d i s c u s s i o n s . W e k e e p a l o o f f r o m all p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t i o n . W e n e v e r
p r e s e n t a c a n d i d a t e a t a n y e l e c t i o n / ' Of c o u r s e , it is q u i t e t r u e
that they never present candidates, openly s t a t i n g that they are
M a s o n s , b u t in 1893, s i x y e a r s b e f o r e t h e i n t e r v i e w g i v e n t o Le
Temps, a n o t h e r m e m b e r of t h e C o u n c i l , R r o t h e r . ' . A m i a b l e ,
c o u l d s a y : "Oar c a n d i d a t e s w o n all a l o n g t h e line, a n d s o our
g r o u p in t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y h a s b e e n n o t i c e a b l y i n c r e a s e d . On
b e h a l f of t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y of t h e ' G r a n d O r i e n t , ' 1 c o n g r a t u -

(5> H i l a i r e Belloc in The Weekly He vtcu\ October 10, 1940.

(36) W i t h both of those ^views of M a j o r Douglas the present writer
is in agreement. In a d d i t i o n , this book is i n t e n d e d to make clear that
socialization is p a r t of the process of d e s u p e r n a t u r a l i z a t i o n t h a t is
iroing on in the world.
 FREEMASONRY 227
late the Freemasons who are to-day the chosen representatives of
37
universal suffrage."* '
The manifesto of 1938 has been characterized as downright
hypocrisy by a French writer in the Revue Internationale des
Soci^tis Secretes (October, 1938). "Let English Freemasons," he
writes, " re-read with candid and open minds Anderson's Consti
tutions of 1723, and they will see that they contain in germ the
principles of revolt against revealed religion and against legitim
ate governments, which the manifesto seems to repudiate. If
from Lisbon to Moscow almost the whole continent of Europe
has been turned topsy-turvy, it is because Freemasons have drawn
the logical consequences from the revolutionary ideas extolled by
the Constitutions." The facts of European history are against
the Duke of Connaught's manifesto.
In a pamphlet, published by The Britons, entitled Despotism in
Disguise, these facts are summed up as follows: " T o attempt to
trace in detail the intrigues of British Freemasonic ministers on
the continent would necessitate the re-writing of history since
the middle of the 18th century, but interlinear reading is scarcely
necessary, even in the most liberal histories, to discover that
Brother . *. Palmerston was a F. M. before he was a British
Minister: perhaps he was the most outstanding example of a
whole line of politicians prepared in the lodges to step, when the
38
time was ripe, on to the political stage.t * Once one has grasped
<87) La Conjugation
88
Juive, by M. Copin-AIbancelli, pp. 201, 202,
t ) In Les Socidtis Secretes et la Societe, vol. II, Deschampte treats
at considerable length of the action of Palmerston as British Foreign
Secretary and Supreme Pontiff of Freemasonry. Palmerston's pro
gramme, given to the world in The Globe of 12th May, 1849, will be
treated of later.
" In 1851,. the French Republic was ill, and Louis Napoleon, a
Oarbonaro, called in to doctor it, was proclaimed Emperor of the
French. According to Domenico Margiotta, Sovereign Grand Inspec
tor General of the ancient and accepted Scottish Rite, an International
Masonic Council was sitting at that time in London, composed of
Mazzini, Kossuth, Felix Pyat, Lemmi and others, with Lord Palmer
ston, a prominent Freemason, in waiting. They were in close com
munication with Cavour, Rattazzi, Crispi, and Garibaldi in Italy.
Their main object was tho unification of Italy and the destruction of
the temporal power of the Pope. In 1860, Garibaldi, Grand Master
General of the Rites of Memphis and Misraim, with a thousand Mas
onic followers, invaded and occupied the Kingdom of Naples. An
English gentleman,, who was then a Protestant and a Freemason, in
the volunteer force, was solicited by an officer of his corps, to join the
English Legion in support of Garibaldi. He was informed that the
Legion would be equipped and supported by Freemasons. Subsequently
a Mason, holding the highest (position in one of the Essex Lodges,
candidly acknowledged to him that English Freemasonry had been in
communication with Mazzini, and had entrusted him with money for
the purpose of the campaign. Pius IX, who had watched the storm
brewing from afar, when he issued the Encyclical Qui Pluribus in 1846-
22S TIIK MYSTICAL B O D Y OK CHRIST

t h e m a i n f a c t s of t h e J u d a e o - M a s o n i c p l a n a n d t h i s c a n o n l y be
d o n e by r e a d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t i e s on t h e s u b j e c t i t is s u r p r i s i n g
b o w e a s y it b e c o m e s to h u d a s o l u t i o n to s u c h b a t t l i n g p r o b l e m s
a s t h e c o m p l e t e a n d p h e n o m e n a l a c c o r d g i v e n by m e m b e r s of di
v e r g e n t p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s to a p a r t i c u l a r l y u n p o p u l a r a c t of l e g i s
l a t i o n , o r the d i s a s t r o u s c o n t i n u i t y of p o l i c y s h o w n by s u c c e e d i n g
a n d o p p o s i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t s in f o r c i n g on a d a n g e r * m s s i t u a t i o n
abroad."

KREKMASONRY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE.

S o c i a l o r L e g a l J u s t i c e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e s u b j e c t s of a S t a t e ,
is t h e v i r t u e by w h i c h t h e y a r e e n a b l e d t o s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e
C o m m o n G o o d of the s o c i e t y all t h e a c t s of t h e v i r t u e s a n d t h u s
a l w a y s act so a s to f a v o u r t h a t g o o d a n d e n r i c h it. N o w , F r e e
m a s o n r y is o p p o s e d t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of t h a t v i r t u e in t w o w a y s .
F i r s t of all, a s it is o n l y t h r o u g h t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e t h a t c o m e s
from O u r L o r d that h u m a n beings can maintain their o r d e r e d
t e n d e n c y to C o d , t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e w h o l e u n i v e r s e ,
the Naturalism of Freemasonry hinders the development
3 0
of S o c i a l J u s t i c e . * * W e m a y express this, perhaps m o r e clearly,
by s a y i n g t h a t F r e e m a s o n r y a i m s a t t h e f o r m a t i o n of a m e n t a l i t y
c o n t e m p t u o u s of a n d h o s t i l e to m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l
B o d y . N o w , P o p e P i u s X I i n s i s t s t h a t " t h e n o n l y will it be p o s s
ible t o u n i t e all in h a r m o n i o u s s t r i v i n g for t h e c o m m o n g o o d , w h e n
all s e c t i o n s of s o c i e t y h a v e t h e i n t i m a t e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e
m e m b e r s of a s i n g l e f a m i l y a n d c h i l d r e n of t h e s a m e H e a v e n l y
F a t h e r , a n d f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e y a r c ' o n e b o d y in C h r i s t , a n d e v e r y
o n e m e m b e r s o n e of a n o t h e r ' ( R o m . , X I I , 5 ) , s o t h a t ' if o n e
m e m b e r suffer a n v t h i n g . all m e m b e r s suffer w i t h i t * (T Cor.,
X I I , 26)."U>
S e c o n d l y , F r e e m a s o n r y e x p l i c i t l y e x c l u d e s Social J u s t i c e b y
t h e M a s t e r M a s o n s ' O a t h o r o a t h t a k e n a t t h e r e c e p t i o n of t h e
T h i r d D e g r e e . T h e f o l l o w i n g is t h e r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n of t h e t e x t
of t h a t o a t h :
" 1 f u r t h e r m o r e s o l e m n l y v o w a n d d e c l a r e t h a t I will n o t
d e f r a u d a b r o t h e r M a s t e r M a s o n , o r s e e h i m d e f r a u d e d of
the most trilling a m o u n t , w i t h o u t giving him due and timely
now, seeing" i t d e s c e n d i n g upon Borne, delivered in ^ 1-S65 a solemn
allocution, M ult iplices inter, in which he deals exclusively w i t h Free
n
masonry, lie calls it ' t h e enemy of t he C h r i s t i a n name ' (The X
/{<///.< in /*'rt cmumn ///, by A. Cowan, pp. 81, 82).
CW) " J n the state of fallen n a t u r e M a n ' s r a t i o n a l will is liable to fail
to observe the o r d e r of loving his own p r i v a t e good in s u b o r d i n a t i o n to
t h e common good of the whole universe, namely God. On account of
the c o r r u p t i o n of his n a t u r e , he will prefer his own p r i v a t e good, if he
is not purified a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d by the Grace of God " ( l a I l a e , Q.109,
a.3, c)
('to) Encyclical L e t t e r , Quadmyesimo Anno.
 FREEMASONRY 229

notice thereof; that I loill also prefer a brother Master

Mason in all my dealings, and recommend him to others
as much as lies in my power so long as he shall continue to
act honourably, honestly and faithfully towards me and
others. All these several points 1 promise to observe with
out equivocation or mental reservation of any kind, under
no less a penalty, on the violation of any of them, than to
have my body severed in two, my bowels torn thereout and
burnt .to ashes in the centre, and those ashes scattered be
fore the four cardinal points of heaven, so that no trace or
remembrance of me shall be left among men."
The Master Masons' Oath ends as follows:
" So help me God, and keep me steadfast in this grand and
solemn obligation, being that of Master Mason " (Manned, of
1
Freemasonry).^ )
The Rev. C. Penney Hunt, B.A., in his work, The Menace of
Freemasonry to the Christian Faith (Fourth Edition, p. SO), says
that " it is customary to leave out that clause in the printed rituals
of to-day."
In the article on Freemasonry, by Father Gruber, S.J., in the
Catholic Encyclopaedia, we read that, according to " Duncan's
'American Ritual* the Royal Arch Mason even swears: ' I will
assist a companion R. A. Mason, when 1 see him engaged in any
difficulty and will espouse his cause so as to extricate him from
the same, whether he be right or wrong'." "It is a fact attested
by experienced men of all countries," the same article continues,
" that, wherever Masonry is influential, non-Masons have to suffer
in their interests from the systematic preference which Masons
give each other in appointments to offices and positions. Even
Bismarck (Gedanken mid Erinnerungen, 1898, I, 302 sqq.) com
plained of the effects of such mutual Masonic assistance, which is
detrimental alike to civic equality and to public interests. In Ma
sonic books and magazines, unlawful and treacherous acts, per
formed in rendering this mutual assistance, are recommended and
1
praised as redounding to the glory of Freemasonry. The inexor
able laws of war themselves/ says the official orator of the Grand
Orient of France, Lefebvre d'Aumale (Solstice, 24th June, 1841),
' had to bend before Freemasonry, which is perhaps the most
striking proof of its power \ "
By its explicit opposition to Social Justice, Freemasonry con
stitutes a serious obstacle to the union and good order which it
is the aim of the corporate organization of society to promote.

(41) Quoted in The X Mays i<n Freemasonry, by A. Cowan.

 CHAPTER X.

7 T
LINKS KETWEEN ORGANIZKD ANTl-Sl PERNATl RAL
FORCES.

THE HEADSHIP OF SATAN ACCORDING TO

ST. THOMAS.

T h e special h a l l - m a r k of S a t a n is o p p o s i t i o n to G o d ' s R i g h t s a n d
t o o r d e r e d r e t u r n t o G o d . O u r L o r d c a m e " to g a t h e r t o g e t h e r
in o n e t h e c h i l d r e n of G o d , t h a t w e r e d i s p e r s e d ' ' ( S t . J o h n , XT, 5 2 ) .
S a t a n ' s a c t i o n a l w a y s t e n d s to s e p a r a t e f r o m God a n d t o d i v i d e .
T h e r e a r c n o t t w o w o r l d s ; t h e r e is o n l y o n e . F r o m t h e m o m e n t
t h a t a m a n r e j e c t s t h e D i v i n e O r d e r of t h e w o r l d a n d r e m a i n s in
o r e n t e r s a s o c i e t y t h a t p r o c l a i m s t h a t it c a n p e r f e c t h u m a n n a t u r e
r e g a r d l e s s of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e , of w h i c h O u r L o r d J e s U s
C h r i s t a l o n e is t h e S o u r c e , t h e n , c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y , h e
t a k e s his p l a c e u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of S a t a n , w h o s e w h o l e b e i n g is,
( ! )
b y his o w n d e l i b e r a t e a c t . t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l .
M a n ' s r e j e c t i o n of G o d ' s o r d e r l e a d s t o w o r s h i p of h i m s e l f
P a n t h e i s m * and Mumanitarianism. But m a n is w e a k a n d falls
r e a d i l y u n d e r t h e s w a y of t h e P r i n c e of N a t u r a l i s t s , t h e first w h o
r e j e c t e d G o d ' s i n f i n i t e l y l o v i n g o i l e r of a s h a r e in H i s o w n I n n e r
L i f e . " T h e w o r l d , " w r i t e s P o p e L e o X J11, " i s a l w a y s c o n s i s t e n t
in i t s w a y . N e a r t h e S o n s of G o d a r e p r e s e n t t h e s a t e l l i t e s of
t h a t g r e a t a d v e r s a r y of t h e h u m a n r a c e who., a r e b e l f r o m t h e
b e g i n n i n g a g a i n s t t h e M o s t H i g h , is n a m e d in t h e G o s p e l t h e
p r i n c e of t h i s w o r l d . . . . Full of t h e s p i r i t of S a t a n w h o , a c
c o r d i n g t o t h e w o r d s of t h e A p o s t l e , k n o w s h o w t o t r a n s f o r m
h i m s e l f at n e e d i n t o an a n g e l of l i g h t , it [ M a s o n r y | g i v e s p r o m i n
e n c e t o its h u m a n i t a r i a n o b j e c t , b u t it s a c r i f i c e s e v e r y t h i n g t o its
s e c t a r i a n p u r p o s e . . . . to m a k e w a r a g a i n s t God a n d a g a i n s t
2
PI is C h u r c h . " '
S t . T h o m a s s h o w s , in ihc S e c o n d P a r t of t h e Summa,
3 1
that there cannot be i w o final e n d s for m a n . ' In t h e
Third part of t h e S u m m a . h e c o n t r a s t s t h e h e a d s h i p of
t h e d e m o n o v e r sinful b e i n g s w i t h t h a t of < hir L o r d J e s u s
l)
< ' ' T h o s e who a n ; not in the .state of Grace a r r n o t h i n g (nihil)
(St. Thorn., Comment, in II ov/ Corinth.).
<2> Apostolic L e t t e r of Pope Leo X T I L M a r c h 19th. 1902.
Ta I Lie, Q.l, a.5.
 LINKS BETWEEN NATURALISTIC FORCES 23T

C h r i s t o v e r t h e m e m b e r s of H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y . " T h e h e a d n o t
only a c t s i n t e r i o r l y o n t h e m e m b e r s of t h e b o d y , b u t a l s o g u i d e s
t h e m e x t e r i o r l y , d i r e c t i n g t h e i r a c t s t o a n end. A c c o r d i n g l y , a
p e r s o n c a n be said t o be t h e h e a d of a b o d y of m e n , e i t h e r in
both of t h e s e w a y s , a n d t h u s C h r i s t is H e a d of t h e C h u r c h
or o n l y f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of e x t e r i o r g u i d a n c e , a n d in t h i s
m a n n e r , a n y p r e l a t e o r p r i n c e is h e a d of the' g r o u p s u b j e c t t o
him. I t is in t h i s l a t t e r f a s h i o n t h a t t h e devil is h e a d of all evil
4)
inen.'*' O u r L o r d , t h e n , is H e a d b y i n t e r i o r a n d e x t e r i o r influ
e n c e ; t h e d e m o n is h e a d b y e x t e r n a l influence, d i r e c t i n g t h e a c t s
of s i n n e r s tp his o w n e n d . T h e e n d c h o s e n by t h e d e m o n is t h e
t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d ( t o s e l f ) . T h i s t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m God
is l o o k e d u p o n a s an e n d , i n a s m u c h as it is d e s i r e d u n d e r t h e p r e
t e n c e of l i b e r t y (sitb specie Jibcrtatis). " i n a s m u c h , t h e r e f o r e , as
men a r e d r a w n to this end by sinning, they come u n d e r the gov
e r n m e n t a n d d i r e c t i o n of t h e evil o n e a n d he is a c c o r d i n g l y s t y l e d
( 5 )
their h e a d . "
S a t a n d e s i r e s the d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e o r d e r by w h i c h m e n r e t u r n
to G o d , a n d s o he l u r e s t h e m on t o i m i t a t e a n d follow h i m s e l f in
t h e a u t o n o m o u s use of i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d free-will. O w i n g to the
o b j e c t i v e a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y , F r e e m a s o n s a r e
s p e c i a l l y e x p o s e d to S a t a n i c i n f l u e n c e . A n d S a t a n p r o f i t s by t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y offered h i m . W e h a v e a s t r i k i n g p r o o f of it in t h e
t e s t i m o n y of B i o t h e r . *. O s w a l d W i r t h , t h e w e l l - k n o w n w r i t e r
on M a s o n i c questions. He s a y s : " A force, superior to themselves,
c a u s e s M a s o n s to act t o g e t h e r a n d c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i r e f f o r t s w i t h
a n i n t e l l e c t u a l v i g o u r , w h i c h t h e y c e r t a i n l y do not p o s s e s s i n d i
v i d u a l l y . S u c h is the f a c t w h i c h h a s b e e n i r r e f u t a b l y e s t a b l i s h e d
a n d w h i c h w c h a v e s i m p l y g o t t o a c c e p t . It is for e a c h o n e to
1
i n t e r p r e t t h i s fact in h i s o w n way."*''

U I l i a P . , Q.b, a.7.
'5) I n l a P . , Q. 114. a . 3 , a<! 2, JSt. Thomas had a l r e a d y pointed out
t h a t if some sins are p e r p e t r a t e d w i t h o u t a n y t e m p t a t i o n on the p a r t of
the devil, yet by sin men a r e m a d e the sons of the devil, inasmuch as
they i m i t a t e him who first s i n n e d a n d follow his banner. H e r e in IITa
P., Q.8. a.7, ad 2, he r e p e a t s the same d o c t r i n e : " Accordingly the first
sin of the devil, who was a s i n n e r from the beginning, as we read in
I St. J o h n , III, has been p r o p o s e d to all as an example to be followed.
Some i m i t a t e t h i s example, t h a n k s to his p r o m p t i n g s a n d suggestions;
others do so of their own volition w i t h o u t any suggestion on his p a r t .
A n d t h u s , t h a t is, inasmuch as they i m i t a t e him, the devil is the head
1
of all evil men, as we read in the Book of Wisdom, II, 24 : B u t by the
envy of the devil d e a t h came i n t o the world, and they follow ( i m i t a t e )
him t h a t are on his side.' "
I n a r t i c l e 8 of this same Question, St. Thomas teaches that A n t i -
C h r i s t is said to he head of all men on account of his s u p r e m e wicked
ness. I n him the influence of S a t a n reaches its c u l m i n a t i n g ipoint.
'6) Quoted from Oswald W i r t h , Le Symbolisme, by Mgr. J o u i n . in
Pevur fnter. de* Sorietes Secretes, 19th A p r i l , 1925.* p . 277.
232 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

W c h a v e a n o t h e r p r o o f in a r e m a r k a b l e p a s s a g e f r o m a r e p l y
of t h e S u p r e m e C o n g r e g a t i o n of t h e H o l y Office t o a n u m b e r of
U . S . A . I l i s h o p s . T h i s c . \ r c l l e n i s t a t e m e n t of t h e final r e s u l t of
t h e f o r m a t i o n g i v e n in s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s r u n s as f o l l o w s : " ff o n e
takes into consideration the i m m e n s e development which these
s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s h a v e a t t a i n e d : t h e l e n g t h of t i m e t h e y a r e p e r
s e v e r i n g in t h e i r v i g o u r : t h e i r f u r i o u s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s ; t h e t e n
a c i t y w i t h which their m e m b e r s cling to the association and to the
f a l s e p r i n c i p l e s it p r o f e s s e s ; t h e p e r s e v e r i n g m u t u a l c o - o p e r a t i o n
of s o m a n y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of m e n in t h e p r o m o t i o n of e v i l ; o n e
c a n h a r d l y d e n y t h a t t h e Supreme Architect of t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s
( s e e i n g t h a t t h e c a u s e m u s t be p r o p o r t i o n e d to t h e ' e f f e c t ) c a n
b e n o n e o t h e r t h a n h e w h o in t h e s a c r e d w r i t i n g s is s t y l e d t h e
Prince of t h e w o r l d ; a n d t h a t S a t a n h i m s e l f , e v e n b y h i s p h y s i c a l
c o o p e r a t i o n , d i r e c t s a n d i n s p i r e s a t l e n s t t h e l e a d e r s of t h e s e
7)
bodies, physically co-operating with them."<
T h e L e o T a x i l affair ( 1 8 9 2 - 1 8 9 7 ) h a s b e e n u s e d t o t h r o w d i s
c r e d i t o n e v e r y a t t e m p t t o p o i n t o u t t h e r e a l i t y of S a t a n i c a c t i o n
( 8 )
o n t h e w o r l d in a n d t h r o u g h S e c r e t S o c i e t i e s . Nevertheless,
t h e r e is a n a b u n d a n c e of e v i d e n c e t h a t will a m p l y r e p a y r e s e a r c h
and study, and the non-Catholic historian, Mrs. W e b s t e r , w h o
h a s m a d e s u c h a p r o f o u n d s t u d y of t h e s e s o c i e t i e s , d o e s n o t h e s i
t a t e t o w r i t e a s f o l l o w s in h e r s p l e n d i d w o r k , The French Revo
lution ( p . 2 3 ) : " W h e n w e s t u d y t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e y [ t h e
subversive elements w h o engineered the Revolution or, at least,
figured in t h e f o r e g r o u n d ] c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r d e s i g n , w h e n w e r e a d -
of t h e f r i g h t f u l p r o f a n i t y t h a t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d d u r i n g t h e T e r r o r ,
t h e d e s e c r a t i o n of c h u r c h e s , t h e b l a s p h e m i e s a g a i n s t C h r i s t a n d
t h e H o l y V i r g i n , a n d t h e w o r s h i p of M a r a t , it is a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e
t o d i s b e l i e v e in d e m o n i a c a l p o s s e s s i o n , t o d o u b t t h a t t h e s e m e n ,
i n f l a m e d w i t h h a t r e d a g a i n s t all s p i r i t u a l i n f l u e n c e s w o r k i n g f o r
g o o d in t h e w o r l d , b e c a m e i n d e e d t h e v e h i c l e s for t h o s e o t h e r
s p i r i t s , t h e p o w e r s of d a r k n e s s , w h o s e c a u s e t h e y h a d m a d e t h e i r
o w n . A n d in t h e i r h i d e o u s d e a t h s . . . w e r e t h e y not, p e r h a p s ,
l i k e t h e G a d a r e n e s w i n e , v i c t i m s of t h e d e m o n s t h a t d r o v e t h e m
to destruction ? "
S a t a n p a r o d i e s the a c t i o n of O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , t h e M e d i a
t o r b e t w e e n G o d a n d fallen h u m a n i t y , e x e r c i s e d in t h e C h u r c h a n d
t h r o u g h t h e S a c r a m e n t s , by u r g i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c o u n
t e r - C h u r c h w i t h s y m b o l i c r i t e s , in t h e effort to s e c u r e w h a t h e
s o u g h t in his t h i r d t e m p t a t i o n of O u r L o r d : " A g a i n t h e devil
t o o k H i m u p i n t o a v e r y h i g h m o u n t a i n , a n d s h o w e d H i m all
7) Acta V. St'tlis, Vol. 1, p. J u l y I-'Jth, [ri5. t'f. Pru masonry
and the Anti-Christian Movement, by Kev. E. Ca-hilh .S.J., p . 67,
'8) Cf. Episode Antl-M'aconnique, by Ch. N i c o u l l a u d , p . 147. etc.
F o r an excellent s u m m a r y of the Leo T a x i ] affair, in English, cf. p p .
70-71 in F a t h e r C a h i l l ' s work quoted in previous note.
 LINKS BETWEEN NATURALISTIC FORCES 233

t h e k i n g d o m s of t h e w o r l d a n d t h e g l o r y of t h e m . A n d he s a i d
t o H i m : All t h e s e will I g i v e t h e e , if f a l l i n g d o w n , t h o u w i l t
adore m e " (St. M a t t h . , IV, 8-9). M o n s i e u r " Ch. N i c o u l l a u d in
VInitiation Maconnique r e t u r n s a g a i n a n d a g a i n t o t h e idea t h a t
M a s o n i c "initiation" is t h e r e c e p t i o n of t h e " s a c r a m e n t s " of
Satan. H i s t h e s i s is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e t e x t of t h e d o c u m e n t ,
Ecclesiam ( 1 8 2 1 ) of P o p e P i u s V I I : " T h e y ( t h e F r e e m a s o n s ]
b l a s p h e m o u s l y p r o f a n e a n d defile t h e P a s s i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t b y
t h e i r s a c r i l e g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s . T h e y d i s h o n o u r t h e S a c r a m e n t s of
t h e C h u r c h ( f o r w h i c h t h e y s a c r i l e g i o u s l y s u b s t i t u t e o t h e r s in
v e n t e d b y t h e m s e l v e s ) a n d e v e n t u r n i n t o ridicule the v e r y m y s t e r
(9
ies of t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n . " >

THE JEWISH NATION AND FREEMASONRY.

A n e x c e l l e n t o u t l i n e of t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e t w o visible
o r g a n i z e d a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s is t o be f o u n d in t h e c h a p t e r
of L e o n d e P o n c i n s ' w o r k , La Franc-Maconnerie, Puissance Oc-
( l 0 )
culte, i n w h i c h h e t r e a t s of t h e J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e in F r e e m a s o n r y .
H e s u m s u p a s f o l l o w s : " T o - d a y J e w s a r e n u m e r o u s in F Y e e m a -
s o n r y a n d in m a n y p l a c e s t h e i r i n f l u e n c e is h e l d t o b e p r e d o m i n
a n t , e s p e c i a l l y in C e n t r a l E u r o p e . W e find, t h e n , a n a l l i a n c e and**
close c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o forces, w i t h the J e w i s h in
f l u e n c e in t h e a s c e n d a n t in p l a c e s , b u t i t w o u l d be a n e x a g g e r a t i o n
t o c o n c l u d e t h a t M a s o n r y is a J e w i s h c r e a t i o n . A s a m a t t e r of
f a c t , w e find f e w J e w s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g s of F r e e m a s o n r y . Jew
i s h i n f l u e n c e a t t h e o r i g i n w a s r a t h e r of an i n d i r e c t c h a r a c t e r

O) L e t t e r , Ecclesiam.
" T h e y [the H i g h e r Degrees] a r e n o t C h r i s t i a n , b u t horrible travesties
a n d blasphemies. T a k e the degree said to be most C h r i s t i a n arid
the ' h i g h e s t . ' There a r e different versions of it. B u t we have in all,
(
i n c l u d i n g the version k n o w n as The A n c i e n t a n d Accepted Rite,/ a
b l a s p h e m o u s c a r i c a t u r e of the L o r d ' s S u p p e r , though i n ' The A n c i e n t
a n d Accepted R i t e ' the blasphemous c h a r a c t e r is toned d a w n . . . T h e
evidence I q u o t e i n these p a p e r s is b u t the tiniest fraction of the whole
( a t my d i s p o s a l ) . I have r a n s a c k e d the o r d e r from top to bottom, a n d
I claim now t o know t h a t t h e r e is no other i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The first
issue of t h i s i n d i c t m e n t has been for m a n y months before those leaders
of my own C h u r c h who hold h i g h p o s i t i o n s in the C r a f t : I have repeat
edly challenged them, if I am m i s t a k e n , to give me the t r u e e x p l a n a
t i o n a n d in v a i n " (The Menace of Freemasonry to the Christian Faith,
by Rev. C. P e n n e y H u n t , B.A.).
(to) T h e fine s u m m a r y of the question in Freemasonry avid the Anti^
Christian Movement, by Rev. E. Cahill, S.J., has been a l r e a d y referred
to. H e , with o t h e r w r i t e r s , m e n t i o n s the little known fact t h a t the
Masonic coat-of-arms still used by t h e G r a n d Lodge of E n g l a n d is of
Jewish design. F r o m an a r t i c l e on " Anglo-Jewish Coats of A r m s / ' by
Lucien Wolf (The Jevish Historical Society of England* 1893-1895), we
.learn t h a t the designer was Jacob J e h u d a Leon, s u r n a m e d Templo.
 234 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
u
a r i s i n g from the J e w i s h Cabala.< >
. . . . If w e d e s i r e t o g o t o t h e r o o t of t h e m a t t e r , w e a r e f o r c e d
t o c o n c l u d e t h a t the s u p r e m e g u i d i n g f o r c e of F r e e m a s o n r y is
n e i t h e r K n g l i s h n o r G e r m a n n o r e v e n "Jewish. T h e g u i d i n g f o r c e
is n o t c o r p o r e a l b u t s p i r i t u a l . " M . de P o n c i n s then q u o t e s the
f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e f r o m La Trahison Spirit v ell e de la F .'. M
b y J- M a r q u e s - R i v i e r e : " T h e Utopia of m a n self-sufficient of h i m
self is a f o r m of e g o i s m w h i c h is m o n s t r o u s , s u p e r - h u m a n , in a
w o r d , diabolical. S u c h a s u g g e s t i o n , u n d e r t h e c o l l e c t i v e f o r m in
w h i c h w c m e e t it at t h e p r e s e n t d a y . can be explained only by
assigning to it a superhuman origin It is t h i s s p i r i t , off
s p r i n g of t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , w h i c h p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s
of t h e L o d g e s d r a w n u p b y A n d e r s o n , s p i r i t u a l d e s c e n d a n t of t h e
e n e m i e s of t r a d i t i o n . It r e i g n e d o v e r t h e c o r r u p t s o c i e t y of t h e
18th c e n t u r y a n d g e t t i n g c o n t r o l of t h e m a s s e s p r o v o k e d t h e h i d e
o u s b u t c h e r y k n o w n as t h e R e v o l u t i o n of 1789. . . . S i n c e t h e n it
( i 2 )
holds sovereign sway over western civilization." \\\ this quota
tion from M. j . M a r q u e s - R i v i e r e , M. de P o n c i n s e m p h a s i z e s the
c o - o r d i n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e of S a t a n u p o n the t w o visible s e c t i o n s of
the naturalistic army. T h i s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t m u s t be i n s i s t e d
u p o n , in v i e w of the o p p o s i t i o n to t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r in
t h e w o r l d , b u t it is w e l l to add a f e w w o r d s a b o u t a n i m p o r t a n t
a g r e e m e n t c o m e to b e t w e e n a c c r e d i t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e t w o
visible sections themselves.
I n D o m e n i c o M a r g i o t t a ' s L i f e of A d r i a n o L e m m i , e n t i t l e d
Adriano Lemmi, Chef Supreme des Frauc-Macons, t h e r e is an
a c c o u n t of t h e pact s i g n e d b e t w e e n A l b e r t P i k e . S o v e r e i g n G r a n d
( 1 3 }
C o m m a n d e r of t h e A n c i e n t a n d A c c e p t e d S c o t t i s h R i t e , on the
o n e h a n d , a n d A r m a n d L e v y , L i f e M e m b e r of t h e S u b l i m e F e d e r a l
C o n s i s t o r y of P'nai FVrith of G e r m a n y , on the other, for t h e R'nai

fll
According lo Bernard La-zare, the Jewish writer of L'Anti-
Semitisme, p. 339. "There were Cabalistic Jews around the c r a d l e of
Freemasonry, as certain rites still in existence prove conclusively.''
" The Jew found in Freemasonry a suitable soil foi- the cultivation
of his propaganda. As early as 1754 Martinez Paschales had gauged li
vable, and had. as far as possible, annexed ij. by creating new and
superior degrees. . . . The Jews have swarmed into it, from the carliesi
times, and controlled the higher grades and councils of the ancient and
accepted Scottish rite since the beginning of H i e nineteenth century
(The X Rays in /'rmna-xoti///, by A. Cowan, p. 0 1 ) .
(12' In 1781, an international congress of Freemasons took place,
known as the ' Convent of Wilhemsbad. If uas attended by se\eral
Knglish brothers, by delegates of the French lllumiuati. by Leasing u illi
a company of Jews, by Mirabeau, by Dohnt. and by Kniggp representing
Weishairpf. The Convent paved the wa,\ for the French "Revolu
tion " (The X Hays irt Freemcwmry, by A. Cowan, pp. 07, G8).
d-'n The document i^ signed by Tike with hK name as Initialed
Member Limmud Knsoph. Levy signed with a similar esoteric signa
ture.
 LINKS BETWEEN NATURALISTIC FORCES 235

BYith of America. Germany and England. The B'nai BYith

Lodges or Lodges of the Sons of the Covenant are Masonic Lodges
exclusively Jewish. By this treaty, signed in 1874. " the Supreme
Dogmatic Directory of Universal Freemasonry recognizes the
Jewish Lodges, such as they already exist in the principal coun
tries. The central headquarters of the B'nai B'rith will be at
Hamburg and the Sovereign Body will take the title of Sovereign
Patriarchal Council. The secret of the existence of the Confeder^
ation [of B'nai BYith Lodges] will be kept rigorously by those
members of High Grade Masonry to whom the Supreme Dogmatic
Directory will judge it advisable to make it known.
" Neither the Sovereign Patriarchal Council of Hamburg, nor
any lodges under its obedience, will figure on the annual reports
of the Sovereign Administrative Directory; but the Sovereign
Patriarchal Council will send direct to the Sovereign Dogmatic
Directory a contribution representing 10 per cent of the personal
subscriptions of the members of the Jewish Lodges.
" N o Brother Mason of the official rites, who is not a Jew.
can demand entrance into a Jewish Lodge no matter what ma\
U)
be his [Masonic] rank"<
The document goes on to say that no one but a Jew may entei
the B'nai B'rith Lodges except visitors of the highest degrees-
Chosen Magi of the Third Degree of the Supreme Rite and In
spectors-General of the Palladium. Initiation into the Jewish
Lodges will not be by degrees and, needless to say, members of
Jewish Lodges may be members of other Lodges. In this way,
control is exercised and the impulses originating in the Secret
Councils of the Jewish Nation are communicated to Masonry.
Thus we have one of the chief factors in the explanation of the
sympathy and support of Masons all over the world for Jewish
projects. An example of this Judaeo-Masonic solidarity was seen
in the case of t h e Spanish " R e d " Government.
The first B'nai B'rith Lodge was founded in New York in
1843. The Lodges are now numerous in the world, and there is
at least one such Lodge in Ireland. The secrecy of the B'nai BYith
is delicatelv hinted at in the book by Paul Goodman. IV nai JVrith,
The First 'F.oftf/e of FnylaniL 1910-1935, published by the Lodge,
London, 1936. On page 12, Goodman writes: " 'Benevolence, Bro
therly Love, and Harmony/ the Motto of the Order in its internal
affairs, \v;i> to be the rule of conduct of the * brethren as the
members are called--and to foster these ideals between them in
matters affecting the Lodge, at meetings and in personal conduct,
it was considered a point of honour that every member shall re
gard all proceedings as confidential, and shall not communicate
the same, directlv or indirectly, t o any person not a member of

n 4 )
Op. cit.. pp. 224-5.
236 T11K M Y S T I C A L BODY OF CHRIST

t h e o r d e r . " W h e n o n e t a k e s a c c o u n t of t h e J e w i s h skill in d i s
s i m u l a t i o n , o n e will a g r e e t h a t B ' n a i B ' r i t h s e c r e t s will b e w e l l
g u a r d e d , e v e n if w e t a k e a t t h e i r f a c e - v a l u e t h e s e v e r y r e s e r v e d
( 1 5 J
declarations.
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t , for t h e s a k e of s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e o r d e r e d
d e v e l o p m e n t of S t a t e s , t h e m e m b e r s of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n m u s t
b e p e r m i t t e d t o b e c i t i z e n s of o n l y o n e S t a t e t h e i r o w n . C i t i z e n
s h i p of a n e a r t h l y c o u n t r y , h o w e v e r , is o n l y a m e a n s f o r t h e
a t t a i n m e n t of c i t i z e n s h i p of o u r h e a v e n l y c o u n t r y , s o w e m u s t
p r a y f o r t h e c o n v e r s i o n of t h e J e w s t o t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s .
W c h a v e t h e t w o f o l d d u t y of p r o t e c t i n g o u r c o u n t r i e s a g a i n s t t h e i r
n a t u r a l i s t i c s t r i v i n g s a n d of p r a y i n g f o r t h e i r s i n c e r e r e p e n t a n c e
f o r t h e s u f f e r i n g s t h e y h a v e inflicted o n O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t .
W e h a v e t h e s a m e d o u b l e d u t y w i t h r e g a r d t o m e m b e r s of t h e
Masonic Society.
(15) Cf. The X Rays in Freemasonry, by A. Cowan, pp. 121, 122.

A P P E N D I X .

T h e first of t h e p r a y e r s w h i c h f o l l o w is t h e o n e for t h e c o n
v e r s i o n of t h e J e w s a p p r o v e d f o r g e n e r a l u s e : t h e s e c o n d is t h a t
w h i c h is r e c i t e d by t h e g r o u p of J e w i s h c o n v e r t s w h o f o r m La
Serf ion. Israel, of t h e A r e h c o n f r a t e r n i t y of P r a y e r a n d P e n a n c e
of t h e B a s i l i c a of M o n t m a r t r e , P a r i s . T h e t h i r d p r a y e r is t h e o n e
a p p r o v e d for t h e c o n v e r s i o n of F r e e m a s o n s .

PRAYER FOR THK CONVERSION OF

THK JEWS.
G o d of G o o d n e s s a n d F a t h e r of M e r c i e s , w e b e s e e c h T h e e , by
t h e I m m a c u l a t e H e a r t of M a r y , a n d b y t h e i n t e r c e s s i o n of t h e
P a t r i a r c h s and Holy Apostles, to look w i t h compassion upon the
r e m n a n t of I s r a e l , s o t h a t t h e y m a y c o m e t o a k n o w l e d g e of o u r
o n l y S a v i o u r J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d s h a r e in t h e p r e c i o u s g r a c e s of
Redemption. Amen. (100 D a v s , o n c e a d a v . )
(The RaccoiJa, 8 t h E d i t i o n , p. 3 % ) .

ISRAEL'S PRAYER OF REPARATION.

G l o r y , p r a i s e and! l o v e be t o T h e e , () C h r i s t , R e d e e m e r a n d
K i n g ! " O J e s u s of N a z a r e t h , K i n g of t h e J e w s , " b e h o l d w e t u r n
to T h e e , W h o m we h a v e pierced, and w e e p .
P a r d o n m y God, p a r d o n us. R e m e m b e r n o l o n g e r , b u t , in the
n a m e of t h e S a c r e d l l e a r l , r e c e i v e b a c k " I s r a e l , T h y C h i l d . "
W e b e l o n g t o T h e e , O L o r d , W e w i s h t o be T h i n e . W e a c k
n o w l e d g e T h e e a s U n i v e r s a l K i n g a n d g l a d l y we c o n s e c r a t e to
T h e e all t h a t w e a r e a n d all t h a t w e h a v e . Do T h o u e x e r c i s e
 LINKS BETWEEN NATURALISTIC FORCES 237

o v e r u s all T h y r i g h t s . W e r e n e w t h e p r o m i s e s of o u r B a p t i s m ;
w e r e n o u n c e S a t a n , his s p i r i t a n d h i s w o r k s . W e p l e d g e o u r s e l v e s
to w o r k w i t h all o u r p o w e r f o r t h e t r i u m p h of t h e R i g h t s of God
and of T h y C h u r c h , a n d t h a t w e m a y r e p a i r by s u b m i s s i v e zeal
a n d fidelity t o o u r F a i t h o u r p a s t s i n s a n d t h o s e of o u r f a t h e r s ,
w e e n t r e a t T h e e for t h e g r a c e of l o v i n g T h e e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
firmness in t h e l i g h t of G o d t h e H o l y G h o s t .
D i v i n e H e a r t of J e s u s , Ave offer T h e e o u r p o o r a c t i o n s t o ob
tain t h a t all h e a r t s a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of t h e C h i l d r e n of I s r a e l
m a y r e c o g n i z e T h y S a c r e d K i n g s h i p a n d t h u s a s s i s t in e s t a b l i s h i n g
t h e r e i g n of T h y p e a c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e w o r l d .
O C h r i s t J e s u s , l o o k w i t h m e r c y on t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e r a c e
which T h o u didst once prefer. M a y t h a t Blood w h i c h f o r m e r l y
t h e y c a l l e d d o w n u p o n t h e i r h e a d s n o w d e s c e n d u p o n t h e m in
b a p t i s m u n t o life a n d in r e d e m p t i o n .
J e s u s , S o n of D a v i d , h a v e p i t y u p o n t h e m a l l !
I m m a c u l a t e H e a r t of M a r y , V i r g i n of I s r a e l , p r a y for t h e m !

PRAYER FOR T H E CONVERSION OF

FREEMASONS.
O L o r d J e s u s Christ, W h o s h o w e s t forth T h y omnipotence
most manifestly when Thou sparest and hast compassion, Thou
W h o didst say, " P r a y for t h o s e w h o p e r s e c u t e and c a l u m n i a t e
y o u , " w e i m p l o r e t h e c l e m e n c y of T h y S a c r e d H e a r t o n b e h a l f
of s o u l s , m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d , b u t m o s t m i s e r a b l y d e c e i v e d
b y t h e t r e a c h e r o u s s n a r e s of F r e e m a s o n s , a n d g o i n g m o r e a n d
m o r e a s t r a y in t h e w a y of p e r d i t i o n . L e t not t h e C h u r c h , T h y
S p o u s e , a n y l o n g e r b e o p p r e s s e d b y t h e m ; b u t , a p p e a s e d b y the
i n t e r c e s s i o n of t h e B l e s s e d V i r g i n , T h y M o t h e r , a n d t h e p r a y e r s
of t h e j u s t , b e m i n d f u l of T h y infinite m e r c y ; a n d d i s r e g a r d i n g
their p e r v e r s i t y , cause these very men to return to T h e e , that
they m a y b r i n g consolation to the C h u r c h by a m o s t a b u n d a n t
p e n a n c e , m a k e r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e i r m i s d e e d s , a n d s e c u r e for t h e m
selves a g l o r i o u s e t e r n i t y ; w h o livest and reignest world without
end. Amen. (100 D a y s , o n c e a d a y ) .
(The Raccolta, 8 t h E d i t i o n , p. 410).
 PART III.

OCKHAMISM OR NOMINALISM

and

POLITICAL AXD ECONOMIC DLCAY.

CHAPTERS XIXII.
 C H A P T E R XL

THOMISM AND OCKHAMISM OR NOMINALISM,

W e m u s t n o w e x a m i n e b r i e f l y t h e k e r n e l of t h e O c k h a m i s i
s y s t e m of p h i l o s o p h y , t h e d i f f u s i o n - o f w h i c h h a s b e e n o n e of t h e
m a i n f a c t o r s in m a n k i n d ' s f a i l u r e to r e t a i n its hold u p o n t h e r e a l
o r d e r of t h e w o r l d a n d o n e of t h e m o s t p o t e n t causes,, in t h e i n
t e l l e c t u a l s p h e r e , of t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e c a y of E u r o p e .
T o r e v e a l t o u s t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y in w h i c h all
t h e m e m b e r s of C h r i s t a r e d e s t i n e d t o s h a r e in t h e s a m e L i f e , t h e
Life of S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e , G o d w a s o b l i g e d t o m a k e u s e of o u r
h u m a n i d e a s o r c o n c e p t s of " b o d y / ' " m e m b e r / ' a n d " l i f e . " It
is c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e i d e a s
will h a v e i m p o r t a n t r e p e r c u s s i o n s on o u r g r a s p of t h i s g r e a t
t r u t h . T h e s y s t e m a t i c e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e m p r o p o s e d b y W i l l i a m
of O c k h a m differs e n o r m o u s l y f r o m t h a t of St. T h o m a s a n d b y
its diffusion c o n t r i b u t e d l a r g e l y to t h e d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t of
E u r o p e . W e m u s t b e g i n b y o u t l i n i n g S t . T h o m a s ' s t h e o r y o'f t h e
n a t u r e of t h e c o n c e p t a n d t h e n c o m p a r e O c k h a m ' s s y s t e m w i t h it,
i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e c o m p a r i s o n b y t h e i d e a of " m e m b e r of t h e
Mystical Body."

THOMISM.

S t . T h o m a s t e a c h e s t h a t t h e r e is c l o s e c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n
s e n s e a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e in t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l k n o w l e d g e .
On t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s e n s e - d a t a , t h e i n t e l l e c t , by t h e p r o c e s s
of a b s t r a c t i o n o r d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n , a p p r e h e n d s the n a t u r e o r f o r m
or u n i v e r s a l u n i t y t h a n k s t o w h i c h it k n o w s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e r
c e i v e d b y t h e s e n s e s . T h e n a t u r e is a p p r e h e n d e d in t h e i n d i v i d u a l
and, b e i n g d e m a t e r i a l i z c d , it is u n i v e r s a l . T h u s the n a t u r e d i r e c t l y
g r a s p e d b y t h e h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e is u n i v e r s a l , not s i n g u l a r o r
i n d i v i d u a l . A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e n w e s a y t h a t P e t e r is a m e m b e r of
t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y a n d t h a t P a u l is l i k e w i s e a m e m b e r of t h e
same Body, w e express the fact that F e t e r and P a u l possess
r e a l l y a n d d i s t r i b u t i v e l y all t h a t is e x p r e s s e d ( a n a l o g o u s l y ) b y
s
 242 TIIK M Y S T I C A L BODY O F CHRIST
v 1
t h e c o n c e p t s " m e m b e r a n d " b o d y / e x c l u s i v e of t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y
1
w h i c h is d i r e c t l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l u n i t y / '
T h e c o n t e n t of t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t (id quod concipitur, in
S c h o l a s t i c t e r m i n o l o g y ) is a t t r i b u t e d t o F e t e r a n d P a u l b u t n o t
t h e m o d e of u n i v e r s a l i t y (modus turn/is). Are these judgements
true? Y e s , if P e t e r a n d P a u l r e a l l y p o s s e s s , t h o u g h in an in
dividual fashion, the m e m b e r s h i p which w e a t t r i b u t e to them. This
s u p p o s e s , on t h e o n e h a n d , a c o n s t i t u t i o n of o b j e c t s a n d , o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , a c o n s t i t u t i o n , of t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e , s u c h t h a t t h e c o n
t e n t of t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t s , i s o l a t e d in t h e m i n d f r o m t h e i r
u n i v e r s a l m o d e of c o n c e p t i o n , is i d e n t i c a l w i t h w h a t t h i n g s a r e ,
c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t f r o m t h e i r c o n c r e t e i n d i v i d u a l m o d e of r e a l i z a
t i o n . T h u s w e h a v e t h e t w o f o l d c o n d i t i o n of t h e m o d e r a t e R e a l
i s m of S t . T h o m a s :
a ) A psychological condition, n a m e l y , t h a t the mind, by the
f a c t t h a t it g r a s p s a s e n s e - p e r c e p t i b l e o b j e c t i m m a t e r i a l l y ,
s t r i p s t h i s o b j e c t p r e c i s e l y of w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s i t s i n d i
viduality ;
b ) An ontolof/ical condition of objects. T h e y m u s t be such
t h a t their only difference, a p a r t from purely accidental
v a r i a t i o n s , in r e l a t i o n to a g i v e n specific c o n c e p t , is t h e i r
individual difference. In t h e i r i n n e r p h y s i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n ,
t h e y m u s t c o n f o r m to the s a m e objective law, t h e y m u s t
be specifically a l i k e .
T h e s e t w o c o n d i t i o n s c a n be r e a l i z e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n l y if
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y of a s e n s e - p e r c e p t i b l e o b j e c t is l i n k e d u p w i t h
i t s m a t e r i a l i t y in s u c h w i s e t h a t t h e d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n of t h e o b j e c t
i n v o l v e s i t s d i s i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . N o w t o d c m a t c r i a l i z e an o b j e c t
is t h e s a m e t h i n g a s t o s t r i p it of its q u a n t i f i e d m o d e of b e i n g .
T h e r e f o r e q u a n t i f i e d m a t t e r is t h e n e c e s s a r y p r i n c i p l e of t h e in
d i v i d u a t i o n of s e n s e - p e r c e p t i b l e o b j e c t s . T h e r e is t h u s s o l i d a r i t y
b e t w e e n t h e T h o m i s t i c t h e s i s of m a t t e r (materia signal a quan-
titate) a s t h e p r i n c i p l e of i n d i v i d u a t i o n a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e
a s t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t of c o g n i t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e n w e s a y in faith t h a t P e t e r is a m e m b e r of
t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y a n d t h a t P a u l is l i k e w i s e a m e m b e r of t h e
M y s t i c a l Body, w e a r e a t t r i b u t i n g to P e t e r and Paul an a b s o l u t e l y
i d e n t i c a l g r o u p of i n l e l l i g i b l c n o t e s e x p r e s s i v c of a n o b j e c t i v e
n a t u r e o r f o r m . T h i s n a t u r e o r f o r m is a p p r e h e n d e d by a p r o
c e s s of a b s t r a c t ion c a r r i e d out i m m e d i a t e l y b y t h e i m m a t e r i a l
11 >}
<D Of course, the words member of the Mystical Body manifest
t o u s the d i v i n e intelligible reality they signify, only by analogy,
t h r o u g h the gift of faith a n d by a process of n e g a t i o n , e l i m i n a t i o n , com
p a r i s o n and p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y , but they do give us real knowledge of our
ineffable r e l a t i o n to Christ, O u r Head. The gift of faith s t r e n g t h e n s
the intelligence to g r a s p the s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r . We suppose aH this,
as its d e v e l o p m e n t is not necessary for the p o i n t a t issue.
 THOMISM AND NOMINALISM 243

faculty called the intellectus agens on data attained by the senses.

The nature found in them really exists, that is, it is an objective
reality demanding to be respected in the organization of the
world, though it has no existence outside the mind except in the
(2
individual man (and others) and as identical with them. >

OCKHAMISM OR NOMINALISM.
In man Ockham distinguishes three kinds of knowledge: In
tuitive sense-knowledge, Intuitive intellectual knowledge and
Abstract intellectual knowledge. Ockham's account of sense-
knowledge is much the same as that of his scholastic predecessors,
an immediate, quantitative and therefore relative assimilation of
material forms by our organic sense-faculties. Intuitive intellect
ual knowledge is proper knowledge of the singular. Its object is
not metaphysical individuality but internal or external individual
facts, in a word, concrete experience. No matter what may be
said to the contrary, it is merely a transposition of sense-experi
ence to the intellect. Our first, immediate, and direct intellectual
knowledge is, therefore, of the concrete and individual. Abstract
intellectual knowledge presupposes this intuitive intellectual
knowledge of the individual, and it results from an elaboration of
individual perceptions, grouped according to their resemblances
under some common point of view, which serves to designate
all and each of them. Thus general concepts, whether formed
from intuitions of individual objects or from concepts already uni
versal, are nothing else than an immense natural system of signi
fication of individual objects grouping them together in different
ways and distributing them in classes duly labelled. Hence any
universal term, instead of designating a certain species or nature
common to many individuals, will have at most the value of a
collective label summing up individual experiences in a handy way,
according to a hierarchy of resemblances. The judgements em
bodying such concepts are simply abridged and co-ordinated ex
pressions of a number of individual experiences.
Accordingly, the formation of a universal concept in Ockham's
system is not a natural and primitive process of abstraction car
ried out immediately on sense data. It is primarily and exclusively
a process of reflex abstraction carried out on singular concepts.
Ockham, with less reserve than Scotus, makes our intellectual
knowledge begin by the direct apprehension of material singulars.
He then reasons as follows: If the individual essences arc first
known, the constitution of the universal ideas in our minds is
only a secondary, reflex operation, carried out upon our primitive
<2) For a full treatment of Thomism and Oc-khamism, in regard to
the value of universal ideas, cf. the remarkable work of Pc-re Mardchal,
8. J., Le Point de Depart de la Meta physique, Cahier I.
244 THK MYSTICAL B O D Y OK CJ1R1ST

representations of individuals. It will be a sort of classification or

arrangement, nothing more. Even though guided by the resembl
ance of the sense-perceptible appearances, it will never give us
de jure anything else than subjective points of view, general
symbols, grouping together in a uniform series the individuals
with which we have been in contact. There is nothing to guar
antee us that these symbols, constructed and carved out by us in
this way, express so many essential natures of and in the objects.
It is clear that the procedure we have described, and about which
a lot more could be written, leads straight lo a theory of know
ledge which does not admit that the universal nature is in any way
in things and which limits the scope of objectively valid knowledge
to individuals. The nature xohich the intellect grasps becomes
merely a collection of individuals.

CONSEQUENCES OF OCKHAMISM OR NOMINALISM

WITH REGARD TO FAITH IN THK MYSTICAL
BODY OF CHRIST.

We can now indicate brielly some of the consequences of

Ockhani's theory of knowledge. Ockham's teaching introduces
into the philosophical explanation of the teachings of faith, ideas
which combat the holding of the faith in its fulness and purity.
As a Catholic, Ockham must have accepted in some way our
membership of Christ's Mystical Body, thus admitting that we
3
form with Our Lord, True God and True Man, a vast organism.< >
As an organic whole this Body has a definite constitution or nature
which must, be respected in the organization of society; and since
it is charged with the interests of our highest life, it is above all
States and nations. Ockhairfs philosophy, however, tended to
(3) The first chapter of the Dogmatic Constitution of the Church
drawn up fur -discussion at the Vatican Council is entitled "The
Church is the Mystical Body of Christ."
" The agnosticism of Ockham, an eccentric religious but a sincere
believer, did not make him sceptical about transcendent realities. He
found the lacunae of rational knowledge guaranteed to him in advance
by revealed faith, to which he freely adhered" (Pore Marechal, S.J.,
on p. 1 9 4 of Le Taint de Depart de la Metaphysiique, Cahier I).
After having given an account of the 51 articles taken from Ockham'*
works, and about which a condemnatory re-port was drawn up in 1326
at Avignon, whither Ockham had been summoned by the Pope in 1324,
the writer of the article on Ockham in the Dirtionnaire de Theologie
says that there was no Papal condemnation of these articles or of the
whole body of Ockhamism. lie adds that wo would nowadays expect a
condemnation of these doctrines as a matter of course. The formula
of retractation imposed by Clement VI on Ockham in 1 3 4 9 alludes only
to his politico-ecclesiastical doctrines. It is doubtful whether Ockham
was ever reconciled lo the Church and relieved of the excommunica
tion pronounced against him in 1328. ITc may have been carried off by
the Black Death bo fore the formula of retractation reached him.
 TH0M1SM AND NOMINALISM 245

produce a m e n t a l i t y opposed to this doctrine. F o r him, w e cannot

have o b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e of a n a t u r e s h a r e d in b y all m e n , a s
the T h o m i s t s u n d e r s t a n d it. T r u l y o b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e is l i m i t e d
to i n d i v i d u a l s . N o w o n d e r t h e i d e a of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t
lost c o n s i s t e n c y for m i n d s g r o w n a c c u s t o m e d t o O c k h a m ' s t e a c h
ing. T h e c o n c e p t of D i v i n e G r a c e , t h e L i f e - b l o o d f l o w i n g f r o m
the H e a d t o t h e m e m b e r s of t h e B o d y , i n e v i t a b l y g r e w v a g u e a l s o .
I t is n o t , t h e n , a m a t t e r f o r a s t o n i s h m e n t t h a t , s i n c e t h e r e a r e
no n a t u r e s a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , n o n a t u r a l r e l a t i o n s of t h i n g s , O c k
ham s h o u l d p r o f e s s t h e m o s t a b s o l u t e v o l u n t a r i s m . T h e r e is n o
such t h i n g a s g o o d o r evil in t h e n a t u r e of t h i n g s . E v e n h a t r e d
of g o o d is n o t evil in itself. If G o d c o m m a n d e d it, it w o u l d n o t
be evil a n y l o n g e r .
As social o r d e r for O c k h a m ' s m i n d tended to b e c o m e r a t h e r a
q u e s t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t i e s , h i s d o c t r i n a l difficulties w i t h t h e P o p e
and t h e p a r t y s t r u g g l e s in t h e b o s o m of h i s r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y i n
clined h i m t o m o d i f y h i s i d e a s of social o r d e r t o s u i t c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
Thus h e w a s led o n t o f a v o u r t h e " d e m o c r a c y " of M a r s i l i u s of
P a d u a , w i t h i t s e m p h a s i s o n t h e will of t h e m a j o r i t y d e l e g a t i n g
4
p o w e r t o t h e E m p e r o r o r R u l e r / * T h e w r i t e r of t h e a r t i c l e in t h e
Dictionnaire de Theologie a d d s t h a t t h e a d v e r s a r i e s of t h e P o p e -
and of t h e * D i v i n e C o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e C h u r c h h a v e a l w a y s b e e n
able t o find a b u n d a n t a r g u m e n t s in O c k h a m ' s Dialogue

NOMINALISM AND SEPARATISM.

A n o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e of O c k h a m ' s t e a c h i n g is d e s e r v i n g of
very s p e c i a l m e n t i o n . I t is t h r o u g h o u r i n t e l l e c t u a l g r a s p of t h e
n a t u r e of a n o b j e c t t h a t w e a r e a b l e t o see t h a t o u r v i e w s of it
are c o m p l e m e n t a r y a s p e c t s of o n e w h o l e . S e n s e - k n o w l e d g e t e n d s
to s e c t i o n a n d s e p a r a t e : o n e i n d i v i d u a l is d i s t i n c t f r o m a n o t h e r .
O c k h a m ' s t h e o r y of a n i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t u i t i o n of t h e s i n g u l a r o r
i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t r e a l l y d e g r a d e s t h e i n t e l l e c t to t h e l e v e l of s e n s e .
(4) " M a r s i l i u s of P a d u a a p p e a r s as the first of those noisy liberators
who invoke the r i g h t s of the people only with a view to establish more
firmly the u n r e s t r i c t e d absolutism of r u l e r s " {Rccherches sur VEsprit
Politique de la Reforme, by G. de L a g a r d e , p. 56). The a u t h o r is
a l l u d i n g to the d o c t r i n e of the Defensor minor of M a r s i l i u s . On the
same page, he a t t r i b u t e s the movement in the 14th a n d 15th centuries,
away from the. objective o r d e r g r a s p e d by St. Thomas, to the cumulative
influence of R o m a n Law a n d N o m i n a l i s m . The influence of the " Royal
, ;
Law a l l u d e d to by Godefroid Kurfch is evident.
T h e Defensor Pads of M a r s i l i u s of P a d u a was condemned by Pope
John X X I I in 1327. I n the Index libroriun prohibitorum published in
1564 by P o p e P a u l IV, the Defensor Pads is classed as heretical a n d
as belonging to the first category of condemned works. Two of Ockham's
works, the Opus nonaginta dierum a n d Dialogi et scripta omnia contra
Joannem X X / / , are included in the second category.
1
(5) G. de Lasrarde has p r o m i s e d a book on GaiUaume d Occam et la
Democratic Religiev.se.
 246 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Nominalism tends to t r a n s f o r m our different mental representa

t i o n s i n t o i s o l a t e d e n t i t i e s w i t h o u t a s u b s t a n t i a l n a t u r e . W i t h the
p a s s i n g of t i m e t h i s w i l l g i v e r i s e t o t h e L i b e r a l i s m , S e p a r a t i s m
a n d I n d i v i d u a l i s m of L o c k e , w h o s e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c t h e o r i e s
h a v e w e i g h e d so heavily on the m o d e r n w o r l d . L o c k e ' s philosophy
(f>
is a p r o l o n g a t i o n of O c k h a m i s m in t h e d i r e c t i o n of E m p i r i c i s m . >
T h e E m p i r i c a l f o r m of N o m i n a l i s m w i n d s u p in F a n t h e i s m as
d o e s t h e I d e a l i s t f o r m . T h e N o m i n a l i s t U n i v e r s e is a d i s c o n t i n u
o u s u n i v e r s e of j u x t a p o s e d o b j e c t s , of w h i c h t h e g r o u p i n g s or
a s s e m b l a g e s revealed by experience r e m a i n a m y s t e r y for h u m a n
t h o u g h t . T h e r e a r e n o n a t u r e s of t h i n g s . T h e r e is n o vinculum
substantiate^ t o u s e L e i b n i t z ' s e x p r e s s i o n , n o m e t a p h y s i c a l bond
of u n i t y . T h e b e i n g s t h a t a r e in t h e w o r l d h a v e n o t h i n g t o link
them together or explain them. Inevitably, then, " Nominalism,
w h i c h lives a g a i n in P o s i t i v i s m o r S e n s i s m , c o m e s t o d o u b t of
t h e r e a l a n d e s s e n t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n of G o d a n d t h e w o r l d , b e c a u s e
t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is n o t c a p a b l e of b e i n g verified b y e x p e r i e n c e .
F r o m t h a t it is a n e a s y t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e is
p e r h a p s o n l y o n e s u b s t a n c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e real d i s t i n c t i o n of
h u m a n individuals, which a p p e a r s so c l e a r a t the o u t s e t from the
f a c t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e s e p a r a t e d in s p a c e , b e c o m e s d o u b t
ful. I t f o l l o w s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s of e a c h of t h e s e h u m a n i n d i v i d u a l s a r e p e r h a p s only
phenomena, perhaps mere subjective representations. T h u s the
e x t e r n a l w o r l d b e c o m e s p u r e l y a n d s i m p l y ' a p h e n o m e n a l possi
b i l i t y of s e n s a t i o n s / t o u s e t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h a t m o d e r n phil
o s o p h e r , J o h n S t u a r t M i l l , w h o s e Logic is a S u m m a of N o m i n a l
i s m . N o m i n a l i s m i n t h e l o n g r u n d o e s a w a y w i t h all r e a l dis
t i n c t i o n s , e v e n t h o s e t h a t it a l l o w e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a s b e i n g
empirically evident, even the real distinction b e t w e e n t w o human
b e i n g s e x i s t i n g a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of s p a c e . T h e u l t i m a t e c o n c l u
s i o n is a f o r m of P a n t h e i s m in w h i c h G o d is, a f t e r a c e r t a i n fash
i o n , a b s o r b e d in t h e w o r l d . G o d is n o t , a s R e n a n u s e d t o s a y , H e
is e v o l v i n g in t h e w o r l d , in t h e a s c e n d i n g m a r c h of e v o l u t i o n . All
(7
r e a l d i s t i n c t i o n s d i s a p p e a r i n t h e u n i v e r s a l flux of H e r a c l i t u s . " >
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e R e p o r t of t h e G e n e r a l C h a p t e r of t h e D o m i n i
c a n O r d e r h e l d in 1346, P o p e C l e m e n t V I o r d e r e d t h e F r i a r s
P r e a c h e r s t o a d h e r e s t r i c t l y t o t h e d o c t r i n e of St. T h o m a s . T h e
s a m e P o n t i f f w r o t e a l s o t h a t s a m e y e a r t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s
t h e L e t t e r , Singvlaris dilectionis, in w h i c h h e d r e w a s e r i e s of
l e s s o n s f r o m t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n of N i c h o l a s of A u t r e c o u r t , a m a s
t e r of t h e U n i v e r s i t y .

(6) Cf. Le point de Depart de la Mctaphysique, Cabiers I a n d I I ,

by P e r e M a r e c h a l , S.J. Cf. also Precis d'llistoire de la Philosophie
Moderne, by the same author.
c?> Revue Thomistc^ 1938, article by P e r e G a r r i g o u - L a g r a n g e , O.P.,
on Pantheism and the Real Distinction.
 THOMISM AND NOMINALISM 247

The Pope was himself a past student of the University and

he expressed deep regret that " several masters and students of
the Faculty of Arts despised Aristotle and the other ancient teach
ers whom they should follow, and were turning to various other
sophistical and foreign doctrines, said to be taught in other uni
versities, opinions which cannot produce good fruit." By foreign
doctrines taught elsewhere, the Pope meant doctrines taught at
Oxford. " The Pope was not listened to," comments M. Maritain,
and " from the second half of the 14th century onwards, Ockharn-
ism, in a more or less mitigated form, reigned supreme in the
(8J
University of Paris and in most of the Schools."
God had made to the world the gift of St. Thomas and the
ungrateful and wrangling world had not welcomed him. Luther's
revolt brought home to many how far they had gone astray.
Luther, who knew scholasticism chiefly through Gabriel Biel, the
last great representative of Ockhamism, placed Ockham far above
9
St. Thomas Aquinas whom he despised.* * As Father Denifle, O.P.,
(ltn
expresses it: " Luther always remained an Ockhamist," so
his mind was prepared for the rending of the Mystical Body of
Christ and for the separation he inaugurated between the Christ
ian and the citizen, between faith and works, and between Grace
and nature, the latter being, according to him, essentially cor-
rupt.di)

(8) Antimodernc, p. 137.

o> Cf. Luther, by H. Grisar, S.J., vol.. I, P< 131.
I n 1520, Luther wrote against the theologians of Louvain and
Cologne that " Ockham was without any doubt the first and ablest of
the Scholastic D o c t o r s " (quoted by H. Denifle, 0 . P . , Luther et le
Luthe'remivme. Vol. I l l , p. 202). If we are to believe Melancthon in his
Preface to the second volume of Luther's Works, Wittenberg, 1546,
" Luther was able to quote from memory Biel and d'Ailly almost word
for word. He was deeplv .versed in Ockham's writings. * The latter he
considered superior to Thomas and Scotus " (quoted b y Paul Vi^naux
in Tjitther* Commentateur des Sentences, p. 45).
<'0) Luther et le Luthiranisme, vol. I l l , p. 196.
<it> We may add the testimony of Pere Geny, S.J., i n h i s Brevit
Conspectus Ilistoriae Philosophiae. p. 198, to the effect that " the modern
writers, who look upon Ockham as a precursor of the religious revolu
tion of the 16th century, as well as of the philosophical revolution of
the 17th, are right in their judgement."
 CHAPTER XII.

NOMINALISM AND THK ADVENT OF SOCIAL

MATERIALISM.

THK TWO CURRENTS ISSUING FROM OCKHAMISM.

W c h a v e s e e n t h a t S t . T h o m a s t e a c h e s t h a t t h e r e is c l o s e coll
a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n s e n s e a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e in t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of
o u r intellectual knowledge. O n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s e n s e d a t a ,
t h e i n t e l l e c t a p p r e h e n d s t h e n a t u r e of s e n s e p e r c e p t i b l e o b j e c t s
a n d , t h r o u g h t h e a n a l o g y of b e i n g , b y r e a s o n i n g , it c a n a s c e n d t o
God, w h o completely transcends the world. This h a r m o n i o u s func
t i o n i n g of t h e t w o s e t s of f a c u l t i e s of t h e o n e b e i n g , m a n , g a v e
p l a c e in t h e O c k h a m i s t s y s t e m t o a s i m p l e e x t r i n s i c c o - o r d i n a t i o n
of s e n s e and intellect. O c k h a m j u x t a p o s e s in u s t w o f a c u l t i e s
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to him, s e e m to h a v e t h e s a m e formal object, the
individual. Of c o u r s e , h e affirms t h a t t h e s e n s e f a c u l t i e s a r e
m a t e r i a l a n d t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t is i m m a t e r i a l , b u t s i n c e t h e y b o t h
h a v e t h e s a m e o b j e c t , o n e of t h e t w o b e c o m e s s u p e r f l u o u s . In
t h e c o u r s e of t i m e , m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h is e n t i r e l y N o m i n a l
i s t i n i t s a t t i t u d e t o t h e o b j e c t i v e v a l u e of t h e u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e s
g r a s p e d by o u r i n t e l l i g e n c e in t h e d a t a of s e n s e , a n d t o (he r e a s o n
i n g b a s e d t h e r e o n , p r o c e e d s to sacrifice o n e of t h e t w o f a c u l t i e s .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e f a c u l t y sacrificed wc h a r e t h e t w o currents of
0 1
N o m i n a l i s m i n t o w h i c h M o d e r n P h i l o s o p h y is d i v i d e d .

THE FIRST CURRENT, THE NOMINALISM

OF DESCARTES.
W e h a v e , t h e n , on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e N o m i n a l i s m of D e s c a r t e s ,
M a l e b r a n c h c , Leibnitz and Spinoza, combined with an O n t o l o g -
i s m i n s p i r e d b y P l a t o n i s m . O n a c c o u n t of t h i s O n t o l o g i s m , M a l e
b r a n c h c t e a c h e s t h a t w c h a v e a n i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e of G o d a n d
(1) F o r the development of the ideas here briefly outlined, see Le
Point de Depart de la. M eta physique, Cahicrs I ct J J, by P e r e
M a r e c h a l , S.J., as well as Precis d'/iistoire de la Philosaphie Moderne,
by the same author. I n the l a t t e r work, on p a g e 75, to m e n t i o n one
p o i n t , we r e a d : " The d i s c r e d i t into which the universals fell from the
decline of the Middle Ages o n w a r d s is d u e especially to the fact t h a t ,
i n N o m i n a l i s t fashion, they were held to he merely formal generalisa
tions, not e x p l a n a t o r y p r i n c i p l e s . " Pere Mnrechal refers in p a r t i c u l a r
to Descartes ( P r i n c i p i a I, Nos. 58, 9, V I I I , p. 23).
 NOMINALISM AND SOCJAL MATKRJAL'ISM 249
of the order of being: in the case of Descartes and Leibnitz our
ideas o f God, etc., are innate. This current issuing from Nominal
ism inevitably leads to the Pantheism of Spinoza, bv which m a n is
identified with Cod. So we see that, in the Cartesian school, it is
the sense faculty that is sacrificed. The ''sensation" or "sense-
idea" differs from the other ideas by the fact that it is occasioned
by the state of the material sensorium. as well as by the "confu
sion" of its. content, in contrast with " t h e clear and distinct
ideas." It does not differ by its intrinsic nature: it has become a
special kind of "confused" intelligence. Since the origin of the
content o f our ideas cannot be explained by the material passivity
of our senses, and since the harmonious functioning of the two
sets of faculties of the one nature h a s thus given place to a cor
poreal automaton with merely local motion on the one band and
a soul on the other, the innate ideas of Descartes and Leibnitz or
(2)
the Ontologism of Malebranche become indispensable.

THK SKCOND CURRKNT, THE NOMINALISM

OF LOCKK.

The second current issuing from Nominalism is the o n e with

which we are more particularly concerned in the account of the
uprise of Social Materialism. This docs not mean that Cartesian-
ism has not contributed to the advent of Ibis materialism, for
it has exercised a considerable influence on the movement of
ideas, but that the preponderating role has been taken by the
Nominalism of l,ocke, Hume and Comic. This current gradually
g o t rid of the intelligence, finally reducing it to the rank and
function of an internal sense. Owing lo the fact that, since the
Fall, sense life tends to dominate in man, it was the sensist cur
rent which prevailed, in great part owing to the influence of Locke
(2) In preparation for what we have to say later about the Prussian
b

reaction against the domination of Judaeo-M nsoury, it is H O . 1 1 to note

1
here what M. Maritain points out in lit jit.////x */// Tintelligence (p.
30). T w o currents of Idealism have proceeded from the Cartesian
explanation of knowledge. A pox If. Ire. current is to he seen in the
1
dependence of our ideas, like the angelic ideas, on tin First Cause and
Creative Truth, in the philosophies of Malebranche, Spinoza and Leib
nitz. A negative current is to be found in the Cartesian view .that our
ideas, like the angelic ideas, . d o not depend on things and arc not
measured by them. Kant comes along and ascribes to those ideas that
do not depend on things the properties of God's Creative Knowledge.
The philosopher of Konigsberg does not assert that our ideas depend
immediately on God like the angelic ideas, but that they are, like the
D i v i n e ideas, the measure of things. Thus they are self-regulating and
the human mind enjoys perfect autonomy. Fichtc. Schelling and Hegel
represent the progress of (his current of thought, according to which,
the autonomous human mind, having as its noblest manifestation the
Prussian mind, is the source of the order of being.
 250 THK MYSTICAL B O D Y OK CHRTST

o n K n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h t h o u g h t a f t e r h i s d a y . Of c o u r s e L o c k e
is a h e s i t a n t s e m i - e m p i r i c i s t o r s e m i - s e n s i s t . H e r e t a i n s in h i s
i d e a of s u b s t a n c e , for e x a m p l e , a v a g u e s o m e t h i n g of t h e T h o m i s -
t i c i n t e l l e c t u a l a p p r e h e n s i o n of t h e n a t u r e of b e i n g . Therefore,
h e is n o t a r a d i c a l p h e n o m e n a l i s t o r s e n s i s t l i k e H u m e , b u t n e v e r
t h e l e s s t h e s e p a r a t i s m a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s m of L i b e r a l i s m a r e in g r e a t
( 3 J
p a r t d u e to his w r i t i n g s .
" N o t h i n k e r / ' w r i t e s M. Vialatoux, " h a s given a m o r e se
d u c t i v e a n d a m o r e readily a c c e p t a b l e t u r n to his ideas than
Locke. . . . T h e Reformation and the Renaissance, the empiric
i s m of B a c o n , t h e r a t i o n a l i s m of D e s c a r t e s a n d H o b b e s , t h e
s c i e n t i f i c p o s i t i v i s m of p h y s i c i s t s a n d d o c t o r s s u c h a s B o y l e a n d
S y d e n h a m , t h e m e r c a n t i l e a n d l i b e r a l s p i r i t of t h e c a p i t a l i s t ' b o u r
geoisie/ the unvarying politeness, the practical common-sense, the
w e l l b a l a n c e d m o d e r a t i o n of h i s c l a s s a n d h i s c o u n t r y . . . all
t h e s e v a r i o u s g i f t s a n d i n f l u e n c e s l i l t e d h i m f o r t h e t a s k of g i v i n g
h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s in a s i m p l e a n d e a s y f o r m t h e i d e a s a n d
theories which their minds w e r e p r e p a r e d t o assimilate. A n d he
h a s certainly wielded e n o r m o u s influence. I a m not alluding
m e r e l y to that which h e exercised on his f e l l o w - c o u n t r y m e n , from
H u m e a n d A d a m S m i t h to B e n t h a m , S t u a r t Mill a n d Spender,
t h o u g h i t w a s e n o r m o u s a n d it w o u l d b e f a l s e t o s a y t h a t it d o e s
n o t i n t e r e s t u s . 1 * ill w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t of all t h e K n g l i s h
w r i t e r s admired and followed with such e x t r a o r d i n a r y e n t h u s i a s m
b y t h e F r e n c h P h i l o s o p h e r s of t h e 18th c e n t u r y , h e w a s t h e m o s t
p o p u l a r a n d t h e m o s t influential. H e it w a s w h o w o n o v e r t h e
u n g r a t e f u l p o s t e r i t y of D e s c a r t e s . H e w a s t h e t e a c h e r , in l o g i c ,
p o l i t i c s a n d p s y c h o l o g y , a s well a s in s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , e c o n o m i c
a n d p e d a g o g i c p h i l o s o p h y , of C o n d i l l a e , M o n t e s q u i e u , V o l t a i r e ,
d ' A l c m b e r t , D i d e r o t , H c l v c t i u s , d ' H o l b a c h , in a w o r d , of all t h e
w r i t e r s of t h e K n c y c l o p c d i a . Kven R o u s s e a u c a m e u n d e r his
sway. H e w a s t h e p r o f e s s o r of t h e s e c t of t h e E c o n o m i s t s .
T u r g o t w a s his p u p i l , a n d i t h a s n o t b e e n sufficiently r e m a r k e d
t h a t O u e s n a y w a s also. W h e n w e point o u t t h e influence which
L o c k e h a d u p o n o u r 18th c e n t u r y , a r e w e n o t , a t t h e s a m e t i m e ,
a f f i r m i n g t h a t t h a t i n f l u e n c e is e x e r c i s e d i n d i r e c t l y u p o n o u r e p o c h

<3) T h e influence of Ockham on Locke is t r e a t e d a t some length in

the work of K r a k o w s k i , Lt*s iSoiuves M edievaJes de la Vhilosophie de
]joeke, especially p p . 115-139. Though K r a k o w s k i ' s knowledge of Schol
a s t i c Philosophy is imperfect, his historical i n f o r m a t i o n is useful.
Locke was born in 1632 a n d died in 1704. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to note
t h a t , according to K r a k o w s k i (p. 41), q u o t i n g b e t t e r ' s Histoirc de la
philosophic chretienne, the Summa totius Lof/ieae of William of Ockham
was still in use as a m a n u a l a t Oxford a t the end of the 17th century.
A c c o r d i n g to the same writer, the Ethics of B u r i d a n was r e p r i n t e d
a t Oxford in 1637. his Politics in 1640. P e r e Marechal, S.J., quotes
a G e r m a n work by T e l l k a m p to the same effect in Precis d Histoire de la
Philosophic Mod erne i p . 242.
 NOMINALISM AND SOCIAL MATERIALISM 251

and upon ourselves? When we study Locke, we find clearly for

mulated the postulates which constitute the foundation of modern
social life arid nrc the hidden, though mostly unsuspected, animat
ing principles ol our institutions and of our modes of thought and
action.""*
Locke's " ideas " do not give him a grasp of the nature which
is the principle of unity of a number of individuals of a species.
They cannot do so, for, firstly, in his definition of " idea," he con
5
founds sense-representation and intellectual concept/ ' and
6
secondly, he is a Nominalist in regard to the idea of " species."* *
It is true that he stops half way in his empiricism, for he wishes
to safeguard a small number of traditional intellectual theses, but
in his system there is continual sectioning and separation. For
example, the moral truths that follow from the nature and des
tiny of man are separated from the world of experience which is
governed by its own " laws of nature," and society has no duty
to God and Religion.
A theory of knowledge, which breaks the harmonious union of
intellect and sense in grasping the objective reality of the nature
of man and the order of the world, and which gives the primacy
to sense over reason, inevitably sections life into non-communi
cating departments and posits individualism as the foundation o f
all its social teaching. It inevitably leads to the denial of a uni
versally valid order in the world and to the limitation of objective
knowledge to that of individuals.
The function of political society thus ceases to be deduced from
the social nature of fallen man redeemed through membership of
Christ. As a created entity, the State or political organization is
meant, as we have seen, to aid man in' acknowledging and accept
ing the order laid down by God for return to Himself, by fulfilling
its duty to God. For Locke, on the contrary, the State, instead
of being the well ordered organization of a natural society, is
merely an artificial creation of autonomous persons. It is a free
and artificial association of persons into which they enter from a
previous non-social natural state, in view of safeguarding their
civil interests, especially their property and their ownership of

<*)
5
Philosophic ftconomique, by J. Vialatoux, pp. 125-126.
<> " I have used it [the word ' idea '] to express whatever is meant
by phantasm, notion, species, or whatever it is which the mind can bo
employed about in thinking " (Essay on the Human Understanding,
Book I, Chapter T).
6
<> "And indeed it was only the doctrine of substantial forms, and
the confidence of mistaken pretenders to a knowledge they had not, which
first coined and then introduced animalitie^ and humanities, and the
like; which yet went little further than their own schools, and could
M
never get to be current amongst understanding men (Exxay on the
Human Underxtandinq, Book III, Chapter VIII. Cf. Chapters III
and VI in the same Book).
 252 Tl-Ili M Y S T I C A L BODY OF CHRIST

m o n e y a n d l a n d s . T h e S t a t e , f o r L o c k e , is in f a c t o n l y a s o c i e t y
of m u t u a l a s s u r a n c e s e t u p b y a g r o u p of f r e e p r o p r i e t o r s t o s a f e
( 7 J
guard themselves against loss. It has no d u t y to God. L e t us
n o w illustrate these points by some quotations from Locke's
works.
I n Letters concerning Toleration, w e r e a d : " I e s t e e m it a b o v e
all t h i n g s n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h e x a c t l y t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e civil
g o v e r n m e n t f r o m t h a t of r e l i g i o n , a n d t o s e t t l e t h e j u s t b o u n d s
t h a t lie b e t w e e n t h e o n e a n d t h e o t h e r . . . . T h e c o m m o n w e a l t h
s e e m s t o m e t o be a s o c i e t y of m e n c o n s t i t u t e d o n l y f o r p r o
c u r i n g , p r e s e r v i n g a n d a d v a n c i n g t h e i r o w n civil i n t e r e s t s . Civil
i n t e r e s t s J call life, l i b e r t y , h e a l t h a n d i n d o l e n c e of b o d y , a n d t h e
p o s s e s s i o n of o u t w a r d t h i n g s s u c h a s m o n e y , l a n d s , h o u s e s , f u r
n i t u r e , a n d t h e l i k e . It is t h e d u t y of t h e civil m a g i s t r a t e , b y t h e
i m p a r t i a l e x e c u t i o n of e q u a l l a w s , t o s e c u r e u n t o all t h e p e o p l e
i n g e n e r a l , a n d t o e v e r y o n e of his s u b j e c t s in p a r t i c u l a r , t h e j u s t
p o s s e s s i o n of t h e s e t h i n g s b e l o n g i n g t o t h i s life. . . . T h e r e f o r e
is t h e m a g i s t r a t e a r m e d w i t h t h e f o r c e a n d s t r e n g t h of all h i s
s u b j e c t s , in o r d e r t o p u n i s h t h o s e t h a t v i o l a t e a n y o t h e r m a n ' s
r i g h t s . N o w t h a t t h e w h o l e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e m a g i s t r a t e r e a c h e s
o n l y t o t h e civil c o n c e r n m e n t s a n d t h a t all civil p o w e r , r i g h t a n d
d o m i n i o n is b o u n d e d a n d c o n f i n e d t o t h e o n l y c a r e of p r o m o t i n g
t h e s e t h i n g s : a n d t h a t it n e i t h e r c a n n o r o u g h t in a n y m a n n e r t o
b e e x t e n d e d to t h e s a l v a t i o n of s o u l s , t h e s e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a
t i o n s s e e m to m e a b u n d a n t l y to d e m o n s t r a t e
" L e t u s c o n s i d e r w h a t a c h u r c h is. A c h u r c h t h e n T t a k e to
b e a v o l u n t a r y s o c i e t y of m e n , j o i n i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o g e t h e r of
t h e i r o w n a c c o r d , in o r d e r t o t h e p u b l i c w o r s h i p p i n g of G o d , in
s u c h a m a n n e r a s t h e y jx.u)^e a c c e p t a b l e t o H i m , a n d e f f e c t u a l t o
t h e s a l v a t i o n of t h e i r s o u l s . . . . It is n o t m y b u s i n e s s t o e n q u i r e
h e r e i n t o t h e o r i g i n of t h e p o w e r a n d d i g n i t y of t h e c l e r g y . T h i s
o n l y d o 1 s a y , t h a t w h e n c e s o e v e r t h e i r a u t h o r i t y be s p r u n g , s i n c e
i t is e c c l e s i a s t i c a l , it o u g h t t o b e confined w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of
t h e c h u r c h , n o r can it in any maimer be e x t e n d e d to civil a f f a i r s ;
b e c a u s e t h e c h u r c h itself is a t h i n g a b s o l u t e l y s e p a r a t e a n d d i s
t i n c t f r o m t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h . T h e b o u n d a r i e s on b o t h s i d e s a r e
fixed a n d i m m o v a b l e . H e j u m b l e s h e a v e n a n d e a r t h t o g e t h e r , t h e
things most remote and opposite, who mixes these societies which
a r e in t h e i r o r i g i n a n d b u s i n e s s , a n d in e v e r y t h i n g , p e r f e c t l y d i s
t i n c t a n d infinitely d i l r c r e n t from each o t h e r
" F o r t h e political s o c i e t y is i n s t i t u t e d f o r no o t h e r e n d , b u t
o n l y t o s e c u r e e v e r y m a n ' s p o s s e s s i o n of t h e t h i n g s of t h i s life.
T h e c a r e of e a c h m a n ' s s o u l , a n d of t h e t h i n g s of h e a v e n , w h i c h
n e i t h e r d o c s b e l o n g to t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , n o r can b e s u b j e c t e d
t o it, is left e n t i r e l y t o e v e r y m a n ' s self. T h u s t h e s a f e g u a r d of

(?) Philosophic Sconomique, by J. Via.la.toux, p p . 144-149.

 NOMINALISM A N D SOCIAL MATERIALISM 253

man's life and of the things that belong unto this life, is the busi
ness of the commonwealth; and the preserving of these things
8
unto their own is the duty of the magistrate."' *
Thus we see sectioning and individualism in the relations of
religious bodies and the State. The State, though a created en
tity, has no duty to God and religion, in fact, there s e e m s to be
no Divine Plan for order. Instead of being born into a world
with an established order, supernatural and natural, which they
are bound to respect, individual human persons come into exist
ence in a pre-social condition, out of which they emerge by freely
contracting to set up the order that suits them, Locke borrows
his method and his principles from Hobbes. Like liobbes, he
derives the origin of society from a state of nature, in which
man was not in society. For him as for Hobbes, society arises
from a reciprocal agreement of free individual wills previously
isolated and separated, in a vvord, from a "social contract." So
from a state of dispersion and anarchy, these human atoms pass
into a combination, but the law of the social organization which
results from this contract remains individualist and separatist.
Men simply seek in society a means of pursuing in security and
peace their particular ends and of better defending their separate
destinies against the danger of mutual encroachments on their
9
respective properties.* '
Hobbes, stressing exclusively man's individualityheld that
when abandoning the condition of war "which coincides with the
free state of nature, the individuals contracting hand over all
their rights, including their right of property, to the State, which
has absolute power and is not responsible to anyone. Locke, on
the contrary, stressing exclusively the independence of man's
personality, holds that the autonomous persons, when making the
social contract, keep their liberty, and above all, the unrestricted
right of property. Before men freely agreed that all the wealth
of the world would have its representation and its pledge in coined
metal or money, the interest of each one was to limit his property
to what he could make use of. With the advent of money, it
became the interest of each to produce beyond his needs, because-
he could exchange the excess for money and utilize the money to
purchase the labour of others, either to avoid working himself or
(8) These extracts are quoted from the London edition of 1765,
printed fc'or A. Millar, etc.
(9) " It is not -without reason that he fa man] seeks out and is will
ing to join in society with others who are already united, or have &
mind to unite for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and
estates, which I will call by the general name, property. The great and
chief end, therefore, of men uniting into commonwealths, and putting
themselves under government, is the preservation of their property: to
which in the state of Nature there are many things wanting " (Second
Treatise on Civil Government, Chapter IX).
 254. THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

to i n c r e a s e h i s w e a l t h w i t h o u t l i m i t a t i o n . * )
10
The a d v e n t of money
t h u s l e d i n e v i t a b l y t o a g r e a t i n e q u a l i t y in p o s s e s s i o n s .

LOCKE ON MONEY.

L o c k e h a s t r e a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n of m o n e y in h i s e s s a y s o n the
Consequences of the Flowering of Interest and Raising the Value
of Money ,and Further Considerations Concerning Raising the
Value of Money. T h e s e w e r e p u b l i s h e d in L o n d o n f r o m 1692 t o
1695 a n d w e r e d e s t i n e d t o e n l i g h t e n t h e E n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t , t h e
f o r m e r c o n c e r n i n g t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y of r e d u c i n g i n t e r e s t t o 4 p e r
cent., the latter c o n c e r n i n g the r e m e d y to be applied to the d e p r e
c i a t i o n of t h e E n g l i s h s i l v e r c u r r e n c y a t t h e t i m e . I n r e g a r d t o
n
the s e c o n d q u e s t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o A . E . F e a v e a r y e a r , < > L o c k e ' s
E s s a y , Further Considerations, etc., w a s p u b l i s h e d in r e p l y t o a
r e p o r t b y W i l l i a m L o w n d e s , S e c r e t a r y of t h e T r e a s u r y , e n t i t l e d
An Essay for the Amendment of Silver Coins ( 1 6 9 5 ) . Lowndes
w a n t e d t h e r e f o r m t o c o n s i s t in t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e c u r r e n c y
at t h e e x i s t i n g v a l u e , L o c k e w a n t e d a r e t u r n t o t h e old s t a n d a r d .
L o c k e ' s v i e w s w e r e a c c e p t e d a n d his Further Considerations have
b e c o m e " a l m o s t a g o s p e l for ' s o u n d m o n e y ' m e n , " t o u s e F e a -
v e a r y e a r ' s e x p r e s s i o n . S i r R o b e r t P e e l , b o t h in 1819 a n d in t h e
B a n k A c t of 1844, " s t o o d ' firmly b y t h e d o c t r i n e , w h i c h he o b
t a i n e d f r o m L o c k e , t h a t t h e u n i t w a s a d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t y of
b u l l i o n w h i c h m u s t n o t b e a l t e r e d . All t h e b e s t k n o w n w r i t e r s
of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r a i s e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t of 1819, b y w h i c h ,

(io) <*As much l a n d as a m a n tills, p l a n t s , improves, cultivates, a n d

Can use the p r o d u c t of, so much is his p r o p e r t y . Now of those good
t h i n g s which N a t u r e had provided in common, everyone had a r i g h t (as
h a s been s a i d ) to as much as ho could use and had a p r o p e r t y in all he
oould effect with his l a b o u r ; all t h a t his i n d u s t r y could extend to, to
a l t e r from the state N a t u r e had p u t it in, was his. . . . I t was a foolish
t h i n g , as well as dishonest, to hoard up more than he could make use
of. . . . .Right a n d conveniency went together. Foi* as a m a n h a d a
r i g h t to all he could employ his labour u p o n , so he had no t e m p t a t i o n
to l a b o u r for more than he could make use of. . . . T h i s I d a r e boldly
-affirm t h a t the same rule of propertyviz., t h a t every m a n should have
.as much as he could make use of, would still hold in the world . , .
h a d not the invention of money, and the tacit a g r e e m e n t of men to put
a value on it, introduced, by consent, l a r g e r -possessions and a r i g h t to
them . . . hut since gold a n d silver, being little use to the life of m a n ,
in p r o p o r t i o n to food, r a i m e n t , and c a r r i a g e , has its value only from
the consent of man . . . it is plain t h a t the consent of man has agreed
to a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e and unequal possession of the e a r t h . . .' they
h a v i n g , by consent, found o u t and agreed in a way how a man may,
r i g h t f u l l y and without i n j u r y , possess more t h a n he could make use of
by receiving gold and silver which may c o n t i n u e Jong in a m a n ' s
1
possession w i t h o u t d e c a y i n g ' (Second Treatise on Civil Government,
C h a p t e r V).
u
< ) The Pound Sterling, a History of English Money, p p . 124-137.
 NOMINALISM AND SOCIAL MATERIALISM 255

after the currency-inflation of the Napoleonic period, the old

standard was restored. Largely as a result of Locke's influence,
3 17s, 103d. an ounce came to be regarded as ;i magic price for
gold from which we ought never to stray and to which, if wc do,
12
we must always return."* *
Now, in both the above-mentioned measures, Locke saw a
violation of the natural laws which preside over the development
of public wealth. The value or purchasing power of money is due
to the quantity or weight of the metal composing it. This quali
tative or commodity-money, which is only a somewhat less com
plicated form of barter, is the only form which Locke in these
essays seems to consider possible. On that point we shall have
more to say later, but let us first examine the effect of his theories
on human society. Owing to the separatism and individualism
consequent upon his Nominalism, Locke seems to think that once
a man has given his consent to the institution of money and has
fixed upon these metals, silver and gold, he has only to accept the
results passively. These are, for example, what Locke terms the
natural use or interest on money and the prices determined by
the relation between the quantity of these commodities in the
market and other commodities.
"Economic phenomena," writes Monsieur Vialatoux, "are no
longer human phenomena: they take place in a world apart and
live their own life, so to say, without having to take account of
moral ends or without being subject to efficacious voluntary action
on the part of man or human society. They are sectioned off and
are quite independent of our intervention, or rather, the only link
which unites them to us is that by which they control our lives
and by which we are chained to them. It is this theory of price,
of which the essential postulate is the separation of economics
from morality, which for Locke gives the key to the solution of
the problem of interest, as later on it will give the key to the
solution of the problem of wages. . . . It is always the quantity of
money, symbol and pledge of wealth, which sets up the economic
law. In its relation of exchange with the object it buys and with
trade in this kind of article, it determines the price; in its relation
with the trade of the country as a whole or the sale of goods in
general it fixes the rate of interest. These things, then, are out
side the scope and the competence of the laws drawn up'by men;
they belong to another order and to another world. They are, I
repeat, sectioned off from us; they arc independent of us. No
human will, no human action, whether of individuals or groups,
is in any way responsible for the effects of these anonymous
causes. If sad results for the human race follow from them, it is
only because of our ignorance and our blindness that we accuse

0*> F c a v e a r y e a r , op. cit., p. 137.

256 Till J MYSTICAL RODY OF CHRIST

o n e a not 1 K M - o f b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e Tor t h e m . As a m a t t e r of f a c t ,
t h e y a r e p h e n o m e n a of t h e s a m e k i n d a s all t h e o t h e r n a t u r a l
phenomena
" If o u r h u m a n i t y is p a s s i v e in p r e s e n c e of e c o n o m i c p h e n o m
e n a , it is b e c a u s e m o n e y is t h e o n l y a c t i v e f o r c e in t h a t s p h e r e ,
t h e one and oniv m o t o r o f the whole m e c h a n i s m . Money, how
e v e r , h a s b e e n i n s t i t u t e d b y m a n a n d if it r u l e s u s a f t e r t h e f a s h i o n
of a n u n y i e l d i n g d e s p o t , if w c a r e , so t o s a y , its p l a y t h i n g s a n d
i t s p u p p e t s , it is beeau.se it h a s t h e r i g h t t o d o s o , for w e h a v e
c o n s e n t e d t o a n d s e t u p i t s r u l e . Ii w e a r c o b l i g e d to b o w t o its
b e h e s t s , it i s b e c a u s e i t s d o m i n a t i o n lias b e e n s e t u p a t t h e b e
13
g i n n i n g by t h e free d e c i s i o n o f o u r i n d i v i d u a l s o v e r e i g n wills/** *
W c are thus back a t Locke's individualist and separatist t h e o r y
of s o c i e t y .
W e shall h a v e m o r e t o s a y a b o u t L o c k e ' s c o m m o d i t y t h e o r y
oi m o n e v l a t e r , i n c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d a n d e c o n o m i c
d e c a y in g e n e r a l . H e r e it i s sufficient to r e m a r k w i t h F e a v e a r y e a r
t h a t n e i t h e r L o w n d e s n o r L o c k e u n d e r s t o o d t h e real c a u s e of t h e
d e p r e c i a t i o n o f K n g l i s h m o n e y at t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e w r i t i n g .
F e a v e a r y e a r w r i t e s : " N o b o d y u n d e r s t o o d w h y t h e v a l u e of m o n e y
h a d fallen. L o w n d e s t h o u g h t t h a t , b e c a u s e t h e w a r h a d n e c e s s i
t a t e d so m a n y p a y m e n t s a b r o a d , s i l v e r b u l l i o n h a d b e e n e x p o r t e d
in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s t o m e e t t h e a d v e r s e b a l a n c e , a n d h a d b e c o m e
s c a r c e in K n g l a n d . w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e p r i e c h a d r i s e n . L o c k e
t h o u g h t t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n of m o n e y w a s e n t i r e l y d u e t o c l i p p i n g .
H e did n o t a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n w h y it h a d o c c u r r e d s u d d e n l y , w h i l e
c l i p p i n g h a d b e e n g o i n g o n for half a c e n t u r y . . . . T h e i n f l a t i o n
1 1 4
of c r e d i t w a s t h e i m m e d i a t e c a u s e of t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n / * )
In i b i s c o n n e x i o n A r t h u r Kit s o n p e r t i n e n t l y r e m a r k s : " I t
s h o u l d be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t c r e d i t a n d p a p e r c u r r e n c y affect p r i c e s
a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of g o l d ( a n d , of c o u r s e , s i l v e r )
c o i n s t h e s a m e a s t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s i m i l a r v o l u m e of g o l d ( o r
s i l v e r ) c u r r e n c y , w h i c h is a f u r t h e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e t r u t h of
t h e Q u a n t i t y T h e o r y , " a s o p p o s e d to t h e b a r t e r o r c o m m o d i t y -
1 0
money theory/ *
<Philosophic 11 fo//oint'fpIC, p p . 137-1 HO.
!
(M) The I * omul Sir rh'ntf, p . 1 21. T h e a u t h o r a d d s in a note on
p. Iti5 : Tin- a u t h o r s of (he Hullion Report of 1S10 a p p e a r to have been
the ihM to dia.^noM* e o r n - c i l y t h e position of the c u r r e n c y in t h e period
1604 S w h e n t h e y staled t h a i , a t t h a t period, ( h e e f f e c t s o f (lie d e p r e c i a
tion of t h e coin h y w e a r and c l i p p i n g w e r e coupled with t h e effect of an
excessive isMie of paper. MacLeod, Thvorij and Pravfirr of Hanking
( 0 . I X . ] ) a r s . 10 and fiOL a t t e m p t e d in destroy this theory, but most of
his reasoning o n t h e point was fallacious, and the account given in the
Bullion Report is an a d m i r a b l e s u m m a r y of the events a s they o c c u r r e d / '
< The HnnIn / V / Conspiracy, p. 03. " The Q u a n t i t a t i v e theory
asserts t h a t (he value oF Ihe money u n i t is d e t e r m i n e d by the n u m b e r
of units in eirculai ion multi plied by their velocity of c i r c u l a t i o n . "
When Locke is speaking <>f the q u a n t i t y of money, he means the v a l u e
 NOMINALISM AND SOCIAL MATERIALISM 257

ECONOMIC LAWS BECOME EXCLUSIVELY

PHYSICAL LAWS.
Locke's attitude towards money, with its separation or sec
tioning, is only one instanceout of manyof the influence of
Mathematical Physics on the thought and practice of the 18th
and succeeding centuries. In other words, Locke's theory of
money is only one instance of the growth of that Social Material
ism, which is better known by the less objectionable name of
Liberalism or Naturalism. The essential principle of Liberalism
or Naturalism, the principle which runs through orthodox Eng
lish and French Political Economy, represented by Adam Smith,
Malthus, Ricardo, Stuart Mill, Bastiat, J. B. Say and the Physio
crats, is that Economic affairs are governed by Physical Laws of
16
Nature, to which no political law should attempt to do violence.* )
Men must allow themselves to be governed by Nature and not
attempt to violate her laws. It was in the name of this prin
ciple, held to be approved by Science (with capital), that organ
ized Naturalism, at the French Revolution, worked for the de
struction of the Guilds of the Middle Ages, and that naturalistic
(17)
Liberalism resisted the trade-union and reform movements.
The laws voted in the first half of the 19th century for the pro
tection of women and children were accepted by the dominant
liberalistic school of thought both in England and France, only
unwillingly and as exceptional measures. The need for protective
measures for married women and children was justified by the
argument that they were minors under tutelage and so incapable
of contracting freely. It was only by a deviation from orthodox
liberalistic principles, remarks M. Vialatoux, that unmarried
women of legal age were given the advantage of the same pro
tection. When the right of association was legally recognized
for working men, it was regarded in France as the recognition
of an area of individual liberty which had so far been unacknow
ledged. Every movement of resistance to social amelioration
and professional organization was made in the name of " Science."
" Sometimes the rigid determinism of economic laws was di
rectly appealed to; more frequently, the appeal was indirect. The
'rights of liberty' and the principles of 1789 were invoked, these
clearly involving an optimistic belief in the natural order, of the
of the content of the coin or coins, what Arthur Kitson calls the
quality.
UG)
1?
Cf. VhiloKuithi? Rcon antique, by J. Vialatoux, pp. 3 and foil.
< ) The English Poor Laws which attached the poor to their parishes-
were modified in the interest of industry, not in the interest of the
poor, in accordance with the tenets of Liberalism. We shall see later
that the Socialist reaction against Liberalism has also been largely
controlled and directed by naturalistic or anti-supernatural organized
forces.
T
258 TIIK MYSTTCAL DODY OF CHRIST

world and in the spontaneous harmony resulting from the free

08
play of economic forces." * Kven the "pessimists" of the Lib-
eralistic School, Mai thus and Ricardo, who were aware that the
spontaneous order of nature did not give rise exclusively to har
mony and justice, nevertheless considered the free play of in
dividual liberty the lesser evil.
Liberalism o r Naturalism, therefore, claimed to be based on
the modern science of Physics. What is the precise nature of
this science and how does it differ from the Physics of Aristotle
and the Scholastics? In the modern sense of the word, Physics
is a comparatively recent science, in point of fact it has nothing
in common with the old-time Physics except the name. This
new type of Physical Science, while continuing to treat of bodies
as such and of the order of the sense-perceptible world, thus
keeping the same material object as the ancient Physics, con
siders this object, no longer from the point of view of the intel
ligibility of being, but from the point of view of mathematical
quantity. In the physical world, it does not seek to discover under
phenomena the intelligible connexions sought by the philosophy
of the ancients, which explain phenomena only by transcending
them. It is rather a science of the sense-perceptible world which
applies to the detail of phenomena as they are co-ordinated in
space and time, the formal connexions of mathematical relations.
Thanks to the science of abstract quantity, it approaches that de
ductive character to which it aspires and without which it would
not be a perfect science. Modern Physics is a marvellous means
for (he investigation of the world of sense, not from the point
of view of being, but from the point of view of quantity. It
abandons the idea of looking directly for real causes in themselves
and aims above all at expressing in a coherent system of equa
(,n
tions measures taken on things, ' This new Physics, instead
of being the science of the nature or internal principle of the
mutability and qualitative spontaneity of things is rather the
mechanics of sense-experience, the science of the spatial and quan
titative relations of phenomena. These mathematical functions
which inform us bow one qua-itily varies when another varies are

H8) Philosophic ficoirowH/itt. I>y 1. Vialatmix, i>. lo. He adds: "This

optimistic belied' was presem in the minds of I hose who drew up the
principles of 1789, -due in part io I he, influence of phyaiocratic ideas
in the. Constituent Assembly." This attiltide was nun forced by Masonic
anti-supernatural propaganda. Workingmen were bound to observe the
injunctions of the Law of Chapelier ( 1 7 9 1 ) , by which they were for
bidden any association, corporation, or syndicate, because such federa
tion would (.rouble the free play of supply ami demand in the labour
market. Kconoimc freedom thus became t h e famous right to die :vf
hunger. Cf. The Workingmndx Cirildx of thr Middle Ages, p. 4 2 .
(W_J. Maritain, les ITeyns dn Havoir, p. 90. Cf. the important
observations on page* 269 286 of the same work, also on pages 121-125.
 NOMINALISM AND SOCIAL MATERIALISM 259
20
t h e o n l y l a w w i t h w h i c h m o d e r n P h y s i c s is c o n c e r n e d . * ' On
the o t h e r hand, Aristotelian and Scholastic Second Philosophy,
b e i n g c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n n e r n a t u r e s of t h i n g s , t r i e s t o e l u c i d
a t e t h e i r l a w s . T h i s it d o e s b y s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e l i n e s of d e v e l o p
m e n t of b e i n g s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h a t t h e y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y .
T h e l a w o r l a w s of m a n ' s b e i n g in t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n s e n s e a r e
t h e l i n e o r l i n e s of c o n d u c t d e m a n d e d f r o m his a c t i v i t y b y his
s p i r i t u a l form. T h e l a w s of a h u m a n b e i n g a r e t h u s laws of a
p e r s o n s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s of s p a c e a n d t i m e , in c o n s e q u e n c e
of h i s b e i n g i n c a r n a t e o r i n d i v i d u a l i z e d in m a t t e r . M o r a l S c i e n c e
or E t h i c s , s u p p o s i n g t h e d a t a of P s y c h o l o g y , t r e a t s of t h e s e l a w s .
The laws elucidated by modern Physics are simply formulae ex
p r e s s i n g t h e c o n s t a n t a n d g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n s o r c o n n e x i o n s in v i r t u e
of w h i c h o n e p h e n o m e n o n ( c a l l e d in t h i s c a s e , cause) c a n n o t a p
p e a r , d i s a p p e a r o r v a r y , w i t h o u t a n o t h e r p h e n o m e n o n ( c a l l e d in
t h i s c a s e , effect) appearing, d i s a p p e a r i n g or varying. T h e s e laws,
a s t r o n o m i c a l , p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l , l a w of g r a v i t a t i o n , e t c . , i n d i c a t e
how things behave, a b s t r a c t i n g from circumstances. They are
c o n c e r n e d w i t h f a c t s , n o t w i t h t h e n a t u r e s of t h i n g s , i n d e e d , nature
for m o d e r n s c i e n c e s i m p l y d e s i g n a t e s t h e w h o l e b o d y of e x t e r n a l
p h e n o m e n a a s r e g u l a t e d b y l a w s in t h e s e n s e j u s t defined. This
p h y s i c o - m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e of n a t u r e d i s r e g a r d s in t h e
reality e v e r y t h i n g else e x c e p t q u a n t i t y and thus neglects w h a t the
i n t e l l e c t is p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in, t h e k n o w l e d g e of w h a t - i s , p r e
cisely w h a t A r i s t o t e l i a n P h i l o s o p h y s e e k s to d i s c o v e r .
T h e t e r m law h a s t h r e e p r i n c i p a l m e a n i n g s . It is u s e d , firstly,
to s i g n i f y t h e o b l i g a t o r y r u l e s p r e s c r i b e d to t h e m e m b e r s of an
o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t y b y t h e a u t h o r i t y w h i c h is c h a r g e d w i t h t h e
C o m m o n G o o d of t h a t s o c i e t y . T h e b o d y of t h e s e l a w s is called
positive law. Second!//, l a w d e s i g n a t e s t h e line of d e v e l o p m e n t
d e m a n d e d b y t h e n a t u r e of a b e i n g , t h e r u l e it m u s t follow to
r e a c h i t s e n d , t h e p e r f e c t i o n of i t s n a t u r e . In t h e c a s e of m a n ,
(2) Cf. J . V i a l a t o u x , La* Cite de Hobbes, p. 48, a n d J. M a r i t a i n ,
}
Reflexions sur l Intelligence, p . 183.
" The m a t e r i a l object of p h i l o s o p h y a n d science may be the same
for e x a m p l e , the sense-perceptible worldthe formal object, namely,
t h a t which d e t e r m i n e s the specific n a t u r e of these intellectual disciplines,
is essentially different in the two cases. I n the realm of c o r p o r e a l being,
the scientist will study the laws of p h e n o m e n a by linking one "observable
event with a n o t h e r observable event. If he trios to discover the struc
t u r e of m a t t e r , it will be by r e p r e s e n t i n g to himself how a n d according
to what laws the u l t i m a t e elements in the s t r u c t u r e of the edificemole
cules, ions, atomsbehave in space and time. The philosopher will
t r y to find o u t what the m a t t e r is whose behaviour the scientist depicts,
t h a t i s , the n a t u r e of c o r p o r e a l substance considered in the linht of
(

ens inteltigibile (the question whether it is capable of being divided

up, in view of a s p a t i a l or s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l reconstruction of ions,
atoms, etc., i n t o p r o t o n s a n d electrons . . . remains i n t a c t ) " (Les
Degres du Savoir, p p . 93, 94).
260 THK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

i t is t h e line of c o n d u c t d e m a n d e d by his s p i r i t u a l f o r m f r o m his

a c t i v i t y , i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l a n d e s t h e t i c . T h e b o d y of t h e s e n o n -
w r i t t e n l a w s is c a l l e d natural law. Thirdly, it is u s e d t o d e s i g n
ate a formula expressing constant and general relations between
o b s e r v a b l e p h e n o m e n a . H e n c e we have political laws, moral laws,
a n d physical l a w s , w i t h o n e idea a n a l o g o u s l y c o m m o n to the three
a c c e p t a t i o n s , n a m e l y t h a t of order. A r i s t o t e l i a n P h i l o s o p h y is con
c e r n e d w i t h law in t h e s e c o n d m e a n i n g , w h i l e m o d e r n P h y s i c s
a i m s a t t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of l a w s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h i r d m e a n i n g
of t h e t e r m .
T h e s t o r y of t h e p r o g r e s s of M a t h e m a t i c a l P h y s i c s h a s l a r g e l v
b e c o m e t h e a c c o u n t of t h e r e d u c t i o n of internal nature, t h a t is,
n a t u r e in t h e s e n s e u n d e r s t o o d by A r i s t o t l e a n d t h e S c h o l a s t i c
P h i l o s o p h e r s , t h e n a t u r e of m a n i n c l u d e d , t o external nature, that
is, n a t u r e a s u n d e r s t o o d in m o d e r n s c i e n c e , n a m e l y , t h e a g g r e g a t e
of t h e c o n n e x i o n s b e t w e e n s p a c e d a n d t i m e d p h e n o m e n a . The
i n n e r d y n a m i c p r i n c i p l e , t h e n o r m of a b e i n g ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , h a s
b e e n r e d u c e d t o p h e n o m e n a l e x i s t e n c e , finality h a s g i v e n w a y to
mechanical movement. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e first t w o m e a n i n g s of
t h e t e r m law h a v e b e e n r e d u c e d t o t h e t h i r d , a n d n o t o n l y p o s i
t i v e l a w s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s b u t t h e i n t e r i o r l a w s of m a n ' s s p i r i t u a l
n a t u r e h a v e c o m e t o be c o n s i d e r e d m e r e l y a s p h e n o m e n a r e g u l
a t e d by determinism, spatial and temporal. This doctrine, accord
i n g t o w h i c h m o r a l n a t u r e is r e d u c e d t o p h y s i c a l n a t u r e a n d w h i c h
h o l d s t h a t p o l i t i c a l a n d m o r a l l a w s H a w s in t h e first a n d s e c o n d
s e n s e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ) a r e m e r e l y l a w s of Social P h y s i c s ( l a w s
i n t h e t h i r d s e n s e ) is t e r m e d M e c h a n i s m o r M a t e r i a l i s m . P o l i t i c s
in t h i s s y s t e m is m e r e l y t h e a r t of c o n f o r m i n g t h e c o n d u c t of
s o c i e t i e s a n d t h e l a w s of S t a t e s to t h e p h y s i c a l l a w s s o d i s c o v e r e d
1 2 1
and formulated. ' H u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y is t h u s d i s r e g a r d e d . P o l i
tical l a w s , a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o t e l i a n a n d T h o m i s t i c P h i l o s o p h y ,
m u s t be in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e n a t u r a l l a w of w h i c h t h e y a r e e i t h e r
d e v e l o p m e n t s o r applications to c o n c r e t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e of t h e influence of N o m
i n a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , n u r t u r e d by M a t h e m a t i c a l P h y s i c s , on life, is
t o be f o u n d in t h e s e p a r a t i o n of p o l i t i c s a n d e c o n o m i c s f r o m the
m o r a l o r d e r of t h e D i v i n e P l a n a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r , in t h e s u b s t i
lt 22
t u t i o n of t h e e c o n o m i c m a n " for t h e m e m b e r of C h r i s t . * '
K e o n o m i c P h y s i c s , l i k e a s t r o n o m y a n d o t h e r b r a n c h e s of p h y s i c s ,
J
(2D Of. f fiilo<io/)hi{. firavnmit/ae. by .1. Y i a l a u m x , p p . xii-xxvi.
u
'22) The economists' conception of affairs was based, however, on
certain fallacies, the chief of which was (hat m a n wa< regarded as <ui
economic a u t o m a t o n and nor, as a human being. For example, it was
believed t h a t labour could move awa\ freely from t r a d e s in which work
was scarce and wages were low, lo trades in which higher wages were
offered. They forgot, however, that In i man beings have roots, which
may he invisible, but which nevertheless exist. . . . F u r t h e r m o r e , th"
sort of world visualised by the academic economists of the last century
 NOMINALISM AND SOCIAL MATERIALISM 261

came to be treated as a section of Mathematical Physics. The

"economic m a n " or homo occonomiens, was the social atom,
everywhere identical with himself, always looking for the maxi
mum of financial profit at the cost of the minimum of effort and
therefore subject to exclusively physical laws. The difference
between economic laws and the laws of gravitation or of the pro
pagation of light was forgotten. In the case of the propagation
of light, for example, we are dealing with physical events, in re
gard to which we try to discover the order of ihe world as it came
from the hand of God, utilizing for the purpose all the methods of
modern science. In the case of political and economic arrange
ments, we are dealing with the utilization by human beings of
the knowledge thus acquired for their social structure. We must,
therefore, be guided in everything by our knowledge otherwise
obtained of the nature of man, fallen from his high supernatural
estate and restored thereto by membership of Christ. To yield to
the influence of Cartesian mechanics and Locke's individualism and
separatism, and treat the human elements of society as so many
elements subject to fixed unvarying movements exclusive of true
spiritual liberty, is precisely the temptation to which Liberalism
or Naturalism yielded.
"The truth is that Liberalism does not consist merely in with
drawing economics from subordination to politics, but in the fur
ther step of withdrawing politics (and economics) from subjec
tion to the moral law. Perhaps we may describe it in more
general terms by saying that it consists in transforming some
particular section or aspect of human activity, economic or poli
tical, into a closed area, a separate domain, having its own auto
nomous end, completely independent of the final spiritual end of
2:
man/^ " In such a system "the end of politics becomes the material
prosperity, the power and success of the State, and everything that
may procure such an endeven an act of treachery or an act of
injusticeis politically good. The end of economics becomes the
acquisition and limitless increase of riches, material riches as such,
and everything that may procure such an endeven an act of in
justice, even oppressive and inhuman conditions of lifeis poli
tically good If morality intervenes with its peculiar
exigencies, it will be to engage in conflict with political and econo
24
mical reality, with political and economic science." < >
postulated a state oE continuous competition, with the weaker or less
efficient going to the wall or being absorbed by the stronger and more
efficient. The,y did not attempt to^cxplain from what source were fresh
victims for this economic cannibalism to be obtained {The Future of
Auditing, by A Group of Accountants, pp. 5, 6).
(23) Philosophic ftconomir/ue, by J. ViaJatoux, p. G7.
W Religion and- Culture, by J . Maritain (English Edition, Sheed
;m<\ Ward, pp 25, 26). M. Maritain blames the Cartesian spirit for
fhis <?fnfe of separation and conflict.
262 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

T h e F r e n c h E n c y c l o p e d i a , w h i c h h a d s u c h a n e n o r m o u s in
f l u e n c e o n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n of 1789, h a d
i t s o r i g i n in t h e u n i o n of t h e t w o c u r r e n t s i s s u i n g f r o m N o m i n a l
i s m , t h e c u r r e n t of C a r t e s i a n R a t i o n a l i s m a n d t h a t of E n g l i s h
E m p i r i c i s m , [loth t h e s e c u r r e n t s w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y M a t h e m a t i c a l
P h y s i c s . As M a t h e m a t i c a l Science leaves finality, g o o d n e s s and
t h e o b j e c t i v e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d o u t of a c c o u n t , t h i s influence
w o r k e d i n e v i t a b l y in t h e d i r e c t i o n of s o c i a l M a t e r i a l i s m . T h e final
r e s u l t m a y be s e e n e i t h e r in t h e E i b c r a l i s t i c S t a t e of t h e last cen
t u r y , in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s w e r e h e a r t l e s s l y t r e a t e d a s r e p l a c e
a b l e c i p h e r s in t h e p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n for t h e s a k e of finance or
e l s e in t h e p r e s e n t J u d a c o - M a r x i a n S t a l e of K u s s k i , of w h i c h the
w h o l e o r g a n i z a t i o n is b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t m a n is n o t a
m e m b e r of C h r i s t b u t m e r e l y a n " e c o n o m i c a t o m . " A s Social
S c i e n c e w a s s i m p l y a b r a n c h of P h y s i c s o r M e c h a n i c s , political
l a w s in b o t h t h e s e t y p e s of S t a l e s w e r e a n d a r e m e r e l y t h e a p p l i c
a t i o n s of t h e d e t e r m i n i s m of s o c i a l P h y s i c s t o h u m a n r e g i m e n t a
tion. I n t h e n a m e of p r o g r e s s , m a n w a s a n d is t r e a t e d a s a m e r e
i n d i v i d u a l d e v o i d of p e r s o n a l i t y a n d f r e e d o m .

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of t h e t r e a t m e n t of h u m a n
b e i n g s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m u l a e of M a t h e m a t i c a l P h y s i c s is t o
b e s e e n in S o v i e t R u s s i a , w h e r e h u m a n i t y is b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o a
m o u l d i n g p r o c e s s in v i e w of t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e p e r f e c t " e c o n o
mic atom." T h e C o m m u n i s t n o v e l i s t , P a n f e r o v , in h i s n o v e l ,
Brnsski, h a s v e r y w e l t d e s c r i b e d t h e m e n t a l a t t i t u d e of t h o s e w h o
p u t C o l l e c t i v i s m i n t o e f f e c t : " W e m u s t b e a t t h e i d e a of p r o p e r t y
o u t of m a n , " t h e y s a i d , " j u s t a s d u s t is b e a t e n o u t of a m a t t r e s s .
S i n c e t h e p e a s a n t is t r y i n g t o b a r g a i n w i t h u s let u s k n o c k t h e
w i s h o u t of h i s h e a d / ' T h e C o m m u n i s t h e r o of t h i s n o v e l h a s
c o m e t o a c c e p t t h a t t h e n a t u r e of m a n c a n b e m o u l d e d a n d r e
c o n d i t i o n e d . " W c a r c f e r t i l i z i n g t h e s o i l / ' h e s a y s , " i n o r d e r to
breed a new nation Y o u j u s t r e f u s e t o be a s a c r i f i c e , a n d
w e ' l l t w i s t y o u like a r a m ' s h o r n . "
W e h a v e travelled a certain distance since Sir William P e t t y
( 1 6 2 3 - 1 6 8 7 ) , p h y s i c i a n t o t h e E n g l i s h a r m y in I r e l a n d a n d s e c r e
t a r y t o H e n r y C r o m w e l l , in h i s Political Anatomy of Ireland and
Political Arithmetic, p r o p o s e d a m e t h o d of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e x
c h a n g e v a l u e of h u m a n b e i n g s in t e r m s of m o n e y , a n d t h e e c o n o m
i s t R a s t i a t ( 1 8 0 1 - 1 8 5 0 ) , in his Harmonies fjronomiqncs, compared
" s o c i a l m e c h a n i c s to t h e m e c h a n i c s of t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , " b u t
w e h a v e s i m p l y d r a w n t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of t h e i r social m a t e r i a l i s m .
If P o l i t i c s a n d E c o n o m i c s a r e s e p a r a t e d f r o m life in C h r i s t a n d
t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y w i t h d r a w n f r o m s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e l a w s
i n c u m b e n t o n m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , t h e n m a n will u l t i m a t e l y be held
t o e x i s t m e r e l y t o p r o d u c e m a t e r i a l w e a l t h i n t h e m a n n e r con
s i d e r e d m o s t f a v o u r a b l e for t h e s c h e m e s of t h e f i n a n c i e r s , a n d in
 NOMINALISM AND SOCIAL MATERIALISM 263

the n a m e of " p r o g r e s s " h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y will be t r o d d e n u n d e r

foot.
O n e l a s t r e m a r k m u s t be m a d e . I t m u s t n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t
the E c o n o m i s t s of t h e F r e n c h E n c y c l o p e d i a h a d c o m e u n d e r
o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s . I n s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s t h e y w e r e filled w i t h h a t r e d
of O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t a n d of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e . F o l l o w i n g
l'abbe B a r r u e l , R o b i s o n , in Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the
Religions and Governments of Europe, s a y s : " T h i s g a n g of public
c o r r u p t o r s h e l d t h e i r m e e t i n g s f o r m a n y y e a r s in t h e H o t e l d'
Holbach at P a r i s , and Voltaire w a s their honorary P r e s i d e n t . T h e
most e m i n e n t m e m b e r s w e r e d ' A l c m b c r t , Diderot, Coudorcct, La
H a r p e , T u r g o t , L a m o i g n o n . T h e y t o o k t h e n a m e of E c o n o m i s t s
and a f f e c t e d t o be c o n t i n u a l l y o c c u p i e d w i t h p l a n s for i m p r o v i n g
C o m m e r c e , M a n u f a c t u r e s , A g r i c u l t u r e , Finance, etc. . . . But
t h e i r d a r l i n g p r o j e c t w a s t o d e s t r o y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d all R e l i g i o n
t 2 5 i
and t o b r i n g a b o u t a t o t a l c h a n g e of G o v e r n m e n t . "

W Op. cit., p p . 535, 536. Cf. B a r r u e l , Memoires pour

VHistoire du Jacobinisme, vol. I, p p . 343-355.
 PART IV.

POLITICAL DECAY

and

THE DIVINE PLAN FOR ORDER.

CHAPTERS XIIIXVI.
 CHAPTER XIII.

THE PROTESTANT REVOLT AGAINST ORDER.

THE PREPARATION OF WRONG NATIONAL

DECISIONS.

W h e n a h u m a n being c o m e s to a practical decision, both his

i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d will a r e b r o u g h t i n t o p l a y . T h e i n t e l l e c t e n u n
c i a t e s t h e l a s t p r a c t i c a l j u d g e m e n t a b o u t a c o u r s e of a c t i o n w h i c h
t h e w i l l f o l l o w s , b u t it e n u n c i a t e s t h a t j u d g e m e n t u n d e r t h e i n
f l u e n c e of t h e will. F o r a r i g h t d e c i s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , t w o t h i n g s a r e
n e c e s s a r y : f i r s t l y , t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e m u s t h a v e a firm g r a s p of t h e
r e a l o r d e r of t h e w o r l d a n d of t h e final e n d of m a n , n a m e l y , u n i o n
w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t ; s e c o n d l y ,
t h e w i l l m u s t b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e m o r a l v i r t u e s of p r u d e n c e ,
1 1
justice, fortitude and t e m p e r a n c e /
T h i s is t h e t e a c h i n g of S t . T h o m a s w h o s a y s t h a t " f o r a r i g h t
d e c i s i o n o r a g o o d c h o i c e , t w o t h i n g s a r e n e c e s s a r y : firstly, a r i g h t
i n t e n t i o n of t h e e n d a n d t h i s is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y m o r a l v i r t u e . . . .
secondly, a correct j u d g e m e n t a b o u t w h a t leads to the end, and
t h i s c a n o n l y be b y r e a s o n r i g h t l y a d v i s i n g , j u d g i n g a n d o r d e r i n g .
( 2 )
T h i s is t h e f u n c t i o n of p r u d e n c e a n d i t s a u x i l i a r y v i r t u e s . " To
this m u s t be added w h a t the Angelic D o c t o r had j u s t previously
s a i d : " I t is t h e f u n c t i o n of p r u d e n c e t o g i v e w i s e c o u n s e l s a b o u t
w h a t c o n c e r n s t h e w h o l e life of m a n a n d t h e fir;al e n d of h u m a n
( n )
life." I n t h e o r d e r of a c t i o n , S t . T h o m a s i n s i s t s t h a t t h e will
f o l l o w s t h e l a s t p r a c t i c a l j u d g e m e n t , b u t h e i n s i s t s t h a t it is t h e
(4
will w h i c h m a k e s a p a r t i c u l a r j u d g e m e n t t o be t h e l a s t . > I n o t h e r
w o r d s , t h e will s w a y s t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t o l o o k a t t h e m o t i v e s w h i c h
a p p e a l t o it ( t h e w i l l ) a n d s h o w u p in a c l e a r l i g h t w h a t a t t r a c t s

U) P n dence, of course, is in the intelligence, for essentially it is an

intellectual v i r t u e , but it c a n n o t be present without justice, f o r t i t u d e
a n d t e m p e r a n c e , for i t is a m o r a l v i r t u e by its m a t t e r . I t is a habit it*
i n c l i n i n g t o knowledge and its object is the act of the will regulated
according to the moral law. A c c o r d i n g l y , we speak of prudence as a
moral v i r t u e . Cf. I a I l a e , Q.58, a.4, 5 ; H a H a e , Q.49, a.l, 2.
" P r u d e n c e inclines the intellect t o j u d g e rightly, by a last p r a c t i c a l
j u d g e m e n t , about p a r t i c u l a r actions in relation to the final end of
man " ( G r e d t , Elemcnta Philosophiae, vol. I I , p. 358, ed. 5a).
W I a I l a e , Q.58, a.4. Cf. l a H a e , Q.57, a.5.
W I a H a e , Q.57, a.4, ad 3ura.
<4> Of. Thes. X X I of the X X I V theses of St. Thomas.
268 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

it. The last practical judgement can therefore be uniformly sound

and good, only if the will be rectified by the moral virtues. The
will has the preponderant role in our moral life. But the other
condition is of vita! importance also. Fully prudent action sup
poses a clear vision of the end of man and of the order of the
world: the danger of disordered action is increased as the intel
lect's grasp of order and of the Rights of God grows hazy. The
intellect must hold up before the will the full order of the' world.
Just as for a right decision the correct functioning of both in
tellect and will is required, so a wrong decision in a particular set
of circumstances may be the result of the defective functioning
of either faculty.
If we now apply analogously the principles of St. Thomas to
the practical decisions of peoples and rulers of peoples at the time
of the so-called Reformation, wc shall see that the wrong turning
taken was in part due to the lack of a firm grasp of order in the
intelligence and in part to the weakening of the will by the decay
of the virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance/^

DECAY IN THE INTELLECTUAL GRASP OF

ORDER.
Four points must be singled out for particular mention in this
connexion. Each in its own way contributed to the weakening of
the hold of men's minds upon order. Two of them, the sojourn
of the Popes at Avignon and the Great Schism of the West, were
spectacular events looming large upon the European stage. The
two others, the revival of Roman Law and the spread of Nominal
ism, of which we have already spoken, though their influence was
largely in the realm of the mind and therefore not so visible,
nevertheless contributed to the steady weakening of the European
mind in regard to the Divine Plan. We should mention also the
general unbalancing effect of the Copernican astronomical dis
coveries on agelong habits of thought, and the consequences of the
Black Death. "The Black Death turned Christendom into a house
1 7
<5) " Experience teaches that peoples have a certain Personality
to which practically the same rules and the amo reasoning can bv
applied as to a particular person " (Bcnigni, /fi&ton'ae EcclesiaUicat
Propaedeutica, p. 73).
Very often the influence of one person in aiding a nation to reject-
disorder and remain faithful to Our Lord is strikingly prominent, juai
as there are outstanding examples of the opposite. In'thc case of Queen
Isabella of Spain (1451-1504), we see a magnificent instance of what a
clear intelligence and a firm will can do to help a country to take
courage and go against the current. Tn the case of Cardinal Wolsev
we behold what blindness and self-eentrednoss can do to accelerate the
pace downhill towards final disaster.
Readers can study the contrast in the splendid volumes, Itobdla
of bpa%n
% by William r. Walsh, and Wohe >/ Uy Tf ilsiiro Belloc.
x
 P R O T E S T A N T REVOLT AGAINST ORDER 269

of m o u r n i n g , a n d h a d d r e a d f u l r e s u l t s of e v e r y k i n d : t h e w o r s t
being t h a t priests b e c a m e so few, a n d bad priests so easily b e c a m e
priests, t h a t the whole g r e a t Christian philosophy and morality
were b r o u g h t into c o n t e m p t . . . . T h e Black D e a t h decimated the
p r i e s t h o o d , l e a v i n g h a r d l y e n o u g h priests to g o r o u n d and
a d m i t t i n g a good m a n y w h o had much better not have gone
round. "<5>>

The Exile at Avignon (1308-1377).

T h e H e a d of t h e C h u r c h , t h e V i c a r of C h r i s t , is B i s h o p of
R o m e . I n t h e City, a r o u n d w h i c h t h e P a t r i m o n y of S t . P e t e r h a d
g r o w n u p , t h e P o p e w a s n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e influence of a n y t e m
p o r a l r u l e r . I n A v i g n o n , w h e r e t h e P o p e s s o j o u r n e d f r o m 1308-
1377, t h a t i s , f r o m C l e m e n t V t o G r e g o r y X I , t h e P o p e w a s d o m i n
a t e d m o r e o r less by t h e K i n g of F r a n c e . T h i s d i m m e d t h e s e n s e
of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , s u p r a n a t i o n a l u n i t y of t h e C h u r c h , e s p e c i a l l y
in t h e m i n d s of t h o s e n a t i o n s a n d t h e i r r u l e r s w h o h a d d i f f e r e n c e s
with the F r e n c h Kings. In addition, d u r i n g this p e r i o d t h e re
s e n t m e n t i n c r e a s e d a g a i n s t t h e h o l d i n g of b i s h o p r i c s a n d o t h e r
b e n e f i c e s in d i s t a n t l a n d s b y officials of t h e P a p a l C o u r t . T h i s w a s
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c a s e in E n g l a n d a n d p l a y e d i t s p a r t in d e t a c h i n g
minds a n d h e a r t s from the H o l y See.

The Great Schism (1378-1417).

G o d r a i s e d u p S t . C a t h e r i n e of S i e n n a lo p u t an e n d to
the s o j o u r n a t Avignon, a n d b r i n g back the Pope to the E t e r n a l
C i t y , t h e c e n t r e of u n i t y , b u t t h e g o o d w a s u n d o n e a n d t h e evils
i n t e n s i f i e d b y t h e G r e a t Schism*, w h e r e i n h u m a n p a s s i o n s s t r u g g l e d
a g a i n s t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h a t u n i t y of g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h all
a c k n o w l e d g e d should exist. T h e concessions, too, w h i c h t h e rival
c l a i m a n t s w e r e o b l i g e d t o m a k e to t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s a m o n g t h e
d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s , c o n t r i b u t e d in s o m e d e g r e e to t h e d e c a y of
faith.

Influence of Roman Law and Ockhamism.

T h e s p e c t a c l e of t h e s e q u a r r e l s a n d d i v i s i o n s w a s p r e
s e n t e d t o m i n d s w h i c h in m a n y c a s e s w e r e i m b u e d w i t h i d e a s o p
p o s e d t o t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t . T h e r e v i v a l of R o m a n L a w h a d
e n a b l e d t h e L e g i s t s t o d a n g l e b e f o r e t h e r u l e r s of t h e g r o w i n g
n a t i o n s t h e u n q u e s t i o n e d a u t h o r i t y of t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r in m a t
t e r s of r e l i g i o n a s w e l l a s in t e m p o r a l m a t t e r s . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h
this d e l e t e r i o u s influence w a s t h e effect of O c k h a m ' s p h i l o s o p h y .
It w a s difficult for an O c k h a m i s t t o r e t a i n h o l d of t h e i n t e g r a l
t r u t h a b o u t t h e i m m u t a b l e n a t u r e of t h e C h u r c h ' s g o v e r n m e n t a n d
constitution. His w h o l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o r m a t i o n t e n d e d t o c o n
vince h i m t h a t t h e r e w e r e n o o b j e c t i v e n a t u r e s of t h i n g s a n d t h a t

'5 bis) Chaucer, b y G. K. Chesterton, p p . 40. 50.

270 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

all o u r v a l i d k n o w l e d g e w a s of i n d i v i d u a l s a n d of t h e i r d e m a n d s .
N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t O c k h a m i s t s , like d ' A i l l y a n d G e r s o n a n d
m a n y of t h e d o c t o r s p r e s e n t a t t h e C o u n c i l s of B a s l e a n d C o n
s t a n c e , defended novel t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g C h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n
and reform. T h e i r P h i l o s o p h y i n c l i n e d t h e m to c o n s i d e r t h o s e
q u e s t i o n s a n d o t h e r s , like t h e r e l a t i o n s of C h u r c h a n d S t a t e , as
q u e s t i o n s of w a r r i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s t o he s o l v e d a c c o r d i n g to the
c i r c u m s t a n c e s of i h c m o m e n t . S i . J o a n of A r c w a s s e n t t o r e
m i n d t h e w o r l d of t h e fact t h a t p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y w a s a p a r t i
c i p a t i o n in t h e T e m p o r a l K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t , of w h i c h t h e a n o i n t
(r,)
i n g a t t h e c o r o n a t i o n w a s a visible s i g n . She w a s t r e a t e d as
O u r L o r d Himself had been.

WKAKKN1XC OF THK WILL THROUGH THE DECAY

OF THE VIRTUES.
D e c a y in c h a r i t y r e s u l t e d i n e v i t a b l y f r o m t h e c o r r o d i n g influ
e n c e of O e k h a m i s m on t h e d o c t r i n e of o u r u n i o n w i t h o u r fellow
h u m a n b e i n g s a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y . A l o n g w i t h
i t w e n t d e c a y in t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h a t m e m b e r s h i p in p r a c t i c e ,
o w i n g t o r o u t i n e . T h i s is w h a t M r . Belloc t e r m s '* a c r y s t a l l i z a
7)
t i o n of r e l i g i o n . " < " A s a n e x a m p l e of t h i s c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , " he
w r i t e s , " t a k e t h e c o m p l e t e n e t w o r k of c l e r i c a l finance. T h e old
s i m p l i c i t y t h e r e i n d i s a p p e a r e d . D u e s w e r e e x a c t e d on m e r e p r e
c e d e n t , t h o u g h t h e c a u s e s of s u c h p r e c e d e n t h a d c e a s e d t o be.
. . . O r t a k e a g a i n s u c h a b u s e s a s p l u r a l i t i e s . In t h e e a r l i e r a g e s
f o r i n s t a n c e in K n g l a n d , a f t e r t h e c o n q u e s t f o r a m a n t o hold
e v e n t w o S e e s at o n c e w a s a t h i n g o c c a s i o n a l l y d o n e b u t not
t o l e r a t e d . It w a s a s c a n d a l a n d a n o u t r a g e . In t h e l a t e r M i d d l e
A g e s it b e c a m e a c c e p t e d ; still d e n o u n c e d a n d still s c a n d a l o u s , but
accepted. W i t h this c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , t h i s h a r d e n i n g of official
a c t i o n , w e n t a p a r a l l e l ( a n d m u c h g r a v e r ) evil a m o n g t h e l a i t y :
t o w i t , a r e l i a n c e upon t h e e x t e r n a l s of r e l i g i o n at t h e e x p e n s e of
8
spiritual life."' '
In t h e s c a n d a l of p l u r a l i t i e s , w e can s e e a t <>nc a n d t h e s a m e
t i m e t h e d e c a y of c h a r i t y , j u s t i c e a n d t e m p e r a n c e . In t h e a v a r i c e
of t h e c l e r g y , as s h o w n in o t h e r w a y s , a n d in t h a t of t h e inJlucn-
tial l a i t y , a n d in [he c o n t e m p t for c e l i b a c y a m o n g t h e c l e r g y , w e
b e h o l d t h e d e c a y of t h e s a m e v i r t u e s of c h a r i t y , j u s t i c e a n d t e m
perance. In t h e failure t o face t h e r e f o r m of t h e s e a b u s e s a n d
o t h e r s , in s p i t e of t h e p r o t e s t s c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d o w n h i l l
(G) " The K i n g d o m does not belong to the D a u p h i n but to God.
Nevertheless, it is the will of God t h a t the D a u p h i n should be crowned
and t h u s be empowered to hold the K i n g d o m in romtnendani (Proc&s
de Ste. J e a n n e d'Arc, vol. I I , p. 456. Quoted by Pere H . Clerissac,
O. ] \ , i n La Mcs&aglre de fa Politique Divine).
W Nov the Reformation Happened* p. 44.
'8) Ibid., p. 46.,
 PROTESTANT REVOLT AGAINST ORDER 271

c o u r s e s of c o u n t r i e s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e l a c k of c h a r i t y a n d of
f o r t i t u d e w a s p a t e n t . I n s p i t e of t h e e x h o r t a t i o n s of S t . V i n c e n t
F e r r e r , t h e h a t r e d of S a t a n f o r t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e s e e m s t o
h a v e b e e n lost s i g h t of. T h i s is a s u r e s i g n of t h e d e c a y of f a i t h
in a n y e p o c h . W h e n o n c e t h e s t o r m h a d b u r s t a n d (hat h a t r e d
w a s f r e e t o s h o w itself, it f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n in i n s u l t s t o all t h i n g s
Catholic, especially to the Blessed Eucharist and to the Holy
Sacrifice of t h e M a s s , t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t of C a t h o l i c life a n d w o r
ship.
" ' T h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e w e a l t h y l a i t y , ' ' w r i t e s M r . Iielloc, " w a s
m u c h w o r s e [ t h a n t h a t of t h e c l e r g y ) , a n d m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , a s
I h a v e s a i d , in t h e p o i n t of a v a r i c e . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g m e n w o u l d
n o t d o f o r t h e v i o l e n t a n d r a p i d a c q u i s i t i o n of w e a l t h . T h e y h a d
n o t of c o u r s e t h e d o c t r i n a l d i s e a s e of o u r t i m e ; t h e y did n o t r e
g a r d t h e i r v i c e s a s v i r t u e s , n o r call t h e r a p i d g r a s p i n g of a f o r t u n e
h e r o i c , a s w e d o . T h e k n o w l e d g e of r i g h t a n d w r o n g in this m a t
ter w a s still s o u n d b u t t h e p r a c t i c e w a s in ruins, . . . E v e r y
P r i n c e w a s a v i d . R i g h t t o t h e h a n d of a p p e t i t e s so e a g e r a n d s o
u n s c r u p u l o u s l a y t h e w e a l t h of t h e C h u r c h . . , . T h e last f a c t o r ,
t h e h a t r e d of t h e F a i t h , t h o u g h i t w a s n u m e r i c a l l y t h e s m a l l e s t
by far, w a s m u c h t h e m o s t i n t e n s e , a n d w a s in t h e n a t u r e of a
l e a v e n w h i c h c o u l d r a p i d l y i n f e c t all s o c i e t y , o n c e it w a s g i v e n
( 9 1
plav."
LUTHER AND OCKHAMISM.

W e have seen that the Nominalist Philosophy contributed

directly to Locke's individualism and separatism. Indirectly,
t h r o u g h i t s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f o r m a t i o n of L u t h e r a n d of P r o t e s t
a n t i s m in g e n e r a l , it s t r o n g l y r e i n f o r c e d these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
W e h a v e a l r e a d y b r i e f l y a l l u d e d t o L u t h e r ' s N o m i n a l i s t or
O c k h a m i s t f o r m a t i o n . H e b o a s t e d t h a t he h a d c o m p l e t e l y a s s i m i
lated the O c k h a m i s t t e n e t s a n d t h a t he belonged to the O c k h a m
10
ist s c h o o l o r f a c t i o n / ^ L e t u s t a k e o n e p o i n t , n a m e l y , t h e s e p a r
a t i o n of G r a c e a n d n a t u r e , in w h i c h L u t h e r p r o l o n g s a f u n d a m e n t a l
O c k h a m i s t principle into open h e r e s y . T h e fundamental principle
<f O c k h a m a n d his s c h o o l is t h a t it is n o t S a n c t i + y i n g G r a c e w h i c h
by i t s n a t u r e r e n d e r s us a g r e e a b l e to God. b u t r a t h e r G o d ' s
free acceptance of us as pleasing. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , it is n o t
b e c a u s e h e is in t h e s t a t e of G r a c e t h a t a m a n is p l e a s i n g to G o d ;
it is e x c l u s i v e l y b e c a u s e h e is a c c e p t e d as s u c h by G o d . it fol
l o w s t h a t S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e is a n u n i m p o r t a n t m a r k d e s i g n e d b y
G o d t o d i s t i n g u i s h f r o m o t h e r s tfeose w h o m H e a c c e p t s as b e i n g
a g r e e a b l e to Himself.
9) Ibid., p p . 61, 62.
(
w) W e i m a r , VI, 195, 4 a n d 600, 1 1 : ' S u m enim Occanicae factionis."
Quoted by F a t h e r Deniflo, O. P., in Luther et le lAttheranisme, Denifle-
P a q u i e r , vol. I I . p. 201.
 272 THK MYSTICAL H O D Y OK CHRIST

G r a c e i t s e l f d o c s not s e c u r e for us e i t h e r His f a v o u r o r H i s

friendship. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it is not D i v i n e G r a c e w h i c h m a k e s
u s w o r t h y of e t e r n a l life. W e a r e w o r t h y of e t e r n a l life, e x
m
clusively b e c a u s e God a c c e p t s u s . < If w c a r e t o b e l i e v e t h e
O c k h a m i s t , m a n can be in t h e f r i e n d s h i p of G o d by a p u r e l y ex
t r i n s i c d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h a t is t o s a y , b e c a u s e t h e W i l l of G o d ac
cepts him. Of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life w h i c h S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e
b e s t o w s o n u s , t h e O c k h a m i s t s s a y n o t h i n g . It is e a s y t o s e e t h a t
t h e y u n w i l l i n g l y a d m i t t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h i s d e a d w e i g h t in
w h i c h they s a w neither necessity nor utility. T h e y r e p e a t e d con
t i n u a l l y t h a t e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d e d on G o d ' s a c c e p t a n c e of u s , n o t
o n S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e a n d t h e i n f u s e d v i r t u e s . Of c o u r s e , t h e y did
n o t d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e g i f t s , b u t t h e y w e r e a l w a y s p r o
c l a i m i n g t h a t e n t i t i e s w e r e n o t to be m u l t i p l i e d w i t h o u t n e c e s
sity.^'
L u t h e r in his i n t e r i o r s t r u g g l e s r e c a l l e d t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e
f r e e a c c e p t a n c e of God a s t h e O c k h a m i s t s e x p l a i n e d it, t h a t is, a s a
simple possibility. G o d , t h e y s a i d , could a c c e p t e a c h of u s , e v e n
w i t h o u t Sanctifying Grace. L u t h e r goes much further. H e does
n o t s a y : God could do it, b u t God docs it. W e a r e d e c l a r e d f r i e n d s
of G o d b y a n " e x t r i n s i c d e n o m i n a t i o n " o r an "extrinsic
a r r a n g e m e n t . " This extrinsic d e n o m i n a t i o n c o m e s from the jus
t i c e of C h r i s t , t h a t is. f r o m a j u s t i c e w h i c h is n o t o u r s . In t h e
O c k h a m i s t hypothesis of G o d ' s a c c e p t a n c e of u s , h o w e v e r , t h e
s i n n e r w a s i n t r i n s i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d , h i s fault w a s b l o t t e d o u t . A c c o r d
i n g t o L u t h e r , G o d c o n s i d e r s t h e s i n n e r a s just on a c c o u n t of t h e
j u s t i c e of C h r i s t , b u t t h e s i n n e r r e m a i n s a s i n n e r . T h e sin is n o t
effaced, b u t God r e g a r d s the s i n n e r as just, because C h r i s t ' s justice
is i m p u t e d t o h i m . T h e c a u s e of t h i s e r r o n e o u s d o c t r i n e o n t h e
p a r t of L u t h e r w a s h i s o w n i n t e r i o r s t a t e . H e could n o t r e s i s t sin
t h r o u g h his o w n fault, b u t h e h e l d u p C h r i s t ' s j u s t i c e b e t w e e n
h i m s e l f a n d G o d a n d in t h i s w a y hid h i s c o r r u p t i o n a n d m i s e r y
0 3
from God's gaze, lie remained, however, intrinsically c o r r u p t . )
11
t ) " God accepts a soul in the s t a t e of grace i n t o e t e r n a l life p u r e l y
11
gratuitously." An imam c h a r i t a t e m habentem Deus p u r e g r a t i s
a c c e p t a t ad vitain^ie-ternam " ( P e t e r d ' A i l l i , / Sent., 7?/.9, o.2, fol. 139).
(12) " K r u s t r a fit per p l u r u quod fieri potest per p a u r i o r a " (Ockham,
/ Sent., dist. 3 0 .
t(
<13) l a 1 5 3 ] , L u t h e r w r o t e : I am accustomed . . . to i m a g i n e t h a t
there is no q u a l i t y called faith or c h a r i t y in my heart", b u t in the place
of these I p u t Christ, Himself, a n d f s a y : This is my justice. C h r i s t
is my q u a l i t y and my formal justice as il U called " (quoted by F a t h e r
D e n i f l e , O. P., op. cit.. p. 2 2 0 , Corpus Reformatorum, TT, 5 0 3 ) .
When L u t h e r say^ elsewhere: " Against Ockham wo, m u s t hold t h a t
M
God cannot accept man without j u s t i f y i n g grace ( W e i m a r , T 227,
i l M
n. 563). lie uses the expression j u s t i f y i n g grace in a different sense
from Ockham. Tn his system the j u s t i c e ' of C h r i s t is the " j u s t i f y i n g
grace."
 PROTESTANT REVOLT AGAINST ORDER 273

Thus Luther involved himself in numberless contradictions with

14
which wc are not here directly concerned/ * So too he set up that
separation of Grace and nature which was to have such disastr
ous repercussions on the political and economic organization of
Protestant society, especially when reinforced by another inevit
able consequence of Luther's system of private judgement, namely,
the growth of a purely individualistic relation with Christ.

CONSEQUENCES OF LUTHERAN1SM.

Catholic teaching insists, not on the separation of the super

natural and the natural but on their distinction and connection.
For the Catholic Church, there is no inevitable contradiction be
tween invisible Grace and visible organization, between interior
liberty and external power, between the supernatural world and
the material universe. The Kingdom of God amongst us consists,
essentially and principally in the supernatural society of the Cath
olic Church, secondarily and as a consequence of the influence of
the Catholic Church, in an organization of the social life of States,
political and economic, in accordance with the Divine Plan for
order. God in Three Divine Persons is Subsistent Love of order.
The social organization of men, who are called to share in the
Inner Life of God through membership of Christ, must reflect
that supernatural love of order. We may represent the Divine
Plan for order succinctly as follows:

God
(In Three Divine Persons)
! A
v i
Our Lord Jesus Christ
(Invisible Head of His Mystical Rodv, the Catholic Church')
! A
v |
States aiming at the Temporal Prosperity of their subjects
so as not only not to hinder but to favour their attaining
their final endUnion with the Rlessed Trinity. Thus the
organization of the State will aid every citizen to act always
as a member of Christ. This is what God in Three Divine
Persons wants.
U4; Ockham _ exaits faith and lowers reason. He even attacks the
value of the principle of contradiction. Luther, as usual, goes further.
Ockham had also prepared the way for Luther and had influenced his
mind by his affirmation that Scripture alone is infallible.
Cf. Denifle-Paquier, Luther et It Luthtranixme, vol. I l l , pp. 226
and foil., also Lrs Qrigines de la Thcologie Modern?, by l'abbe Humbert,
pp. 36 and foil.
u
274 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

T h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c i d e a l of
t h e life of t h e i n d i v i d u a l C h r i s t i a n m a y h e u s e f u l t o b r i n g o u t t h e
c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n it a n d P r o t e s t a n t i s m . T h e p o s i t i o n of t h e r e c t
angles and the a r r o w s pointing d o w n w a r d s indicate that Super
n a t u r a l L i f e is m e a n t t o p e r m e a t e a n d a n i m a t e all t h e a c t i v i t i e s
of social life. T h e a r r o w s p o i n t i n g u p w a r d s i n d i c a t e t h a t social
life is m e a n t t o aid in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of
m e m b e r s of C h r i s t a n d so c o n t r i b u t e to t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e
M y s t i c a l B o d y in h e a v e n . H e n c e t h e social life of t h e Citizen is
fully s u b o r d i n a t e d to t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of t h e Christian. His
e n v i r o n m e n t a i d s h i m to a c t a s a m e m b e r of C h r i s t i n s t e a d of b e i n g
a h i n d r a n c e t h e r e t o . T h u s , too, G o d ' s R i g h t s a r e fully r e s p e c t e d .

God
(In T h r e e Divine Persons)
1
A
v |
Our Lord Jesus Christ, H e a d
of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y .
I A
V
I _

S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of
M e m b e r of C h r i s t .

! A
V 1

Social Life,
Political and Kconomic,
of
M e m b e r of C h r i s t .

L u t h e r a n i s m , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s e p a r a t e s t h e w o r l d i n t o t w o
halves so independent t h a t t h e y have only accidental relations
w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h i s is t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t of t h e s e p a r a t i o n of
Grace a n d nature ( t h i s l a t t e r b e i n g i n t r i n s i c a l l y c o r r u p t ) , of faith
a n d works. A c c o r d i n g to L u t h e r , e a c h i n d i v i d u a l , w h i l e h i s n a t u r a l
e q u i p m e n t r e m a i n s i n t r i n s i c a l l y c o r r u p t , b y a n a c t of b l i n d confid
e n c e , h o l d s u p t h e j u s t i c e of C h r i s t a s a f i r e - s c r e e n b e t w e e n G o d ' s
a n g e r a n d his o w n c o r r u p t i o n . Tn t h i s w a y t h e r e is b r o u g h t i n t o
e x i s t e n c e t h e invisible C h u r c h of t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e , w h i l e t h e O n e
T r u e V i s i b l e C h u r c h , t h r o u g h w h i c h a l o n e (in re o r in voto) one
b e c o m e s a m e m b e r of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y , is d o n e a w a y w i t h .
T h i s is t h e invisible C h u r c h of h u m a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h G o d a n d of
 PROTESTANT REVOLT AGAINST ORDER 275

divine action. All the rest, all that concerns the life and action
of the external man, including the ecclesiastical organizations en
tered into to stir up faith in Christ, in a word, all the affairs of
this world, are relegated to the State. This results in a clear-cut
separation between the Christian and the Citizen.
"You are a prince or judge," said Luther, you have
people under you and you wish to know what to do. It is not
Christ you are to question concerning the matter but the law of
your country Between the Christian and the ruler, a pro
found separation must be made. . . . Assuredly, a prince can be
a Christian, but it is not as a Christian that he ought to govern.
As a ruler, he is not called a Christian but a prince. The man is
a Christian, but his function does not concern his religion. . . .
Though they are found in the same man, the two states or func
tions are perfectly marked off one from the other, and really
1 15
opposed/ ' * So all man's external activity, springing from a
nature deprived of Supernatural Life and subject to the dictates
of a ruler who must look upon himself not as a Christian but as
a ruler, is completely naturalistic. By this individualism and sep
aratism the way is made smooth for modern Naturalism and Lib
161
eralism/
If we bear in mind that, according to Luther, Our Lord Jesus
Christ is no longer the Source of Sanctifying Grace, the Intrinsic
Principle of Life of the Mystical Body, we may express the dis
ordered Lutheran ideal of life as follows:

Christian Life- Social Life.

Thus the life of the Citizen is separated and sectioned off from
the life of the Christian. Accordingly, each Protestant State, after
the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, expressed this separatist ideal
by organizing its national form of religion as a State Department.
17
The True Church of Christ is invisible/ '
us) Luther's Works (Weimar Edition), XXXII, )pp. 3&1, 43&, 440.
Again he writes in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians:
" Conscience has nothing to do with the Law, works or earthly justice "
(Gal., c. II, v. 14, quoted by l'abbe Paquier in Luther et VAllemagne,
p. 166).
<16) L'Union rles Sylisc*, by l'abbe Ch. Journet, has some excellent
remarks on the separatist spirit of Lutheranism, pp. 166-170 and 261-262.
17
< ) The note of interrogation at the head of the diagram is meant
to emphasize the fact that those who are. not in the order laid down
by God for return to Him are in a state of disorder.
276 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

T o b r i n g h o m e to o u r s e l v e s h o w far the L u t h e r a n separation

of t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d t h e C i t i z e n h a s c o r r o d e d t h e t r u e C a t h o l i c
i d e a l of m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t in t h e m i n d s of C a t h o l i c s , w e h a v e
o n l y t o l i s t e n t o t h o s e C a t h o l i c s w h o affirm t h a t t h e r e is n o p e r
s e c u t i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h in G e r m a n y u n d e r t h e N a t i o n a l -
S o c i a l i s t regime. T h e y s a y t h a t w h e n t h e y w e r e in G e r m a n y t h e y
s a w M a s s being celebrated freely and the Churches crowded. It
is clear t h a t for t h e m t h e Catholic religion s t o p s a t t h e C h u r c h
d o o r a n d t h a t t h e r e is a r i g i d s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n C a t h o l i c life a n d
s o c i a l life. If t h i s w e r e n o t s o , t h e y w o u l d h a v e s e e n all t h e
h o r r o r i n v o l v e d in t h e f a c t t h a t f r o m t h e m o m e n t a G e r m a n C a t h
o l i c left C h u r c h a f t e r M a s s , h e f o u n d h i m s e l f u p a g a i n s t a social
o r g a n i z a t i o n b a s e d o n m e m b e r s h i p of t h e G e r m a n r a c e a s t h e
p r i m a r y v a l u e , n o t o n m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t .
A n o t h e r i n s t a n c e of t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e L u t h e r a n a t t i t u d e o n
C a t h o l i c m i n d s is t o b e f o u n d in t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e C h r i s t i a n
i d e a l t o t h e a v o i d a n c e of sin. M a n y C a t h o l i c s do n o t u n d e r s t a n d
t h a t t h e i d e a l of life is n o t m e r e l y n e g a t i v e , t h a t it is n o t c o n
fined t o s a f e g u a r d i n g o n e s e l f f r o m c o m m i t t i n g s i n . T h e w h o l e
life of a m e m b e r of C h r i s t is m e a n t t o be s u b j e c t t o C h r i s t , a s t h e
h a n d o r t h e f o o t is s u b j e c t t o t h e h e a d in t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y , in
v i e w of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of u n i o n w i t h t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y h e r e
b e l o w in The o b s c u r i t y of f a i t h , w h i l e a w a i t i n g t h e v i s i o n f a c e - t o -
f a c e in h e a v e n . A n d t h e w h o l e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a S t a t e is i n t e n d e d
b y G o d t o f a v o u r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y t h r o u g h
that development.
T h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t of P r o t e s t a n t i s m w a s a n e n o r m o u s in
c r e a s e in t h e p o w e r of T e m p o r a l R u l e r s of S t a t e s . A s t h e S p i r i t
ual K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t , p a r t i c i p a t e d in b y t h e P o p e a n d t h e B i s h o p s
of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , w a s n o l o n g e r a c k n o w l e d g e d , a u t h o r i t y
o v e r s p i r i t u a l affairs, i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t t o i n t e r p r e t a n d a p p l y
the moral law, passed to the T e m p o r a l R u l e r s . Accordingly, on
t h e o n e h a n d , t h e w a y w a s l a i d o p e n f o r t h e a b u s e s of S t a t e A b s o
l u t i s m , f o r t h e S t a t e ' s n e g l e c t of G o d ' s R i g h t s led t o t h e d i s r e g a r d
of m a n ' s r i g h t s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p r i n c i p l e of p r i v a t e j u d g e
,r
m e n t p r e p a r e d t h e w a y f o r t h e o p p o s i t e e r r o r of " h o l y r e b e l l i o n
a n d of t h e " r i g h t " of t h e p e o p l e t o r e v o l t a g a i n s t a u t h o r i t y on
any pretext whatsoever. D i s r e g a r d for G o d ' s R i g h t s m e a n t in
e v i t a b l y t h a t m a n ' s d u t i e s w e r e n o t s t r e s s e d as t h e y s h o u l d be.
I t is t r u e t h a t t h e P r o t e s t a n t S t a t e s , a s o r g a n i z e d b o d i e s , still
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e y h a d a d u t y t o G o d , a n d at t h e b e g i n n i n g ,
a t l e a s t , m a i n t a i n e d t h e g r e a t t r u t h of t h e D i v i n i t y of O u r L o r d
J e s u s C h r i s t , t h o u g h r e j e c t i n g t h e o r d e r e s t a b l i s h e d b y H i m for
r e t u r n t o G o d . D e c a y , h o w e v e r , w a s i n e v i t a b l e , w h e n o n c e the
I n f a l l i b l e G u a r d i a n of t h e m o r a l l a w w a s t h r u s t a s i d e . T h e w a y
w a s t h u s p a v e d for t h e r e t u r n of t h e t y r a n n i c a l regime of I m p e r i a l
 PROTJCSTANT R E V O L T AGAINST ORDER 277,

R o m e , d o m i n a t e d b y t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y . Individualism
a n d i s o l a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o O u r L o r d led t o i n d i v i d u a l i s m in social
life. T h e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e Christian a n d t h e Citizen p r e p a r e d t h e
w a y f o r t h e g r o w t h of N a t u r a l i s m . W i t h t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n
t h e o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s will b e g i n t h e n e w a n t i - s u p e r
n a t u r a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y . A s t i m e g o e s o n a n d t h e a t t a c k
o n G o d ' s R i g h t s d e v e l o p s , m a n w i l l b e t r e a t e d less a n d less a s a
person a n d m o r e a n d m o r e a s a m e r e individual. T h i s r e s u l t of
" P r o g r e s s " a n d " L i b e r t y " is t h e s u r e s i g n of S a t a n ' s d o m i n a t i o n
18
o v e r society.* *

(18) Yor a brief account of the P o l i t i c a l and Economic consequences

of P r o t e s t a n t i s m , cf. The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modem
World, p p . 13-24. I n a d d i t i o n to the works referred to there, see
Rechcrehes sur U Esprit politique de la Reforme, by G. de L a g a r d e .
 C H A P T E R XIV.

THK FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVOLUTION.

W c h a v e s e e n t h a t o n e r e s u l t of t h e L u t h e r a n r e v o l t w a s t h e
division b e t w e e n the Christian and the Citizen. According to the
C a t h o l i c i d e a l t h e w h o l e life of a m e m b e r of C h r i s t is m e a n t t o b e
s u b j e c t to C h r i s t and a n i m a t e d w i t h the m e r i t o r i o u s S u p e r n a t u r a l
L i f e of G r a c e , j u s t a s all t h e m o v e m e n t s of t h e h a n d o r of any-
o t h e r m e m b e r a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e h e a d in t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y . A c
c o r d i n g t o t h e L u t h e r a n i d e a l , all t h e a c t i v i t y of a C h r i s t i a n in t h e
w o r l d is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e r u l e of C h r i s t a n d g i v e n o v e r t o
Naturalism. " T h e y w h o are just," says L u t h e r , " observe the law,
not because the// are thereby justified before God, b u t f o r t h e s a k e
of civil o r d e r , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w t h a t s u c h o b e d i e n c e is w e l l
p l e a s i n g t o G o d , a n d a g o o d e x a m p l e a n d p a t t e r n for t h e i m p r o v e
m e n t of o t h e r s . T o earthly activity w a s thus ascribed a
m e r e l y earthly, naturalistic value. Calvin a g r e e d w i t h this, m a i n
t a i n i n g t h e s e c t i o n i n g o r d i v i s i o n of life, b u t be a d d e d p o w e r f u l
i n c e n t i v e s l o t h e o b s e r v a n c e of n a t u r a l a s c e t i c i s m a n d t o t h e p u r
s u i t of w e a l t h . H e t a u g h t t h a t i n d u s t r i a l e n e r g y a n d s u c c e s s i n
b u s i n e s s w e r e a p r o o f of o n e ' s e l e c t i o n t o s a l v a t i o n , a c l e a r
indication that the purely interior act of faith-confidence
in Christ had been rightly performed, and that on the
other hand, lack of eagerness for gain and ill-success
w e r e a p r o o f of e t e r n a l d a m n a t i o n . Accordingly, political
a c t i o n a n d b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s , i n s t e a d of b e i n g vivified w i t h t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l l o v e of o n e ' s f e l l o w - m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , a c t u a l o r
p o t e n t i a l , w e r e left t o t h e g u i d a n c e of p r i v a t e j u d g e m e n t , t h a t is,
i n e v i t a b l y , t o t h e p r o m p t i n g s of s e l f - i n t e r e s t . T h u s , i n d i v i d u a l i s m
in r e l i g i o n p r e p a r e d t h e w a y for i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d s e p a r a t i s m in
political and economic activity. Naturalism g r e w apace.
M e a n w h i l e , t h e u p r i s e of a m u l t i t u d e of s e c t s , w h i c h w a s t h e
i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e of i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d p r i v a t e j u d g e m e n t ,
favoured N a t u r a l i s m after a n o t h e r fashion. S a t a n , as w e h a v e
s e e n , u r g e d t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of s e t t i n g u p a s o c i e t y b a s e d u p o n
t h a t n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n in w h i c h all m e n a g r e e , a s a r e m e d y f o r t h e
divisions arising from the quarrels b e t w e e n Christian denomina-

<D Q u o t e d by Rev. E u s t a c e Dudley in National Resurrection, p . 39.

 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 279

tions. Thus, the tempter whispered, since human beings are ra

tional, you can make them good and true and at the same time
re-establish the brotherhood of men of all nations so much endan
gered by all these quarrels. Satan pleaded, too, for an oath of
secrecy because of special knowledge to be safeguarded, knowing
the force of such an appeal and its efficacy in keeping men in sub
jection. In this wise, Freemasonry, a naturalistic caricature of
the Mystical Body of Christ, was brought into existence. The
so-called Reformation had not attempted to set up a supranational
organization in the place of the Catholic Church. The French
Revolution of 1789 witnessed the first appearance in public of the
new ideal of a purely naturalistic society striving for the uni
(2)
versality of the Catholic Church. The State or Nation, falsely
holding that it is not obliged to make profession of any religion,
proclaims that religion is a private matter and, after the model

<2) For the proofs of the fact that Freemasonry prepared and
carried out the French Revolution, see The Mystical Body of Christ
in the Modern World, p p . 25-68, and the authors there quoted, espe
cially Tabbe Barruel and M. Auguste Cochin. The monumental work
of Pere Deschamps, S.J., Les Societes Secretes et la Societe, which is
not there mentioned, but which was continually utilized, should also
be read.
Since that book was written, I have been able to consult in addition
the work of the non-Catholic, Robison, 7 roofs of a Conspiracy
J
against
all the Religions and Governments of Europe. Robison was Secretary
to the' Royal Society of Edinburgh and was a Mason of some standing.
He says:
" 1 had been initiated in a very splendid Lodge at Liege, of which
the Prince Bishop, his Trefonciers, and the chief noblesse of the State
were members, j visited the French Lodges at Valenciennes, at Brus
sels, at Aix-la-Chapelle, at Berlin and Konigsberg . . . At St. Peters
burg I connected myself with the English Lodge, and occasionally visited
the German and Russian Lodges held there." Then on pages 10 and
11 he adds: *' I found that the covert of a Mason Lodge had been em
ployed in every country for venting and propagating sentiments in
religion and politics, that could not have circulated in public without
exposing the author to great danger. I found that this impunity had
gradually encouraged men of licentious principles to become more bold
and to teach doctrines subversive of all our notions of morality . . . .
and of all satisfaction and contentment with our present life, so long
as we live in a state of civil subordination. . . . I have observed these
doctrines gradually diffusing and mixing with all the different forms
of Freemasonry, till, at last, an Association has been formed for the
express purpose of rooting out all the religious establishments and over
turning all the existing Governments of Europe , . . And I have seen
that the most active leaders in the French Revolution'were members
of this Association, and conducted their first movements according to
its principles, and by means of its instructions and assistance, form
ally requested and obtained: and, lastly, I have seen that this Asso
ciation still exists, still works in secret . . . that the Association has
Lodges in Britain corresponding with the Mother Lodge -at Munich ever
since 1784 " (op. cit., p. % 3rd ed., 1798).
 280 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

of t h e M a s o n i c S o c i e t y , d e c l a r e s i t s e l f s u p e r i o r b o t h t o t h e
M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t a n d t o all t h e v a r i o u s m a n - m a d e f o r m s
of r e l i g i o n p r o f e s s e d b y i t s i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t s .
M o d e r n H i s t o r y s i n c e 1789 is, t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , t h e a c c o u n t
of t h e d o m i n a t i o n of S t a t e a f t e r S t a t e b y t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c s u p r a
n a t i o n a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y , b e h i n d w h i c h h a s b e e n s t e a d i l y e m e r g
i n g t h e still m o r e s t r o n g l y o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c s u p r a n a t i o n a l
i s m of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n . T h a t is w h y t h e p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y
e p o c h h a s w i t n e s s e d , in c o u n t r y a f t e r c o u n t r y , p e r s i s t e n t a t t a c k s
o n t h e p r o g r a m m e of C h r i s t t h e K i n g in r e g a r d t o t h e C h u r c h ,
t h e State, the Family, Education, the Religious Orders, Secret
S o c i e t i e s , L i b e r t y of t h e P r e s s a n d P r i v a t e P r o p e r t y . A f t e r e v e r y
s u c c e s s f u l M a s o n i c R e v o l u t i o n s i n c e t h e first in 1789 d o w n t o a n d
i n c l u d i n g t h e S p a n i s h R e v o l u t i o n of 1931, t h e w o r l d s o o n b e g a n
t o h e a r of t h e c o u n t r y ' s e n t e r i n g u p o n t h e p a t h of " p r o g r e s s "
il
b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of enlightened " r e f o r m s , such as, the sep
a r a t i o n of C h u r c h a n d S t a t e , t h e l e g a l i z a t i o n of d i v o r c e , t h e s u p
p r e s s i o n a n d b a n i s h m e n t of r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s a n d c o n g r e g a t i o n s ,
t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n of F r e e m a s o n r y , t h e s e c u l a r i z a t i o n of t h e s c h o o l s ,
t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of p r o p e r t y a n d t h e u n r e s t r a i n e d l i c e n c e of t h e
( 3 J
press. T h e s e w e r e , of c o u r s e , s i m p l y t h e r e s u l t s of S a t a n ' s u t i l i z
a t i o n of his visible i n s t r u m e n t s in o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e
of C h r i s t t h e K i n g . S a t a n h i m s e l f k n o w s w e l l t h a t t h e c a r r y i n g
o u t of h i s p r o g r a m m e c a n o n l y l e a d t o s a v a g e r y a n d c h a o s , t h r o u g h
t h e r u t h l e s s e n s l a v e m e n t of t h e m a n y b y t h e few. M o s t of his
s u b o r d i n a t e s , however, do n o t g r a s p this. Blinded by the sug
g e s t i o n s of t h e t e m p t e r a n d b y t h e i r OAVU p r i d e , m e n o v e r t h r o w
t h e b u l w a r k s of s o c i e t y r e a r e d o n f a i t h in C h r i s t a n d o n o u r m e m
b e r s h i p of H i m , w i t h d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s , e s p e c i a l l y for t h e p o o r
and the lowly.

NATURALISM AND REVOLUTION.

N a t u r a l i s m , a s w e h a v e s e e n in c h a p t e r 1, c o n s i s t s in- t h e n e g a
t i o n of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e e l e v a t i o n of o u r n a t u r e t o t h e S u p e r
n a t u r a l L i f e a n d o r d e r o r , m o r e r a d i c a l l y s t i l l , in t h e negation of
t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of t h a t L i f e a n d o r d e r . If N a t u r a l i s m d e n i e s
t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e , it h a s i t s f o u n d a t i o n in
P a n t h e i s m . T h e r e a s o n of t h e l a s t s t a t e m e n t is c l e a r . If t h e r e
is n o t r u t h a n d n o life b e y o n d t h e r e a c h of o u r n a t u r e , t h e n o u r
n a t u r e is i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e D i v i n e N a t u r e . R a t i o n a l i s m is t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m t o t h e h u m a n r e a s o n . I t i n v o l v e s t h e
(3) F o r a s p l e n d i d exposition a n d r e f u t a t i o n of these v a r i o u s
n a t u r a l i s t i c e r r o r s , cf. Lets Erreurs Modernes (2 vols.), by Dom P a u l
B e n o i t . T h i s work could be used as an excellent introduction to the
history of the Middle Ages a n d of the p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y epoch (J789
to the present d a y ) .
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 281
negation either of the existence of the Supernatural Life that
comes from Our Lord Jesus Christ or at least of the possibility
of getting to know about that Life, even by revelation. Thus
the human mind is the unique source of truth and order, to the
4
exclusion of God and Our Lord Jesus Christ.* )
The word Revolution may be taken in two senses. The prim
ary signification is that of a radical transformation of society un
dertaken for the purpose of destroying the ancient order which
was based on the recognition of the Rights of God through the
Mystical Body of Christ and of the reality of the Supernatural
Life of Grace as our highest and noblest life. The second signi
fication is derived from the former. According to it, the word
is applied to the doctrines or principles in the name of which the
social transformation is accomplished and to the new institutions
set up in the place of those overthrown. The aim of revolution,
therefore, is based on the negation of God's Rights and of our
Supernatural Life and is the enthronement of man's reason as
supreme, hi other words, it is the inauguration of the reign of
Naturalism or Rationalism.

T H E DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN.

We have seen in Chapter I that the true rights of man are
founded on man's duties to God, and that God become Man, Our
Lord Jesus Christ, the One Mediator, has set forth the divine
programme for the full acknowledgment of those duties to God.
For centuries France had acknowledged those duties, and what
ever abuses existed in society had arisen from the forgetfulness
of them, that is, from the neglect and contempt of the Rights of
God, as enunciated by Our Lord Jesus Christ and His Church.
The ignorance, forgetfulness and contempt of the Rights of
Almighty God. the True Supreme Being, and of Our Lord Jesus
Christ, were therefore the principal causes of public misfortunes.
In the Preamble of the Declaration drawn up by the French
National Assembly, Our Lord Jesus Christ is left out of account
and the new-fangled rights of man, not based on his duties to
God through the One Mediator, are drawn up in the presence of
the vague pantheistic supreme Being of Freemasonry. " The
representatives of the French people gathered together in a Na
tional Assembly/' runs the infamous document, ''considering that
the ignorance, forgetfulness or contempt of the rights of man are
the sole cause of public misfortunes and the corruption of govern
ments, have decided to set forth in a solemn declaration, the na
tural, inalienable and sacred rights of man. . . . Consequently,
the National Assembly recognises and declares, in the presence
4
<> Cf. the 3rd Proposition condemned in the Syllabus of Pius IX
in The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modern World, pp. 120, ]31.
 282 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a n d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e S u p r e m e B e i n g , t h e f o l l o w i n g r i g h t s
of t h e m a n a n d t h e c i t i z e n , e t c . " T h u s w e find in t h i s " M a g n a
C h a r t a " of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , s o c i a l a p o s t a c y a n d
t h e r e j e c t i o n of O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
5
t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of m a n f o r G o d o r t h e w o r s h i p of h u m a n i t y . * *
T h e j u d g e m e n t of t h e C h u r c h a s t o t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e s e
a r t i c l e s for C o n s t i t u t i o n - b u i l d i n g w a s n o t l o n g delayed. P i u s V I ,
i n a L e t t e r t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p of A v i g n o n i n 1791, c o n c e r n i n g t h e
d e l i b e r a t i o n s of t h e A s s e m b l y of t h a t d i s t r i c t , c o n d e m n e d t h e
D e c l a r a t i o n of 1789 a s o p p o s e d t o r e l i g i o n a n d t o t h e g o o d of
society. " I t is e n o u g h , " h e w r o t e , " t o r e c a l l t h o s e s e v e n t e e n
a r t i c l e s , w h e r e i n t h e r i g h t s of m a n w e r e t a k e n e x a c t l y in t h e s a m e
s e n s e in w h i c h t h e y h a d b e e n s e t f o r t h a n d p r o c l a i m e d i n t h e
d e c r e e s of t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y of F r a n c e , I m e a n , those rights
so opposed to religion and the good of society, a n d t h e y w e r e so
t a k e n t h a t t h e y m i g h t f o r m t h e g r o u n d - w o r k o r f o u n d a t i o n of a
N e w C o n s t i t u t i o n " (Bullarivm Itornanvm, A p r i l , 1791).
" N e v e r t o h a v e k n o w n J e s u s C h r i s t in a n y w a y is t h e g r e a t
e s t of m i s f o r t u n e s , " w r o t e P o p e L e o X I If, " b u t it i n v o l v e s n o
p e r v e r s i t y or ingratitude. B u t after h a v i n g k n o w n , to reject or
f o r g e t H i m , is s u c h a h o r r i b l e a n d m a d c r i m e a s t o b e s c a r c e l y
c r e d i b l e . F o r H e is t h e o r i g i n a n d s o u r c e of all g o o d , a n d j u s t a s
m a n k i n d could n o t b e f r e e d f r o m s l a v e r y b u t by t h e s a c r i f i c e of
C h r i s t , s o n e i t h e r c a n it b e p r e s e r v e d b u t b y H i s p o w e r . . . . M e n
w a n d e r v e r y f a r f r o m t h e g o a l , in a i m l e s s e r r o r , o n c e t h e y h a v e
e n t e r e d u p o n d e v i o u s p a t h s . L i k e w i s e , if t h e p u r e a n d u n s u l l i e d
l i g h t of t r u t h b e r e j e c t e d , m e n ' s m i n d s m u s t n e e d s b e b u r i e d in
d a r k n e s s a n d d e c e i v e d by d e p r a v e d f a n c i e s t h a t m e e t t h e m a t
e v e r y s t e p . . . . C h r i s t a l o n e is t h e W a y , t h e T r u t h , a n d t h e L i f e
( S t . J o h n , X I V , 6 ) , a n d if w e d e s p i s e 1 lim w e lose t h e s e t h r e e in
d i s p e n s a b l e r e q u i s i t e s for s a l v a t i o n . . . . T h e c a s e of G o v e r n
m e n t s is m u c h t h e s a m e a s t h a t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e y a l s o m u s t
r u n i n t o f a t a l i s s u e s , if t h e y d e p a r t f r o m t h e W a y . . . . L e t
J e s u s be e x c l u d e d , a n d h u m a n r e a s o n is l e f t w i t h o u t i t s g r e a t e s t
p r o t e c t i o n a n d i l l u m i n a t i o n : t h e v e r y n o t i o n is e a s i l y l o s t of t h e
e n d for w h i c h God c r e a t e d h u m a n society. . . . T h e i r m i n d s
b u s y with a h u n d r e d confused projects, rulers and subjects alike
t r a v e l a d e v i o u s r o a d , b e r e f t a s t h e y a r e of s a f e g u i d a n c e a n d fixed
( G )
principle."
T h e F r e n c h p e o p l e h a d g r a s p e d t h e t r u t h of t h e D i v i n e P l a n
f o r o r d e r a n d h a d s t o o d f o r t h e R i g h t s of G o d . B y l e a v i n g O u r
L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t o u t of a c c o u n t a n d p a s s i n g o v e r in s i l e n c e t h e

<) F o r a fuller t r e a t m e n t of w h a t is merely outlined here, see The

Mystical Body of Christ in the Modern* World, p p . 51-68, a n d Lea
Erreurs Modernes, by Dom P. Benoit, vol. I, p p . 473-513.
(i
<> Encyclical L e t t e r . Tamcttn\ On Christ Our Redeemer, Nov. 1.
1900.
 T H E FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 283

Rights of the Head of the Mystical Body, they committed apos-

tacy and ushered in a long period of disorder under the sway of the
promoters of Naturalism. When men reject Our Lord Jesus
Christ, they tend inevitably to put themselves in the place of God.
This is what the French Masons had done and this is what they
7
succeeded in doing officially in the name of France in 1789.< >
It is precisely in this putting of human reason in the place of God
that Rationalism consists, and this is what we find in the Declara
tion of 1789,
No wonder, then, that Leo XIII was compelled to condemn
the spirit animating Revolutionary legislation and its provisions.
This he did in no uncertain terms in the Encyclical Letter,
Immortale Dei, On the Christian Constitution of States (Nov. 1,
1885). "Sad it is to call to mind," wrote the great Pontiff, "how
the harmful and lamentable rage for innovation which rose to a
climax in the 16th century, threw first of all into confusion the
Christian religion, and, next, by natural sequence, invaded the
precincts of philosophy, whence it spread amongst all classes of
society. From this source, as from a fountain-head, burst forth
all those later tenets of unbridled licence which, in the midst of
the terrible upheavals of the last century, were widely conceived
and boldly proclaimed as the principles and foundations of that
new jurisprudence which was not merely previously unknown,
but was at variance in many points with not only the Christian,
but even the natural law. Amongst these principles the main one
lays down that as all men are alike by race and nature, so in like
manner all are equal in the control of their life; that each one is
so far his own master as to be in no sense under the rule of any
other individual; that each is free to think on every subject just
as he may choose, and to do whatever he may like to do; that no
man has any right to rule over other men. . . . The authority of
God is passed over in silence, just as if there were no God . . .
or as if men whether in their individual capacity or bound toget
her in social relations, owed nothing to God. . . . Moreover, the
State believes that it is not obliged to make public profession of
any religion; or to inquire which of the very many religions is
the only true one; or to prefer one religion to all the rest; or to
show any form of religion special favour; but, on the contrary, is
bound to grant equal rights to every creed, aiming exclusively at
preventing them from disturbing public order and tranquillity."
On the other hand, we arc not left in doubt about what the
enemies of Christ and of the Supernatural Life think of the Revo
lution. "Long live Liberty, Equality, Fraternity! That is the
<7) It is well to recall here the text of Pope Pius XI already quoted:
" No belief in God will in the long run be preserved pure and genuine,
if it is not supported by belief in Christ" (Encyclical Letter, Mil
Brennender Sorge).
 284 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

favourable lime for us/' These words, ullercrl by one of the

possessed children of lllfurl (Alsace), show Satan's high opinion
of the principles of 1789.<^
We need not be .surprised, then, at the strong appeal addressed
by I'ere Henry kamicre, S.J.. t o the Associate.- of the Apostle-dnp
of Fravcr, in 18**2: " We musi unite in an immense effort to obtain
that, as we have seen the Revolution open by the Declaration of
the rights o f man and the proclamation of the dethronement of
Jesus Christ from I lis rightful place in society, wc may sec this
same Revolution come t o an end by t h e recognition of the Rights
of God and of the duties of the human race to its Saviour and its
v 8bis
King. < >
THE [EWISH NATION AND T H K FRENCH
REVOLUTION.
Again, the greatest organized visible naturalistic or anti-super
natural force, the Jewish Nation, extols the "principles of 1789."
On the 3rd August, 1790, Revolutionary France took the initiative
in the question of the admission of the members of the Jewish
91
Nation to full citizenship.* Their emancipation took place in
England only in 1849 and 1858. in Denmark in 1849, in Austria-
Hungary in 1867, in Germany in 1809 and 1871. in Italy in 1860
and 1870, in Switzerland in 1S6<J and 1874, in Bulgaria and Serbia
in 1878 and 1879. M. Tabbe Joseph Lemann, the Jewish convert,
has depicted in the following terms the advantages the Jews hoped
for from the emancipation: "The Jews had always been a hostile
power. They were also a financial power l o be reckoned with.
They became a civil power by the rights of citizenship conferred
on them by the Constituent Assembly. They have now only to
become a political power, with mastery over the finances, the legis
lation, the army and the diplomatic service of the friendly unsus
M(10)
pecting nations. That day will c o m c .
Seventy years ago, the Jews proclaimed openly how they have
profited by the principles of 1789. On the 29th June, 1869, they held
Le Viable, Sag f*aroles. Son Action thins lea Pasttedes d'lflfurt^
p. 66'. The work is compiled from documents embodying the statements
of eye-witnesses.
(Hbis) / f Hitjnv
jf Social da- f-tnnr tit Ji'sttx, p . <j()-l.
(9> "Thfs deputies who got the project <>f ."Jewish Emancipation
voted by the Assembly were all Freemasons " (7/Entree den Jul fx dan*
la* Sav.ie.1e Eranraixr, p. 356, by Tabbe Lemann, the distinguished
Jewish convert).
"The servants of the Jews, the Freemasons, got this decree voted,
but only at the fourteenth session, after thirteen fruitless attempts.
. . . Thus was this foreign nation introduced into the bosom of the
French Nation " (Leu Pnnrquoi de la C iter re Mondiale, Vol. I l l , p. 304,
by Mgr. TL Delassus).
no) Quoted by Mgr. TL Delassns. op. cit., p. 305.
 T H E F R E N C H R E V O L U T I O N O F 1789 285

a s y n o d a t L e i p z i g , a t w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t , u n d e r t h e p r e s i d e n c y of
D r . L a z a r u s of B e r l i n , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of G e r m a n y , R u s s i a , T u r
k e y , A u s t r i a , E n g l a n d , t h e L o w C o u n t r i e s , F r a n c e , e t c . T h e fol
l o w i n g r e s o l u t i o n w a s p r o p o s e d by D r . P h i l i p s o n of B o n n a n d
s e c o n d e d b y t h e Chief R a b b i of B e l g i u m , M . A s t r u c : " T h e S y n o d
p r o c l a i m s t h a t t h e diffusion a n d a p p l i c a t i o n t o r e a l life of m o d e r n
p r i n c i p l e s a r e t h e s u r e s t g u a r a n t e e s of t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e f u t u r e
w e l l - b e i n g of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a n d its m e m b e r s . T h e y a r e t h e
c o n d i t i o n s v i t a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e for t h e p r o g r e s s i v e e x p a n s i o n a n d
t h e h i g h e s t d e v e l o p m e n t of J u d a i s m . " W e find t h e s a m e n o t e of
r e j o i c i n g in t h e s e r m o n p r e a c h e d b y t h e R a b b i I s a a c B l o c h a t
N a n c y , in 1889. " T h e s p i r i t of t h e R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e s p i r i t of
t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n a r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e , " h e said, " a n d in l a s t
analysis the one proceeds from the other. The Revolution has had
t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l effect of b r i n g i n g J u d a i s m b a c k t o t h e w a y t o
be t r a v e r s e d in o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t i t s m i s s i o n . . . . I s r a e l is l i k e
a g i a n t S o w e r a d v a n c i n g d o w n t h e e v e r - w i d e n i n g v i s t a of t h e
c e n t u r i e s , b e a r i n g a r e f l e c t i o n of S i n a i o n h i s n i m b u s - c r o w n e d
forehead. T h e S o w e r of t h e B i b l e is still f a r f r o m t h e e n d of
h i s a l l o t t e d t a s k , b u t a t e v e r y s t e p he t a k e s , t h e r e is a r o u n d h i m
11
m o r e light, m o r e peace, ever g r o w i n g concord and harmony."* )

CONSEQUENCES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

W e m a y n o w e x p r e s s t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e of the R e v o
lution as follows:
?
A

Progress of Humanity

A
v

Naturalism

Social Life,
Political and Economic

(3D Sermons, pp. 136-137 (Paris, 1898). Quoted by G. Goyau, 7/J dee
de Patrie et VHumanitarisme.
 286 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

The individual Christian, actual or potential, becomes a mere

C i t i z e n , a n d t h e S t a t e o r g a n i z e s t h e w h o l e of life o n p u r e l y n a
t u r a l i s t i c l i n e s . T h e k i n d of o r g a n i z a t i o n s e t u p a n d t h e m o u l d i n g
r
p r o c e s s a p p l i e d t o t h e o r d i n a r } m a n a s a c o n s e q u e n c e will v a r y
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i s o r d e r of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n in q u e s
t i o n . B u t t h e r e s u l t will i n v a r i a b l y b e , a s h a s b e e n a l r e a d y r e
m a r k e d , t h a t t h e Citizeil will b e t r e a t e d a s a m e r e Individual,
n o t a s a Person. M a n can c o n s i s t e n t l y m a i n t a i n t h e s u p r e m a c y
of r e a s o n o v e r s e n s e in social o r g a n i z a t i o n , o n l y o n c o n d i t i o n of
m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s u b j e c t i o n of h i s r e a s o n t o G o d t h r o u g h O u r L o r d
J e s u s Christ.
T h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t of t h e " P r o g r e s s of H u m a n i t y / ' a i m e d a t
b y t h e o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a n d
F r e e m a s o n r y , m a v be depicted d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l v as f o l l o w s :
?
A

Jewish Nation
organized under the Natural Messias
to come
A
I
All o t h e r S t a t e s o r N a t i o n s , f r o m w h i c h e v e r y v e s t i g e of
o r g a n i z a t i o n , b a s e d o n t h e D i v i n i t y of O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d
all belief in t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e , t o b e a t t a i n e d b y m e m b e r s h i p
of H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y , t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , shall h a v e d i s
appeared.
T h e p r e s s u r e of d i s o r d e r e d N a t u r a l i s m h a s m a d e life v e r y h a r d
f o r C a t h o l i c s , in t h e S t a t e s t h a t h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e
F r e n c h Revolution. At M a s s they profess with O u r L o r d their
r e a d i n e s s t o b r i n g t h e w h o l e s o c i a l life of t h e i r c o u n t r y i n t o s u b
j e c t i o n t o G o d t h e F a t h e r , w h o s e W i l l it is t h a t t h e y s h o u l d s t r i v e
t o r e a l i z e H i s S o n ' s p r o g r a m m e in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y
a n d t h u s a i d t h e i r f e l l o w - m e n t o live a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . But
t h e m o m e n t t h e y c o m e o u t of C h u r c h a f t e r M a s s , t h e y find t h e
w h o l e social fabric o r g a n i z e d a g a i n s t C h r i s t the K i n g . The
r e s u l t h a s b e e n division and decay. T h e so-called R e f o r m a t i o n
s e c t i o n s life, s e p a r a t i n g social life, p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c , f r o m
C h r i s t , a n d e x p o s i n g it t o n a t u r a l i s t i c m o t i v e s and i n f l u e n c e s . T h e
w h o l e of life is n o l o n g e r s u b j e c t t o C h r i s t a s t h e r i g h t o r d e r of
t h e w o r l d , in w h i c h all a r e c a l l e d t o b e m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , d e
mands. T h e French Revolution sees the organized naturalistic
f o r c e s w h i c h f o r m t h e visible p o r t i o n of t h e a r m y of S a t a n c o m
i n g i n t o c o n t r o l of t h e S t a t e a n d a i m i n g a t b r i n g i n g t h e w h o l e of
life i n t o s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e m s e l v e s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t v
p r e s e n t s a c o m p l e t e r e v e r s a l of t h e r i g h t o r d e r f o r m c r l v a c c e p t
ed, i n s t e a d of b e i n g o r g a n i z e d in h a r m o n i o u s s u b o r d i n a t i o n to
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 287

the supernatural organism of the Mystical Body of Christ as it

should be, Naturalism reigns supreme, and poor fallen man has
to try to live a s a member of Christ, in spite of all kinds of diffi
culties and even of dire persecution.
"Poor France," exclaimed Pope Leo XIII in 1892, "God alone
can measure ihe abyss of evil into which she will sink if the
legislation, instead of improving, will stubbornly continue in a
course which must end in tearing out from the minds and hearts
412)
of Frenchmen the religion which has made them so great."
The legislation, inspired by Naturalism, was persisted in. The
final blow may be said to have been given by the measure taken
under the Jewish Prime Minister, Ilium, a few years before the
present war, for the undermining of the discipline of the French
army. Communist cells diffused the Soviet spirit, which, in 1917,
had reduced the Russian army to a disordered rabble.*
Yet even now, with the country sunk in the abyss of misery
foretold by Pope Leo XIII half a century ago, M. Carcopino, Sec
retary of State for National Education in the Vichy Government,
declare?: " I am certain that all good Frenchmen are of my opin
ion and reprove as energetically as I do anything which could
either make for a return of the evil influence of an out-of-date
anticlericalism or for a renewal of the discussions and divisions
regarding the neutrality of the State in religious matters.
That neutrality is the bulwark and the safeguard of inviolable
4
freedom of conscience and of worship . . . The word God,'
in the programme of moral instruction in the primary schools, is
to be replaced by the expressions: ' Spiritual values, the native
?,(U
land, Christian Civilization.' > ft takes a lot to get men to
return fully to God.

THE OPPOSITION BETWEEN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

AND T H E FRENCH REVOLUTION.
From what has been said about the naturalistic signification
of the Revolution and of the Declaration of the rights of man,
it is clear that the opposition between the Catholic Church and
<12) Encyclical Letter, Au Milieu den Sollicitudes, Fob. 16, 1892.
(13) In The Diary of a Staff Officer of the British Expeditionary
Force, published by Methuen in 1941, we read under an entry for May
22nd, 1940; " . . . . soldiers' committees regularised in. the French
Army in 1936 by Monsieur Leon Blum's regime have undermined dis
cipline. French G.H.Q. is definitely handicapped by the spirit of inter
nationalism that exists to such a great extent among the rank and file."
Thus General Georges, who had promised a counter-attack to check the
German panzer onslaught, excused himself to the British for not
issuing orders to that effect by explaining that, under the circumstances,
he "could not give orders so far in advance of the inclinations of the
divisions."
f
") y iireUe.<
0 dc France, 23 avril, 1941. Italics mine.
 288 T H E M Y S T I C A L BODY O F C H R I S T

the French Revolution is not merely accidental but essential. It

is not merely an accidental opposition arising out of a chance
association of images and ideas, but one based on the very nature
of things. Il is the opposition b e t w e e n Naturalism and the Super
natural Life of Grace. According to Mr. Hilaire IlcIIoc, the conflict
between the Catholic Church and the French Revolution was acci
11
dental. " By an accident of h i s t o r y / ' he writes, the Revolution
following on the breakdown of religion in educated France had
come into active conflict with the Church. The conilict. \ say,
w a s accidental; but, by an association of ideas, it seemed t o the
15
mind of the time to be in the very nature of things."* ' H e holds
the same theory, as w e have seen, about the opposition between
Freemasonry and the Catholic Church: in fact this is merely an
application of that theory to a particular instance. This is a r e
grettable error and leads to a false view of history. Mr. Belloc
compares Napoleon's attempted reorganization of Europe with
that of Charlemagne. Charlemagne stood for an order in Europe
respectful of the Mystical lody of Christ and proclaimed himself
the Defender of the Rights of God and of t h e Holy See. Napoleon
was the Apostle of Naturalism and treated the Vicar of Christ
with contumely, making him a prisoner. Tt is ridiculous to speak
no)
of a restoration of order in Europe by a F r e e m a s o n .
I n the Encyclical Letter, On the (Uiristian Constitution of
States, after having outlined the principles of the new jurisprud
ence of the Revolution, Pope Leo XIII i n s i s t s upon the essential
opposition of these principles to the natural law, of which the
17
Catholic Church is the sole g u a r d i a n / ' " Natural reason itself,"
he writes, " proves convincingly that such concepts of the govern
ment of a State are w h o l l y at variance w i t h the truth Doc
trines such as t h e s e (sovereignty of the p e o p l e without any re
ference to God: no difference b e t w e e n f o r m s of religion: liberty
of thinking and publishing whatever one likes without any hindr
a n c e ; subjection of the C h u r c h t o t h e civil p o w e r in the exercise
(15) Napoleon, p . 20.
T h e d o c u m e n t a r y evidence for N a p o l e o n ' s M a s o n i c affiliations
is very s t r o n g . Sec Desehamps, L m Soviet/* Secretes et la Societe, vol.
I I p p . 190-220, 4 t h ed. We read on pages 2 1 1 , 2J5, of t h a t work t h a t
r

" i n the first p a r t of his r e i g n , t h a t i s / u p to 1809, N a p o l e o n received

v i g o r o u s assistance from the Masonic Lidgcn in all c o u n t r i e s . H i s mili
t a r y genius was often a i d e d by the t r e a s o n of ( h e C o m m a n d e r s opposed
to him. . . I n the second*pari of his career, " f r o m 1809 to 1815,
he TVas a b a n d o n e d hy the Secret S o c i e t i e s " In the It.f.S.S. of Feb
r u a r y 15, 1037, (here, is an account of d i e special c e l e b r a t i o n s of the
<{
I t a l i a n G r a n d Orient, on the occasion of the b i r t h of the K i n g of
Rome, .in of Urol her . . N a p o l e o n . "
0 7 ) We have already q u o t e d some e x t r a c t s From ( h e 'Encyclical show
i n g these p r i n c i p l e s , There is a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y between them and
the p r i n c i p l e s of N a t u r a l i s m i\< outlined in t h e Encyclical, Tfumanum
f/enas, On Freemasonry.
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 289

of duty], which cannot be approved by human'reason and must

seriously affect the whole civil order, Our Predecessors, the Roman
Pontiffs (well aware of what their apostolic office required of
them), have never allowed to pass uncondemned." He goes on
to speak of the Encyclical Letter, Mirari vos (August 15, 1832),
of Pope Gregory XVI, and the Syllabus of Pope Pius IX, adding:
"From these pronouncements of the Popes it is evident that the
origin of public power is to be sought for in God Himself, and
not in the multitude, and that it is repugnant to reason to allow
free scope for sedition. Again, it is clear from them that it is not
lawful for the State, any more than for the individual, either to
disregard all religious duties or to hold in equal favour different
kinds of religion, and that the unrestrained freedom of thinking
and of openly making known one's thoughts is not inherent in
the rights of citizens, and is by no means to be reckoned worthy
18
of favour and support."* *
In the Letter to the Italian people of Dec. 8, 1892, Pope Leo
XIII put the opposition between the Church and the Revolution
on the same level as the opposition between Christ and Belial.
" Societies not subject to the influence of religion," he wrote,
"and, as such, easily exposed to be more or less directed by Free
masons, must in general be looked on with suspicion and avoided.
Those also must be avoided which not only lend their aid to Free
masonry but constitute a nursery thereof and a factory for the
training of apprentices. All should avoid any liaison and familiar
ity with persons suspected of being Freemasons or of belonging
to affiliated societies. . . . Familiar intercourse should be cut off,
not only with the openly wicked, but with those who hide their
real character under the mask of universal toleration, of respect
for all religions, and of the mania of reconciling the maxims of
the Gospel with those of the Revolution, Christ with Belial, the
Church of God with the State without God."

RESPONSIBILITY OF FREEMASONRY FOR

REVOLUTIONS.
19
Long before the French Revolution, Pope Clement Xll< ' and
<2
Pope Benedict XiV ) condemned Freemasonry. Pope Benedict
XIV in particular implored the rulers of Catholic countries to
defend their subjects and their thrones against the sect. Instead
of hearkening to this warning, they listened to their Masonic ad
visers and attacked the Society of Jesus. They had reason to
regret it. Pope Leo XII definitely placed the responsibility for

(is) Encyclical Letter, Imtnortaie Del.

(19) Constitution, In Eminenti, April 2 8 , 1738.
(20) Constitution, Providas, Mav IB, 1751.
290 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n o n t h e s h o u l d e r s of t h e F r e e m a s o n > a n d
t h e m e m b e r s of s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s . " T h u s it h a s c o m e a b o u t / ' h e
w r i t e s , " t h a t n o w , when quite a long time has elapsed since the
torch of revolt was lit for the first time in Europe by the Secret
Societies a n d b o r n e f a r a n d w i d e b y t h e i r a g e n t s , in s p i t e of t h e
b r i l l i a n t v i c t o r i e s w o n b y t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l p r i n c e s of E u r o p e
211
. . . . t h e e f f o r t s of t h e s e g u i l t y s e c t s h a v e n o t c e a s e d . ' ^ '
P o p e P i u s I X , in t h e C o n s i s t o r y of S e p t e m b e r 2 5 , 1865, a f t e r
h a v i n g l a m e n t e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c r u l e r s of E u r o p e h a d
n o t l i s t e n e d t o t h e a p p e a l of P o p e B e n e d i c t X I V , w e n t on t o
p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e S e c r e t Societies w e r e responsible for t h e sedi
t i o n s , r e v o l u t i o n s a n d w a r s w h i c h h a d b r o u g h t s u c h m i s e r y o n the
w o r l d . " W o u l d t h a t t h e S o v e r e i g n s h a d l i s t e n e d t o t h e w o r d s of
O u r P r e d e c e s s o r , " h e e x c l a i m e d , " w o u l d t h a t t h e y h a d n o t b e e n so
r e m i s s in a m a t t e r s o i m p o r t a n t ! If t h e y h a d l i s t e n e d t o h i m ,
n e i t h e r o u r f a t h e r s n o r o u r s e l v e s w o u l d h a v e h a d t o d e p l o r e so
m a n y seditious m o v e m e n t s and revolutions, so m a n y destructive
w a r s w h i c h h a v e laid w a s t e t h e w h o l e of E u r o p e , s o m a n y evils
w h i c h h a v e w e i g h e d h e a v i l v u p o n t h e C h u r c h a n d c o n t i n u e to
afflict h e r . "
(
N e a r l y f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r , o n M a r c h 1 >, 1902, P o p e L e o X I I T ,
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e t w e n t y - f i f t h y e a r of h i s P o n t i f i c a t e a n d
of t h e n i n e t y - s e c o n d y e a r of h i s l i f e h e w a s b o r n o n 2 n d M a r c h ,
1810gave to the w o r l d an Apostolic L e t t e r , r e v i e w i n g the events
of his r e i g n . I n t h i s L e t t e r , he d e n o u n c e s F r e e m a s o n r y in the
s t r o n g e s t t e r m s , a n d i t is t o be n o t e d t h a t n e i t h e r h e n o r a n y
o t h e r P o p e h a s ever m a d e a n y distinction b e t w e e n t h e different
s e c t i o n s of t h a t n a t u r a l i s t i c s o c i e t y . " I n t h i s p e r n i c i o u s a n d d i s
l o y a l w o r k [of h u r l i n g c a l u m n i o u s a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e
C h u r c h ] / ' h e w r i t e s , " a c e r t a i n s e c t of d a r k n e s s is e s p e c i a l l y e n
gaged, a sect which h u m a n society these m a n y years carries within
i t s e l f a n d w h i c h , like a d e a d l y p o i s o n , d e s t r o y s i t s h a p p i n e s s , its
f e c u n d i t y , a n d i t s life. A b i d i n g p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e R e v o l u t i o n ,
i t c o n s t i t u t e s a s o r t of r e t r o g r e s s i v e s o c i e t y w h o s e o b j e c t is t o
exercise an occult suzerainty over the established order and whose
p u r p o s e is t o m a k e w a r a g a i n s t G o d a n d a g a i n s t H i s C h u r c h .
T h e r e is n o n e e d of n a m i n g it, f o r all will r e c o g n i s e in t h e s e t r a i t s
t h e s o c i e t y of F r e e m a s o n s , of w h i c h W c h a v e a l r e a d y s p o k e n e x
p r e s s l y , in O u r E n c y c l i c a l , Humanum genus, of 2 0 t h A p r i l , 1884.
W h i l e d e n o u n c i n g its d e s t r u c t i v e t e n d e n c y , i t s e r r o n e o u s t e a c h
i n g s , a n d i t s w i c k e d p u r p o s e of e m b r a c i n g in i t s f a r - r e a c h i n g g r a s p
a l m o s t all n a t i o n s , a n d u n i t i n g itself to o t h e r s e c t s w h i c h i t s s e c r e t
i n f l u e n c e p u t s in m o t i o n , a t t r a c t i n g first a n d a f t e r w a r d s r e t a i n i n g
i t s m e m b e r s by t h e a d v a n t a g e s it p r o c u r e s for t h e m , b i n d i n g
g o v e r n m e n t s t o its will, s o m e t i m e s by p r o m i s e s a n d s o m e t i m e s by

(2D Apostolic Letter, Quo G t *aeiora y M a r c h 13, 1825.

 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 291

threats, it has succeeded in entering all classes of society, and

forms an invisible and irresponsible state existing within the
legitimate state. Full of the spirit of Satan, who, according to
the words of the Apostle, knows how to transform himself at
need into an angel of light, it gives prominence to its humanitar
ian object, but it sacrifices everything to its sectarian purpose.
It protests that it has no political aim, while in reality it exercises
the most profound action on the legislative and administrative life
of the nations, While loudly professing its respect for authority
and even for religion, it has for its ultimate purpose, as its own
statutes declare, the destruction of all authority as well as of the
priesthood, both of which it holds as the enemies of liberty.
" It becomes more evident day by day that it is to the inspir
ation and the assistance of this sect that we must attribute in
great measure the continual troubles with which the Church is
harassed, as well as the recrudescence of the attacks to which it
has recently been subjected. For the simultaneousness of the
assaults in the persecutions which have so suddenly burst upon
us in these later times, like a storm from a clear sky, that is to
say, without any cause proportionate to the effect; the uniform
ity of means employed to inaugurate this persecution, namely, the
press, public assemblies, theatrical productions; the employment
in every country of the same arms, to wit, calumny and public
uprisings, all this betrays clearly complete identity of purpose
and a programme drawn up by one and the same central direc
tion. All this is only a simple episode of a prearranged plan car
ried out on a constantly widening field to multiply the ruins of
which We speak. Thus they are endeavouring by every means
in their power first to restrict and then to exclude completely
religious instruction from the schools, so as to make the rising
generation unbelievers or indifferent to all religion. . . .
"As regards the religious orders and religious congregations,
the practice of the evangelical counsels has made them the glory
of society and the glory of religion. These very things have ren
dered them more culpable in the eyes of the enemies of the
Church and are the reasons why they have been fiercely denounced
and held up to contempt and hatred. . . . These men and women
who . . . . had spontaneously renounced all the joys of family
life to consecrate to the good of their fellow-men, in these peace
ful associations, their youth, their talents, their strength/and their
lives, have been treated as malefactors, as if they had formed
criminal associations, and have been deprived of the ordinary
rights of human beings and citizens at the very time when men
are speaking loudest of liberty."
292 T H E M Y S T I C A L B O D Y OF C H R I S T

TWO CURRENTS ISSUING FROM T H E FRENCH

REVOLUTION.
We may speak o f two currents of thought and action as pro
ceeding from the Declaration of the rights of man, the current
of Rousseauist-Masonic Liberalism and the current of Socialism,
Collectivism and Communism. The current of Liberalism, of
course, existed previous to the French Revolutionit is the very
essence of Locke's philosophy as we have seenbut it was
strongly reinforced by the Masonic deification of man at the Revo
lution. According to the doctrine enshrined in Masonic symbol
ism, each man, as an emanation of the unique substance, is a being
absolutely independent. All men are thus equally God, subject
to no one and completely free from any obligations to one an
other. And the man. that is born free is man as an individual,
man as an animal, with his material needs and his clamorous
passions. As unrestrained action is an absolute exigency of
human nature as divine, it is only with a view to securing more
readily the greatest possible sum o f material satisfactions that
human beings enter into society. If we retain a firm hold of the
doctrine of the immanent divinity or autonomy of man as an
individual embodied in the Declaration, wc shall readily under
stand that the first article of the Declaration, namely, "Men are
born free and equal in rights and continue so," strongly contri
buted to reinforce the opposite currents of Liberalism and Social
ism or Communism. Neither theory grasps the distinction be
tween man as a person and man as an individual', which was ex
2 2 )
posed in Chapter l /
According to the Thomislic doctrine, man is an individual mem
ber of society and endowed with the gift of reason and conse
{ :,)
quently with the power of free-will, - in view of the development
of his personality through membership of Christ. From the
(22j On this whole question of Liberalism and Socialism, cf. Culture
La tine et Ordrc Social, by Pere Gillet, O.F., pp. 42-60.
(23) << The root of liberty is in the will as in its subject, but in the
reason as in its cause " (la Ilae, Q.17, a.l, .ad 2). JAherum arbitrium
est vis elif/endi. media serva*to ordine finisFree will is the power of
freely selecting the means leading to an end seen by the reason to be
obligatory.
When Liberals and Collect ivists eall themselves free-thinkers, they
are more concerned with liberty than with thought. They hold that a
liberty which is compelled to accept the restrictions of thought is not
true liberty. On the other hand they accept readily that thinking should
be subject to the caprices of liberty, as if we were free to think what
ever 'we like, whereas, since thought is measured by being, we are only
free to think what is (in order). The result of the subjection of thought
to the caprices of liberty is that instead of observing the order of life,
man vields to passion and degrades himself. (Cf. Culture Latine cf
Ordre Soriol, by Pere Gillet, O.P.. p. 45).
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 293

moment that a human individual is destined by his nature to live

(24)
in society, he has the right as a person to demand from society
that minimum of the Common Good which will enable him to live
as befits a human person, but he has also the corresponding duties
to society and may not behave as an autonomous whole, for whom
alone society exists. Therefore, as persons, all men are equal and
have equal rights to that minimum, but though equal as persons,
because of their being members of the human species and mem
bers of Christ actual or potential, human beings are unequal as
individuals, because of the inequality of their individual condi
tions. Thus their concrete individual rights are unequal. Every
organization of society must respect both the specific equality of
human persons and the individual inequality of human individuals.
This is precisely what neither Liberalism nor Socialism could
accomplish. Liberalism stressed the first part of Article I of the
Declaration of 1789, namely, "men arc born free." Each man
with his material needs and passions is an autonomous whole,
absolutely free with an unrestricted liberty. The individual is thus
his own end for himself, and the whole aim of society is to main
tain this autonomy. In presence of the inequality of conditions,
however, bj- which the pretended unconditional liberty was con
tinually hampered, Liberalism sacrificed the weak to the strong
and obliged the former to respect the contracts made with the
latter out of dire necessity, though with all the external marks
of liberty. Hence Liberalism in practice sacrificed the' funda
mental equality of human persons. In the early days of Liberal
ism, it was held, with Adam Smith and Qucsnay, that respect for
the " laws of nature " would lead to a splendidly harmonious func
tioning of society. In later times, especially since the French
Revolution, in presence of the glaring injustices of the results of
(24) Human society does not take its rise from an arbitrary contract
entered into by human wills, but neither does it arise from a simple
fact of nature like the " society " of the bees or that of the ants. It
arises from an agreement of wills in conformity with the fundamental
inclinations of human nature. Thus it is essentially different from
animal " societies.'' The whole error of Rousseau (as of Hobbes and
Locke) lies in this, that for him the initiative which is at the origin of
a society is purely arbitrary and is not demanded by man's nature.
One falls into another error opposed to the former, but just as perni
cious, if social organization is held to "be, even at its beginnings, a
purely physical affair. Between these two erroneous positions, the pure
artificialism of Rousseau and the purely physical or materialist theory
and above themstands the true doctrine formulated by St. Thomas.
We affirm indeed that man, independent of his free decision to do so,
is destined by nature to live with other men. But animal instincts will
never bring' into existence a human society. This must be the work of
intelligence choosing modes of life in accordance with some conception
of the end of man. We must not overlook the fact that the choice or
selection is guided by a rational regulation of the appetitive faculties.
Cf. J. Maritain, Clairvoyance de Borne, pp. 152. 153.
294 THE MYSTTCAL BODY OF CHRIST
"liberty," all it could affirm, with Malthus and Ricardo. was that,
though things were bad, any attempted interference with the
"laws of nature" would lead to greater evils.
The oppression of the weak by the strong led to the coalition
of the weak in their endeavour to defend the fundamental rights
of human nature, in which all are equal. Unfortunately, the
leadership of the reaction was seized by Socialists and Communists
impregnated with the same revolutionary doctrine of the " auto
nomy of the individual." They inaugurated a system as anti
social as the other, by stressing the second part of Article I of
the Declaration, namely, " men are born equal." In the name
of the essential equality of human nature they aimed at suppress
ing the inevitable accidental inequality of human conditions. The
only way to succeed in this was to suppress the actual organization
of society in which the law maintains the inequality of conditions,
especially through the possession of private property, and recon
struct a society in which all the citizens shall be equal not only
de jure but dr. facto. Tn this ideal society, the State shall own
everything and shall oblige all, without distinction of classes, to
work for the Common Good, distributing to each his proper share
of the common store.
The Liberals are right in admitting, in opposition to the Social
ists and Communists, the natural inequality of human conditions,
but their false doctrine of the autonomy of the individual, that is,
of the unconditional liberty of a created fallen being, leads in
practice to denying the rights of human beings to the> vast
majority.
In their turn, in the name of the same false doctrine, the Social
ists and Communists want to suppress the inequality of condi
tions. All arc equally men, they say, meaning thereby autonom
ous individuals, and to arrive at equality, society must be reorgan
ized on the basis of the suppression of inequalities. As private
property is the chief source of inequalities, a beginning must be
made by its suppression. Given the false foundation of both
doctrines, which is the Rousseauist-Masonic deification of the
individual, there is no solution to the problem. If society is con
ceived to be, as the Declaration of 17S9 and the Social Contract
of Rousseau suppose, a simple material juxtaposition of autonom
ous individuals, then, cither in the name of liberty, the strong
will oppress the weak, or in the name of equality, the manipula
tors of the coalition will oppress everybody. In both cases, men
will be treated as mere individuals, not as persons.
Since the whole object of society, according to the principles
of 1789, is to enable individuals to disport" themselves freely like
gods without any restraint, it is clear that every State must be
drawn up in accordance with the terms of Rousseau's Social
Contract. Such a State will be composed exclusively of individuals
 T H E F R E N C H R E V O L U T I O N O F 1789 295

like s o m a n y a r i t h m e t i c a l l y e q u a l u n i t s c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of
o n e a n o t h e r , u n d e r a g o v e r n m e n t e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e s u m of t h e
individual wills. Accordingly, e v e r y society distinct from the
S t a t e m u s t b e d i s s o l v e d a n d t h e w o r k of d e s t r u c t i o n m u s t n o t
c e a s e till t h e S t a t e r u l e s o v e r p a r t i c l e s of h u m a n d u s t . T h e C o r
p o r a t i o n s o r G u i l d s w e n t first. T h e C h a p e l i e r D e c r e e s of J u n e ,
1791, s a w t o t h a t . T h e n t h e a t t a c k o n t h e f a m i l y b y n a t u r a l i s t i c
d i v o r c e l a w s , l a w s r e g u l a t i n g i n h e r i t a n c e of p r o p e r t y , s c h o o l l a w s ,
c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k of d e c a y b e g u n b y P r o t e s t a n t i n d i v i d u a l i s m .
As S o c i a l i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m a c c e p t e d t h e s a m e d i s i n t e g r a t i n g
p r i n c i p l e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s G o d , t h e y c o n t i n u e d t h e a t t a c k o n
the family, even w h e n they tried, by syndicates and unions, to
s a f e g u a r d t h e w o r k i n g m a n f r o m t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of i n d i v i d u a l -
ism. T h e s e t e m p o r a r y e x p e d i e n t s a r e d e s t i n e d to be d i s s o l v e d in
t h e i r t u r n w h e n t h e C o m m u n i s t S t a t e is s e t u p . T h u s m u c h t h e
s a m e f o r m of o m n i p o t e n t , a l l - d e v o u r i n g S t a t e , in w h i c h m e n will
be t r e a t e d a s m e r e individuals, w i l l be the logical o u t c o m e of t h e
t w o c u r r e n t s i s s u i n g f r o m t h e p r i n c i p l e s of 1789.
This S t a t e , h a v i n g done a w a y w i t h every inferior organization,
will a b s o r b all p o w e r , all r i g h t , all a u t h o r i t y , a n d will b e c o m e t h e
unique administrator, procurator, proprietor, tutor and teacher.
F r o m it, t o o , e v e r y v e s t i g e of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e t h a t c o m e s
from O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , t h e T r u e M e s s i a s , a s w e l l a* e v e r y
o r g a n i z a t i o n p e r m e a t e d w i t h t h e r e a l i t y of t h a t L i f e , will be, a s
25
far a s p o s s i b l e , e l i m i n a t e d . * * F o r , b e h i n d t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c M a s o n i c
Society w h i c h p r e p a r e d the F r e n c h Revolution, the b e t t e r o r g a n
ized a n d m o r e c o h e s i v e n a t u r a l i s t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e J e w i s h
N a t i o n h a s b e e n s t e a d i l y p r e p a r i n g for t h e a d v e n t of t h e n e w
M e s s i a n i c e r a . T h i s is v e r y e v i d e n t in t h e h i s t o r y of t h e S o c i a l i s t
and C o m m u n i s t c u r r e n t i s s u i n g f r o m t h e p r i n c i p l e s of 1789 a n d
e s p e c i a l l y in t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n of 1917. T o t h i s w e m u s t
now devote a chapter.

Of. Billot, S.J.,, De Ecclesia, Vol. II, pp. 33^43.

 C H A P T E R XV.

T H K BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917.W

It is an extraordinary fact that the Germans and the Eng

lish, though at war at the time, collaborated in the work of the
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. The Germans dispatched Lenin and
his followers from Switzerland to Russia, and the English liber
ated Trotsky from Halifax (Nova Scotia), after he and his band
of East-side Jewish desperadoes had been arrested on the high
seas by the British Meet, on their way from New York to Russia.
The interest of Germany in the collapse of Russia is quite clear,
but why did the English assist in accomplishing the ruin of an
allied power which had faithfully served the common cause?
Was it owing to the influence of " that formidable sect" of which
Mr. Winston Churchill spoke in the House of Commons, on No
vember 5th, 1919? On that occasion, he began his account of the
Russian Revolution by quoting a passage from the German General
Ludendorffs book on the war. The passage quoted by Mr.
Churchill runs as follows: " B y sending Lenin to Russia, our
[German] Government did, moreover, assume a great respon
sibility, but from the military point of view his journey was
justified. Russia had to be laid'low. But our Government should
have seen to it that we were not also involved in her fall." Mr.
Churchill then continued: "Lenin was sent into Russia by the
Germans in the same way that you might send a phial containing
a culture of typhoid or of cholera to be poured into the water
supply of a great city, and it worked with amazing accuracy. No
sooner did Lenin arrive than he began beckoning a finger here
and there to obscure persons in sheltered retreats in New York,
in Glasgow, in Berne, and in other countries, and ha gathered
together the leading spirits of a formidable sect, the most formid
able sect in the world, of which he was the high priest and chief.
With these spirits around him he set to work with demoniacal

(l) The first Revolution, known as the Kerensky Revolution, took

place in the Spring of 1917. The Czar abdicated on March 15th. In
April, Lenin and the other revolutionaries were placed on a sealed
train in Switzerland and taken through Germany to Stockholm and
thence to Russia. The Bolshevik Revolution took place in October, 1917.
The Patriot of London, in July, 1924, published the names and nation
ality of 165 of the passengers in the famous sealed train. Of these 121
were Jews and only 23 were Russians.
 T H E BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 297
ability to tear to pieces every institution on which the Russian
s
State depended. Russia was laid low. Russia had lo be laid low."< >
As " the leading spirits " gathered around Lenin were, in over
whelming majority, Jews, we may surmise that Kngland and
Germany collaborated in the Bolshevik Revolution, owing to Jew
ish influence. Let us examine briefly in turn ihe respective roles
of England, Germany and the Jewish Nation, in the downfall of
Czarist Russia and in the installation of the Communist regime.
We shall see the Jewish Nation acting behind the other two and
utilizing them for its own ends.
To understand fully what is staled h e r e , wc must bear in mind
the invisible, co-ordinating, anri-supernatural action of Satan and
the visible, anti-supernatural action of the Jewish Nation, along
with the influence of both on Freemasonry. Satan wants the
elimination of the supernatural influence of Our Lord Jesus Christ
from constitutions and social organization, so that men will no
longer be trained to think of one another as members of Christ.
The Jewish Nation, by its determination to reject Our Lord and
to prepare for a natural Messias, is necessarily, as a body,
animated with the same spirit. The results are disastrous both
for themselves and for society. Pope Leo XIII expresses this
bitter truth in more than one place in the Encyclical Letter,
On Christ our Jtedeemer. One passage has already been ijuoicd.
Let us now quote another: "According to the eternal counsel of
God, the salvation of all and each wholly depends on Christ Jesus;
those who forsake Him, in their blind fury, seek by that very act
their own personal destruction, and at the same time as far as
they can, make society in general fall back into the very abyss
of evils and disasters from which the Redeemer out of His love
3
had delivered mankind."* * Statements are sometimes made which
seem to imply that the Jewish Nation's opposition' to Our Lord is
almost a matter of indifference, since they accept God. Yet the
opposition of the Jewish Nation to Our Lord is the cause of the
growing decay in their concept of God (witness the Pantheism
of their philosophers!), the increasing materialism of the masses
of the Jewish people and the conception and utilization of Bolshev
ism as a means to their ends.

THE ROLE OF ENGLAND IN THE BOLSHEVIK

REVOLUTION.

To trace the action of England in the downfall of Russia, we

must go back a certain distance. The secret history of it is given
(2) Quoted in The Cause of World Unrest, published in 1920, with
an Introduction by H. A. Gwynne, editor of the Morning
3
Post.
<) Encyclical Letter, Tametsi.
 298 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

in the work of Pere Deschamps already quoted, Les Societes

Secretes et la Socicte (vol. II, pp. 312-418). The plan which was
faithfully followed by successive generations of English diplomats
is outlined in the famous article published in The Globe of 12th
May, 1849, under the direction of the Masonic Chief, Lord Pal
(4)
merston. Lord Palmerston, whom Pere Dcschamps calls " Le
Grand Orient des Orients," was Foreign Secretary in the English
Cabinet. The following are the principal passages of the article
in question retranslated from the French: " The scaffolding
erected by the Congress of Vienna (1815) was so arbitrary and so
artificial that all liberal statesmen saw that it would collapse at
the first shock. . . . The plan formed by Lord Palmerston is that
of a new arrangement of Europethe establishment of a vigor
ous German Kingdom, which may serve to separate France and
Russia, the setting up of a Polish-Magyar State destined to com
plete the fortification against the Northern Giant, and a new
kingdom of Upper Italy under the House of Savoy. Palmerston
has often been blamed for neglecting the Austrian alliance, but
here his accusers ought to do him justice. The alliance between
England and Austria has never been due to the acceptance of
common principles. It existed purely and simply because Aus
tria was the representative and, as it were, the incarnation of
the German Nation. From the date of the Pence of Westphalia
to that of Aix-la-Chapcllc (1648-1748), Austria was the centre
of German Unity. But when the sword of Frederick had extended
the limits of his realm, which was formerly the Electorate of
Brandenburg, when true Germans had recognized in this war
rior the real representative of their force and of their nationality,
Prussia became on the Continent the natural ally of England. The
selfishness and timidity of George III alone prevented the alliance
of Prussia and*England from being our buckler in the American
War. What Austria was at the beginning of the last century,
what Prussia became later on, Germany can also be. whether it
has its capital at Berlin or at Frankfort."
Dcschamps then goes on to show how the Masonic plan of
Palmerston was realized by the destruction of the States of the
Church, in the course of the formation of the Kingdom of Italy,
5
and by the union of Germany under Prussia.< > Tn those chapters

(4) The Masonic role of Palmerston is dealt with at considerable

length in Dcschamps, op. cit., and in Mgr. Dillon's book, The War of
Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civilization.
<5) Dcschamps says that Balmer.sfcon made use of seemingly unobtru
sive newspapers to communicate his designs to his friends in the Secret
Societies. lie quotes a passage from a speech by Lord Normanby re
proaching him with it. The incident of Ihc alteration by Palmerston
of dispatches already signed by the Queen is well known. In further
ance of the Masonic plan, he also approved of Louis Napoleon's covp
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 299
h e m e n t i o n s s o m e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s , s u c h a s , t h e m a n n e r in
w h i c h N a p o l e o n I I I a g r e e d t o t h e s t e p s t a k e n f o r t h e d o w n f a l l of
A u s t r i a a n d t o t h e u n i f i c a t i o n of G e r m a n y u n d e r t h e h e g e m o n y
of P r u s s i a , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s of B i s m a r c k w i t h t h e l e a d e r s of t h e
Internationale, M a r x a n d L a s s a l l e . H e alludes also to the s u p
port given by F r e e m a s o n r y and the Jewish Nation to the process
of s u p p l a n t i n g V i e n n a b y B e r l i n a t t h e h e a d of t h e G e r m a n -
s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s . O n c e w e k e e p in m i n d t h e a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l
c h a r a c t e r of M a s o n i c a n d J e w i s h a c t i o n , w e shall h a v e n o diffi
c u l t y in s e e i n g t h a t t h e T r e a t y of V e r s a i l l e s a t t h e e n d of t h e
G r e a t W a r (1914-1918), by w h i c h A u s t r i a w a s d i s m e m b e r e d and
G e r m a n y w a s m a i n t a i n e d p r a c t i c a l l y i n t a c t u n d e r P r u s s i a , w a s in
h a r m o n y w i t h P a l m e r s t o n ' s M a s o n i c plan and really paved t h e
w a y f o r i t s final c o m p l e t i o n . This came with the annexation
of A u s t r i a b y P r u s s i a in 1938.
A s m o s t E n g l i s h m e n h a v e only v e r y hazy ideas a b o u t the w a y
in w h i c h t h e i r G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n f l u e n c e d E u r o p e a n affairs in
the p a s t , it m a y be useful t o m e n t i o n s o m e few p o i n t s in con
n e x i o n w i t h Jtaly a n d G e r m a n y , before p a s s i n g on to Russia.
P a l m e r s t o n w a s , a s D e s c h a m p s i n s i s t s , t h e s o u l of t h e M a s o n i c
c o n s p i r a c y of C a v o u r , M a z z i n i a n d G a r i b a l d i , w h i c h t e r m i n a t e d
i n t h e c a p t u r e of R o m e a n d t h e l o n g c a p t i v i t y of t h e P o p e . Sir
J a m e s H u d s o n , t h e E n g l i s h a m b a s s a d o r a t T u r i n , w a s o n e of
P a l m e r s t o n ' s m o s t u s e f u l c o l l a b o r a t o r s in t h e s c h e m e . H i s r c s i d
e n c e w a s t h e p l a c e of r e f u g e of t h e w o r s t a g e n t s of t h e c o n s p i r
acy. D e s c h a m p s q u o t e s t h e h u m o r o u s r e m a r k s of o n e of t h e
S e c r e t a r i e s of t h e E m b a s s y a s f o l l o w s : " J h a v e j u s t b e e n d i n i n g
w i t h S i r J a n i e s . W e w e r e t w e l v e in all. E x c e p t S i r J a m e s a n d
m y s e l f all t h e d i n e r s Avere j a i l b i r d s a n d c u t - t h r o a t s . T h e y w e r e
6
e n o u g h t o g i v e m e t h e s h i v e r s . " * * G. K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s c o m m e n t s
on England's past relations w i t h Prussia are even more h u m o r
o u s . H e w r i t e s : " I h a v e p a s s e d t h e g r e a t p a r t of life in c r i t i c i z
i n g a n d c o n d e m n i n g t h e e x i s t i n g r u l e r s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of m y
c o u n t r y : I t h i n k it is i n f i n i t e l y t h e m o s t p a t r i o t i c t h i n g t h a t a
m a n c a n d o . I h a v e n o i l l u s i o n s e i t h e r a b o u t o u r past o r o u r

d'etat in F r a n c e w i t h o u t c o n s u l t i n g the Queen or his colleagues in the

Cabinet.
F o r the Masonic p l a n for the d e s u p e r n a t u r a l i z a t i o n of E u r o p e , in
other words, for u p r o o t i n g what r e m a i n e d of the K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t
and for the rejection of God's R i g h t s , see Deschamps, op. cit., and Mgr.
D i l l o n ' s book mentioned in the p r e v i o u s note.
Deschamps, Lex Sod Hex Secretes et la Sodt'le, vol. I I , p. 340. Cf.
the notes on pages 96-t)7 of Mgr. D i l l o n ' s book. The War of Anti-Chn^t
with the Church and. Christian Civilization, about the list of the I t a l i a n
members of the F o r e i g n Legion in the B r i t i s h service in the Crimean
W a r , d r a w n u p by M a j o r - G e n e r a l B u r n a b y . They were " fearful
s c o u n d r e l s / ' a c c o r d i n g to the M a j o r - G e n e r a l , but Palmerston passed on
the list to C a v o u r and G a r i b a l d i for the G a r i b a l d i a n " A r m y of Occupa
tion " in the two Sicilies a n d t h e P a p a l States.
300 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

present. I think our whole history in Ireland has been a vulgar

and ignorant hatred of the crucifix, expressed by a crucifixion.
I think the South African War was a dirty work which we did
under the whips of money-lenders. I think Mitchelstown was a
disgrace; I think Dcnshawi was a devilry. Yet there is one part
of life and history in which I would assert the absolute spotless-
ncss of Kngland. In one department we wear a robe of white
and a halo of innocence. Long and weary as may be the records
of our wickedness, in one direction we have done nothing but
good. Whoever we may have wronged we have never wronged
Germany. Again and again we have dragged her from under
the just vengeance of her enemies, from the holy anger of Maria
Teresa, from the impatient and contemptuous common sense of
Napoleon. W e have kept a ring fence around the Germans while
they sacked Denmark and dismembered France. And if we had
served our God as wc have served their Kings, there would not
be to-dav one remnant of them in our path either to slander or to
M
slay us. ")
Prussia has been continually favoured by the anti-superna
tural forces, because she has been steadfast in her opposition to
the supremacy of the Divine Life of the Mystical Body of Christ
over national life. Bismarck's Kulttirkampf was his effort to
repay Freemasonry for its help in the formation of the German
<8)
Empire.
The first step taken for the realization of the programme of
Palmerston (or of the Masonic Council that made use of him)
was to break up the alliance between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Prussia was easily detached by the promise of ultimate hegemony
over united Germany. Austria was frightened by the menace of
a coalition between England, France and Turkey to set up a
Polish-Hungarian Kingdom, and withdrew from the alliance.
Then England, France and Piedmont declared war on Russia
under the flimsiest of pretexts. This was the Crimean War. When
Russia was thus separated from Austria and weakened beyond
the power of assisting her, if she would, France was urged to deal
a deadly blow at Austrian rule in Italy and thus prepare the way
for the attack on the States of the Church. Prussia then crushed
Austria at the battle of Sadowa. France was let down in her
turn in 1870 and Bismarck returned thanks by the Kulturkampf.
"Wherever the programme [of Palmerston] prevailed," remarks
Mgr. Dillon, " the worst form of persecution of the Catholic
(9)
Church began to rage." Wc must now pass on to the war of
< ) The Crimes of England, pp. 104-105. This work was first pub
7

lished in 1915.
8
< ) Cf. Deschamps, op. cit., vol. I I , p. 411.
9
< ) The War of Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civiliza
tion, pp. 107 and foil.
 T H E BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 301

1914-1918, which dealt the final blow to the once united but now
separated Empires of Austria and Russia.
In the able work of A. Netchvolodow, Lieutenant-General of
the Imperial Russian Army, L'Empereur Nicholas II et les Juifs
(1924), we read: " In the paper, La Franc-Magonnerie D&masqu&e,
edited by l'abbe Tourmentin, in the issues of December 10 and 25,
1919, there appeared a list of contemporary Russian Freemasons
contributed by one of the correspondents of the paper
Though this list was published towards the end of 1919, no attempt
to refute it or to question its exactness has appeared. Yet most of
the people mentioned in the list are living in Paris, and out of
1
the twenty-seven names cited, twenty-one are those of out
standing' statesmen and politicians, while all are connected more
or less closely with the extraordinary events taking place in Russia
since February, 1917,
" The following is the list of the twenty-one Freemasons:
" (1) Sazonow (Sergius). Minister for Foreign Affairs of the
Imperial Government down to the declaration of war in 1914.
Later, representative of Admiral Koltchak at Paris.
" (2) Maklakow (Basil). Counsel for the defence in the case
of the Jew, Beylis, accused of the ritual murder of young Andrew
Youstchinsky, at Kief. Appointed Ambassador at Paris by the
Kerensky Government, he still occupies the Russian Embassy and
considers himself the representative of Russia. L'abbe Tour
mentin adds in a note that Maklakow was a member of the
Clichy Lodge, ' Les Renovateurs,' which had as Venerable, Bro
ther . ' . Sincholle, an important member of the Council of the
Order of the French Grand-Orient. This Sincholle was sent on a
mission to Russia of which the details will be given.
" ( 3 ) Basili (Nicholas). Former functionary attached to the Staff
of the General in command of the Russian Army. He, along
with General Loukomsky, drew up the manifesto of abdication
submitted to the Emperor.
" (4) Count Ignatiew (Alexis). Military representative at Paris
of the Imperial Russian Government. He remained on after the
February [1917] Revolution.
" (5) Prince Lwow (George). Head of the Provisional Govern
ment after the February [1917] Revolution.
" (6) Wyroubow (Basil). Vice-president of the General Union
of Ziemstwos. He played an important part under Prince Lwow,
more important still under Kerensky.
" (7.) Savinkow (Boris). Famous organiser of political assass
inations. Occupied the post of Minister of War under Kerensky.
" (8) Bachmetiew (Boris). Occupied the post of Ambassador
at Washington after the February [1917] Revolution. (He is
not to be confounded with G. P. Backhmctew, Imperial Ambassa
dor at Washington before the Revolution.)
302 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OK CHRIST

" ( 9 ) Bourtzew (Wladimir).

" (10) Soukine (John). Under-sccrctary for Foreign Affairs
during the Koltchak Government.
" (11) Kerensky (Alexander). Former barrister. Revolution
ary Socialist. Member of the Duma. Minister of Justice after the
February [1917| Revolution. Vice-president of the Petrograd
l
Council of Soldiers' <'"d Workers' Deputies, then Minister of War,
Head of the Provisional Government and General-in-Chief.
" (12) Milioukow (Paul). Leader of the Popular Liberty-
Party. Minister for Foreign Affairs after the February [1917]
Revolution.
" (13) Stakhovitch (Michael). Member of the Popular Liberty
Party. Former Chamberlain of the Czar. Accepted the post of
Ambassador to Spain under (he Kerensky Government, but was
not recognized at Madrid.
" (14) Jarochinsky (Charles). Financier who made an enorm
ous fortune during the War.
" (IS) Argounow. Important member of the former Siberian
Government.
" (16) Oulianow, alias Lenin. President of the Council of the
People's Commissars in Soviet Russia.
" (17) Bronstcin, alias Trotsky. Jew. Head "of the Red Army
in Soviet Russia.
" (18) Radomyslsky, alias Zinoview. Jew. Head of the Com
mune of Petrograd. President of the Executive Committee of the
Third International.
" (19) Lounatcharsky. Commissar of Public Education in
Soviet Russia.
" (20) Joffe. Jew. Former Bolshevik Ambassador at Berlin.
In 1922, he represented Soviet Russia at the Genoa Conference.
" (21) Ilelpfand, alias Parvus. Jew. Important Bolshevik. As
agent of the German Government, he introduced Lenin to the
German Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1914
" If wc add to all this the information published by V Standard
Russe and the paper, Ztmistchina %in 1912, both of which declared
that A. J. Goutchkow is a Freemason . . . wc thus see linked
together by mysterious ties: the former Minister for Foreign
Affairs of the Emperor Nicholas II, Sazonow, and A. J. Goutch
kow, who considered himself the personal enemy of the Emperor,
Prince Lwow, Milioukow, Maklakow, Count A. Tgnaticw. Savin-
kow, Skoropadsky, Kerensky, Petlura, Lenin, Trotsky, Joffe, Par
vus and Lounatcharsky."'^
If we now pass to the memoirs of the Princess Paley, wife
of the Grand Duke Paul, General of the Imperial Guard, we find
that in La Rnntr dn Paris, of 1st June, 1922 fpagc 468), she
Op. cit., pp. 41 a-nd foil.
 THK BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 303

accuses Sir G e o r g e B u c h a n a n , the English A m b a s s a d o r at St.

P e t e r s b u r g , of h a v i n g f o m e n t e d t h e R e v o l u t i o n . She writes:
" T h e E n g l i s h E m b a s s y , b y o r d e r of L l o y d G e o r g e , h a d b e c o m e
a c e n t r e of [ r e v o l u t i o n a r y ] p r o p a g a n d a . The Liberals, Prince
L w o w , Milioukoff, R o d z i a n k o , M a k l a k o f f , G o u t c h k o f F , etc., w e r e
c o n s t a n t l y t o be f o u n d t h e r e . I t w a s a t the E n g l i s h E m b a s s y t h a t
it w a s d e c i d e d t o a b a n d o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m e t h o d s a n d s t a r t a
r e v o l u t i o n . . . . It w a s r e l a t e d a t S t . P e t e r s b u r g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g
of t h e r e v o l u t i o n t h a t L l o y d G e o r g e , on h e a r i n g of t h e d o w n f a l l
of t h e C z a r a n d C z a r i s m , h a d r u b b e d his h a n d s a n d s a i d : ' O n e
of E n g l a n d ' s w a r - a i m s is a t t a i n e d / G r e a t B r i t a i n w a s a s t r a n g e
ally, a n a l l y a g a i n s t w h o m w e s h o u l d h a v e always been on o u r
g u a r d , f o r t h e h o s t i l i t y of E n g l a n d r u n s like a r e d line t h r o u g h
R u s s i a n h i s t o r y for t h r e e c e n t u r i e s . . . . A n d a t p r e s e n t , is i t
n o t t o t h e G r e a t B r i t a i n of L l o y d G e o r g e a n d R o b e r t H o m e t h a t
w e o w e t h e p r o l o n g a t i o n of R u s s i a ' s a g o n y ? E n g l a n d p u r p o s e l y
m a i n t a i n s in p o w e r t h e a n t i - R u s s i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t
k n o w n a s t h e S o v i e t G o v e r n m e n t , in o r d e r n o t t o a l l o w t h e r e a l
Russia, National Russia, to rise a g a i n / '
Tn h i s b o o k , . 1 / / / Mission to Russia ( C a s s e l l , 1923), S i r G e o r g e
B u c h a n a n r e p l i e s tn t h e s e a c c u s a t i o n s a n d o t h e r s . H e s a y s : ' ' A s
I h a v e n o i n t e n t i o n of s h e l t e r i n g m y s e l f b e h i n d a n y i m a g i n a r y
i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m h o m e , I m a y a t o n c e s t a t e t h a t J a c c e p t full
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for o u r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e r e v o l u t i o n . I t w a s o n
my a d v i c e t h a t H i s M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t c o n s i s t e n t l y a c t e d .
N e e d l e s s t o s a y , I n e v e r e n g a g e d in a n y r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o p a g a n d a ,
and M r . L l o y d G e o r g e h a d o u r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s t o o m u c h a t
h e a r t e v e r to h a v e a u t h o r i z e d m e t o p r o m o t e a r e v o l u t i o n in
R u s s i a in t h e m i d d l e of a w o r l d w a r . I t is p e r f e c t l y t r u e t h a t I
did r e c e i v e a t t h e E m b a s s y t h e L i b e r a l L e a d e r s n a m e d b y P r i n
cess P a l e y , for i t w a s m y d u t y a s A m b a s s a d o r t o k e e p in t o u c h
w i t h t h e l e a d e r s of all p a r t i e s . 1 w a s , m o r e o v e r , in s y m p a t h y
with t h e i r a i m s , a n d , a s a l r e a d y s t a t e d , I c o n s u l t e d R o d z i a n k o
on t h e s u b j e c t of t h o s e a i m s b e f o r e m y final a u d i e n c e w i t h t h e
E m p e r o r . T h e y did n o t w a n t t o p r o v o k e a r e v o l u t i o n a s l o n g a s
the w a r lasted I h a v e n o t h i n g to reproach myself w i t h
for h a v i n g c u l t i v a t e d t h e f r i e n d s h i p of t h e s e m e n . T h e y d i s a p
p o i n t e d m e b y failing, w h e n t h e c r i s i s c a m e , t o k e e p c o n t r o l of t h e
s i t u a t i o n : b u t t h e y w e r e , I m u s t a d m i t , c o n f r o n t e d w i t h colossal
difficulties It w a s H u g h W a l p o l e , t h e h e a d of o u r p r o p a
g a n d a b u r e a u w h o . . . b e g g e d m e t o s h o w b y t h e w a r m t h of m y
language at s o m e public m e e t i n g s w h e r e I had to speak that I
w a s w h o l e h e a r t e d l y o n t h e s i d e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n . T a c c o r d i n g l y
did s o . . . . B u t t h o u g h h e n o w p o s s e s s e d all t h e p o w e r s n e c e s
s a r y for d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n , K e r e n s k y c o m p l e t e l y failed
TO t u r n t h e m t o p r o p e r a c c o u n t . H e m a d e n o a t t e m p t to iind
and a r r e s t L e n i n ; h e c o u n t e r m a n d e d t h e o r d e r for t h e a r r e s t of
304 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

T r o t s k y a n d a n o t h e r l e a d i n g B o l s h e v i k , o n a c c o u n t of t h e i r b e i n g
m e m b e r s of t h e e x e c u t i v e c o m m i t t e e of t h e S o v i e t , a n d h e c o n
t e n t e d himself with issuing p r o c l a m a t i o n s o r d e r i n g the w o r k m e n
t o d e l i v e r u p t h e i r a r m s i n s t e a d of a l l o w i n g t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i
t i e s to d i s a r m t h e m b y f o r c e . In fact, I d o u b t v e r y m u c h if a n y
of t h e o r g a n i s e i s of t h e B o l s h e v i k r i s i n g o r a n y of t h e m e n w h o
t o o k p a r t in it w e r e e v e r r e a l l y p u n i s h e d . . . . A s h e a d of t h e
G o v e r n m e n t he | K e r e n s k y | m u s t b e a r t h e chief r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for
0 1 1
R u s s i a ' s s u r r e n d e r to t h e B o l s h e v i k s , "
li is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o d w e l l a t a n y l e n g t h o n t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s .
It is c l e a r t h a t b o t h t h e R u s s i a n L i b e r a l ( M a s o n i c ) l e a d e r s a n d
S i r G e o r g e B u c h a n a n f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e g r i p of f o r c e s t h e y
c o u l d not c o n t r o l . T h a t h a s f r e q u e n t l y b e e n t h e c a s e w i t h s u c
cessful p r o m o t e r s of r e v o l u t i o n , w h o w e r e m e m b e r s of t h e M a
s o n i c a s s o c i a t i o n o r of o t h e r s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s .
'1 he R u s s i a n w r i t e r . P e t r o v s k y , in h i s d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y of
R u s s i a from 1917 t o 1930, e n t i t l e d Ihtssia Under the Jews, con-
1
i i r m s t h i s r e a s o n i n g . l i e is v e r y s e v e r e o n K e r e n s k y . H e s a y s :
In s p i t e of t h e p r o p o s a l of t h e P r o c u r a t o r t o h a v e L e n i n , T r o t
s k y and C o m p a n y a r r e s t e d , K e r e n s k y gave orders to leave the
f r o n t i e r s o p e n . . . . W h e n t h e G o v e r n o r of P e t r o g r a d , C o l o n e l
Polovtzefl, arrested Trotsky (I i r o n s t e r n ) , N a k h a m k e s s and
S e m a c h k o , K e r e n s k y h i m s e l f l i b e r a t e d t h e m a n d t o o k t h e m i n his
o w n cur t o t h e Sm<>lny I n s t i t u t e r e s e r v e d for t h e S o l d i e r s ' a n d
W o r k e r s ' Council a f t e r the Revolution, a n d a f t e r a while set them
c o m p l e t e l y at l i b e r t y . T h e c o n d u c t of K e r e n s k y is s o s t r a n g e . . .
that his art ions cannot he explained except by the fact that an
understanding existed between him and the Bolshevik leaders
n : j l
. . . . If it w e r e n o t for K e r e n s k y a n d his d o u b l e g a m e . . . .
t h e P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d p e r h a p s h a v e s u c c e e d e d in
a t t r a c t i n g t o i t s s u p p o r t all t h e s o u n d e l e m e n t s of t h e a r m y a n d
t h e p e o p l e . B u t t h e d o u b l e g a m e of K e r e n s k y a n d h i s evil influ
e n c e in e v e r y d i r e c t i o n . . . . h a d for r e s u l t t h a t all h o n e s t R u s s
i a n s lost c o n f i d e n c e in t h e P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t o v e r w h i c h he
p r e s i d e d . H e n c e , w h e n t h e B o l s h e v i k r i s i n g t o o k p l a c e in O c t o b e r ,
1917. t h e P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t w a s a b a n d o n e d b y b o t h sold
iers and people. Then K e r e n s k y and C o m p a n y . . . . n o t for
g e t t i n g to c a r r y a w a y w i t h t h e m the m o n e y and valuables t h e y had
p l u n d e r e d . . . . fled a b r o a d . ' '

<ll> Op. cit., vol. II,. pp. 96, 97, 99, 158, 216. On page 121 of the same
volume, S i r George p o i n t s o u t t h a t Milioukoff h a d asked for the deten
t i o n of T r o t s k y and other political refugees for a time .at H a l i f a x
( N o v a Scotia). > Accordingly, the P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t shares
responsibility with the English G o v e r n m e n t for their being set free.
^ 2 1 T h i s hook a p p e a r e d in F r e n c h u n d e r the t i t l e La Russic tons les
Juifx, Aux Editions B a u d i n i e r e , in 1931. The q u o t a t i o n s are from
page 35.
I t a l i c s in o r i g i n a l .
 T H E BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION' OF 1917 305

The English writer, Robert Wilton, in his book, Hussies Agony,

is equally emphatic in his judgement of Kerensky, He writes:
"Kerensky did everything to upset the arrangements that were
being made with a view to checking Bolshevist designs. He
(I4)
helped the Bolshevist g a m e . "
Another point, namely, England's, failure to prevent the
assassination of the Czar and of the helpless Imperial family, must
be alluded to brieflv. It will be sufficient lo transcribe a little of
what appears in the book written by Mcricl Buchanan (Mr;-.
Knowling), daughter of Sir George Buchanan, entitled The Disso
11
lution of an Empire (1932), She writes: In his book, my father
has replied to some of the accusations made against him, but,
bound as he was by the Official Secrets Act. he could not disclose
all the true facts, and therefore was never able to clear his name
from the slur cast upon it by the indictment of having failed . . .
to help the Imperial family of Russia in their hour of need. . . .
Those who knew him and were with him through those dark and
ominous days . . . know how easy it would have been for him
to justify himself, and how it was only loyalty to what he con
sidered was his duty, which kept him silent. Later on, when he
had retired from the Diplomatic Service, he had, T know, the in
tention of including in his book the truth about the attempt thai
was made to get the Imperial family out of Russia, but he was
told at the Foreign Office, where he had gone to examine some
of the documents, that if he did s o , he would not only be charged
with an infringement of the Official Secrets Act, but would have
his pension stopped, and as he was a poor man. and had also
suffered the loss of the greater part of his personal estate and
possessions owing to the Revolution, he decided to hold his hand.
The account he gives of the promise of the British Government
to receive the Emperor in England, and the way in which, afraid
of a few extremist members of the House, the}* were persuaded
to take no further action, is therefore a deliberate attempt to
suppress the true facts, and so save those who were responsible,
from criticism and contempt. Some day 1 hope somebody will
publish the true story of those proceedings, backed by document
ary proof in the. official archives, but meanwhile I want to try
and describe what happened, without the assistance of those.official
records, from my own personal recollections and from impressions
left on my mind by my father's actual words and actions,
"Late on the afternoon of the 21st March . . . one of the
Grand Dukes . . . . came to sec me on a matter of urgent
importance. . . . 'Docs your father know how desperate the
Emperor's situation really i s ? ' |he asked| . . . 'Unless your
14
< > Op. cit., .p. 290. With regard to Robert Wilton's unrivalled
knowledge of Russia and thin Nubian, cf. The litiler* of PMAUU
p. 7.
Y
306 T H K M Y S T I C A L .BODY O F CHRIST

f a t h e r a r r a n g e s for t h e E m p e r o r ' s e s c a p e w i t h i n t h e n e x t f e w d a y s
H i s M a j e s t y will b e m u r d e r e d ! Il i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n of t i m e ,
w e e k s , m o n t h s , p e r h a p s , b u t t h a t will m o s t c e r t a i n l y be t h e o u t
c o m e . ' . . . A n d t h e n , j u s t a s h o p e s e e m e d in s i g h t , a t e l e g r a m
a r r i v e d f r o m E n g l a n d ! I t w a s t h e 10th A p r i l . . . . H e ( m y f a t h e r )
h a d s u n k d o w n in t h e c h a i r in f r o n t of h i s d e s k . . . . ' I have
b a d n e w s f r o m E n g l a n d / he said, . . . ' T h e y r e f u s e t o l e t the
E m p e r o r come over.' . . . . ' They s a y / m y father continued,
' t h a t it is w i s e r t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e i d e a of t h e I m p e r i a l family
c o m i n g to E n g l a n d . . . . T h e y have told the Provisional Govern
m e n t t o c a n c e l all a r r a n g e m e n t s . . . . T h e y a r e a f r a i d , t h a t is
t h e t r u t h of i t ; t h e y a r e a f r a i d ! ' T h a t d a y 1 r e m e m b e r M r . L l o y d
G e o r g e ' s n a m e w a s n o t m e n t i o n e d , a n d it w a s o n l y m u c h l a t e r
t h a t m y f a t h e r told m e t h a t t h e w h o l e p l a n of t h e E m p e r o r ' s
j o u r n e y to E n g l a n d had been w r e c k e d because Mr. Lloyd George
h a d w a r n e d t h e K i u g [of E n g l a n d ] t h a t t h e f e e l i n g in t h e c o u n t r y
w a s violently a g a i n s t the Russian I m p e r i a l family, t h a t the L a b o u r
m e m b e r s h a d s w o r n to c r e a t e t r o u b l e if t h e y w e r e r e c e i v e d , and
t h a t it w o u l d be v e r y u n w i s e t o r i s k o f f e n d i n g t h e m a t t h a t c r i t i
cal j u n c t u r e of t h e w a r . H e h a d a t t h e s a m e t i m e m a n a g e d to
convince the K i n g that the d a n g e r to the Imperial family was
g r o s s l y ex a g g e r a t e d . . . .
" S i n c e t h o s e d a y s M r . L l o y d G e o r g e h a s h a d a m p l e t i m e for
r e f l e c t i o n , a n d it is i m p o s s i b l e n o t t o feel s o r r y for a m a n w h o s e
m i n d m u s t be b u r d e n e d w i t h t h e m e m o r y of t h e g h a s t l y m i s t a k e s
he h a s m a d e in h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s R u s s i a . . . . I t is v e r y diffi
c u l t to a r r i v e a t t h e real t r u t h , a n d it is difficult e v e n t o o b t a i n
d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e of t h a t t r u t h , f o r M r . L l o y d G e o r g e , at
t h a t m o m e n t P r i m e M i n i s t e r , h a d a h a b i t of s e n d i n g t e l e g r a m s
direct to the v a r i o u s E m b a s s i e s , and n o t t h r o u g h t h e usual source
of t h e F o r e i g n Office, so t h a t in t h e official a r c h i v e s t h e r e is n o
t h i n g t o s h o w t h a t h e w a s d i r e c t l y i n s t r u m e n t a l in p r e v e n t i n g the
E m p e r o r f r o m b e i n g g i v e n s a n c t u a r y in E n g l a n d . . . . I t is a little
difficult, e v e n n o w , t o f o l l o w a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e a p p a r e n t fluctua
t i o n s of h i s p o l i c y . . . . h i s c o r d i a l r e c e p t i o n of M r . B u l l i t t , the
A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t w h o w e n t t o R u s s i a o n a s p e c i a l m i s s i o n , and
r e t u r n e d i n o c u l a t e d w i t h C o m m u n i s t f e r v o u r , his r e f u s a l t o t a k e
any drastic steps to c o u n t e r a c t the intensive Bolshevik propa
g a n d a b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t in E n g l a n d , a n d h i s w e l c o m e of t h e R u s s
ian T r a d e D e l e g a t i o n u n d e r K r a s s i n , m a k e o n e w o n d e r a little
d u b i o u s l y w h o h i s c o u n s e l l o r s w e r e a n d w h a t t h e s e c r e t influence
w a s t h a t c a u s e d a v o l a t i l e c h a n g e of m i n d a l w a y s a t t h e crucial
m o m e n t w h e n t h e B o l s h e v i k s s e e m e d o n t h e p o i n t of s u r r e n d e r .
' M r . L l o y d G e o r g e r e a l l y did u s a g r e a t s e r v i c e / L e n i n told a
n 5 )
j o u r n a l i s t a f t e r t h e c o n f e r e n c e in G e n o a in 1 9 2 4 . "
fl
">) Op. <dt., p p . 192-198, 297. Mr. Lloyd George states in his War
Memoirs, v o l . I l l , t h a t " t h e Czar was unable to avail himself of it
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 307

In face of the above, we may ask ourselves if Sir George

Buchanan was allowed to write freely in what he set down about
the liberation of Trotsky from Halifax by the English Govern
ment.
One last point to which reference must be made concerns Ras
putin. Lloyd George writes: "When the Revolution started,
Lenin was a refugee in Switzerland. Trotsky was earning a pi-e-
carious living as a writer on the staff of an unprofitable Com
munist journal in New York. The conspirators who overthrew
Czardom were the Czarina and Rasputin, with the help of the
10
inept ministers they promoted and favoured."* * The conclusion
from these statements would seem to be that Trotsky and Lenin
and those behind them were not conspiring to overthrow the
Czar, whereas the unfortunate Czarina and Rasputin were con
spiring to do so. Lloyd George seems to use the word " con
spirators " ambiguously, to say the least of it. We may admit,
however, that there were people trying to use Rasputin, and here
Freemasonry and the better organized force of the Jewish Nation
come on the scene. In his book, The Fall of the Russian Empire
(p. 110), the Rev. E. A. Walsh, S.J., says: "At a Masonic Con
gress, held in Brussels at this time (1911), Rasputin was discussed
as a possible instrument for spreading the tenets of the order
in Russia; it was thought that tinder his destructive influence the
17
dynasty would be destroyed in two years."* *
On his side, Sir George Buchanan in the work already men-

[the invitation], even had he been anxious to do so, and of that wc had
no evidence." He finally quotes Sir George Buchanan as stating in
My Mission to Russia: Our offer remained apen and was never with
tc

drawn." From Miss Buchanan's evidence it is clear that Sir George

Buchanan was not a free agent in writing that sentence.
With regard to Jewish responsibility for the murder of the Czar and
the Imperial Family, cf. The Rulers of Russia, p. 13.
(16) War Memoirs, vol. I, p. 953.
17J
< A certain amount of information about Freemasonry in Russia
is to be found in Dcschamps, Les SocieU'-s Secretes et la* Societe, vol. II,
pp. 687-704, and in Wichtl, Weltfreimawrerei, Welt revolution, Weltre-
publil\ .pp. 168-174. There is a curious conversation of a Russian
" Liberal " non-Mason with an American Mason on page 173 of the
latter volume. The American Mason remarked, when he learned that
the Russian, was returning to Russia for the Coronation of the Czar
Nicholas I I : "These things will not last much longer," but refused to
say more since the Russian was not a Freemason. After 1906-1007,
according to Wichtl, the number of Lodges in Russia increased enor
mously. He says that the overthrow of the Czar was the work of Russian
Freemasons with the help of English Freemasons.
Mr. A. If. Field, in The Truth About the Slump, p. 63, comments
on the fact that Cagliostro, with Jewish and Masonic associations, was
used to discredit the French Royal Family prior to the French Revolu
tion, while Rasputin performed a similar service in Russia before the
Russian Revolution.
308 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t i o n e d , My Mission, to Russia, w r i t e s : " R a s p u t i n was at the same

t i m e a c c u s e d of being* in G e r m a n p a y a c h a r g e t h a t w a s n o t
s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g c o r r e c t . H e w a s n o t in i m m e d i a t e c o m m u n i c a
t i o n w i t h B e r l i n , a n d h e did n o t r e c e i v e m o n e y f r o m t h e Ger
m a n s ; but he w a s l a r g e l y financed by certain J e w i s h bankers,
w h o w e r e t o all i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s G e r m a n a g e n t s . A s h e w a s
in t h e h a b i t of r e p e a t i n g t o t h o s e J e w i s h f r i e n d s of h i s all t h a t
h e h e a r d a t T s a r s k o i e [ t h e T s a r ' s p a l a c e ] , a n d as t h e E m p r e s s
c o n s u l t e d h i m on b o t h m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s , m u c h use
ful i n f o r m a t i o n r e a c h e d t h e G e r m a n s t h r o u g h this i n d i r e c t c h a n
n e l . W i t h o u t b e i n g t h e i r r e g u l a r a g e n t , h e w a s , m o r e o v e r , ren
d e r i n g t h e m y e o m a n s e r v i c e b y d i s c r e d i t i n g the I m p e r i a l regime
a n d t h u s p a v i n g t h e w a y for r e v o l u t i o n . "

T H E R O L E O F G E R M A N Y IX T H E BOLSHEVIK
REVOLUTION.
G e r m a n y ' s role in t h e H o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n h a s b e e n a d m i r
a b l y s u m m a r i z e d in A. N . F i e l d ' s i n s t r u c t i v e w o r k , The Truth
about the Slump, p p . 58-74. O n l y a f e w p o i n t s n e e d b e t o u c h e d
u p o n , b e c a u s e t h e m a i n f a c t s a r e n o t in d i s p u t e . T h e first p o i n t
is t h a t it w a s a w e a l t h y J e w n a m e d P a r v u s o r H c l p f a n d , given
a s a F r e e m a s o n in t h e list a l r e a d y q u o t e d , w h o a c t e d a s t h e i n t e r
m e d i a r y b e t w e e n t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t a n d L e n i n . It w a s he
w h o a r r a n g e d w i t h t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t t h e p a s s a g e of Kcnin
I8)
t h r o u g h G e r m a n y in a s e a l e d t r a i n . <
A c o l l a b o r a t o r of his w a s G a n e t s k i - F u r s t e n b e r g . A c c o r d i n g to
t h e R u s s i a n L a d y , A r i a d n a T y r k o v a W i l l i a m s , w i d o w of t h e late
H a r o l d W i l l i a m s , in h e r v a l u a b l e b o o k , From Liberty to Brest-
Litovsk, " G a n e t s k i - F u r s t e n b e r g w a s a n a d v e n t u r e r on a l a r g e
s c a l e , a c o l l a b o r a t o r w i t h P a r v u s t h e -provocateur, a S o c i a l i s t w i t h
a very tarnished reputation. . . . Helpfand-Parvus had made
C o p e n h a g e n his h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d t h e n c e t h i s a d r o i t a d v e n t u r e r
m a n a g e d his m i s c e l l a n e o u s e n t e r p r i s e s , s u c h a s t h e c o n t r a b a n d
s a l e of e x p e n s i v e d r u g s f o r t h e R u s s i a n A r m y , t h e s u p p l y of c h e a p
G e r m a n coal f o r t h e n e e d s of D a n i s h c o - o p e r a t i v e s o c i e t i e s , r e v o
l u t i o n a r y p r o p a g a n d a in R u s s i a , a n d p e r h a p s n o t in R u s s i a only.
. . . T h r o u g h G a n e t s k i - F u r s t e n b e r g t h e B o l s h e v i k s u s e d t o ob
t a i n l a r g e s u m s of m o n e y . T h i s w a s d i s c o v e r e d a f t e r t h e first
a t t e m p t at a coup (Vetat m a d e b y t h e B o l s h e v i k s . . . . L a r g e
s u m s of m o n e y w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o P e t r o g r a d by a R u s s i a n J e w ,
H c l p f a n d , c o m m o n l y k n o w n a m o n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s by his
l i t e r a r y p s e u d o n y m of P a r v u s . T h i s o b s c u r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l specu
l a t o r , w h o a c q u i r e d a n e n o r m o u s f o r t u n e , s t y l e d h i m s e l f t h e in
spire!" of B o l s h e v i s m . T h e G e r m a n S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t H a a s c re-

Cf. The. Mystical Body of Christ in tlu Modem World, pp. 92,
93, for sonic more i n f o r m a t i o n about Parvus.
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 309
vealed the strange connections of Parvus with the Imperial Gov
ernment. . . . The Russian Intelligence Department possessed
data proving the connection between the Bolsheviks and the
German General Staff. But Kerensky's Government fell apart,
without having published its information, and without arriving at
1 191
any definite conclusion upon the subject.' *
Supplementary information on these points is available from
the report issued by Mr. Edgar Sisson called The German-Bolshe
vik Conspiracy (Washington, D.C., Oct., 1918). Mr. Sisson com
piled this report while acting in his capacity as "Special Repre
sentative in Russia of the Committee on Public Information."
As the delegate of President Wilson, he acquired important docu
ments concerning the German-Bolshevik Conspiracy. The Com
mittee on Public Information published the Sisson Documents as
War Information, Series No. 20, October, 1918, after having sub
mitted the documents to the Investigators of the National Board
for Historical Service in the United States. Both the Committee
on Public Information and the United States Congress accepted
the judgement of the National Board for Historical Service on
these documents. This much we learn from the remarkable book
let, An Answer to Father CoughlWs Critics, by the Radio Priest's
Friends. Father Coughlin's Friends quote at considerable length
from the Sisson Documents, as docs A. N. Field in The Truth
about the Slump.
Document No. 1 is to the effect thai, in accordance with orders
received from the Bolshevik leaders, there had been removed
from the archives of the Ministry of Justice an order of the
German Imperial Bank " allowing money to Comrades Lenin and
Trotsky and others for the propaganda of peace in Russia," and
u M
that at the same time all the books of the bank in Stockholm
had been " audited " to conceal the payment of funds to Lenin
and Trotsky and their associates on the order of the German Im
perial Bank (Order 7433). Another document stated that " Zino-
vieff and Lunacharsky got in touch with the Imperial Bank of
Germany through the bankers D. Rubenstein, Max Warburg-, and
Parvus. . Zinovieff addressed himself to Rubenstein and Lunach
arsky through Altvater to Warburg, through whom he found
support in Parvus." Sisson added to this in a note: " Parvus and
Warburg both figure in the*Lenin and Trotsky documents. . . ,
Warburg is believed to have been lately in PcLrograd."
The second point to be noted is that mentioned by Mr. Boris
Brasol, the Russian writer, in his book, The World at the Cross
Roads. " The full history," writes Mr. Brasol, " of the interlock
ing participation of the Imperial German Government and inter
national finance in the destruction of the Russian Empire is not
U9) Op. cit., pp. 105, 106, 110, 289. She adds, on p. 289, that all the
documents fell into the hands of the Bolsheviks after their victory.
310 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

y e t w r i t t e n . . . . 11 w a s n o t a m e r e c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t a t t h e n o t o r i
o u s m e e t i n g h e l d in S t o c k h o l m in 1916, b e t w e e n t h e f o r m e r R u s s
i a n M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , P r o t o p o p o f f , a n d t h e G e r m a n A g e n t s ,
t h e G e r m a n F o r e i g n Office w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y M r . M a x W a r b u r g ,
w h o s e t w o b r o t h e r s ( P a u l a n d F e l i x ) w e r e m e m b e r s of t h e inter
n a t i o n a l b a n k i n g firm, K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y , of w h i c h the
2 0
l a t e M r . J a c o b Sehiff w a s a s e n i o r m e m b e r . " ' ' T h i s b r i n g s us
to the p a r t played by the J e w i s h N a t i o n behind the w a r r i n g States.
England and Germany.

THE R O L E O F T H E 1EW1SH NATION IN THE

BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION.

Unless one realizes t h a t the d r i v i n g force behind the Bolshe

v i k R e v o l u t i o n w a s t h a t of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , it is i m p o s s i b l e to
e x p l a i n a d e q u a t e l y h o w t h e h i t h e r t o r a t h e r s l e e p y R u s s i a sud
d e n l y w o k e u p in 1917, a n d b e g a n a n i n t e n s i v e c a m p a i g n f o r i n t e r
n a t i o n a l d o m i n a t i o n , s p e n d i n g m o n e y l a v i s h l y . W h e n c e c a m e the
d y n a m i c e n e r g y in t h e R u s s i a n c h a r a c t e r all of a s u d d e n ? How
a r c w e t o e x p l a i n t h e s u d d e n a p p e a r a n c e of a v i r u l e n t a n t i - G o d
m o v e m e n t in a p e o p l e t h a i w i t h all i t s f a u l t s w a s i n t e n s e l y
religious? B o t h t h e s e q u e s t i o n s find a n a d e q u a t e a n s w e r in the
c o n t r o l l i n g i n f l u e n c e of t h e N a t i o n t h a t lias p e r s i s t e n t l y r e j e c t e d
t h e o n e T r u e M e d i a t o r b e t w e e n G o d a n d man a n d is e v e r s e e k i n g
t o i m p o s e its will o n G o d , i n s t e a d of a c c e p t i n g J lis W i l l . O t h e r
wise these things seem inexplicable. Once we realize, however,
t h a i 1917 w i t n e s s e d w h a t t h e G e r m an r e v o l u t i o n a r y , W i l h e l m
M a r r , h a d f o r e s e e n b e f o r e 1879. w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h a t took
p l a c e a n d is t a k i n g p l a c e . '* In t h a t v a s t E m p i r e , " h e w r o t e ,
" J u d a i s m will find t h e f u l c r u m of A r c h i m e d e s w h i c h will enable
it t o pull t h e w h o l e of W e s t e r n E u r o p e off i t s h i n g e s (nice for
all. T h e w i l y J e w i s h spirit of i n t r i g u e will b r i n g a b o u t a r e v o l u
21
t i o n in R u s s i a s u c h a s t h e w o r l d h a s n e v e r v e t seen."* *
P o p e P i u s X I did n o t t h i n k it p o s s i b l e t o e x p l a i n t h e h a t r e d
of r e l i g i o n in R u s s i a w i t h o u t t a k i n g a c c o u n t of t h e a c t i o n of
s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s . O n J u n e 3 r d , 1933, in a n E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r deal-
(20) Op. cit., p p . 70, 71.
S i r George B u c h a n a n says in his hook (vol. I L p. 33) t h a t " o n hia
r e t u r n j o u r n e y [from F r a n c o a n d E n g l a n d ] he | Protopopoff] had had
an interview with a G e r m a n financier named W a r b u r g a t Stockholm that
had seriously c o m p r o m i s e d h i m . " Mr. W a r b u r g may have been more
" G e r m a n " t h a n his brothers P a u l a n d Kelix were " A m e r i c a n , " but
they were all three members nf a n o t h e r n a t i o n , the Jewish N a t i o n .
(2D F o r the full text of this a u t h o r as well as for a s i m i l a r text of
Dostoievsky, the Russian writer, cf. The Mystical Body of Christ in the
Modern World, p p . 180, 181. T h e e x t r a c t from Dostoievsky there quoted
was w r i t t e n between 1870 and 1880. I t c o n t a i n * the famous p h r a s e :
" T h e Jews will corn-pass the r u i n of R u s s i a . "
 THE B O L S H E V I K R E V O L U T I O N O F 191/ 311

ing w i t h t h e p e r s e c u t i o n in S p a i n , h e s a i d t h a t " t h i s p e r s e c u t i o n
has b e e n s e t o n foot, n o t s o m u c h f r o m i g n o r a n c e of C a t h o l i c
t e a c h i n g a n d of its b e n e f i t s , a s f r o m t h e h a t r e d a n d e n m i t y , w h i c h
the d e s t r o y e r s of all o r d e r , civil a n d r e l i g i o u s , b a n d e d t o g e t h e r
in s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s a s in M e x i c o a n d R u s s i a , c h e r i s h a n d s t i r u p
' a g a i n s t t h e L o r d a n d a g a i n s t H i s C h r i s t ' . " F o p e P i u s X I holds
too t h a t B o l s h e v i s m w a s f o r e i g n t o R u s s i a , in s p i t e of t h e c o n
t r a r y o p i n i o n e x p r e s s e d b y w r i t e r s s u c h ' as t h e R e v . E d m u n d
2
W a l s h , S.J., in The Fall of the Russian Empire S ^ Father Walsh
w r o t e : " A t h e s i s c o m m o n i n M o n a r c h i s t a n d e m i g r e c i r c l e s lab
ours t o p r o v e t h a t t h e B o l s h e v i k r e v o l u t i o n w a s a n u n n a t u r a l , u n -
R u s s i a n p h e n o m e n o n a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d b y t w o f o r e i g n influ
ences, G e r m a n m i l i t a r i s m a n d J e w i s h h a t r e d , a n d t h e n i m p o s e d by
t r e a c h e r y o n a d e m o r a l i z e d a n d e x h a u s t e d p e o p l e . B u t on t h e
s t r e n g t h of t h e r e c o r d , a n d in v i e w of t h e t e s t i m o n y of r e p r e s e n t
ative R u s s i a n s s u p p o r t e d b y d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e n o w b e c o m i n g
increasingly available, I a m obliged to reject t h a t t h e o r y . . .
I m a i n t a i n t h a t B o l s h e v i s m is a n a t u r a l p h a s e in t h e e v o l u t i o n of
a s t r i c t l y h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o r i g i n a t i n g in t h e soil, t h e c u l t u r e ,
and t h e p o l i t i c s of R u s s i a itself."* I n t h e E n c y c l i c a l Letter.
Divini Rcdemptoris, P o p e P i u s X I w r o t e i n 1937: " F o r t h e m [ t h e
peoples of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ] W c c h e r i s h t h e w a r m e s t p a t e r n a l
affection. W e a r e w e l l a w a r e t h a t n o t a few of t h e m g r o a n b e
n e a t h t h e y o k e i m p o s e d o n t h e m b y m e n w h o in v e r y l a r g e p a r t
are s t r a n g e r s t o t h e r e a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o u n t r y . W e r e c o g n i s e
that m a n y o t h e r s w e r e deceived by fallacious hopes. W e blame
only t h e s y s t e m w i t h i t s a u t h o r s a n d a b e t t o r s w h o c o n s i d e r e d
R u s s i a n t h e b e s t p r e p a r e d field for e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h a plan
e l a b o r a t e d y e a r s a g o , a n d w h o f r o m t h e r e c o n t i n u e t o s p r e a d it
1 2 2 b i s )
from o n e e n d of t h e w o r l d t o t h e o t h e r . " L e t us n o w t a k e
some of t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e w h i c h g o e s to p r o v e t h a t t h o s e
* ' s t r a n g e r s t o t h e r e a l i n t e r e s t s of R u s s i a / ' w h o a r e e x p e r i m e n t i n g
with t h i s M a r x i a n p l a n e l a b o r a t e d y e a r s a g o , a r e m e m b e r s of t h e
Jewish Nation.

( a ) THE J E W I S H N A T I O N GUrDES T H E
COMMUNIST MOVEMENT.
W e h a v e s e e n h o w C o m m u n i s m follows from the " freedom and
e q u a l i t y " of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of 1789. F r a n c o i s N o e l B a b e u f , o n e of
the a d e p t s of t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s t h a t p r e p a r e d a n d c a r r i e d o u t
(22) P u b l i s h e d in 1929. The q u o t a t i o n is from -p. 12.
{22 bis) i n complete a g r e e m e n t with Pope P i u s X I , the Russian
writer, N . S.. Timasheff, most e m p h a t i c a l l y assorts t h a t Bolshevism is
not a Russian product, " C o m m u n i s t d o c t r i n e s , " he writes, " were
imported i n t o Russia as p a r t of the g r e a t process of Westernization
. . . C o m m u n i s m certainly was not a s t r a i g h t c o n t i n u a t i o n of Russian
h i s t o r y " Religion in Soviet .Russia, p p . 10, 18. (London, Sheed a n d
W a r d . 1943).
 312 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , in a n a d d r e s s t o t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e , d r e w
t h e logical conclusions from these principles with a s a v a g e vigour
( 2 3 )
w h i c h l e a v e s n o t h i n g t o he d e s i r e d . W i t h the reaction against
t h e R e v o l u t i o n , the c l a s s - w a r died d o w n , t h o u g h the Collectivist
t h e o r i e s of B a b e u f p e r s i s t e d in t h e S o c i a l i s t m o v e m e n t s . The
c l a s s - w a r , t h e m i l i t a n t a t h e i s m , a n d all t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e p o c h w e r e r e v i v e d w i t h r e n e w e d v i g o u r w h e n
t h e J e w s a s s u m e d t h e l e a d e r s h i p of C o m m u n i s m w i t h K a r l M a r x
a n d F e r d i n a n d Lassalle. In The Mystical Bod// of Christ in the
Modern World ( p p . 8 2 - 8 7 ) , a b r i e f a c c o u n t of t h e r i s e a n d
d e v e l o p m e n t of C o m m u n i s m a n d S o c i a l i s m u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of
t h e J e w s is g i v e n . T h a t o u t l i n e w i l l suffice t o s h o w t h a t the
J e w i s h w r i t e r , A l f r e d N o s s i g , in h i s b o o k , Integrates Judentum
(Integral Judaism), d o c s n o t e x a g g e r a t e w h e n he s a y s t h a t " the
m o d e r n s o c i a l i s t m o v e m e n t is chiefly t h e w o r k of J e w s . " The
p l a n of t h e r e v o l u t i o n is a l w a y s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e . T h e reins
of G o v e r n m e n t of s o m e g r e a t n a t i o n m u s t b e c a p t u r e d a n d then
t h a t n a t i o n m u s t b e m a d e u s e of t o i m p o s e t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y ideal
a n d t h e d o m i n a t i o n of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n o n t h e w o r l d . If M a r x
h a d s u c c e e d e d t h r o u g h h i s a g e n t s in t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e of 1871,
F r a n c e w o u l d h a v e h a d the' f a t e r e s e r v e d for R u s s i a in 1917.
T h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n on t h e p a r t of the
J e w i s h N a t i o n b e g a n l o n g b e f o r e 1917. Jn t h e New York Times
of M a r c h 24, 1917, t h e r e is a n a c c o u n t of a c e l e b r a t i o n h e l d ,in
N e w Y o r k o v e r t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h h a d t a k e n
p l a c e o n M a r c h 14. A t t h a t c e l e b r a t i o n , a M r . G e o r g e K c n n a n said
t h a t " d u r i n g t h e J a p a n e s e - R u s s i a n w a r h e w a s in T o k i o a n d t h a t
h e w a s p e r m i t t e d t o m a k e v i s i t s a m o n g t h e 12,000 R u s s i a n p r i s
o n e r s in J a p a n e s e h a n d s . . . . H e t o l d h o w t h e y a s k e d h i m to
g i v e t h e m s o m e t h i n g t o r e a d a n d b e h a d c o n c e i v e d t h e i d e a of
putting revolutionary propaganda into the Russian army. The
J a p a n e s e a u t h o r i t i e s f a v o u r e d it a n d g a v e h i m p e r m i s s i o n . After
w h i c h h e s e n t t o A m e r i c a for all t h e R u s s i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i t e r a
t u r e to be had. . . . T h e m o v e m e n t w a s financed by a N e w Y o r k
b a n k e r y o u all k n o w a n d l o v e , h e s a i d , - r e f e r r i n g t o M r . SchifT,
a n d s o o n w e r e c e i v e d a t o n a n d a h a l f of R u s s i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y
p r o p a g a n d a . A t t h e e n d of t h e w a r 50,000 R u s s i a n officers and
m e n w e n t back to their country ardent revolutionists. T h e Friends
of R u s s i a n F r e e d o m h a d s o w e d 50,000 s e e d s of l i b e r t y in 100
R u s s i a n r e g i m e n t s . I d o n o t k n o w h o w m a n y of t h e officers and
m e n w e r e in t h e P e t r o g r a d f o r t r e s s l a s t w e e k , b u t w e d o k n o w
w h a t p a r t the a r m y took in the revolution." A m e s s a g e w a s then

(23) A p o r t i o n of B a b e u f s a d d r e s s is to be found in The Mystical

Body of Christ in the Modern World, p. 55. The full t e x t is contained
in Pabbe B a r r u e P s work, vol. IV, p p . 445 a n d foil.
24
f ) F o r t h e secret history of M a r x ' s C o m m u n i s m , cf. Les Origines
Secretes du Bolchevismc by Sallusle, p p . 1-100.
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OK 1917 Mi

read from Mr. Jacob Schiff regretting his inability to be present

to celebrate " the actual reward of what we had hoped and striven
for these long years." Jacob Schiff had arranged a loan to help
Japan to fight Russia in 1904-1905. According to the Jewish
Communal Register (New York), "He [Jacob Schiff| lin.mced
the enemies of autocratic Russia from the monev market of the
25
United States."* *
(b) THE JEWISH BUND AND THE
BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION.'
For a good many years before the Russo-Japanese War of
1904-1905, the Jewish Nation had been actively engaged in pre
paring a Communist Revolution in Russia. The Jewish writer,
Dr. A. S. Rappoport wrote in his book, Pioneers of the Russian
Revolution (pp. 228, 250-252): " To a greater degree than the
Poles, the Letts or the Finns, or, indeed, any other ethnic group
in the vast empire of the Romanovs, they [the JewsJ have been
the artisans of the Revolution of 1917. . . . There was no political
organization in the vast Empire that was not influenced by Jews
or directed by them. The Social Democratic, the Socialist Revo
lutionary Parties, the Polish Socialist Party, all counted Jews
among their leaders. . . . The heroism of the members of the
'Bund' or Genefal Union of Jewish Workingmen, founded i,i
1897, served as a model to the fighters for freedom, the pioneers
of the Russian Revolution. The Bund was a political and econo
mic association of the Jewish proletariat, at first averse to all
national distinctions, but gradually impregnated with Jewish na
tional sentiment. It made active propaganda in Yiddish, publish
ed numerous pamphlets and such organs as The Jewish Working-
man, The Voice of the Workingman. . . . The Jewish intelli
gentzia assimilated itself with the Russian intelligentzia during the
seventies, just as the Jewish proletariat was destined to make
common cause with the Russian proletariat later on. . . . I have
already pointed out that there are two proletariats, the manual
and the intellectual. . . . Many members of the Bund belonged
to the intellectual proletariat. . , . The members of the Cundists
arrested, imprisoned and deported amounted to 1,000 during the
years 1897-1900, and 2,180, between 1901 and 1903. Altogether,
from March, 1903, to November, 1904, 384 politicals passed through
the prison of Alexandrovskane. The following is the percentage
of these prisoners according to nationality: 53.9 per cent Jews,
26.4 per cent Russians, as for the women, 64.3 per cent
were Jewesses. Plehve maintained that 80 per cent of the
5 26
revolutionaries in Russia were Jews.' * *
(25) 1917 Edition.
W Op. cit., pp. 228, 250-252.
 314 THK MYSTfCAL BODY OP CHRIST

Rappoport's hook was published in 1918. Certainly there is not

anything in the book to make one conclude that "among the
fiercest opponents of Bolshevism was the General League of Jew
ish Workers, called ihe Bund," as we read in the pamphlet.
Bolshevism is not Jewish, published by the W'ohum Press (Lon
don). On the contrary, according to Rappoport, the Bund prac
tically prepared the Revolution of 1917. On page 5, Rappoport
says that he sees the period of terror coming in Russia, but that
it is only natural that it should come, however much to be de
plored. Perhaps the " Reign of Terror " has been so savage and
of such long duration that the Jewish Board of Deputies behind
the Wo burn Press docs not like the Jewish direction of Bolshev
ism to be known.
Another source of information about the Bund which does not
seem to have been utilized so far in the history of the Bolshevik
Revolution will now be called upon. This is the book, The Polish
27
Jew, by Beatrice BaskervillcJ > Written in 1906, long before the
events which we have witnessed since 1917, it yet foreshadows them
so accurately that it is difficult to believe it was written so far
ahead. The book, as the author tells us in the Preface, was the
result of eight years residence in Russian Poland. " During this
time,'' she says, "J have witnessed the growth of that revival which
has now spread throughout most of the settlements and all the
large Ghcttoes, and which has engendered hostility to the Gentile
and revolution against the powers that be." it is regrettable that
only a few passages can be quoted, but they will be sufficient to
show that there must have been a powerful organization and
strong financial resources behind the Bund.
"Here under the northern skies/' writes Miss Baskerville,
" the children of Israel play a role which cannot but in
terest the Knglish-speaking race that has seen enough of the
Jewish emigrant to fear that his presence, hitherto but a trouble-
some question, may shortly assume all the proportions of a pro
blem. . . . He [the Anglo-Saxonj reads with horror of Jewish
massacres and of Jewish persecution Has he had an oppor
tunity of observing the methods of the Polish Jews who, living
freely among a nation in the proportion of otic in seven, have
attained an influence in the proportion of seven to one? Has he
seen the other side of the medal and counted the cases in which
the Semite lakes advantage of the Sclav, and the Jew rules the
Russian? . . . . Can he imagine the capital of Poland, the most
civilized city in Russia . . . where every third man is a J ew, where
t

the trade and commerce are in the hands of Jews and where
Jewish organizations have openly declared their intention of con
verting the Imperial Army to the tenets of Socialism and of gain

's?) Published by Chapman and Hall, Ltd., in 190G.

 THE B O L S H E V I K R E V O L U T I O N O F 1917 315

i n g t h e g r e a t e s t a m o u n t of p o l i t i c a l influence w h e n t h e crisis of
c r i s e s , t h e fall of a b s o l u t i s m , s h a l l t h r o w t h e E m p i r e i n t o c h a o s ?
A n d y e t t h e s e t h i n g s a r e f a c t s , a n d , w h a t is of m o r e i m p o r t a n c e
t o t h e A n g l o - S a x o n p e o p l e s , t h e s e f a c t s m a y . t h o u g h in a m o d i
fied f o r m , s p r i n g u p a m o n g s t t h e m . . . .
" T h e B u n d c a m e t o P o l a n d f r o m L i t h u a n i a in t h e y e a r 1900.
T h e soil w a s w e l l p r e p a r e d t o r e c e i v e it, for s i g n s of a p o l i t i c a l
revival, e n g e n d e r e d by the desire to assert J e w i s h nationalism,
had a l r e a d y m a d e their a p p e a r a n c e . Its p r o g r a m m e includes the
o v e r t h r o w of T s a r d o m a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a d e m o c r a t i c gov
e r n m e n t , t h e c o n v o c a t i o n of a n a t i o n a l a s s e m b l y b a s e d u p o n uni
v e r s a l , d i r e c t a n d s e c r e t v o t i n g : a m n e s t y for all p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s
t h e a b o l i t i o n of c a p i t a l p u n i s h m e n t " , t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of t h e
land, etc., etc. So f a r t h i s p r o g r a m m e is i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a i
of a n o t h e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a r t y , t h e Social D e m o c r a t i c L e a g u e .
B u t t h e r e is a c l a u s e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e J e w i s h q u e s t i o n . . . . I n c i
dentally, too, the Bund tends to d r a w the Jewish proletariat away
f r o m t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s of J u d a e a ; a m a n w h o b e l i e v e s in t h e p r e
c e p t s of m o d e r n S o c i a l i s m c a n s c a r c e l y r e t a i n all h i s r e s p e c t for
T a l m u d i c and Rabbinistic lore. B u t at the same time the B u n d
d o e s n o t l a u g h a t Y i d d i s h , f a r f r o m it. . . . T h e B u n d i n s i s t s :
' W h e n a u t o c r a c y falls w e s h a l l h a v e a v a s t a m o u n t of p o l i t i c a l
i n f l u e n c e . T h e J e w w i l l n o l o n g e r be t h e P a r i a h of s o c i e t y : he
will b e a b l e t o a s s e r t h i s o w n i n d i v i d u a l i t y . K e e p t o y o u r Yid
dish ' T h e i m m e d i a t e g o a l of t h e B u n d i s t is t h e o v e r t h r o w
of T s a r d o m . H e employs t w o general means t o w a r d s that end
s t r i k e s a n d t h e c o n v e r s i o n of t h e T s a r ' s m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l
f o r c e s t o t h e t e n e t s of S o c i a l i s m . . . .
" G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e B u n d is confined t o
t h e y o u n g g e n e r a t i o n of t h e J e w i s h p r o l e t a r i a t . . . .* . T h e
p a r e n t s . . . . do not u n d e r s t a n d the revival which has manifested
itself s o c o n s p i c u o u s l y d u r i n g t h e p a s t five y e a r s . T h e c h i l d r e n
r e t o r t t h a t t h e i r f a t h e r s w e r e y o u n g in d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , a n d t h a t
t h e w a v e of r e v o l u t i o n t h a t is s w e e p i n g o v e r R u s s i a is t h e only
h o p e f o r t h e civil e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e J e w s . . . . T h e w e a k p o i n t
a b o u t all t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y u n d e r t a k i n g s in R u s s i a is t h e a t t i t u d e
of t h e m i l i t a r y , w h o n o t o n l y r e f u s e t o fight for t h e p e o p l e , b u t ,
in s p i t e of all e f f o r t s t o o r g a n i z e m u t i n i e s , s h o w a c o n s i d e r a b l e
a m o u n t of r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r officers. . . . T h e B u n d i s t s a r e h o p e
ful of c u r i n g t h i s t r a i t . . . b y o r g a n i z i n g a s m a n y s m a l l m u t i n i e s
28
as possible.* ^ W h e t h e r t h e y will s u c c e e d in d o i n g s o r e m a i n s
to be s e e n , a n d a s t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a l l o w a t e r m of five to s e v e n
y e a r s b e f o r e e x p e c t i n g a n y g r e a t r e s u l t s , t h e w o r l d will p r o b a b l y
<2S) The recent m u t i n y in the P r e o b r a j i e n s k i regiment was organized
by the Jews, who served as b a n d s m e n . T h e regimental bands in the
Russian A r m y are largely composed of Jews (note in The Polish Jew.
p. 1GS).
316 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

wait a good deal longer before the a v e r a g e Russian soldier g r o w s

c a r e f u l a b o u t a n y t h i n g w h e n d r u n k o r fails t o r e p e n t of h i s m i s
d e e d s w h e n s o b e r . . . . S h o u l d t h e i r officers d e c i d e t o c a s t in
( h e i r lot w i t h t h e p e o p l e a g a i n s t a u t o c r a c y , t h e r e is l i t t l e d o u b t
t h a t Ihc s o l d i e r s w o u l d o b e y t h e m . Hut t h i s is n o t w h a t t h e
B u n d a i m s at : i h c B u n d w a n t s to s t i r u p s t r i f e b e t w e e n officer a n d
p r i v a t e , a n d h a s o r g a n i z e d a s y s t e m of p r o p a g a n d a a m o n g s t t h e
T s a r ' s m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l forces w i t h t h i s e n d in v i e w .
" P r o p a g a n d a is c a r r i e d on, ( 1 ) b y J e w i s h f a c t o r s w h o o b t a i n
e n t r a n c e i n t o all t h e g a r r i s o n s a n d f o r t r e s s e s , ( 2 ) b y J e w s s e r v
i n g in t h e a r m y o r n a v y . . . . F a c t o r s h a v e as m u c h a c c e s s t o
t h e sailors as to the soldiers. F r o m t i m e to t i m e t h e f a c t o r can
d i s t r i b u t e leaflets calling upon t h e m n o t to shoot their b r e t h r e n
b u t t h e i r officers. T h e r e is a g r e a t a m o u n t of r i s k in s u c h p r o p a
g a n d a for t h e R u s s i a n s o l d i e r o r s a i l o r is v e r y a n t i - S e m i t i c , a n d
often denounces the a g i t a t o r or a r r e s t s him. . . . T h e J e w i s h
s o l d i e r h a s a f a r b e t t e r c h a n c e of s u c c e s s . . . . T h e s o l d i e r w i l l
l i s t e n t o a c o m r a d e b e t t e r t h a n t o a f a c t o r . O f t e n h e will a g r e e
t h a t a s t h e m a n is a J e w h e c a n n o t b e g i v i n g h i m g o o d a d v i c e :
b u t t h o u g h a J e w h e is a c o m r a d e , a n d t h e r e f o r e d e s e r v i n g of
s o m e s o r t of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . . . . B u t t h e B u n d is n o t c o n t e n t
w i t h p e r s u a d i n g t h e s o l d i e r t o f i g h t f o r t h e p r o l e t a r i a t : it h a s
t a u g h t the p r o l e t a r i a t to light a g a i n s t t h e soldier so l o n g as he
r e f u s e s t o l i s t e n t o i t s call a n d r i s e a g a i n s t a u t o c r a c y .
" T h e l e a d e r s of t h e m o v e m e n t s o o n r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l
c o w a r d i c e which c h a r a c t e r i z e s the Polish J e w w a s a g r e a t d r a w
back. . . . So t h e y promptl}" o r g a n i z e d w h a t t h e y called ' f i g h t i n g
g r o u p s , ' c o n s i s t i n g of a r m e d m e n . . . . T h i s s y s t e m a t i c a r m i n g
w a s first i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e B u n d , a n d u p o n t h e B u n d t h e r e s p o n
sibility of placing firearms in the hands of the pro
letariat rests. . . . I t s a d h e r e n t s a r c s u p p l i e d w i t h r e v o l v e r s of
the B r o w n i n g >ystcm and t a u g h t h o w to use them. Those who
c a n afford t o p a y a r e s u p p o s e d t o d o s o , b u t t h e p o o r e r o n e s r e
ceive t h e m for n o t h i n g N e a r l y all t h e r e v o l v e r s in t h e
p o s s e s s i o n of t h e B u n d . . . w e r e b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c o u n t r y w i t h
o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e of t h e c u s t o m s a u t h o r i t i e s
" A m o n g t h e r e s o l u t i o n s of a C o n g r e s s of B u n d i s t s a r e t h e fol
l o w i n g : G r o u p s of n o n - J e w i s h w o r k m e n m u s t be f o r m e d t o a g i
t a t e a m o n g t h e n o n - J e w i s h p r o l e t a r i a t in o r d e r t o g a i n t h e g r e a t
e s t a m o u n t of p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e b y t h e t i m e a u t o c r a c y is a b o l i s h e d
, . . General Strikes . . . a r c of p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e
Terror m u s t be a p p l i e d w h e n n e c e s s a r y . It is a l s o n e c e s s a r y t h a t
public men who are d a n g e r o u s to the cause be removed. In time
of p u b l i c d i s t u r b a n c e s G o v e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g s m u s t be s t o r m e d b v
the populace "<29>
(29) Op. cit., p p . 4, 5, 168, 169, 170, 201, 202.
I n his excellent book, Le Tlayri- Gommunisle aV Insurrection- armie
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 317

Miss Baskerville treats more briefly of the other revolutionary

parties. Of the Social Democratic League or Party, to which the
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks belonged, she says: " The Social De
mocratic League of [Russian] Poland was founded by Rosa
Luxembourg, a Jewess, and Karski, in 1893. Its programme is
the same as that of the Bund except for the clause treating of
Jewish nationalism. A large proportion of the members of the
party are Jews. . . . Of 75 names fof individuals arrested in a
police raid] 66 were indisputably Jewish and the rest either doubt
ful or non-Jewish. The Social Democrats, being anti-national,
appeal to many of the Jewish Intelligentzia who have left the tra
ditions of the Hebrew culture far behind them. . . . These men
and women have generally been educated in the Russian Gymn
asia, where the tendency of the teaching is non-national. The
Social Democrats seem to live in a-world mapped out bv Marx
30
and Engels."< >
The author then goes on to point out that " the rank and file
of these parties quarrel among themselves and with the followers
of the National Democratic Party." If we take account of the
Nationalism of the Jews of the Bund, and of the Internationalism
of the Jews of the Social Democratic Party, we have at least a
partial explanation of some of the liquidations which took place
later on when the Bolsheviks triumphed.

fc) T H E DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE BOLSHEVIKS

AND THE MENSHEVIKS.
What was the difference between Bolshevik and Menshevik
members of the Social Democratic Party? A carefully-written

(The Communist Plan for Armed Insurrection), pp. 42, 42, M. Leon
de Poncins confirms what we have seen described long before in The
Polish Jfiw. M. de Poncins quotes documents taken from. Communist
sources containing detailed instructions for the preparation of revolu
tion, and then adds: "An excellent illustration of these tactics is to
he found in the work of the Bolsheviks in the Russian army in the
different .phases of the revolution. From 1902 on, the Bolsheviks kept
lip their secret revolutionary agitation in the Russian army. At the
time of the 1905 revolution this agitation had reached a point of
development such that in a number of garrisons the Bolsheviks -were
able to act upon the #reat body of the troops. After the defeat of the
1905 revolutions when the Bolsheviks were again forced to have recourse
to secret action, in order to prepare the masses for new l'evolutionary
combats, the propaganda in the army took on a still more secret char
acter. This lasted down to the revolution of B'ebruary, 1917. Immedi
ately after the overthrow of the Czarisfc Government, the Bolsheviks
began to carry on a vast movement of corruption amongst the troops-
Secret methods gave place to legalized decomposition by means of Com
munist cells, soldiers' committees, assemblies of *uldh!vs' di'Walrs
newspapers for soldiers, etc." ^
Op. cit., p. 208.
318 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a r t i c l e in t h e L o n d o n Free Press of O c t o b e r , 1938, e x a m i n e d t h e

q u e s t i o n t h o r o u g h l y . I t s e e m s t h a t a t a C o n g r e s s of t h e R u s s i a n
Social D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y h e l d in L o n d o n in o n e of t h e e a r l y y e a r s
of t h e c e n t u r y , a d i s c u s s i o n a r o s e o v e r t h e w o r d i n g of P a r a g r a p h
1 of t h e P a r t y R u l e s . L e n i n p r o p o s e d t h a t this should r e a d :
" A n y o n e is a m e m b e r of t h e P a r t y w h o p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e o r g a n
i z a t i o n of t h e P a r t y / ' Martoff introduced a counter-proposal
w h i c h r a n : " A n y o n e w o r k i n g u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e P a r t y
is a m e m b e r of t h e P a r t y . " Jn t h e v o t i n g w h i c h f o l l o w e d , L e n i n ' s
p r o p o s a l r e c e i v e d a f e w m o r e v o t e s t h a n t h a t of M a r t o f f . From
t h a t d a y f o r w a r d , his s u p p o r t e r s called t h e m s e l v e s M a j o r i t a r i a n s
( B o l s h e v i k s ) w h i l e t h o s e of M a r t o f f s t y l e d t h e m s e l v e s M i n o r i -
l a r i a n s ( M e n s h e v i k s ) . T h e w r i t e r i n t h e Free Press t h e n c o n
t i n u e s : " T h u s the difference b e t w e e n a M c n s h e v i k and a Bolshe
v i k is a m e r e m a t t e r of h a i r - s p l i t t i n g o v e r t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of
P a r t y m e m b e r s h i p , a n d t h e t w o p a r t i e s , i n all t h e e s s e n t i a l s of
revolutionary propaganda, were inspired by the same aims." We
a r e t h e r e f o r e a g a i n in a p o s i t i o n t o c a s t g r a v e d o u b t s o n a n a s s e r
t i o n in t h e p a m p h l e t , Bolshevism is not Jewish, n a m e l y , t h a t the
B u n d w a s a m o n g s t t h e fiercest o p p o n e n t s of B o l s h e v i s m . The
B u n d , of c o u r s e , j o i n e d t h e M e n s h e v i k s , f o r M a r t o f f ' s p r o p o s a l
s u i t e d t h e m p e r f e c t l y , w h e r e a s L e n i n ' s p r o p o s a l s u i t e d t h e J e w s of
31
the National D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y better,* * After the K e r e n s k y revo
l u t i o n , t h e N a t i o n a l i s m of t h e B u n d o p p o s e d t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m
31
< > I t is well to bear in m i n d w h a t R o b e r t W i l t o n wrote in Les
Verniers Jours des Romanof ( p p . 136-138) : " I t is in the C e n t r a l Com
m i t t e e of the Bolshevik P a r t y t h a t the G o v e r n m e n t a l power resides. It-
was composed as follows in 19189 Jews a n d 3 Russians. The other
R u s s i a n , S o c i a l i s t P a r t i e s are s i m i l a r in composition. T h e i r C e n t r a l
C o m m i t t e e s a r e m a d e u p as follows: S.D. Mensheviks, 11 members, all
J e w s . . . S.R. ( R i g h t W i n g ) , 15 members, of whom 13 a r e Jews a n d
2 a r e Russians. . . . These p a r t i e s , in a p p e a r a n c e opposed t o the Bol
sheviks, p l a y the Bolsheviks' game on the sly, more or less*; by pre
v e n t i n g the R u s s i a n s from p u l l i n g themselves together. O u t of 61 in
d i v i d u a l s a t the head of these p a r t i e s , there are 6 Russians a n d 55 Jews.
N o m a t t e r w h a t m a y be the n a m e a d o p t e d , a r e v o l u t i o n a r v Government
7
will be J e w i s h / Cf. The Rulers of Russia, p. 9.
To this m u s t he added the p r o p h e t i c words of a G o v e r n m e n t official
in W a r s a w to Miss Baskerville, which a r e to be found on p . 334 cf
}
her hook, The J olish Jew, published in 1906: " T h e G o v e r n m e n t , " said
t h i s official, " will not give the Jews civil r i g h t s if they can help it, be
cause they are a f r a i d . T h e Jews' are everywhere a n d d o i n g everything.
The C a d e t Club in St. P e t e r s b u r g is full of thorn. . . . The .Russian
members are indifferent or occupied elsewhere. When the J e w s do get
t h e i r d i s a b i l i t i e s removed . . . they will rule the E m p i r e officially.
De facto, they a r e the masters a t the p r e s e n t moment. T h e y o u n g men
of the civil service who ought Lo be energetic a n d save the situation,
fir a letting things slip through (heir fingers All ihey t h i n k about is
amusement and g e t t i n g their s a l a r i e s raised. . . . When the J e w effects
an e n t r a n c e i n t o their midst, he will swoop them off the b o a r d like so
many pieces of p a p e r . "
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 319

of the Bolsheviks, but in the summer of 1917, large numbers of

intellectuals and of the proletariat left the Bund and joined the
32)
Bolsheviks.< Directions for the change over may have been
given by the Central Jewish organization in Switzerland, about
which something was learned in 1905, on the occasion <>f the
revolutionary troubles at Odessa.
(d) THE CENTRAL JEWISH ORGANIZATION .AND
THE REVOLUTION AT ODESSA IN
NOVEMBER, 1905.
The Correspondent of The Times at Odessa lifts the veil for
a moment and reveals the existence of this centre of direction.
In the issue of November 22, 1905, under the heading of The.
Reign of Terror at Odessa, we read: " It must be understood that
all through September, meetings of a national or of a
revolutionary character were being held in the local Univer.sit-
ies . . . . The various organizations, Radical and Ultra-Radical,
were preparing for a crucial moment. Amongst the other Social
istic fraternities, the Central Jewish Organization located in Swit
zerland, sent emissaries from its branches in Warsaw and Poland
to Odessa. . . . On Sunday, Oct. 29, . . . many excited boys and
girls, other than students at the Universities, began to make barri
cades across certain of the main streets. Excited Jewish factory
girls . . . donned red blouses and ribbons, and openly Haunted
them in the faces of the Cossack and Dragoon patrols. . . . Even
yet the situation would not have been dangerous, if the cmi.ssaries
from Warsaw had not brought an arsenal with them. Many of
these . . . . youthful demonstrators were flourishing revolvers.
Shots were fired. . . . Half a dozen gendarmes were deliberately
assassinated at their stations at the street corners. . . . It was at
this very moment that the Tsar's Great Manifesto (granting the
Constitution] arrived . . . .
"On Tuesday, October 31 the knots of excited people
at the street corners grew into processions that surged up and
down the main thoroughfares. It was immediately noticeable that
for the main part the demonstrators were students and Jews.
(32) * From the history of the working-class movement it is known
that the Bundists left the Social-Democratic Party in 1903; when the
majority of the Party of the working-class refused to accept their
demand to be recognized as the 'sole' representatives of the Jewish
proletariat. This exit from the Party was a manifestation of .separa
tion. . . . But, in fact, the Jewish workers have entered and continue
to enter the Party everywhere in spile of the Bund . . . When the Bund
in 1906 again returned to the Party, the Party put forward the con
dition of no separatism, i.e., unity in all localities of all the Marxist
workers of whatever nationality. But this condition was not fulfilled
by the Bundists" {Lenin on ihe Jari*h Question, p. 19. International
Publishers, New York).
 320 TINS M Y S T I C A L BODY O F CHRIST

A large p e r c e n t a g e w e r e girls. F o r s o m e time the processions

w e r e o r d e r l y e n o u g h . A r e d flag o r t w o o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p e a r e d
h u t in t h e g e n e r a l e n t h u s i a s m w e r e r e a d i l y d i s c o u n t e d . T h e m a i n
g a t h e r i n g s d r i f t e d to t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l .
Kar*>u K a u l b a r s . . . . c a l l e d for t h r e e c h e e r s for t h e C o n s t i t u
tion.
" AI'ter l e a v i n g t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e M i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r , t h e
p r o c e s s i o n i s t s , w h o w e r e for the m o s t p a r t excited J e w s , un-
hlushingly exhibited Republican emblems. Red ilags w e r e un
furled at t h e b e a d of t h e p r o c e s s i o n . W h e r e f o u n d , t h e R u s s i a n
N a t i o n a l K m b l c m w a s d i s h o n o u r e d b y h a v i n g all c o l o u r , e x c e p t
t h e s t r i p of r e d , l o r n from it. T h e c r o w d , n o w a b s o l u t e l y b e s i d e
itself, s u r g e d d o w n t o t h e C i t y Mall. T h e y t o r e t h e n a t i o n a l m o t t o
d o w n from t h e p o r t i c o , m u t i l a t e d t h e K m p c r o r ' s p o r t r a i t in t h e
s e s s i o n - r o o m , a n d h y s t e r i c a l l y d e c l a r e d t h e r e i g n i n g d y n a s t y to
be a b o l i s h e d a n d a S o u t h R u s s i a n R e p u b l i c e s t a b l i s h e d . In the
street the m o r e t a r d y Russian patriotic processions c a r r y i n g their
1
o w n p a r t i c u l a r ' i k o n s a n d t h e p o r t r a i t s of t h e T s a r a n d T s a r -
itsa w e r e m e t by the n o w a c k n o w l e d g e d revolutionists. T h e lat
t e r tore the e m b l e m s from the p a t r i o t s ' h a n d s , g r o s s l y insulted
t h e m , and derided the carriers. . . .
" A s has been pointed out above, the Central Jewish Organiza
t i o n , a c t i n g in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h o t h e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o m m i t t e e s ,
h a d p r o v i d e d t h e i m p l e m e n t s b y w h i c h it w a s h o p e d t h a t a n a r c h y
m i g h t be e s t a b l i s h e d . Already the J e w i s h population had been
w r o u g h t u p t o a s t a t e of f r e n z y o w i n g t o t h e M a n i f e s t o a n d t h e
e v e n t s w h i c h h a d f o l l o w e d u p o n its i s s u e . . , . B o m b s w e r e d r o p
p e d f r o m b a l c o n i e s , r e v o l v e r s fired f r o m b e h i n d c o u n t e r s a n d s h u t
t e r s . . . . O n T u e s d a y n i g h t t h e m a s s a c r e s b e g a n in r e a l e a r n e s t .
. . . T h e J e w s , o r g a n i z e d in g a n g s , h a d t h e u p p e r h a n d a t n i g h t ,
t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o o k t h e i r p o u n d of i l e s h b y d a y . . . . A n d s o t h e
s l a u g h t e r of C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n c o n t i n u e d
until Baron Kaulbars's time limit had expired. . . . T h e Military
G o v e r n o r m a r c h e d his b a t t a l i o n s into t h e s t r e e t s and o r d e r w a s
almost instantaneously restored.
" O d e s s a is a t o w n of a b o u t 4*30,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , of w h i c h j u s t
o v e r a t h i r d a r e J e w s . F o r t h e t h r e e clays . . . . s o m e 415,000 of
the populace remained behind barred doors. A b o u t 15,000 e n
g a g e d in t h e latte acharnee | fierce s t r u g g l e ] w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t
t h e J e w i s h c e m e t e r y r e c e i v e d o v e r 400 b o d i e s a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n
a b o u t 600. T h e r e a r e s o m e t h i n g o v e r 4,000 a d m i s s i o n s t o t h e
public h o s p i t a l s , m o r e o r less equally divided. . . . T h e r e a r e at
l e a s t 40,000 r e n d e r e d h o m e l e s s . . . . of w h o m t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y
are Jews."
The Times, of X o v e m b e r 30, c o n t i n u e s t h e n a r r a t i v e u n d e r t h e
h e a d i n g , The Situation at Odessa. " I t is n o w d e f i n i t e l y k n o w n . "
w r i t e s the Special C o r r e s p o n d e n t , " a n d indeed a d m i t t e d by the
 TIIK HOLSHKVIK INVOLUTION O F 1917 321

J e w i s h o r g a n i z a t i o n s , that so far b a c k as F a s t e r last the J e w s

b e g a n s e c r e t l y to a r m . T h e r e were three organizations the
[kind, the Xiouisis. and the s t u d e n t s and the J e w i s h w o r k m e n , the
l a t t e r o r g a n i z e d b\ t w o well k n o w n R u s s i a n p r o f e s s o r s from t h e
local u n i \ e r s i t y . T h e o r g a n i z a lion s u p p l i e d o v e r -1.000 p e r s o n s
w i t h rev< 'I \cr< a n d a m m u n i I ion. . . . T h e a RME< I J e w s b r e d
wildly . . . . into ihe s t r e e t s from balconies and housetops, then,
h a v i n g s t u n g t h e canaille, i n t o w h i l e - h o t fury, t h r e w a w a y t h e i r
a r m s a n d hid t h e m s e l v e s , w h i l e t h e frenzied R u s s i a n m o b rolled
on i n t o i h e s u b u r b s a n d fl u n g i isei f u p o n (he u n a r m e d J e w i s h
w o r k m e n and shopkeepers/'
T h e c o l u m n s of The Times at m a t period a r e full of a c c o u n t s
of p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e i r c a t m e m of t h e J e w s in R u s s i a . In t h e
s p e e c h e s d e l i v e r e d at t h e s e m e e t i n g s , i h e r e is no m e n t i o n of the
C e n t r a l J e w i s h O r g a n i z a t i o n e n g a g e d in t r a i n i n g a n d e q u i p p i n g
;
t h e B u n d , & c , f<u" i h e f u t u r e Socialist R e v o l u t i o n . I o r e x a m p l e ,
t h e i s s u e of D e c e m b e r 5, 1905, c o n t a i n s an a c c o u n t of t h e great,
d a y of m o u r n i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s for t h e v i c t i m s of
t h e m a s s a c r e s in R u s s i a . In N e w Y o r k , t h e r e w a s the g r e a t e s t d e
m o n s t r a t i o n in the h i s t o r y of t h e J e w s in A m e r i c a . "Chanting*
f u n e r a l h y m n s , w h i l e SO b a n d s p l a y e d d i r g e s , 125,000 J e w s m a r c h
ed t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s of t h e L o w e r F a s t Side a n d t h e n a l o n g
B r o a d w a y to I nion S q u a r e , w h e r e ;I m a s s m e e t i n g w a s held. '
T h u s is a l e g e n d c r e a t e d a n d d u s t t h r o w n in t h e e v e s of t h e public.

MM IX T H K n O l ' l v O F T R i U?\f I ' M .

O n t h e 1st J LILY, 1922, t h e C z e c h d e p u u , AI a/.anac, m a d e .

l o n g s p e e c h in the C z e c h P a r l i a m e n t , in w h i c h a m o n g s t o t h e '
things he s a i d :
" H o n o u r a b l e M e m b e r s of P a r l i a m e n t ! W h e n y o u read over
at y o u r l e i s u r e w h a t J a m a b o u t to s a y to y o u .1 b e g of y o u n o :
to w a s t e a n y t i m e on t h e q u e s t i o n of w h a t p e o p l e will e m e r g e
t r i u m p h a n t f r o m t h e C o m m u n i s t c h a o s . T h a t is o n e of t h e p o i n t s
t h a t is m o s t e v i d e n t in p r e s e n t clay p o l i t i c a l life, b u t w o n d e r f u l
to r e l a t e , it is n e v e r m e n t i o n e d a m o n g s t u s . T o s p e a k of t h e
C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n a n d of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d C a t h o l i c c l e r g y
as t h e m o s t o b s c u r a n t i s t e l e m e n t s in t h e r e a l m of o b s c u r a n t i s m is
c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g s t us a s a s i g n of g o o d e d u c a t i o n , a n d l a n g u a g e
of t h i s k i n d will g e t a m a n a n y p o s t , e s p e c i a l l y in o u r d i p l o m a c y ,
b u t to m e n t i o n J e w s a t all is to b r a n d o n e s e l f as a r e a c t i o n a r y
W e l l , w h e t h e r 1 a m b r a n d e d a s a r e a c t i o n a r y , or n o i . it seem.-
to m e t h a t to s p e a k of t h e G e n o a C o n f e r e n c e w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g
J e w s , t o c a r r y on n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h S o v i e t R u s s i a , w h i l e m a k i n g
a b s t r a c t i o n of t h e p l a n s of t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e . . . is to g i v e a
c l e a r p r o o f of t h e w a y t h e P r e s s h a s t r a i n e d and f o r m e d o u r
m i n d s all t h e s e y e a r s .
Z
322 Till-; M Y S T I C A L B O D Y O F CHRIST

" A l l o w m e to q u o t e for y o u , G e n t l e m e n , in t h i s c o n n e x i o n ,
s o m e t h i n g e m a n a t i n g from the P o w e r s t h a t direct W o r l d Poli
ties, t h o u g h t h e y p r e t e n d t h e y d o n o t . Of t h e s e P o w e r s w e shall
l e a r n n o t h i n g e i t h e r in t h e official r e p o r t s o r in t h e l e n g t h y de
b a t e ^ on t h e G e n o a C o n f e r e n c e . 1 a m g o i n g to r e a d f o r y o u a
c i r c u l a r d e s t i n e d for t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e C o m m i t t e e s of
[some | Jewish International Association. It w a s f o u n d in the
p o c k e t of a n i n d i v i d u a l n a m e d / u n d e r , o n t h e n i g h t of 9 t h D e c e m
b e r , 1020, a f t e r a s k i r m i s h w i t h t h e B o l s h e v i k t r o o p s o n t h e
Ksthonian frontier. Z u n d c r w a s t h e officer in c o m m a n d of t h e
11th R e g i m e n t of S h a r p s h o o t e r s . T h e c i r c u l a r is d r a w n u p in
H e b r e w . H e r e is w h a t it s a y s :
" ' S o n s of I s r a e l ! T h e h o u r of v i c t o r y is a t h a n d . W e a r e
o n t h e e v e of b e c o m i n g m a s t e r s of t h e w o r l d . W h a t s e e m e d t o
be m e r e l y a d r e a m is on t h e p o i n t of b e i n g r e a l i z e d . Formerly
w e a k a n d f e e b l e w e can n o w p r o u d l y lift u p o u r h e a d s , t h a n k s
t o t h e d i s o r d e r a n d c o n f u s i o n of t h e w o r l d . By clever propa
g a n d a w e h a v e h e l d u p to c r i t i c i s m a n d r i d i c u l e t h e a u t h o r i t y a n d
p r a c t i c e of a r e l i g i o n w h i c h is f o r e i g n t o u s . W e h a v e p l u n d e r e d
t h e s a n c t u a r i e s of t h a t f o r e i g n c u l t , a n d w c h a v e s h a k e n t h e hold
of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e u p o n n a t i o n s , f i n d i n g a m o n g s t t h e m
m o r e h e l p e r s t h a n w e n e e d e d in o u r t a s k . W e h a v e s u c c e e d e d in
b r i n g i n g the R u s s i a n N a t i o n u n d e r J e w i s h s w a y and w e h a v e com
p e l l e d it, a t l a s t , t o fall on i t s k n e e s b e f o r e u s . R u s s i a , m o r t a l l y
w o u n d e d , is n o w a t o u r m e r c y .
4
" T h e f e a r of t h e d a n g e r in w h i c h w c s t a n d will n o t allow
u s e i t h e r t o e x e r c i s e c o m p a s s i o n o r t o feel m e r c y . A t l a s t , it
h a s b e e n g i v e n t o u s t o b e h o l d t h e t e a r s of t h e R u s s i a n p e o p l e .
By t a k i n g a w a y from t h e m t h e i r w e a l t h and their gold, w e have
t u r n e d the Russians into w r e t c h e d slaves. But w e m u s t be prud
e n t a n d c i r c u m s p e c t . W e h a v e t o e l i m i n a t e all t h e b e s t e l e m e n t s
of R u s s i a n s o c i e t y , in o r d e r t h a t t h e e n s l a v e d R u s s i a n s m a y h a v e
n o l e a d e r s . T h u s w e shall f o r e s t a l l e v e r y p o s s i b i l i t y of r e s i s t i n g
our might. W a r s a n d civil s t r i f e will d e s t r o y all t h e t r e a s u r e s
of c u l t u r e c r e a t e d by t h e C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e s .
*' ' Be p r u d e n t , S o n s of 1 s r a e l , d o n o t con fide in t r e a c h e r o u s
a n d mysterious forces. B r o n s t e i n . R o s e n f e l d , S t e i n b e r g , Apfel-
b a u m a n d m a n y o t h e r f a i t h f u l s o n s of I s r a e l a r e in t h e r a n k s of
t h e C o m m i s s a r s a n d p l a y t h e l e a d i n g r o l e s , b u t do n o t l o s e y o u r
heads over the victory. Be p r u d e n t , f o r y o u can r e l y o n l y on
y o u r s e l v e s t o s a f e g u a r d y o u a n d d e f e n d y o u . S o n s of I s r a e l , close
u p y o u r r a n k s a n d c o m b a t for y o u r e t e r n a l i d e a l ! ' "
M r . M a z a n a c / s s p e e c h a p p e a r e d in X o . 375 of the R u s s i a n p a p e r ,
Movoe Vremia, e d i t e d at B e l g r a d e , o n J u l y 2 8 t h , 1922, u n d e r the
t i t l e . In the Czech Parliament. Lieutenant-General Netchvolodow
a d d s , in his b o o k , h'Empcrevr Nicolas 11 et les Juifs ( p . 2 4 3 ) t h a t
 THK BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 323

nobody has shaken the authority of the document quoted by Mr.

33)
Mazanae;.'
It is to be noted particularly that in the document quoted by
Mr. Ma^anac, Pr>m>iein (alias Trot>kyj is mentioned as "a faith
ful son of Israel." This docs not mean, of course, that Trotsky
was a n orthodox j e w adhering rigidly to the practices of the
Jewish religion, but that he was devoted to his own nation. ' We
find a confirmation ot this in The Story of "St. 25,'' by Sir Paul
Dukes, for years British Secret Service agent in Russia. The
author relates that after the S. R. Strikes, Trotsky made a speech
at the Putilov works, in which lie *aid that the Pctrograd Soviet
was planning to requisition two large Churches as offices and clubs
for the workmen. " At this point," writes Sir Paul/' a workman
4
rose and interrupted: Comrade Trotsky, instead of taking our
churches which are badly heated and unsuited to your require
ments, why do you not requisition your synagogue in Offizerskaya
Street, which would suit you better? ' This interruption was fol
lowed by deadly silence. Trotsky made no reply. The interrup
ter said afterwards: M was sure I should be seized and arrest
:,4)
ed. . . / "' It is evident that statements about Trotsky's in
difference to Jewish interests such a s are contained in the pam
phlet, Bolshevism /<? not Jewish, must not be taken at their face-
value.

(f) THK ALLTAXCE OF JEWISH 1CJXAXCE WITH

COMMUXISM.

It is unnecessary to treat of this alliance in detail. This has

already been done in masterly fashion in La Mgsterieuse Inter
nationale Juive, bv M. Leon de Ponciris, and in Mr. A . N. Field's
books, The Truth About the Slump and All These Things. "The
supreme Jewish ideal/' sums up M. de Poncins in his able work
(page 2 0 9 ) , "consists in the transformation of the world into a
Limited Liability Company. The capital of this company will be
the Earth and it will have for object the exploitation of the whole
human race. Israel, aided perhaps at the beginning by a few
figureheads, will supply the Council of Dictators to administer the
(33) The document road by Mr. Mazanac in the Czech Parliament is
similar in content to the handbill distributed amongst the Jews of
Budapest during the Judaeo-^Iasonic-Communist revolution of 1919. A
translation of the text as it is found in Dr. Hans Eisele's book, Bilder
am dew. Kommnnifitischen Ungam, published in 1920, by the publishing
firm " Tyrolia," of Innsbruck, is given in The Rulers of Russia, 3rd
edition, p. 52.
'3*1 Op. cit.. pp. .370-371.
The S. II. Strike was in March, 1919. Dukes sent his report on the
matter in question in April, 1919. The book embodying this extract
from his report was published recently.
 324 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y . T w o m e t h o d s a r c b e i n g e m p l o y e d t o
r e a c h t h i s e n d . T h e first is A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h h a s t h e i n c o n
v e n i e n c e of b e i n g r e l a t i v e l y s l o w . T h e s e c o n d , w h i c h is r a p i d ,
b r u t a l a n d d i c t a t o r i a l , is C o m m u n i s m . . . . P r o g r e s s d o e s n o t
c o n s i s t in r e p l a c i n g bourgeois Capitalism by proletarian C o m m u n
i s m . P r o g r e s s c o n s i s t s in s u b s t i t u t i n g for t h e a s y e t l i m i t e d C a p
i t a l i s m of K u r o p e arid A m e r i c a , u n d e r w h i c h t h e r e is still a c e r
t a i n d e g r e e of p o l i t i c a l l i b e r t y , W o r l d - C a p i t a l i s m w i t h d e s p o t i c
political p o w e r . "
A n e x c e l l e n t c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e a b o v e s u m m a r y is t o be
f o u n d in t h e a c c o u n t g i v e n by C o u n t d e S t . A u l a i r c , f o r m e r A m
b a s s a d o r of F r a n c e at M a d r i d a n d L o n d o n , o f a " l e c t u r e " b y a
J e w i s h b a n k e r of N e w Y o r k on t h e m i s s i o n of I s r a e l a m o n g s t t h e
nations. T h e " l e c t u r e " w a s " d e l i v e r e d " at a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
d i n n e r a t B u d a - P e s t h in 1919, o n l y a f e w d a y s a f t e r t h e c o l l a p s e
of t h e J u d a e o - B o l s h e v i s t d o m i n a t i o n o v e r C a t h o l i c H u n g a r y . "A
n u m b e r of J e w i s h r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s / ' w r i t e s t h e C o u n t , " w h o h a d
been expelled from H u n g a r y , w e r e there. . . . T h e y w o r e A m e r i
c a n u n i f o r m s . . . . 1 h a v e r e t a i n e d in m y m e m o r y t h e c o n v e r s a
t i o n of o n e of t h e s e a u g u r s w h o s e n e i g h b o u r at t a b l e T w a s . . . .
H e h a d b e c o m e d i r e c t o r of a g r e a t N e w Y o r k b a n k , o n e of t h o s e
w h i c h w e r e financing the Bolshevist Revolution. . . . A fellow-
g u e s t h a d a s k e d h i m h o w it w a s p o s s i b l e f o r high finance t o p r o
t e c t l o l s h e v i s m . . . . O u r friend, w h o w a s t h e n at t h e b e a d of a
m i s s i o n for f e e d i n g t h o s e w h o w e r e w i t h o u t b r e a d , s w i g g e d ofl a
b i g g l a s s of T o k a y , p a u s e d for a m o m e n t , t a k i n g a l o n g pull a t his
e n o r m o u s c i g a r which bad cost f u c golden trance, and then said:
' T h o s e w h o a r e a s t o n i s h e d at o u r a l l i a n c e w i t h the S o v i e t s forget-
t h a t t h e n a t i o n o f I s r a e l is t h e m o s t n a l i o n a l i s t o f all p e o p l e s .
. . . L i k e t h e p a p a c y , it is o e c u m e n i c a l a n d .spiritual. B u t i t s e y e s
a r e t u r n e d t o w a r d s the future r a t h e r than the past and its king
d o m is of t h i s w o r l d . . . . T o t h e c a l m a n d m o n o t o n o u s s o n g of
p r o s p e r i t y w e p r e f e r t h e p a s s i o n a t e v o i c e s , r a i s e d in t u r n , of a rise
a n d fall in m a r k e t v a l u e s . T h e r e is n o t h i n g like a r e v o l u t i o n to
e x c i t e t h e m , u n l e s s it is a w a r w h i c h is a l s o a r e v o l u t i o n . . . .
T h e h e a l t h of o u r G o l d e n Calf calls for t h e s i c k n e s s of c e r t a i n
n a t i o n s , t h o s e w h i c h a r e i n c a p a b l e o f d e v e l o p i n g t h e m s e l v e s bv
t h e i r o w n e f f o r t s . . . . T h e w h o l e e c o n o m i c life o f T u r k e v ["the
sick m a n ] w a s e n t r u s t e d t o u>. W e looked after him s o well, that
h e died of t h e t r e a t m e n t , at l e a s t ;\> far a> T u r k e y in K u r o p e w a s
c o n c e r n e d . . . . R u s s i a is n o w t h e s i c k m a n o f p o s t - w a r l i m e s ,
m u c h m o r e n u t r i t i v e t o us t h a n the O t t o m a n Kmpirc and much
l e s s a b l e t o d e f e n d itself. R u s s i a is o u r n e w feast. L w i l l soon
b e a c o r p s e a n d o u r o n l y t r o u b l e will be t o c a r v e it u p . . . . In
t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e n e w w o r l d w e g i v e p r o o f of o u r o r g a n i z a
t i o n for r e v o l u t i o n a n d for c o n s e r v a t i o n . O u r o r g a n i z a t i o n for
r e v o l u t i o n is e v i d e n c e d b y d e s t r u c t i v e f i o l s h c v i s m a n d f o r con-
 THK BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 325
siruxtion by the creation of the League of Nations which is also
our work, . . . Israel is the microcosm and the germ of the City
85
of the Future.' "< >
This "lecture" came back to my mind on learning that the
authenticity of the document quoted hricllv on page 27 of The
Rulers of Russia and at length on pages 88-91 of The Mystical
Body of Christ in the Modern World, had been questioned in the
United States. The document in question implicated the banking-
house of Kuhn, Loeb and Co., as well as certain directors of it,
in the work of financing the Bolshevik Revolution. It had been
widely published in France with its index number in the files of the
French General Staff" 76186 X<>. !M2-S K.2 II Tnmsmis
par IMStatmajor de l'armee, 2e Bureau." Jn La Documentation
Catholique of 6th March, 1920, it was preceded by fhe following
remarks: " The authenticity of this document is guaranteed to
us. With regard to the exactness of the information which it
contains, the American Official Services must assume responsi
bility."
Recently, the question has been splendidly dealt with in An
Answer lo Rather Covghlins Critics, by Father Coughlin\ Friends,
which is highly recommended to all who are inicrcMcd in the
question. A few additional remarks may. however, be of inter
est. The document in question, was communicaied to i h c Editor
of La Documentation Catholique by a diplomat then representing
a foreign government in Paris. This diplomat was afterwards
assassinated. Another point is that in the book. The Rrign of the
Riders, page 59, the following is given as ihc Naval Sec re i Si-rvii-e
Report on Paul Warburg, a member of Ktinh, Loeb and Com
pany, in December, 1918:
(35j These extracts are taken from Ceneea mr*ux fetter, the transla
tion of Count dc St. Aulaire's book, published by Sheed and Ward,
pp. 76-84.
A little-known historical instance of the collusion between Jewish
Finance and Jewish-guided revolutionaries may prove interesting. It
dates .from the first openly Communist revolution, that of Paris in 1871.
An account of it is to be found in Kdouard Dennichy'? hook, Les Roths
child, pp. viii, ix. He relates that one of the principal barricades
erected by the Communards in Paris was just near the corner of the
Rue; de Rfvoli, on which was situated the splendid mansion .of Baron
Alphonse d e Rothschild. It was formerly the residence of Talleyrand-
Perigord. The Rothschilds were certainly well known lo he wealthy
bourgeois, in fact, one would expect their .house to be I he first to he
burned, when the Marxian "proletariat" began tn move. Yet those
who were systematically setting fire to houses passed, with their petrol-
cans in their hands, in front of this fine mansion and the numerous
others which the Rothschilds had elsewhere in the Avenue ilarigny, flue
Lafitte, etc., etc., and newer even stopped.
326 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

"Warburg.. Paul, N e w Y o r k City, G e r m a n : was naturalized

a n A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n 1911. WAS d e c o r a t e d 1912 b y t h e K a i s e r ; w a s
v i c e - C h a i r m a n of U n i t e d S t a i o F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d ; is a
w e a l t h y a n d i n f l u e n t i a l b a n k e r : h a n d l e d LARGE M I N I S f u r n i s h e d b v
G e r m a n y for L e n i n a n d T r o t s k y : Mibjeci h a - a b r o t h e r W H O IS
, (:ir>t
l e a d e r of THE e s p i o n a g e S Y M C M | OF G e r m a n y | . ' N o w , this
R e p o r t s i m p l y s t a t e s THAI P a u l W a r b u r g h a n d l e d LARGE s u m s for
the German Government. Ii d o e s nut speak" OF his p e r s o n a ! p a r
t i c i p a t i o n in t h e w o r k . I>UT w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e J e w i s h M U L T I
m i l l i o n a i r e , P a r v u s i n t r o d u c e d L e n i n TO t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t
a n d t h a t M a x W a r b u r g , t h e b a n k e r of H a m b u r g , b r o t h e r of P a u l
a n d F e l i x W a r b u r g , of K u h n . L o e b AND C o m p a n y , WAS a l s o a c t i n g
f o r t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t in t h e b u s i n e s s . W e h a v e s e e n t o o
th^it t h e J e w i s h B u n d , t h a n k s t o t h e C e n t r a l J e w i s h O r g a n i z a
t i o n in S w i t z e r l a n d , w a s w e a l t h y e n o u g h TO s u p p l y a n a r s e n a l
of w e a p o n s f o r t h e J e w i s h y o u t h of O d e s s a I N 1905. A c c o r d i n g l y ,
w e h a v e s o m e r e a s o n t o a g r e e W I T H THE C o u n t d e S t . A u l a i r c
w h e n he s t a t e s t h a t " a n y J e w i s h b a n k e r w o u l d h a v e said ex
a c t l y t h e s a m e [ a s h i s B u d a - P e s t h f r i e n d ] ' i n a m o m e n t of s i n
cerity."^
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e of t h e a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n
J e w i s h Finance and J e w i s h revolutionary elements IN the Russian
R e v o l u t i o n is f u r n i s h e d b y t h e s e c r e t r e p o r t OT C o u n t L a m s d o r f ,
f o r m e r R u s s i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , to the F m p c r o r N i c h o l a s IL
elated J a n u a r y 3 , 1906. T h i s r e p o r t d e a l s w i t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
a s p e c t of t h e f i r s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y o u t b r e a k in R u s s i a I N 1905 Cat
Moscow, Odessa and elsewhere). The following passages are
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g in v i e w of w h a t w e HAVE a l r e a d y s e e n
a b o u t t h e B u n d , & c . : " T h e EVENTS w h i c h l o o k p l a c e I N R u s s i a
d u r i n g 1905. a n d w h i c h a s s u m e d e s p e c i a l l y a c u t e f o r m s a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g OF O c t o b e r LAST, w h e n , a f t e r a SERIES of s t r i k e s , t h e y
b r o u g h t a b o u t AN a r m e d r e v o l t in M o s c o w , AND m a n y o t h e r
t o w n s a n d l o c a l i t i e s of t h e I v m p i r e . p l a i n l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e R u s s
i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t . . . . h a s a l s o a q u i t e definite
international character. . . . T h e most decisive indications which
w a r r a n t this conclusion a r e given by the c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t the
R u s s i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a r e I N p o s s e s s i o n of g r e a t q u a n t i t i e s of
a r m s w h i c h a r c i m p o r t e d f r o m a b r o a d , a n d of v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e
f i n a n c i a l m e a n s , b e c a u s e t h e r e can b e NO d o u b t THAT THE l e a d e r ?
of t h e r e v o l u t i o n h a v e a l r e a d y s p e n t on o u r A N t i - g o v e r n m e n t
movement . . . . l a r g e a m o u n t s of m o n e y . . . . O n e is b o u n d

(36) The a u t h o r of the p a m p h l e t . The Reign <>i flu Klders has in %

formed ine by lotto)' that h e uot t h i s i n formal ion d i r e c t from the

N a v y D e p a r t m e n t . On the same page the a u t h o r adds thar the brother
m e n t i o n e d was F e l i x .
< ) Cf. e x t r a c t from letter of C o u n t de St. A u l a i r e in The Rulers
37

of Russia, p . 6.
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 327
to come to the conclusion that there are foreign capitalists' organ
izations which are interested in supporting our revolutionary
movement. . . . Jf we add to the above that, as has been proved
beyond any doubt, a very considerable part among these heter
ogeneous nationalities is played by Jews, who, as ringleaders in
other organizations, as well as through their own (the Jewish
Bund in the Western Provinces), have always come forward as
the most bellicose element of the revolution, we may feel entitled
to assume that the above-mentioned foreign support of the Russ
ian revolutionary movement comes from Jewish capitalist circles.
. . . The revolutionary movement is not only supported but also
to a certain degree directed from abroad. ' On the one hand, the
strike broke out with special violence and spread all over Russia
not before and not after October, that is, just at the time when
our government was trying to realize a considerable foreign loan
without the participation of the Rothschilds, and just in time to
prevent the carrying out of this financial operation: the panic
provoked among the buyers and holders of Russian loans could
not fail to give additional advantages to the Jewish bankers and
capitalists who openly and knowingly speculated upon the fall of
Russian values Moreover, certain very significant facts.
which were also mentioned in the press, quite confirm the obvious
connection of the Russian revolutionary movement with foreign
Jewish organizations. Thus, for instance, the above-mentioned
importation of arms . . . . can be duly appreciated if we take into
consideration that already in June, 1905, a special Anglo-Jewish
committee of capitalists was openly established in England for the
purpose of collecting money to arm fighting groups of Russian
Jews, and that the well-known anti-Russian publicist, Lueicn
381
Wolf, was the leading member of this committee/*'
We may now conclude our inquiry into the origin of the Bol-
<38) The World at the Cross Hoods, by Boris Brasol, pp. 75, 7<j. Mr.
Brasol adds in a note that the full text of this report was published in
American Hebrew and Jewish Messenyer, July 13, 1918. He also 3tates
that, according to the Jewish Chronicle (London), the contribution of
international Jewry to the .Russian revolutionary cause in 1905 reached
the sum of 874,341. He refers to the work of A. Selianinov, Tht Sen-rt
Power of Masoivry, p. 261 (St. Petersburg, 1911).
" Money," said Chamfort to Marmontel, " and the hope of plunder
are all-powerful with the people. Wc have just made the experiment-
in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, and you would not believe how little-
it cost the Duke of Orleans to set them to sack the factory of that decent
man, JReveillon, who amidst these same people provided a livelihood for
a hundred families. Mirabeau cheerfully asserts that with a thousand
louis one can get up a first-class rebellion " (Memoires de Marmontel.
IV. 82). The Affaire Reveillon was the first outbreak of violence in the
Paris of 1789, It was the rehearsal for the attack on the Bastille, [f
we are to take Mirabeau at his word, he would have done well with the
millions at the disposal of Lenin in 1917.
328 TJIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

shevik Revolution of 1917, which, as we have said, is a logical

conclusion from the principles of the French Revolution. The
Jewish Nation, using Germany and Kngland, two countries at war
at the time, and a certain number o f misguided Russians, let it
loose upon the world. Our investigation has brought us up against
certain leaders o f the Jewish Xation, principally amongst New
York bankers. Count de St. Aulaire has summed up the situation
in some telling phrases: "Just as Great Britain has shared the
mastery of the s e a s with her emancipated daughter, so the repub
lic of the United States has shared with Great Britain the metro
polis of Israel. In this last partition the word mastery must be
understood in a different sense. It is passive rather than active.
It is submitted to rather than exercised. The mastery of the
seas is almost equally divided, but the mastery of Israel is un
equally endured. It is more complete in Wall Street than in
the City of London The preponderant part played by the
great Jewish bankers in the Russian Revolution need not be de
monstrated. They let il loose upon the world in conjunction with
Germany whence thev came and where ihev had their asso
ciates."^
(39) Geneva versus Peace, p. 74.

APPENDIX.

LKNTN'S NATIONALITY.
In The Riders of Russia (3rd K d i t i n n , pp. 28.30), I mentioned
various opinions about Lenin's nationality without examining them
critically. The chief reason w a s that I had iioi been able t o trace
the origin of the "legend" that Lenin was married w> a Jewess
and that his children spoke Yiddish. Since then. I have discovered
what seems to be the origin o f the story in Henry Ford's The
International Je.u\ vol. I, p. 214. There w e read, along with an
amount of useful information about Bolshevism and the Russian
Revolution, the following phrases: " Perhaps he (Lenin) is a
Gentile, hut why d o his children speak Yiddish? The
explanation of all this may be that he married a Jewess. The fact
is that he did. But another explanation may be that he himself
is a Jew." No authority for these .statements is cited in The
International Jeu\ Now it is certain that Lenin's wife was a
Russian. Lenin may have learned Yiddish, as he was continually
with Yiddish-speaking Jews, but with his wife he Would have
spoken Russian. There has never been any mention of children of
the marriage.
Writers seem to agree that .Lenin's facial appearance was not
Russian. "Astrakan, on the north-western shore of the Cas-
 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917 329
pian," writes Father E. A. Walsh, S.J., "was the birthplace of
Lenin's father, Ilia Ulianov, who came from a respectable middle-
class stock which had somehow been crossed with Mongolian
blood: miscegenation was clearly visible in the future dictator's
countenance. It was at Simbirsk on the Volga that Vladimir was
born, April 10, 1870, while his father was acting as Inspector of
Rural Schools, a position "which entitled him to be addressed as
'Your Excellency/ In the same citv lived the family of Alexander
Kerensky/'W
In his turn, Inspector Fitch of the Special Branch, New Scotland
Yard, whose task it was to watch Lenin and Trotsky in Great
Britain, testifies to the same non-Russian appearance. " It was
my first sight of him," writes the ex-detective, " a smooth-headed,
oval-shaped, narrow-eyed, typical Jew, with a devilish sureness
in every line of his powerful magnetic face. Beside him was a
different type of Jew, the kind one might see in any Sgho shop,
strong-nosed, sallow-faced, long-moustached, with a little tuft of
beard wagging from his chin and a great shock of wild hair
(2)
Leiba Bronstein, afterwards Lev Trotsky/'
Father Walsh ascribes the non-Russian cast of Lenin's fea
tures to a mixture of Mongolian blood. Inspector Fitch puts him
down as a Jew. M. de Poncins, who examines all these questions
carefully, says that "Lenin's origin is not clear and well-defined.
On his father's side, there is a mixture of Russian and Tartar so
common in Russia. . . . On his mother's side, there is some sus
picion of Jewish blood. His mother was Maria Alexandrovna
Blank, daughter of- a medical doctor, Alexander Dimitrievitch
Blank. According to Pierre Chasle (Life of Lenin, Paris, 1929,
p. 3), Alexander Blank came from Volhynia and was a military
doctor. His wife, Lenin's grandmother, is spoken of as German
in the publication, The Oulianoff Family at Simbirsk (Lenin In
stitute, Moscow and Leningrad, 1925, p. 20). Alexander Blank
was supposed in Judaeo-Sovietic circles to have been a baptized
Jew. The name Blank is very common in Germany and is usually
a German name, but is found also amongst Jews. In Russia, the
(3)
name is usually found amongst J e w s / ' This author's account
seems to be an excellent summary of the present state of the
question.

a; The Fall of the Russian Empire, p. 216. Lenin's real nam.? was
Wladimir-lllitch Oulianoff.
<2> Traitors Within ( H u r s t and Blacketfe, 1933) On the occasion in
;

question, Inspector Fitch was disguised as a waiter a n d was I r v i n g

drinks to Lenin and his companions.
(3) La Mysterieuae Internationale J wive, p. 99.
 C H A P T E R XVI.

REACTIONS AdAIXST TIIK NATURALISM OF THK

FRKXCH REVOLUTION'.
OKDKHKH KKACTIOX JAIPLIKS ACCFPTAXCK OF C H R I S T ' S
K I N G S H I P IN ITS 1XTKGR1TY.

Wc have seen that modern history since 1789 has been to a

large extent the account of the domination of State after State
by the naturalistic supranationalism of Freemasonry, behind which
has been gradually and steadily emerging the still more strongly
organized naturalistic supranationalism of the Jewish Nation.
Now, since human society, just like individual men, cannot avoid
essential deviations from order unless by submission to God
through Our Lord Jesus Christ, this anti-supernatural revolt has
brought about inevitable disorder and decay, even in the natural
life of nations. The imposition of an anti-supernatural form has
necessarily resulted in national decline. This has shown itself
especially in the Catholic countries, because the naturalistic forces
have devoted particular energy to the overthrow of the elements
of supernatural organization still to be found in these countries.
This attack has had disastrous consequences for their national
life. But the Protestant countries have not been spared. In
them, however, by the fact of the accepted separation of the
Christian and the Citizen the desupernaturalizing process was
already well on its way. It has been continued by the widespread
legalization of divorce, the elimination of true Christian education,
and especially by the increasing domination of money. The re
sults are to be seen, in the treatment of human beings as mere
individuals not as persons, in the decay of family-life, in the
socialization of properly, and in the subjection of nations to those
who control money.
For the past twenty years, thinking men in every country have
begun to see the need for national reactions against the conse
quences of Naturalism, in order to safeguard their national life
and maintain iheir independence. A complete reaction on the
part of any country would mean a return to full acknowledg
ment of all that we have seen to be implied in the Kingship of
Christ in its integrity. That would mean not only the rejection
of the domination of the naturalistic or anti-supernatural forces
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 331

of the Jewish Nation and Freemasonry, but also the acknowledg

ment of the Divine Plan for order, by acceptance of the Catholic
Church's mission and teaching, on the relation of Church and
State, on the Catholic Church as the divinely-appointed Guardian
of the moral l a w , on the Sacrament of Matrimony and Family
Life, on the Catholic Education of Youth as Members of Christ,
on Private Property and the Function of Money.
Let us now take in turn the reactions of Poland, Spain, Por
tugal, Ireland, Germany and Italy and, as far as the available
data permit, compare them with the Divine Plan for order.

POLAND'S REACTION.
Poland's reaction is placed first for the reason mentioned in
the Preface. Of all the nations of Europe that once expressed
their submission to the Blessed Trinity in the Holy Sacrifice- of
the Mass, along with Christ, Our Lord, Head of the Mystical
Body, Poland and Ireland are the only countries where the native
population has not been induced by Satan to turn against the
Mass. These two nations have committed faults and have made
mistakes, b u t in regard t o the central point of order in the world,
they have never wavered. Satan seems to have abandoned all
hope of prevailing on the Poles to revolt against Christ the King,
so he simply aims at crushing them to the earth and blotting
out their country. The Vicar of Christ trusts that Lucifer's
expectations will be disappointed. " Poland," writes Pope Pius
tk 1
XII, imp- ' ishably crowned in the pages of history by the long-
record of her loyalty to the Church and her services to Christian
civilization, should claim from all eyes a brotherly, a human tear.
She puts her trust in that Virgin Mother of God w h o is the Help
of Christians, and waits for the day when peace and justice w i l l b e
restored, the day when she will be allowed at last to emerge, u n
(1J
harmed, from the waves that have engulfed her."
The resurrection of Poland at the end of the Great War (1914-
1918) did not proceed without serious opposition from the a n t i -
(1) Encyclical Letter, Summi. Pontifieatw, October 20th, 1939. The
translation is that of the English C.T.S. pamphlet.
The First of Pope Pius XII's Five Peace-Points must here be re
called: "A fundamental postulate of any just and honourable peace is
an assurance for all nations, great or small, powerful or weak, of their
right to life and independence. The will of one nation to live must
never, mean the sentence of death passed upon another. When this
equality of rights has been destroyed, attacked, or threatened, order
demands that reparation shall be marie, and the measure a"d exient of
that reparation is determined, not by the sword nor by the arbifcrarv
decision of self-interest, but by the rules of justice 'and reciprocal
;
equity ' (Allocution to the Colleqe. of Cardinal*. December 24th, 1939).
The Vatican broadcasts in 1940 on the sufferings of Poland filled
heaiw*' souls with sorrow and pity for that countrv.
.VL> T11K MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
s u p e r n a t u r a l forces. The Cause of World Cures!, p u b l i s h e d in
1920 w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n bv t h e E d i t o r of The Morning Post,
M r . 11. A. G w y n n c , is e m p h a t i c o n t h e p o i n t . " It w a s n o t o r i o u s
d u r i n g t h e p r o c e e d i n g s of t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , " w r i t e s t h e a u t h o r
of t h i s w o r k , " t h a t w h e n e v e r a n y d e c i s i o n f a v o u r a b l e t o P o l a n d
was reached, J e w i s h g e n t r y from London hurriedly crossed the
C h a n n e l for t h e p u r p o s e of t r y i n g t o r e v o k e it Why?
A strong Poland is not a Jewish interest. For one thing, h o w
m a n y E n g l i s h m e n a r e a w a r e of t h e e n o r m o u s J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n
w h i c h lives w i t h i n t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r i e s of P o l a n d ? In
1 9 1 0 t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of J e w s in t h e w o r l d w a s , r o u g h l y ,
12,506,238, a n d in 1900 a l m o s t live m i l l i o n J e w s lived in P o l i s h
territory. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g , t o o , t o n o t e t h a t s i n c e t h e R u s s i a n
R e v o l u t i o n of 1905 t h e r e w a s a d i s t i n c t m o v e m e n t in P o l a n d t o
g e t rid of t h e m o n o p o l y e x e r c i s e d b y t h e J e w s in all c o m m e r c i a l
a n d financial a c t i v i t i e s in P o l a n d , b y t h e c r e a t i o n of P o l i s h C o
o p e r a t i v e S o c i e t i e s . Jt is p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t a s t r o n g n a t i o n a l
Polish G o v e r n m e n t would further develop t h a t policy, and this
m i g h t l e a d in t i m e t o m e a s u r e s w h i c h w o u l d by n o m e a n s p r o v e
w e l c o m e to t h e e n o r m o u s J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n
i t s t e r r i t o r i e s . . . . T h u s , P o l a n d a s c r e a t e d by t h e p u n d i t s of
Paris, started badly. . . . The Bolsheviks w e r e exceedingly anxi
o u s to s e c u r e their g r i p on a S t a t e which, w i t h its C h r i s t i a n faith
and W e s t e r n traditions, barred their march towards the West.
In t h e l e t t e r w h i c h T r o t s k y s e n t t o t h e F r e n c h S o c i a l i s t s a s l o n g
a g o a s O c t o b e r . 1919, be m a d e it c l e a r in his b r a g g i n g w a y t h a t
P o l a n d ' s t u r n w a s to c o m e n e x t . T h a t B o l s h e v i s t o l l e n s i v e w a s
l a u n c h e d in M a r c h , 1920, and failed. . . . T o s a y , t h e n , t h a t M a r
s h a l P i l s u d s k i a t t a c k e d R u s s i a , w h i c h a'l t h e Pacifists a n d B o l
s h e v i k s in E n g l a n d a r e t r u m p e t i n g f o r t h e v e r y d a y , is u n t r u e . . . .
F r o m the verv b e g i n n i n g a violent a n t i - P o l i s h c a m p a i g n w a s
s t a r t e d iu E n g l a n d , a n d t h e L n g i i s h d o c k e r s a n d r a i h v a y m e n w e r e
called u p o n t o p r e v e n t t h e s e n d i n g of m u n i t i o n s to W a r s a w . . . .
" D r . D i l l o n , in h i s b o o k on t h e P a r i s P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , s a y s :
' O f all t h e c o l l e c t i v i t i e s w h o s e i n t e r e s t s w e r e f u r t h e r e d a t t h e
Conference the J e w s had perhaps the m o s t resourceful and cer
tainly the m o s t influential e x p o n e n t s . T h e r e w e r e J e w s from
Palestine, from Poland, Russia, the Ukraine, R o u m a n i a , Greece,
Britain, H o l l a n d , and B e l g i u m : b u t the l a r g e s t and m o s t brilli
a n t contingent w a s sent by the United S t a t e s . ' W i t h reference
t o t h a t g r e a t a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e J e w s a t P a r i s , t h e M i n o r i t y
T r e a t i e s , he | D r . Dillon] s a y s : ' I t m a y s e e m a m a z i n g to some
r e a d e r s , b u t it is n o n e t h e l e s s a fact t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r
of D e l e g a t e s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e a l i n f l u e n c e b e h i n d t h e A n g l o -
Saxon peoples was Semitic. They confronted the President's
p r o p o s a l on t h e s u b j e c t of r e l i g i o u s i n e q u a l i t y , a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h e o d d m o t i v e a l l e g e d for it, w i t h t h e m e a s u r e s f o r t h e p r o -
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 333
tection ot minorities which he subsequently imposed on the lesser
States, and which had for their keynote lo satisfy the Jewish
elements in Eastern Europe. And they concluded that the
sequence of* expedients framed and enforced in this direction
were inspired by the Jews assembled in Paris for the purpose of
realizing their carefully thought-out programme, which they suc
ceeded in having substantially executed.' It should be remembered
that the original claims of the Jews went much further than those
2
which were eventually sanctioned by the Conference."* '
The Peace Conference certainly showed itself generous towards
the Jews, in particular towards the Jews in Poland, as Mgr.
Delassiis points out in Les Poinquoi de la Guerre Mondiale (Vol.
II, p. 303). " The Conference," he writes, " set up in their favour
a regime which made them a State within the State, under the
control of the Great Powers. This gave rise to the reluctance of
the Poles to sign the Treaty which the Conference proposed to
them for signature Article 12 declared that these stipula
tions constituted international obligations and would be placed
under the protection of the League of Nations."
Since the Great War (1914-1918), how did things go in Poland
with regard to the Kingship of Christ? In one respect, badly.
Article 114 of the Polish Constitutional Law of March I 7 t h , 1921,
re-enacted b y t h e Constitutional Law of April 23rd, 1935, states:
2
<> Op. cit pp. 1 8 0 - 1 8 4 . On p a g e s 2 8 and foil, of the same work, we
M

r e a d : " S o m e t i m e in -lane, 1 9 2 0 , the Maccabeans honoured Air. Lucien

"Wolf a t t h e JHolhom R e s t a u r a n t by i n v i t i n g him t o a banquet. The
event is described in the Jrirish (Jimrdian of J u n e l l t h . Here ia the
4
first s e n t e n c e : H o n o u r lo whom h o n o u r is due, and all honour to Mr.
Lucieii Wolf, the m a n who fought for Jewish r i g h t s a t Versailles^ last
year." . . . L a t e r o n in the s a m e account we come across a n o t h e r signi
1
ficant passage. Her* it i s : The second ( m e n a g e ) a I d l e r f r o m Mr.
I s r a e l Z a n g w i l l : ' T h e ^Minority T r e a t i e s were the t o u c h < l o n o of the
L e a g u e of Nation-., t h a t essentially Jewish a s p i r a t i o n . Ami the man
behind the M i n o r i t y T r e a t i e s was Lucien Wolf.*' . . . I n r e t u r n i n g
t h a n k s for the m a n y kind tilings said o f him a t the banquet. Mr. Lucien
4
W o l f * r e p l y is t h u s described : . . . The Anglo Jewish members of the
D e l e g a t i o n m i g h t claim t h a t the first d e t a i l e d p l a n o f (he M i n o r i t y
T r e a t i e s ^ was t h e i r own. They discussed it with members of the
Commission on New S t a t e s , b u t the g o v e r n i n g p r i n c i p l e had first been
accepted from them by t h e Allied a n d Associated Powers a n d by the
L e a g u e of N a t i o n s . T h o u g h in the excitement of hearing, the M a i n
T r e a t i e s all else m i g h t be well lost for the moment, he would r e m i n d
them t h a t the p r i n c i p l e l a i d down in the preamble t o the L a b o u r Con
v e n t i o n , which secured the r i g h t s of the w o r k i n g classes a n d g u a r a n t e e d
t h e m the p r o t e c t ion o f t h e League of N a t i o n s , recognised t h a t the r i g h t s
of m i n o r i t y p o p u l a t i o n s were on exactly the same plane.'" . . . T a k e n
to pieces, t h i s means t h a t i n o r d e r to secure privileges for the m i n o r i
ties ('i.e., the J e w s ) , it was found best to camouflage this step u n d e r
c
the^ guise of securing t h e r i g h t s of the w o r k i n g classes ' and g u a r a n
{
t e e i n g them ' the protection of the League of N a t i o n s t h a t essentially
Jewish aspiration.' "
 334 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OP CHRIST

" T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c F a i t h , b e i n g t h e r e l i g i o n of t h e g r e a t m a
j o r i t y of t h e n a t i o n , o c c u p i e s a l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n in t h e S t a t e
(3)
a m o n g o t h e r religions,, w h i c h , h o w e v e r , e n j o y e q u a l r i g h t s . ' *
T h e l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n a s s i g n e d to t h e O n e T r u e R e l i g i o n s e t up by
G o d b e c o m e M a n is s i m p l y d u e lo t h e fact t h a t it h a p p e n s t o be t h e
r e l i g i o n ot t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e p e o p l e , n o t b e c a u s e it is t h e T r u e
R e l i g i o n . E q u a l r i g h t s a r c a c c o r d e d t o all r e l i g i o n s . T h u s , t o u s e
t h e w o r d s of P o p e P i u s X I in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Qnas Primes
( 1 9 2 5 ) , on t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t : " T h e r e l i g i o n of C h r i s t is p u t
o n t h e s a m e level a s false r e l i g i o n s a n d p l a c e d i g n o m i n i o u s l y in
the same c a t e g o r y with t h e m . " T h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e B l e s s e d
T r i n i t y ' s c o n d e s c e n d i n g l o v e , i n v o l v e d in t h a t a t t i t u d e , is i m p l i c i t l y
c o n t a i n e d in t h e r e s o l u t i o n p a s s e d b y t h e P o l i s h G o v e r n m e n t o n
J tine 10th, 1941, w h i c h r u n s : " T h e P o l i s h G o v e r n m e n t s h a r e s
t h e p r i n c i p l e s e x p o u n d e d by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ( G e n e r a l S i k o r -
s k i ) in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , o n t h e G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y c o n c e r n i n g
t h e J e w s , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r a s s o c i a t e s itself w i t h h i s d e c l a r a t i o n
o n t h i s q u e s t i o n , m a d e in t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on J u n e 4 t h , 1941,
r e a d i n g as f o l l o w s : In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e s i n c e r e l y d e m o c r a t i c
p o l i c y of t h e G o v e r n m e n t ; t h e p r i n c i p l e e q u a l d u t i e s , e q u a l r i g h t s
w i l l be b i n d i n g in t h e f u t u r e P o l a n d in r e g a r d t o all c i t i z e n s
of t h e R e p u b l i c w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o n a t i o n a l i t y , r a c e o r c r e e d . T h a t
is t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e P o l i s h G o v e r n m e n t , Avhich r e g a r d s all
( 4 )
c u l t i v a t i o n of a n a n t i - S e m i t i c p o l i c y a s h a r m f u l . " T h e Polish
G o v e r n m e n t ' s r e s o l u t i o n c o n f u s e s r e s p e c t f o r t h e R i g h t s of God
through Christ the King with anti-Semitism.
In t h e Catholic Herald ( L o n d o n ) of O c t o b e r 31st, 1941. u n d e r
t h e h e a d i n g Is Poland Catholic? we read: " T h e question might
4
s e r i o u s l y b e p u t w h e n w c r e a d t h e s p e c i a l o r d e r of t h e c l a y '
i s s u e d b y G e n e r a l S i k o r s k i t o P o l i s h t r o o p s a b o u t t o l e a v e for
s e r v i c e in S o v i e t R u s s i a . The Commander-in-Chief [General
S i k o r s k i ] s p e a k s nobly about their t r u s t , a b o u t ' c o m r a d e l y co
operation, invincible solidarity and profound devotion,' b u t unless
t h e l a t t e r v a g u e p h r a s e is m e a n t t o c o v e r t h e m a t t e r , n o w h e r e
d o e s h e s p e a k of G o d a n d C a t h o l i c i t y . N o w P o l a n d is a C a t h o l i c
n a t i o n a n d is p r o u d of t h e fact. P o l a n d is s u f f e r i n g in l a r g e m e a
s u r e b e c a u s e of a s p i r i t f o u n d e d in C a t h o l i c t r u t h a n d t r a d i t i o n .
T h e P o l i s h p e o p l e a n d t h e P o l i s h t r o o p s a r e n e a r l y all C a t h o l i c
b y b i r t h a n d in o u t l o o k . A r c w c t h e n a s k i n g t o o m u c h t h a t in a
m e s s a g e of t h i s kind a n d o n t h i s s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n t h e y s h o u l d be
r e m i n d e d b y t h e i r c o m m a n d e r of t h e r e l i g i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n of t h e i r
n a t i o n a n d t h e i r l i v e s ? " N o w , n o b o d y c a n d o u b t t h e s y m p a t h y of
t h e Catholic Herald for P o l a n d a n d h e r c a u s e , so t h e s e r e m a r k s
a r e n o t m a d e i n a h o s t i l e s p i r i t . B u t t h e w r i t e r s e e m s t o b e tin
ts) Polish Fortnightlg Peview, issued by the Polish M i n i s t r y of
I n f o r m a t i o n , Sept. 1st, 194], p. 6.
<4) The Polish Fortnightly Review, Sept. 1ST, 1941, p. 8.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 335

aware of the logical implications' of the Polish Constitution and

of the Polish Government's resolution quoted above. It would
not be "democratic*' to mention Christ the King and His Hlesscd
Mother. Above all, it would be "undemocratic" to proclaim to
the world that the Catholic Religion is ihe One True Religion laid
down Ivy God for the world's acceptance.
In some other respects, Poland has reacted against Natural
ism. Towards the end of December. 1938. according to the Irish
Catholic of January 5, 1939, a Presidential Decree was issued, dis
solving all Masonic Associations and closing down all Masonic
Lodges in Poland. According to the article, ihe most widespread
were the Jewish (B'nai JVrith). German and Odd Fellows' Lodges.
In closing down the Lodges, the writer adds, ihe police authori
1 5
ties published at the same time the names ot their members. - *
Again, by the law promulgated in Poland under the date of
March 25th, 1938, persons and bodies of Christians, Jewish or
Mahommedan religions were authorized to produce and trade in
objects o{ devotion and religious worship of iheir own religion
only. Contraventions of this law were punishable by imprison
ment for three months and a fine of 3,000 zlotys. Objects pro
duced in contravention of the law were liable to confiscation.

SPAIN'S REACTION.

Spain's reaction against the principles of the French Revo

lution has been the most poignant and the most thorough, for,
after Russia, it was in Spain that the " rights of man " came near
est to the complete overthrow of the Rights of God. The history
of Spain and Portugal since the beginning of the 19th century
may be well summed up in these words of Pere Deschamps: '"The
revolutions which have succeeded one another in these countries
(Spain and Portugal) have been caused for the most part by the
rivalry between different sections of Freemasonry. These work to
gether harmoniously in the struggle against Christian social order
but tear one another to pieces when they have attained power.
fl
The same holds true for Mexico. . *. . ."< '
[5) In Les Sorir'trs Sm-etes et ht Soviet <\ vol. II, pp. 691-704 (4th
Edition), Pere Deschamps, S.J.. <hows the efforts made by Freemasonry
to get control of patriotic movements in Poland and turn them in the
direction of a socialistic and (so-called) democratic republic. He men
tions, among other interesting points, that, at the second commemora
tion of the Polish revolution held at Brussels in 1840, one of the orators
was Karl Marx. We are aware of the amount of sympathy Marx had
for the traditions of the Polish nation.
(
M Lex Soetete* S rrefe's
f et Jtt StiCt't ft\
:
vol. II. p. l>(>*\ On page- fi(J3-
680 the author quotes a number of Masonic documents concerning the
secret history of Spanish and Portuguese revolution*.
The remark made about Mexico receives ample confirmation in
336 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIS?

The Spanish Revolution of 1931 was a Masonic Revolution. A

Masonic bulletin published by M. Leon de Poncins proclaims it to
the world: "The new Republic/' we read therein, "is the perfect
embodiment of our doctrines and our principles. It would be
impossible to bring about a political revolution more completely
7
Masonic than the Spanish Revolution."< > The Masonic revolu
tion was intended to be only the forerunner of the Communist
revolution, but General Franco rose to do battle for the Rights
of God and saved Spain for order. M. Leon de Poncins, in Ap
pendix IV of his work, gives a detailed account of the numerous
illegalities committed by the Masonico-Communist leaders, thanks
to which they were enabled to sei/.e power and proclaim them
selves the " e l e c t e d g o v e r n m e n t of Spain. The culminating
point was the assassination of Calvo Sotelo by government agents
acting on the orders of the Minister of the Interior, who was
simply carrying out instructions emanating from the General Sec
91
retary of Freemasonry/ Then came the rising of the Army
commanded by General Franco leading to the defeat of the Judaeo-
Masonic-Communist aims. At the lime of writing (August,
1941) the reorganization of Spain in accordance with the Divine
Plan for order is being continued. The Spanish State acknow
ledges the Catholic Church as the One True Church instituted by
Our Lord Jesus Christ. Needless to say. however, the elimina
tion of all the seeds of disorder sown in the past' 150 years will
take time. As General Franco proclaimed in his Victory Speech
of May 19th, 1939: "We, Spaniards, must be under no illusion.
The Jewish spirit, which was responsible for the alliance of large-
scale capital with Marxism and was the driving force behind so
many anti-Spanish revolutionary agreements, will not be got rid

Mexico, the I,and of Blond-drenehrd Altars, by Francis C. Kelly,

and in So Cod Sot Door, bv Mew M. Kenny, S.J. Father Kenny srivos
a n excellent summary o f the documents concerning the responsibility
o f thp United States and o f American Freemasonry for the persecution
o f the Catholic Church in Mexico.
7
< > ffixtoirr. Srv.rv.tr. de la? 'Reeolation Fspagnole, by M. .Leon de
"Ponujns, v. 21. Thi* work and that of M. Jean Marques-Riviere, Com
ment la Franc-Macovnerie fait intc Revolution, contain details and
documents.
SJ
< Iliatoire Srrrrfc de. la Revolution Kxpngnole :p. 227. On pp. 168-
y

183 o f the sumo work there is i n v e u a French translation o f the official

documents of t h e Portuguese Government concerning the r>art taken
by the. Soviet CloveT'innenf of Moscow in preparing and directing the
Spanish Civil War. Two Jews, experts in revolution, were sent from
Russia to B a r c e l o n a : Bela K u n and Losovski (Solomon Ahramovitch
Dridzo). All t h e parts of t h e programme drawn up by the Komnlin-
tern were carried out in the section o f the country subject to Madrid.'
A n d so on.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 337
8 bi8
of i n a d a y . " F r e e m a s o n r y w a s b a n n e d in 1940.< >
I n v i e w o f t h e d e e p i m p r e s s i o n m a d e e v e n u p o n Catholics b y
C o m m u n i s t p r o p a g a n d a a b o u t " F a s c i s t " Spain, it w i l l be w e l l t o
quote at least a few sentences from Pope Pius X I F s Broadcast to
S p a i n of April 16th, 1939. " T h e p e r s i s t e n t , p r o p a g a n d a and t h e
u n - r e m i t t i n g efforts of t h e e n e m i e s of J e s u s Christ," said H i s
H o l i n e s s , " l e a d o n e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y s o u g h t t o m a k e Spain a
s u p r e m e e x a m p l e of t h e p o w e r s o f d e s t r u c t i o n a t their disposal a n d
w h i c h a r e d i s s e m i n a t e d o v e r t h e w h o l e earth. . . . T h e w i s e
p e o p l e of S p a i n , w i t h t h a t g e n e r o s i t y a n d f r a n k n e s s t h a t a r e t h e
t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s o u l ' s n o b i l i t y , r o s e d e c i s i v e l y in d e f e n c e of
the i d e a l s of F a i t h a n d o f C h r i s t i a n life . . . . and aided b y G o d
. . . . t h e y w e r e a b l e t o r e s i s t the o n s l a u g h t of t h o s e w h o ,
d e c e i v e d b y w h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d t o be a h u m a n i t a r i a n ideal for t h e
relief o f t h e l o w l y , w e r e in r e a l i t y fighting for a t h e i s m . "

PORTUGAL'S REACTION.

P o r t u g a l ' s r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t J u d a e o - M a s o n i c disorder h a s b e e n ,
o n t h e w h o l e , p e a c e f u l , b u t i t is w e l l t o h a v e it k n o w n t h a t if
G e n e r a l C a r m o n a a n d D r . S a l a z a r h a v e b e e n able t o c o n t i n u e their
w o r k o f o r d e r l y r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , F r e e m a s o n r y h a s n o t b e e n idle.
In 1931, a n d a g a i n in 1935, t h e Grand O r i e n t a t t e m p t e d t o g e t
rid o f t h e m b u t failed.
E v e r y b o d y k n o w s t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n of 1910, w h i c h p u t -an
end t o t h e M o n a r c h y , w a s t h e w o r k of F r e e m a s o n r y . A s usual,
9
there w a s a n a c t i v e s u b - M a s o n r y in t h e P o r t u g u e s e Carbonari. <>
(8 bis) A n article in The Standard (Dublin) of April 16, 1943, con
firms the hopes held o u t above. The article was translated for The
Standard from " El Mensajero del Cor-azdn de Jesus," (published by
the Jesuit Fathers a t Bilbao. The opening sentence of the article
runs as f o l l o w s : " W e c a n s a y unhesitatingly that Spain as such, the
Spanish State as such, has never pub into practice an official religious
policy more public, more sincere and more unanimous than that being
pursued a t the present time by Franco's Spain, i n which God has
granted u s t o live." Some of the hatred of Satan for this Catholic
reaction is expressed in the film, Inside Fascist Spain,
(9) Shortly after the 'proclamation of the Republic, Brother Fur-
nemont, Orator of the B e l g i a n Grand Orient, triumphantly declared:
" Y o u remember, Brothers .*. the deep feeling of pride we all felt
when we heard, sonie time ago, the news of the Portuguese Revolution.
. , . I t was a thunderbolt for the uninitiated, but we, Brothers, we
knew. We were aware of the admirable organization of our Portuguese
Masonic Brethren. . . . We held the secret of this glorious event."
Somewhat later in 1911, Brother Maehado Santos published his report,
The Portuguese Revolution, in which he affirmed that " The success of
the Portuguese Revolution is the exclusive work of Freemasonry." On
these points and others cf. Leon de Poncins' splendid work, Le Portugal
Renait and Weltfreimaurerei, Welt revolution, Weltrepublik, by Dr. F.
Wichth p p . 10M13 (11th Edition).
AA
338 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

The " hero " of the Revolution of 1910 was the Carbonaro, Bro
ther . *. Maehado Santos. The Republic was proclaimed on
October 5th, 1910. Three days afterwards the Provisional Gov
ernment revived the laws against the Jesuits and the other Reli
gious Orders and then the Masonic politician, Alfonso Costa, pro
mulgated the law separating Church and Stave, affirming at the
same time that in two generations Catholicism would have dis
appeared from Portugal. The Masonic dictatorship which was
inaugurated in 1910 ushered in the saddest period in the history
of Portugal. From 1910 to 1026 there were sixteen revolutions
and forty changes of government. In the course of a revolution
in 1921, Maehado Santos, the " h e r o " of 1910. was taken by other
more modern "heroes" and summarily executed. On the 28th
May, 1926, the army rose and pin an end to the disorders by sup
pressing the professional revolutionaries, but the army leaders
were without competence in financial matters.
God had prepared a man u> save the country in the person at
Dr. Salazar, who became Minister of Finance in April, 1928. He
had been Minister for a few days in 1926, but another had then
been put in bis place and he had gone back to Coimbra Univer
sity, where -he was professor of Finance. When, in 1928, the
finances of the country were in a desperate condition; the League
of -Nations granted a loan but demanded absolute control of Por
tugal's finances. The Government proudly refused and sent for
Salazar. He accepted and became Minister of Finance. Since
1932, he has been Prime Minister as well as Minister of Finance
and he has been engaged in restoring order to the national mind
and will as well as re-establishing economic and financial stabil
ity. A convinced Catholic, his whole reform of the State is based
on his personal conviction of the fact, so much insisted upon in
this work, that every human being is not only an individual but a
person, and that the State is for the development of the human
person, member of Christ, through the family. Thus he works
for the cultivation of solidarity amongst citizens for the Common
Good, without reducing them to the level of mere individuals. In
his economic reforms, Dr. Sakr/ar has accordingly aimed at re
versing the great disorder of modern times, whereby man is sub
ordinated to production of material goods and the production of
(I0)
material goods is subordinated to finance.
Tn regard to (he points of the Divine Plan for order concern
ing the relation of the State to the Catholic Church, the Family,
and the Kducalion of members of Christ, the Portuguese Con
stitution favours the return to order, while considering it prudent

(io) ]? 0Y a n excellent outline of Dr. Salazar's financial reforms, cf.

The Trtdh About TnrlttynU b y \\. Berthon "Waters (The J risk Peopfr
Publications, No. 7).
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 339

t o t a k e a c c o u n t of t h e r e s u l t s of d e c a y a n d t o a w a i t t h e d e v e l o p
m e n t of t h e r i g h t m e n t a l i t y t o w a r d s t h e D i v i n e P l a n , t h r o u g h
e d u c a t i o n . T h u s " t h e S t a t e s h a l l m a i n t a i n t h e r e g i m e of s e p a r
a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d a n y o t h e r r e l i g i o n or
cult practised within P o r t u g u e s e territory,' b u t will k e e p u p
d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e H o l y S e e w i t h r e c i p r o c i t y of r e p r e
sentation. Civil m a r r i a g e a n d civil d i v o r c e a r e a l l o w e d , b u t t h e
S t a t e will n o t p e r m i t C a t h o l i c s m a r r i e d by t h e C h u r c h t o a p p l y
for civil d i v o r c e . T h e S t a t e will t h u s n o t a i d t h e r e v o l t of C a t h o
lic m e m b e r s of C h r i s t a g a i n s t C h r i s t . A r t i c l e X X I V of t h e C o n
c o r d a t of 1940 s a y s : " I n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s of
C a t h o l i c m a r r i a g e , it is u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t t h e y
h a v e e n t e r e d i n t o a c a n o n i c a l m a r r i a g e , t h e p a r t i e s shall r e n o u n c e
t h e civil f a c u l t y of a p p l y i n g f o r a d i v o r c e w h i c h c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e
b e a p p l i e d b y civil c o u r t s t o C a t h o l i c m a r r i a g e s . "
A r t i c l e X X T on E d u c a t i o n e n a c t s : " T h e t e a c h i n g g i v e n b y t h e
S t a t e in p u b l i c s c h o o l s s h a l l b e g u i d e d b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s of C h r i s t
ian d o c t r i n e a n d m o r a l s t r a d i t i o n a l to the c o u n t r y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n a n d C a t h o l i c m o r a l s will b e t a u g h t in p u b l i c e l e
m e n t a r y , c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e Schools, to pupils w h o s e
p a r e n t s o r g u a r d i a n s h a v e n o t l o d g e d a r e q u e s t to the c o n t r a r y .
I n a s y l u m s , o r p h a n a g e s , official e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s
for t h e e d u c a t i o n o r c o r r e c t i o n o r r e f o r m of c h i l d r e n , u n d e r t h e
S t a t e , t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n will b e t a u g h t a n d t h e o b s e r v a n c e of
its p r a c t i c e s e n s u r e d , a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e S t a t e . F o r t h e t e a c h
i n g of t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n , t h e t e x t - b o o k s u s e d m u s t be p a s s e d
b y t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a n d t h e t e a c h e r s will b e a p p o i n t e d
by t h e S t a t e in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e s a i d a u t h o r i t i e s . I n n o c a s e
shall r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n b e g i v e n b y p e r s o n s n o t a p p r o v e d b y
the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a s c o m p e t e n t . "
I t is b y t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e fact t h a t m a n is n o t o n l y a n
individual s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e S t a t e b u t a l s o a person w h o s e w e l l -
b e i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t is t h e e n d of t h e S t a t e t h a t t h e P o r t u
guese Corporative State rises superior to the Italian. " T h e r e are
u n d o u b t e d l y , " said D r . Salazar, " p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s w i t h which
P o r t u g u e s e N a t i o n a l i s m h a s s i m i l a r i t y a n d p o i n t s of c o n t a c t . . . .
W e s h o u l d l i k e it, h o w e v e r , t o be fully u n d e r s t o o d t h a t w e h a v e
n o t p u t on o n e side t h e e r r o r s a n d v i c e s of a false l i b e r a l i s m a n d
of a f a l s e d e m o c r a c y t o e m b r a c e o t h e r s w h i c h m a y b e e v e n g r e a t e r ,
hut r a t h e r t o r e o r g a n i z e a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e c o u n t r y w i t h t h e

(11) Political Constitution of the Portuguese Republic ( E d i t i o n s S P N

Lisbon, p. 17). Article I of the C o n c o r d a t of 1940 r u n s as follows:
" T h e P o r t u g u e s e G o v e r n m e n t recognizes the personality a t law of the
Catholic Church. F r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s - w i t h the H o l y See shall he m a i n
tained i n the t r a d i t i o n a l m a n n e r by the a p p o i n t m e n t of an Apostolic
Nuncio to the P o r t u g u e s e "Republic and of a Portuguese Ambassador
to the H o l y S e e . "
 340 T H E M Y S T I C A L B O D Y O F CHRIST

p r i n c i p l e s of a u t h o r i t y , o r d e r a n d n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n , i n h a r m o n y
w i t h t h o s e e t e r n a l t r u t h s w h i c h a r e , h a p p i l y , t h e p a t r i m o n y of
12
h u m a n i t y a n d t h e a p p a n a g e of C h r i s t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . " * *
T h e P o r t u g u e s e S t a t e is a u t h o r i t a r i a n b u t n o t t o t a l i t a r i a n . On
t h e 2 6 t h M a y , 1934, D r . S a l a z a r w a r n e d t h e first C o n g r e s s of the
N a t i o n a l U n i o n a g a i n s t t h e d a n g e r of c o n f u s i n g t h e t w o . "We
m u s t r e m o v e f r o m u s , " h e s a i d , " t h e i m p u l s e t e n d i n g t o t h e form
a t i o n of w h a t m i g h t b e called t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n S t a t e . T h e State
w h i c h w o u l d s u b o r d i n a t e e v e r y t h i n g w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n to the
i d e a of t h e n a t i o n o r t h e r a c e , a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y it m o r a l l y , legally,
p o l i t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y , w o u l d p u t i t s e l f f o r w a r d a s "an o m n i
p o t e n t b e i n g , a b e g i n n i n g a n d a n e n d in itself, t o w h i c h all in
dividual and collective m a n i f e s t a t i o n s w e r e subject, a n d would
i n v o l v e a n a b s o l u t i s m w o r s e t h a n t h a t w h i c h p r e c e d e d t h e liberal
regimes, b e c a u s e t h a t a t l e a s t did n o t w i t h d r a w itself f r o m h u m a n
destiny. S u c h a S t a t e w o u l d b e e s s e n t i a l l y p a g a n , n a t u r a l l y in
c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e t e m p e r of o u r C h r i s t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . .
T h e Constitution, approved by p o p u l a r plebiscite, rejects, as irre
c o n c i l a b l e w i t h i t s a i m s , all t h a t d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y p r o c e e d s
from the totalitarian system. It begins by establishing morality
a n d l a w as limits to its s o v e r e i g n t y . I t c h a r g e s t h e S t a t e to re
s p e c t t h e n a t u r a l g u a r a n t e e s of i n d i v i d u a l s , f a m i l i e s , c o r p o r a t i o n s
a n d local a u t o n o m i e s . I t s a f e g u a r d s t h e l i b e r t y a n d t h e i n v i o l a b i l
i t y of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s . It a s s i g n s t o p a r e n t s and
t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e e d u c a t i o n of t h e i r
c h i l d r e n . I t g u a r a n t e e s p r o p e r t y , c a p i t a l a n d l a b o u r in s o c i a l h a r
mony."
T h e C o r p o r a t i v e O r g a n i z a t i o n h a s for end the h i g h e r destiny
x
of t h e N a t i o n a n d of t h e p e r s o n s w h o c o n s t i t u t e it. " In t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e e c o n o m i c c o r p o r a t i o n s , " said D r . S a l a z a r , " t h e
i n t e r e s t s w h i c h t h e y p u r s u e m u s t be k e p t in v i e w , o r , b e t t e r , the
i n t e r e s t s of p r o d u c t i o n m u s t b e s u b o r d i n a t e d n o t o n l y t o the
n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y as a w h o l e , b u t a l s o t o t h e s p i r i t u a l f i n a l i t y and
h i g h e r d e s t i n y of t h e N a t i o n a n d of t h e -parsons w h o c o n s t i t u t e
it."d3) n 'f o t h e r w o r d s , b e c a u s e all P o r t u g u e s e s u b j e c t s h a v e the
r i g h t t o a f r e e a n d dignified life ( a s persons), t h e r i g h t of P o r
t u g a l t o t h e s a m e free a n d d i g n i f i e d life m u s t be r e s p e c t e d b y all.
T h e w e l f a r e of t h e c o l l e c t i v i t y t r a n s c e n d s a n d is at t h e s a m e time
i n d i s p e n s a b l e for, t h e w e l f a r e of t h e individual.
" P o l i t i c a l P l u r a l i s m a d m i t s t h e r e a l i t y of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n or
f u n c t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n / ' w r i t e s S. G e o r g e W e s t , " a n d a c c o r d s it
a r e c o g n i z e d p l a c e in t h e o r g a n i z e d life of s o c i e t y , b u t d o e s not
r e g a r d t h e S t a t e as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e w h o l e o r g a n i z e d life of
(12) Discourse on The New Portuguese State in the Political Evolu
tion of Europe.
(13) Discourse on The New Portuguese State in tlw Politico] tftnht-
tion of Europe.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 341

s o c i e t y . . . . Political Pluralism, therefore, emphasizes freedom

rather than order. The Italian Corporative State also recognizes
the reality of functional association, hut seeks to make its corpor
ations subordinate contributors to the life of the Nation-State,
which is essentially sovereign. Fascism shows the Hegelian pre
ference for order. . . . The Portuguese Corporate State accepts
the reality of functional association common to Political Pluralism
and to Fascism, but repudiates the Liberty without Authority of
the former and the Authority wiLhout Liberty of the latter, sub
stituting for them the f o r m u l a Authority and' Liberties, which is
the fourth of the Ten Commandments [of the New Portuguese
State]
Twice the forces of Freemasonry have tried to overthrow t h e
work of reform. To Salazar's famous speech of 30th July, 1930,
the Grand-Master of the Portuguese Grand Orient replied b y a
secret message to the Masonic Lodges to prepare for the final
struggle against " the absolute domineering and despotic State,
which is a revival of the imperialist and theocratic states of the
Middle Ages. . . . Where is the source of that hidden force
which urges on the Portuguese to the realization of such an attack
on public liberty and on the democratic characteristics of our
nation? We well know that this source is the Vatican! It is
manifest that it is from there that proceeds the pressure which
brings to nought all the attempts to bring about a peaceful trans
formation of the dictatorship into a democratic and parliament
ary republic, neutral in religion. . . . The conception of t h e
Corporative State outlined in the discourse of Dr. Oliveira Salazar
on July 30th, 1930, contains the most obscurantist programme of
all the dictatorships. P>y a vigorous effort of the Masonic spirit,
we must win back the liberty which has been ravished from u s
of working for the greatness of o u r country and principally for
the good of humanity. Jn Portugal as elsewhere the latter is sub
ject lo plots and secret manoeuvres tending to bring about a re
15
turn of medieval ignorance."* *

<M> '/7*e iVe-uj Corporative State of Portugal, by S. George West,

Lecturer in Portuguese in the University of London, pp. 22-29 (Editions
SP^, Lisbon). No. 4 of the Ten Commandments ia; "The new State
1
repudiates the klea of ' Authority without Liberty equally with that
of * Liberty without Authority/ I t takes its stand rather on authority
and specific liberties, ay compatible and indeed mutually necessary
factors." No, 5 is: " In the Jtfew State the individual has his place in
society as a member of natural groups, viz., the Family, the Guild
or Corporation and the Municipality, and, as such, he enjoys all neces
sary rights. The New State is concerned not with the abstract rights
of man, but with th concrete liberties of men."
The concrete liberties of men are based on their duties to God.
H5) Cf. pp. 73-75 of Le Portugal Renait, by M. L6on de Poncins.
This Masonic Message was circulated during the year 1930.
342 T H K M Y S T I C A L B O D Y OF C H R I S T

Masonic action quickly followed in 1931 in the form of revolts

at Madeira, in Guinea and the Azores. Again, after the promul
gation of two laws, one of 13th May, 1935/concerning State func
tionaries, the other of 21st May, 1935, against secret societies, the
police nipped another Masonic revolutionarv movement in the
hud.
According to the terms of the law promulgated on the 21st
May, "all Stale functionaries and public servants, civil, political
or military, must henceforth testify in writing on their word of
honour that they are not members of the Masonic Society or of any
secret society and that they do not intend to enter such a society."
The report drawn up by Dr. A. de Andradc, Professor of Law at
the University of Lisbon, when presenting this law for the ap
proval of the Corporate Assembly, characterized Freemasonry as
"a State within the State, which ainied at replacing Christian civil
ization by "Masonic [naturalistic] civilization/*

TKKLAND'S RKACTIOX.
WIDESPREAD 1GN0KANCF, O F T H K MKAXIXG
OF NATURALISM.

The struggle against Kngland on' the national level has so

absorbed the attention of Irishmen that relatively few of them
ever envisage that struggle in its full relation to the vaster and
more intensely real conflict being waged between Our Lord Jesus
Christ and Satan. They know that when Kngland embraced the
form of disorder prevalent in the 16lh century, Ireland remained
steadfast in its hold on order, but they do not know accurately
what has been the effect <>f the French Revolution on Ireland,
considered from the point of view of the real struggle in the
world. Wc have seen that the progress of the French Revolution
has meant the successive renunciation by Stales of all acknow
ledgment of the Mystical Body of Christ and the supernatural
order, under the influence of the naturalistic supranationalism of
Freemasonry and the Jewish Nation. As a consequence, all reli
gions are placed on the same footing, that is, the Catholic Church
is placed "on the same level as heretical seels and even as Jewish
16
perfidy," to use the expression of Pope Pius VH/ > The State
thus declares itself indifferent in the struggle between Our Lord
Jesus Christ and the new Messias. and we know that "he who is
not with me is against me " (St. Mallh., XII, 30).
The widespread ignorance in Ireland of the meaning of Na
turalism and of the significance of the principles of 1789 is shown
by the repeated exhortations to Irishmen to accept without dis-
(161 Letter. Post tarn diuturnas (1814).
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 343

c r i m i n a t i o n t h e p r i n c i p l e s of W o l f e T o n e a n d J a m e s C o n n o l l y .
O n e of t h e g r e a t t r a g e d i e s of t h e s e m e n ' s lives w a s t h a t t h e y
w e r e c a u g h t u p in m o v e m e n t s of w h i c h t h e y w e r e far from r e a l
izing the inner significance and the ultimate orientation. This
t r a g e d y is e v e n m o r e p o i g n a n t in t h e c a s e of J a m e s C o n n o l l y t h a n
in t h a t of W o l f e T o n e , f o r J a m e s C o n n o l l y ' s d e v o u t r e c e p t i o n of
t h e S a c r a m e n t s a n d r e c i t a l of t h e R o s a r y b e f o r e d e a t h s h o w e d
t h a t h e b e l i e v e d f i r m l y i n t h e d i v i n i t y of O u r D i v i n e L o r d a n d
h o n o u r e d H i s Ulessed M o t h e r . L e t u s first see W o l f e T o n e ' s
i g n o r a n c e of t h e r e a l o r d e r of t h e w o r l d a n d of t h e i n n e r signific
a n c e of t h e m o v e m e n t h e w i s h e d t o p r o p a g a t e in I r e l a n d .

W O L F E T O N E AND T H E VICAR OF CHRIST.

T h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n f r o m T o n e ' s d i a r y s h o w s t h a t not;
o n l y w a s h e o p p o s e d t o t h e T e m p o r a l S o v e r e i g n t y of t h e P o p e
o v e r t h e P a p a l S t a t e s , w h i c h w a s t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l s a f e g u a r d of t h e
i n d e p e n d e n c e of C h r i s t ' s V i c a r , b u t t h a t his w h o l e a t t i t u d e to t h e
V i c a r of C h r i s t w a s o n e of h a t r e d a n d c o n t e m p t :
" M a r c h 1, 1798. A n e v e n t h a s t a k e n p l a c e , of a m a g n i t u d e
s c a r c e , if a t all, i n f e r i o r in i m p o r t a n c e to t h a t of t h e FYeneh R e
v o l u t i o n . T h e P o p e is d e t h r o n e d a n d in exile. T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
r e l a t i n g to this g r e a t e v e n t a r e such as to satisfy m y mind t h a t
t h e r e is a s p e c i a l P r o v i d e n c e g u i d i n g t h e affairs of E u r o p e a t t h i s
m o m e n t , a n d t u r n i n g e v e r y t h i n g t o t h e g r e a t e n d of t h e e m a n c i
p a t i o n of m a n k i n d f r o m t h e y o k e of r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l s u p e r
stition, u n d e r which they h a v e so l o n g groaned. S o m e m o n t h s
ago . . . . P>uonaparte a c c o r d e d a peace, and a g e n e r o u s one, to
t h e P o p e ; it w a s s i g n e d a t T o l e n t i n o . . . . M a n y p e o p l e t h o u g h t
a t t h e t i m e , a n d 1 w a s of t h e n u m b e r , t h a t it w a s u n w i s e t o l e t
slip s o f a v o u r a b l e a n opportunity t o d e s t r o y for e v e r t h e P a p a l
t y r a n n y . . . . One w o u l d h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t so n a r r o w an escape
m i g h t h a v e p r e v e n t e d t h e P o p e from rashly e m b a r k i n g into a
s e c o n d c o n t e s t w i t h t h e R e p u b l i c , h o l d i n g , a s h e did, his v e r y
e x i s t e n c e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e b r e a t h of B u o n a p a r t e , w h o m i g h t w i t h
a single w o r d have a n n i h i l a t e d him. B u t P r o v i d e n c e , for its o w n
w i s e a n d g r e a t p u r p o s e s , t h e h a p p i n e s s of m a n , a n d t h e c o m p l e t e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of civil a n d r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y , s e e m s t o h a v e u t t e r l y
t a k e n a w a y all s e n s e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m t h e P o p e a n d h i s
C o u n c i l s . . . . N o w t h e m e a s u r e of t h e folly a n d w i c k e d n e s s of
the P a p a l G o v e r n m e n t w a s filled, e v e n t o r u n n i n g o v e r . The
[ F r e n c h ] A m b a s s a d o r i n s t a n t l y quitted R o m e , w i t h his family,
a n n o u n c i n g these events to the Directory, w h o gave orders to
G e n e r a l J J e r t h i e r , t o a d v a n c e w i t h t h e i n v i n c i b l e a r m y of I t a l y o n
the a n c i e n t c a p i t a l of t h e w o r l d . A f e w d a y s p u t h i m in q u i e t
p o s s e s s i o n of R o m e , f r o m w h i c h all t h o s e c o n c e r n e d in t h e l a t e
a b o m i n a b l e t r a n s a c t i o n h a d fled, t h e P o p e a l o n e r e m a i n i n g . On
 344 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

his arrival, the Roman people assembled in the Capitol, formally

deposed the Pope, and declared themselves free and independent,
choosing a provisory government, under the ancient Roman
names of Consuls, Praetors, and Acdiles. Two or three days
after, the Pope left Rome, attended by two French aides-de-camp,
and where he is gone to, 1 do not yet know. . . . ' How art thou
fallen from Heaven, O Lucifer, Son of the Morning!' The Revel
ations have many line things on this subject, touching the ' Beast
1
and Uabylon/ &c Of the Pope's ten horns, God bless us, I've
M

knocked oil four already/ He is now a Prelate in partibus, his

means are gone, his cardinals, his court, his wealth, all disappear
ed, and nothing remains but his keys. It is a sad downfall for
the ' Servant of the Servants of God/ but I scorn to insult the old
07
gentleman in his misfortunes: Requiescat in p a c e ! " '

WOLFE TONE AND THE JEWISH LONGIXC. I-Ok

THE NATURAL MESSIAS.

Scarcely less revealing, in regard to Wolfe Tone's ignorance

of the order of the world, arc his comments on the Jewish long
ings for the natural Messias: "April 21 to 24, 1798. The last
Paris papers mention that Buonaparte is decidedly set off to take
the command of the expedition which is preparing in the Medi
terranean. . . . The object declared is Egypt and Syria. With
regard to this last country, in which Palestine is included, I sec
to-day an article in the Telegraph, which has struck me very much.
It is a proposal to invite the Jews from all quarters of the world,
to return to their parent country and restore their ancient temple.
. . . It is now not only possible but highly probable, that the Jews
may be once more collected, and the temple restored. The French
will naturally take care to stipulate for advantages in return, and
there is a giant's stride made at once into Asia I see
every day more and more, that after ten years of war, and the
defeat of all the despots of Europe united, the French Revolution
is but yet begun; the Hercules is yet in swaddling bands. What
(17) This quotation and the others which follow are taken from Life
of Theobald Wolfe Tone, Founder of the United Irish Society, written bv
himself (edited by his son, William Theobald Wolfe Tone. Edition of
1826. Washington: Printed by Gales and Seaton), Vol. II, pp. 464-466.
It is interesting to read the account of the incident which-was the
pretext for the invasion of Home by the French in L'figlixe Jtotnaine
ni face de hi Revolution, by Cretineau-Joly, Vol. I, p. 184. Concerning
the deposition of the Pope by the Roman people, Cretineau-Joly writes:
" In the name of the free and sovereign people of Rome, a deputation
of Jews, foreigners and mercenaries of the Revolution, representing the
ghosts of Cato, Ponipcy and Brutus, evoked by the future Prince of
Wagram (Berthicr), had the impertinence to declare to Pius VI that he
had lost his Temporal Rights" (op. cit., p. 1ST).
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 345

a people! Combining this intended m e a s u r e with the downfall

of t h e P o p e a l r e a d y a c c o m p l i s h e d , I h a v e n o d o u b t b u t a p e r s o n
. . . . m i g h t b u i l d v e r y e x t r a o r d i n a r y s y s t e m s . . . . If t h e J e w s
a r e r e s t o r e d , a s t h e i r w e a l t h is i m m e n s e in E u r o p e a n d in A s i a
i n c a l c u l a b l e , t h e R e p u b l i c w i l l of c o u r s e e x a c t c e r t a i n ' s h e k e l s
of g o l d / b e f o r e t h e y c o n s e n t t o t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e T a b e r n a c l e
18}
"< H e r e T o n e s h o w s himself indifferent b e t w e e n the
T r u e M e s s i a s a n d t h e n a t u r a l M e s s i a s w h o m C a t h o l i c s call A n t i
christ.

*\VOLFE TONE, NATURALISM AND ANTI-

SUPERNATURALISM.

T h e e v i d e n t N a t u r a l i s m of t h e R e v o l u t i o n w a s t m p e r c e i v e d b y
W o l f e T o n e . I n f a c t t h e w o r s h i p of t h e n a t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e
g o n e t o h i s h e a d : " M a r c h 30, 1796. W e n t t o - d a y t o t h e C h u r c h
of S t . R o c h , t o t h e fete, de la Jeunesse; all t h e y o u t h of t h e d i s
trict, w h o h a v e a t t a i n e d t h e a g e of s i x t e e n , w e r e t o p r e s e n t t h e m
selves b e f o r e t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y a n d r e c e i v e t h e i r a r m s , a n d t h o s e
w h o w e r e a r r i v e d a t t w e n t y - o n e w e r e t o be e n r o l l e d in t h e l i s t
of c i t i z e n s , in o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r r i g h t of v o t i n g in t h e a s s e m
blies. T h e C h u r c h w a s d e c o r a t e d w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l c o l o u r s , a n d
a s t a t u e of L i b e r t y , w i t h a n a l t a r b l a z i n g b e f o r e h e r . A t t h e f o o t
of t h e s t a t u e t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y w e r e s e a t e d , a n d t h e s i d e s of t h e
C h u r c h w e r e filled w i t h a c r o w d of s p e c t a t o r s , t h e p a r e n t s a n d
f r i e n d s of t h e y o u n g m e n , l e a v i n g a s p a c e v a c a n t in t h e c e n t r e
for t h e p r o c e s s i o n . I t c o n s i s t e d of t h e l S t a t - M a j o r of t h e s e c t i o n s
c o m p o s i n g t h e d i s t r i c t , of t h e N a t i o n a l G u a r d s u n d e r a r m s , of t h e
officers of t h e s e c t i o n s , a n d , finally, of t h e y o u n g m e n w h o w e r e
to b e p r e s e n t e d . . . . W h e n t h e s e w e r e a r m e d , t h e i r p a r e n t s a n d
m i s t r e s s e s e m b r a c e d t h e m , a n d t h e y r e t u r n e d to t h e i r station. It
is i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n c e i v e a n y t h i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n Lhc
s p e c t a c l e w a s a t t h a t m o m e n t ; t h e p r i d e a n d p l e a s u r e in t h e
c o u n t e n a n c e of t h e p a r e n t s ; t h e fierte of t h e y o u n g s o l d i e r s , a n d ,
a b o v e all, t h e e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e f e a t u r e s of s o m a n y y o u n g fe
males I w a s in a n e n t h u s i a s m . I do n o t w o n d e r
at t h e m i r a c l e s w h i c h t h e F r e n c h A r m y h a s w r o u g h t in t h e c o n
19
test for their liberties."* '
T h e A n t i - S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n w a s ,
m o r e o v e r , p l e a s i n g t o T o n e : " H e [ C l a r k e ] c a m e t o t h e influence
of t h e C a t h o l i c c l e r g y o v e r t h e m i n d s of t h e [ I r i s h ] p e o p l e , a n d
the a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t t h e y m i g h t w a r p t h e m a g a i n s t F r a n c e . I
a s s u r e d h i m , a s t h e f a c t is, t h a t it w a s m u c h m o r e likely t h a t
France would turn the people against the clergy; that within these
last f e w y e a r s , t h a t is to say, since t h e F r e n c h Revolution, an

(13) Op. cit., Vol. I I , p. 47b.

<w> O p . cit., Vol. I I , p . 76.
 346 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a s t o n i s h i n g c h a n g e , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e influence of t h e p r i e s t s ,
h a d t a k e n p l a c e in I r e l a n d . I m e n t i o n e d t o h i m t h e c o n d u c t of
t h a t body, p e n d i n g the Catholic business, and how m u c h and how
, ? ( 2 0 )
j u s t l y they h a d lost c h a r a c t e r on t h a t a c c o u n t . In fact, one
of t h e b e n c h Is w h i c h T o n e a n t i c i p a t e d f r o m " l i b e r t y " f o r I r i s h
Catholics w a s t h e decay o f the faith. In h i s Argument on behalf
of the Catholics of Ireland, we r e a d : " P e r s e c u t i o n b o u n d the Irish
J *apisi to h i s P r i e s t , a n d t h e I Viest t o t h e P o p e ; t h e b o n d of
u n i o n is d r a w n t i g h t e r by o p p r e s s i o n ; r e l a x a t i o n will u n d o it. T h e
e m a n c i p a t e d a n d liberal I r i s h m a n , like t h e e m a n c i p a t e d a n d liberal
F r e n c h m a n , m a y g o t o M a s s , m a y tell h i s b e a d s , o r s p r i n k l e his
m i s t r e s s w i t h h o l y w a t e r ; but n e i t h e r t h e o n e n o r t h e o t h e r will
a t t e n d t o t h e r u s t y a n d e x t i n g u i s h e d t h u n d e r b o l t s of t h e V a t i c a n ,
o r t h e idle a n a t h e m a s , w h i c h , i n d e e d , h i s H o l i n e s s is n o w - a - d a y s
211
too p r u d e n t a n d c a u t i o u s to issue."''

WOLKK T O N E ' S IGNORANCE OK THK REAL

MEANING OF MASONRY.

T o n e did n o t see t h a t t h e a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m of t h e Illum-

inali w a s the d r i v i n g force behind the R e v o l u t i o n and that
t h e r e f o r e its c r i m e s a n d excesses w e r e but the logical conclusion
( 2 2 )
of t h e f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d in t h e L o d g e s . In his Address to the
People of Ireland, h e w r o t e : " N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e C a t h o l i c c l e r g y
a r c s o fully a n d so beneficially l o t h e m s e l v e s o c c u p i e d in p r e a c h
i n g submission to those w h o a r c put o v e r us, and u t t e r i n g violent
p h i l i p p i c s a g a i n s t t h e p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h e c o n d u c t of t h e F r e n c h
R e v o l u t i o n , t h e i r a i m is o b v i o u s ; y e t it is to be l a m e n t e d t h a t
t h e s e i n v e c t i v e s h a v e r e c e i v e d g r e a t f o r c e , a n d all t h e c o l o r i n g
t o w h i c h t h e i r s u c c e s s is o w i n g a r i s e s f r o m a m o m e n t a r y devi
a t i o n f r o m o n e of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e F r e n c h R e p u b l i c , a s o l e m n
r e n u n c i a t i o n of c o n q u e s t . I3ut t h e r e i g n of l i b e r t y , j u s t i c e , and
t r u t h , is r e s t o r e d t o P r a n c e , a n d t v r a n t s t r e m b l e o n t h e i r
2 3
thrones."' '
A g a i n , in An Address to the Peasantry of Ireland, by a Traveller
(1796), T o n e w r o t e : " C o u n t r y m e n : Great pains have been taken
i n o r d e r t o m i s l e a d a n d m i s i n f o r m y o n o n t h e s u b j e c t of the
F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , by v a r i o u s d e s c r i p t i o n s of p e o p l e , w h o s e in
t e r e s t it is, a n d , of c o u r s e , w h o s e p o l i c y it e v e r h a s b e e n , t o keep
y o u in i g n o r a n c e . T h e y h a v e e n d e a v o u r e d t o i m p r e s s y o u w i t h
h o r r o r a t t h e i d e a of t h e e x e c u t i o n of t h e k i n g , of t h e b a n i s h m e n t
a n d p l u n d e r of t h e n o b i l i t y , a n d e s p e c i a l l y of t h e c l e r g y . . . . ft
w o u l d be in v a i n lo d e n y t h a t , in t h e c o u r s e of t h e R e v o l u t i o n .
(20) Op. cifc., Vol. I I , p . 51.
(20 Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 358.
(22) Cf. B a r r u e l , Robison, Deschamps, Cochin, a l r e a d y referred to.
'23) Op. cit., Vol. I I , p. 311.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 347

many horrible acts of cruelty and injustice have been committed;

the Government was, unfortunately, for some time, in the hands
of men utterly devoid of humanity and feeling', who sacrificed,
without distinction, the innocent and the guilty to their own
avarice, ambition or revenge. . . . It has been the policy of your
oppressors to dwell upon the crimes which, unhappily, for a short
period, disgraced the Revolution, which exist no longer, and of
which no trace remains." The " no trace remains " is certainly
a remarkable statement in 1796.
Earlier in this book, something has been said of the process
of intellectual sapping or undermining to which the all-important
concepts of " body," " member," and " life" were subjected by
Ockhamism, from the 14th to the 16th century, with the result
that the vital truths concerning the Mystical Body of Christ and
the Divine Plan for order became blurred for many minds and
their hold on them was weakened. The same process has been
going on in our country in regard to the concept of nationality,
with the result that, between Owen Roc O'Neill's concept of
nationality and that of Wolfe Tone, there is a gulf. For Owen
Roe O'Neill, the development of national life is meant not only
not to hinder but to help every member of the nation to live his
personal life as a member of Christ. The Mystical Body of Christ,
not the State or Nation, is the supreme entity charged with the
supreme interests. For Wolfe Tone, membership of Christ does
not exist, the supreme dignity is that of the citizen of the Nation.
There is nothing higher than that. Thus he shows the disorder
of his mind and his unfitness to serve as a model in the Irish
national struggle. Now the nations of this world do not stand
still, so our country, like all countries, will either return to in
tegral acknowledgment of Christ the King or it will drift further
to the Left, that is, into the camp of Satan. The spiritual de
scendants of Owen Roe O'Neill and Wolfe Tone fought each other
for the soul of Owen Roe's adopted country, Spain, quite recently.
Spain was saved for Christ the King. Will Ireland remain faithful
to Him ? ..Yes, on condition of realizing more fully than Wolfe
Tone and James Connolly whither the principles of 1789 lead,
and rejecting them integrally. Let us now see how James Con
nolly failed to do so.

JAMES CONNOLLY'S IGNORANCE OF THE MEANING AND

T H E AIM OF COMMUNISM.

We have already seen that the strongly organized naturalis

tic Jewish Nation gradually got control of the Socialist or Col-
lectivist current issuing from the principles of the French Revo
lution and that the Jews brought these to their logical conclusion
by the installation of a Communist State in Russia. In The
 348 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Mystical Body of Christ in the Modem World (pp. 228-236), an

o u t l i n e is g i v e n of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s a n d t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e
q u e n c e s of M a r x i a n M a t e r i a l i s m . F o r M a r x men are purely
m a t e r i a l like the i r r a t i o n a l a n i m a l s , and, as such, b e i n g mere
individuals n o t persons, t h e y c a n n o t a s p i r e t o h a v e f a m i l y life, a
n a t i v e l a n d , o r u n i o n w i t h G o d t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of Christ".
ft
F o r M a r x i s t s , t h e r e cannot be a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n such as wc
C a t h o l i c s u n d e r s t a n d b y t h e f a m i l y . M e n a r e p u r e l y m a t e r i a l like
t h e a n i m a l s . T h e y h a v e sexual i n t e r c o u r s e , as n a t u r a l instinct
i n c l i n e s t h e m t h e r e t o , b u t t h e c h i l d r e n b o r n of t h e s e u n i o n s b e
l o n g to the collectivity, to t h e M a r x i a n W o r l d - S t a t e . T h e r e can
n o t , of c o u r s e , b e a n y q u e s t i o n of a n a t i v e l a n d (patria) in the
C a t h o l i c s e n s e . M a t e r i a l m a n w o r k s a n d modifies b y h i s l a b o u r
t h e p a r t i c u l a r p o r t i o n of m a t t e r a s s i g n e d t o h i m b y t h e S t a l e -
G o d , b u t all o u r l a n g u a g e a b o u t c o n t i n u i n g t h e s p i r i t u a l t r a d i
t i o n s of o u r a n c e s t o r s is s i m p l y m e a n i n g l e s s b o u r g e o i s c a n t . M a n
is p u r e l y m a t e r i a l a n d , in d u e t i m e , g i v e n t h e c o r r e c t M a r x i a n
. e d u c a t i o n , h e w i l l b e e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a t t e r a n d its
m o d i f i c a t i o n s , a s h e s h o u l d b e . F i n a l l y , t h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as
G o d o r t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y o r t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of G r a c e .
T h e S e c o n d P e r s o n of t h e B l e s s e d T r i n i t y c o u l d n o t b e c o m e M a n ,
f o r a s h a s j u s t b e e n s a i d , t h e r e is n o G o d a n d n o B l e s s e d T r i n i t y .
O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t is j u s t a m e r e c l o d of m a t t e r l i k e t h e r e s t
of us."<>
N o w , J a m e s C o n n o l l y c a m e u p a g a i n s t this b l a t a n t M a t e r i a l
i s m u n d e r J e w i s h l e a d e r s h i p , in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d y e t h e w a s
unable to see t h a t the whole m o v e m e n t w a s simply a prepara
tion for t h e r e i g n of t h e n a t u r a l M e s s i a s . T h e following pass
a g e s f r o m M r . D a v i d G o l d s t e i n ' s b o o k , Autobiography of a Cam
paigner for Christ ( p p . 1 8 5 - 1 8 7 ) , w i l l suffice t o m a k e t h i s c l e a r :
" H e [ C o n n o l l y J t a c k l e d t h e b i g g e s t m a n i n t e l l e c t u a l l y in the
s o c i a l i s t m o v e m e n t of t h e W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e , P r o f e s s o r Daniel
De Leon. . . . . A f e w e x c e r p t s f r o m t h e official o r g a n of
S o c i a l i s t L a b o r P a r t y , The Weekly People, A p r i l 9, 1904, will
s h o w t h a t C o n n o l l y d e a l t w i t h S o c i a l i s m in t h e s a m e m a n n e r as
t h e m a n w h o s e p a r a t e d w a t e r i n t o i t s c o m p o n e n t p a r t s , o x y g e n and
h y d r o g e n , c o n s u m i n g t h e o x y g e n a n d i m a g i n i n g t h a t he was
d r i n k i n g w a t e r , C o n n o l l y s e p a r a t e d t h e o x y g e n of s o c i a l i s m i t s
e c o n o m i c s f r o m t h e h y d r o g e n of s o c i a l i s m i t s M a r x i a n p h i l o s o
p h y a n d i m a g i n e d he had real socialism. T o q u o t e from Connolly
himself: ' M y comrade's views [against monogamic marriage],
e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n in The Weekly People of Rebel's
Woman, a r c h e l d by a v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r of m e m b e r s , b u t T hold,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t t h e y a r e w r o n g , a n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a i such
w o r k s a n d s u c h p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e an e x c r e s c e n c e u p o n t h e m o v e -

24) The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modern World, p .

 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 349

mem. The abolition of the capitalist system will, undoubtedly,

solve the economic side of the Woman Question, but it will solve
that alone. The question of marriage, of divorce, of paternity,
of the equality of woman with man are physical and sexual ques
tions . . . . and in a Socialist Republic would still be as hotly
contested as they are to-day The attitude of the party
towards religion is another one on which I believe there is a tend
ency at present to stray from the correct path. Theoretically
every Socialist Labor Party man agrees that Socialism is a poli
tical and economic question, and has nothing to do with religion.
1-5ut how many adhere to that position? Very few indeed. I hold
that mine is the correct Socialist Labor Party doctrine.' Now,
will some one please tread on the tail of my coat?'
" Connolly put the tail of his coat just where de Leon could
and did tread on it and all over it. De Leon finally lifted it up
and booted Connolly out of the Socialist Labor Party
Connolly's two and a half column article in The Weekly People
was followed by De Leon's five column reply. Connolly coun
tered, but it went into thin airnot into The Weekly People. He
was taught a lesson others have learned, that free speech is a
good propaganda slogan to use against the ' capitalist press/ but
that does not mean freedom to tell the Socialist Labor Party,
in a Socialist Labor Party paper, what Socialist Labor Party
doctrine is, when it is not Socialist Labor Party doctrine.
" In the Reminiscences of The Socialist Labor Movement and
Its Great Leader, Daniel De Leon, the story of the clash was re
(25
corded, with a socialist twist, for future generations." >
J A M E S CONNOLLY'S IGNORANCE OF CATHOLIC
TEACHING.

That James Connolly's knowledge of Catholic Teaching was

very imperfect can be readily seen, even from what he says above
in defence of Christian marriage. He makes the silly assertion
that marriage is a physical question not an economic question. He
should have known that marriage is above all a moral question
and then an economic and physical question, and that Our J-,ord
has laid down the order to be observed in regard to it. If he
had only given one-half the energy to the study of Pope Leo
XllTs Encyclical Letter, On the Condition of the Working Classes,
and its exposition of the Divine 1*1 an for order, that he had given
to Marx's Neo-Messianic plans for disorder, he would have done
a marvellous amount of good because of his strength of char
ts) A man named De Lion is mentioned by the Jewish writer.
Bernard Lazare, in IsAnti&tmitwme (p. 344), as a Jewish propagator
of Socialism. According to the Dictionary of American Biography. T*v
Loon always pretended to be a Venezuelan Catholic.
350 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

acter. H e w o u l d h a v e learned, for e x a m p l e , t h a t w e m u s t a l w a y s

l a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e moral a s p e c t of economic and physical
q u e s t i o n s . T h u s he w o u l d h a v e s e e n in P o p e L e o X I H ' s E n c y c l i
c a l , Rcrum Xoran/m, w h a t Pope Pius X I insisted upon forty
y e a r s later, namely, that the Church " never can relinquish her
G o d - g i v e n t a s k of i n t e r p o s i n g h e r a u t h o r i t y , n o t i n d e e d in t e c h
nical m a t t e r s , for w h i c h she h a s n e i t h e r t h e e q u i p m e n t n o r the
m i s s i o n , b u t in all t h o s e t h a t h a v e a b e a r i n g on m o r a l c o n d u c t .
F o r t h e d e p o s i t of t r u t h e n t r u s t e d t o U s b y G o d , a n d O u r w e i g h t y
office of p r o p a g a t i n g , i n t e r p r e t i n g , a n d u r g i n g , in s e a s o n a n d o u t
of s e a s o n , t h e e n t i r e m o r a l l a w , d e m a n d t h a t b o t h s o c i a l a n d
e c o n o m i c q u e s t i o n s be b r o u g h t w i t h i n O u r s u p r e m e j u r i s d i c t i o n ,
in s o f a r a s t h e y r e f e r t o m o r a l i s s u e s . F o r t h o u g h e c o n o m i c
s c i e n c e a n d m o r a l d i s c i p l i n e a r c g u i d e d e a c h b y its o w n p r i n c i p l e s
in i t s o w n s p h e r e , it is false t h a t t h e t w o o r d e r s a r e s o d i s t i n c t
a n d a l i e n t h a t t h e f o r m e r in n o w a y d e p e n d s o n t h e l a t t e r . The
s o - c a l l e d l a w s of e c o n o m i c s , d e r i v e d f r o m t h e n a t u r e of e a r t h l y
g o o d s a n d f r o m t h e q u a l i t i e s of t h e h u m a n b o d y a n d s o u l , d e t e r
m i n e w h a t m e a n s a r e t h e r e b y n e c e s s a r y ; w h i l e r e a s o n itself
c l e a r l y d e d u c e s f r o m t h e n a t u r e of t h i n g s a n d f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l
a n d s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r of m a n , w l i a t is t h e e n d a n d o b j e c t of t h e
Avhole e c o n o m i c o r d e r a s s i g n e d b y G o d t h e C r e a t o r . It is t h e
m o r a l l a w a l o n e w h i c h c o m m a n d s u s t o s e e k in all o u r c o n d u c t
o u r s u p r e m e a n d final e n d , a n d t o s t r i v e d i r e c t l y in o u r specific
a c t i o n s for t h o s e e n d s w h i c h n a t u r e , o r r a t h e r , t h e A u t h o r of
n a t u r e h a s e s t a b l i s h e d for t h e m , d u l y s u b o r d i n a t i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r
t o t h e g e n e r a l . . . . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e w e shall be led b y p r o
g r e s s i v e s t a g e s t o t h e final end of all, G o d H i m s e l f , o u r h i g h e s t
f 2 G )
and lasting good."
B e c a u s e of h i s i m p e r f e c t k n o w l e d g e , J a m e s C o n n o l l y h a s d o n e
a n a m o u n t of h a r m , a s b e h a s diffused a o n e - s i d e d v i e w of the
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , w h i c h he d e r i v e d f r o m M a r x . B o t h f a i l e d t o see
that O u r L o r d and His Mystical Body, the Catholic Church, stand
f o r t h e D i v i n e P l a n f o r o r d e r in t h e w o r l d a n d n e v e r c e a s e t o
p r o c l a i m t h a t o r d e r e v e n w h e n i t is r e j e c t e d a n d t h e y a r e c r u c i
fied. T h e c r u c i f i x i o n b y t h e w o r l d in b o t h c a s e s is t h e r e s u l t of
t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of t h e d i v i n e o r d e r . A l o n g w i t h O u r L o r d in
Holy Mass, His members proclaim their determination to work
v a l i a n t l y t o o r g a n i z e t h e w o r l d in t h e w a y C h r i s t w a n t s a n d n o t
t o a l l o w social life t o be m o u l d e d in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e D i v i n e
Plan. Of c o u r s e , t h e C h u r c h p r e a c h e s h u m i l i t y a n d p a t i e n c e in
f a c e of t r i u m p h a n t evil, b u t s h e a l s o p r e a c h e s m a g n a n i m i t y and
f o r t i t u d e in a c t i o n for t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d for w h i c h O u r L o r d
d i e d . T h e M a s s is n o t a m e r e p u b l i c a c t of r e s i g n a t i o n t o the
disorder organized by those w h o reject the Divine Plan, whether
( fi
2 > Em-yclical Letter, Quadragesima Anno.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 351

" Creative Capitalists "continually attacked by Communistsor

" Loan-Capitalists"less frequently, o r never, mentioned b y
Communists. N o ; God wants all who assist at Mass l o under
stand that they are affirming" publicly their readiness t o strive
for order with His Son, that order in which all will b e treated
with the reverence due t o members of His Son. That will mean
striving for an organization of the world opposed t o those who in
self-centred fashion, maintain disorder and increase the suffer
ings of the poor and the lowly.
In 1910, Pius X exposed this teaching as follows: "As in the
conflict of interests and most of all in t h e struggle against unjust
forces, a man's virtue, nay his sanctity, does n o t always suffice t o
assure him his daily bread, and as the social machinery ought
to be so organized as, b y its natural action, to paralyse the efforts
of the wicked, and t o render accessible t o every man of good
will his legitimate share of temporal happiness, Wc earnestly
desire that you should take an active share in organizing society
for that purpose. And for that end, while your priests shall
apply themselves with ardour t o labour for the sanctilication of
souls, for the defence of the Church, and in works of charity pro
perly s o called, y o u shall select from amongst them some men of
activity and of well-balanced minds, doctors of philosophy and
theology, perfectly conversant with the history of civilization,
ancient and modern, and you shall apply them t o the less exalted,
but more practical, study of social science, and when the oppor
tunity offers place them a t the head of your works of Catholic
Action. However, let not those priests a l l o w themselves t o be
led. astray in the maze of contemporary opinions, b y the mirage
of a false democracy. . . . Let them be persuaded that . . . .
the Church, which has never betrayed the happiness of the people
by compromising alliances, has no need t o disown her past, that
it is enough for her, with the co-opcralion of the real workmen
of social re-organization, to take u p again the organizations
shattered b y the Revolution, a n d in the same Christian spirit
which inspired them, t o adapt them to t h e n e w environment
created b y the material evolution of contemporary society: for
the true friends of the people arc neither revolutionaries, n o r in
27
novators, but men of tradition."* '
Hence James Connolly drew a o n e - s i d e d conclusion from

<*27> Letter of 25th August, 1910, on the Silloti (Translation of Irish

C.T.S.). We can sec from Pope Pius X\s Letter how grievously J a m e s
Connolly erred when he spoke of the Catholic Church as " ever coun
selling humility, but sitting in the seats of the mighty: ever patching
up the diseased a n d broken wrecks of an unjust social system, but bless
ing the system which made the wreck and spread the disease " {Labour
Natimwlity and Religion, p. 75). Cf. The Mystical Bodu of C,hri*t ni
the Modem. World, pp. 14-24 a n d 215-228.
 352 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

C a t h o l i c e x h o r t a t i o n s to b e a r o n e ' s s u f f e r i n g s in u n i o n w i t h C h r i s t .
It is t r u e t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h d o e s p r e a c h r e s i g n a t i o n in
s u f f e r i n g , b e c a u s e s u f f e r i n g is i n e v i t a b l e in o u r fallen w o r l d , b u t
t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ' s w h o l e m e s s a g e is f a r f r o m b e i n g l i m i t e d t o
t h a t , as w c h a v e seen. God w a n t s us to b e a r the sufferings t h a t
a r e i n e v i t a b l e in a fallen w o r l d , a s P o p e L e o X t H i n s i s t s i n t h e
E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Iicrum Novaram, b u t H e does n o t will sin a n d
d i s o r d e r w i t h c o n s e q u e n t infliction of s u f f e r i n g , a n d H e w a n t s
o r g a n i z a t i o n o n t h e p a r t of g o o d m e n s o t h a t s u c h c r i m e s m a y be
prevented. G o d ' s a i m is a l w a y s o r d e r . He wants an ordered
o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e w o r l d s o t h a t a sufficiency of m a t e r i a l g o o d s
f o r t h e life of a h u m a n p e r s o n m a y b e w i t h i n r e a c h of e a c h a n d
all. H e w a n t s o r d e r in m e e t i n g t h e i n e v i t a b l e s u f f e r i n g s of life,
b u t H e did n o t i n t r o d u c e s u f f e r i n g i n t o t h e w o r l d a n d H e d o e s
n o t will, f o r e x a m p l e , a financial s y s t e m w h i c h w i l f u l l y inflicts
s u f f e r i n g b y o r g a n i z i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of f o o d a n d t h u s c o n n i v
i n g a t t h e s t a r v a t i o n of t h o u s a n d s in t h e m i d s t of p o t e n t i a l p l e n t y .
G o d w a n t s s o c i e t y t o b e o r g a n i z e d in s u c h a w a y a s t o p r e v e n t
selfish m e n f r o m i n f l i c t i n g s u c h s u f f e r i n g s , b u t H e d o e s n o t w a n t
t h e r e a c t i o n t h e r e t o t o be in t h e d i r e c t i o n of C o m m u n i s m . The
w h o l e t r e n d of C o m m u n i s m is t o r e d u c e h u m a n b e i n g s t o t h e
a n i m a l o r s u b - h u m a n level, l e a v i n g t h e m w i t h o u t r e l i g i o n , f a m i l y
o r proj)erty. A g a i n s t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e w e a k b y r u t h l e s s
I n d i v i d u a l i s m , t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h p r e a c h e s t h e s o l i d a r i t y of
m e m b e r s of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y , w h i l e , a g a i n s t t h e a n t i - h u m a n
C o m m u n i s t d e n i a l of h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y , s h e p r e a c h e s t h e l o f t v
d i g n i t y of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n , m e m b e r of C h r i s t .
If J a m e s C o n n o l l y in h i s b l i n d n e s s c o u l d n o t s e e w h i t h e r he
w a s b e i n g led, t h a t is n o r e a s o n w h y w e s h o u l d f o l l o w t h o s e
28 1
w h o w a n t t o fool u s by u s i n g his n a m e . ' - A c c o r d i n g t o The
<28) Connolly never g r a s p e d the d i s t i n c t i o n between C r e a t i v e Cap
i t a l i s m and L o a n - C a p i t a l i s m and .never saw t h a t C o m m u n i s m was
o n l y ^ the left 'wing of i n t e r n a t i o n a l finance. P e r h a p s the -most
s t r i k i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of J a m e s Connolly's blindness is t o be found
i n t h e passage which he quotes from the j o u r n a l , " The F l a g
of I r e l a n d / ' of October 3rd, 1808, in Labour in. Jrixh History
( M a u n s e l l and Co.,-1917, p . 203). H e there says t h a t the f o u n d e r s of
F e n i a n i s m , " O ' M a h o n y a n d Stephens, h a d entered i n t o t h e secret
societies of F r a n c e . . . . T o Stephens is d u e the d i r e c t i o n F e n i a n i s m
took in line of s y m p a t h y with the movements of the "Revolution on the
C o n t i n e n t . H e saw that the I r i s h question was no longer a question
of religion. . . . T h e circumstance t h a t the (leneral chosen by Stephens
t o be the Commander-in-Chief of the I r i s h Republican A r m y was no less
a c h a r a c t e r t h a n Oeneral Cluseret, a f t e r w a r d s Commander-in-Chief of
the F e d e r a l s d u r i n g the Commune of P a r i s , says more foi' the principle*
of the men who were the b r a i n s of Ihe F e n i a n movement t h a n a n y testi
m o n y of s u b o r d i n a t e s . " How could Connolly he so blind as to a p p r o v e
of m a k i n g his c o u n t r y a c a t s p a w for J u d a e o - M a s o u i c schemers on the
Continent?
I n a d d i t i o n to Th If iht-rnian Jnurnal fXovemher, 1037) T have heeii
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 353

Hibernian Journal ( N o v e m b e r , 1937), M r . W i l l i a m O ' B r i e n , l a t e r

a L a b o u r R e p r e s e n t a t i v e for T i p p e r a r y , delivered a speech at the
M a n s i o n H o u s e , D u b l i n , i n 1918. T h e o b j e c t of t h e m e e t i n g a t >
which the speech was delivered was " to congratulate the Russian
p e o p l e o n t h e t r i u m p h t h e y h a d w o n for d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s . "
I n t h e c o u r s e of t h e s p e e c h , M r . O ' B r i e n s a i d : " T h e f r e e d o m t h a t
R u s s i a h a s w o n is t h e s a m e k i n d of f r e e d o m t h a t h a s b e e n f o u g h t
for b y e v e r y r e v o l u t i o n a r y in I r e l a n d f r o m W o l f e T o n e t o J a m e s
Connolly.'" A n o t h e r s p e a k e r s a i d : " T h e R u s s i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
t h e p r i n c i p l e | o f f r e e d o m ] is t h e o n l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t will b e
a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e p e o p l e of I r e l a n d . " J t m a y be c o n c e d e d
t h a t t h e t r i u m p h of t h e N c o - M c s s i a n i s m of K a r l M a r x is
a logical conclusion of. t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s of the
French Revolution accepted by Wolfe Tone, and w e may
regret t h e b l i n d n e s s of W o l f e T o n e a n d J a m e s Connolly.
B u t w e s h o u l d be fools t o f o l l o w t h e m a g a i n s t O u r L o r d .
S u r e l y M r . O'Brien c a n n o t t h i n k us so naive as to believe
w h a t w a s said a b o u t t h e R u s s i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e of
f r e e d o m ? W h e n m a n is p u r e l y m a t e r i a l a n d a n i m a l , a s h e is f o r
M a r x a n d Lenin, w h a t m e a n i n g can be ascribed to the w o r d s
" f r e e d o m " and " l i b e r t y " ?
T H E I R I S H C O N S T I T U T I O N O F 1937.
I n t h e b e a u t i f u l P r o l o g u e t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , is t o be f o u n d
t h e f o l l o w i n g s p l e n d i d p r o f e s s i o n of f a i t h : " W e , t h e p e o p l e of
Ireland h u m b l y a c k n o w l e d g i n g all o u r o b l i g a t i o n s t o
Our Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, w h o sustained our fathers through
c e n t u r i e s of t r i a l , d o h e r e b y a d o p t , e n a c t , a n d give t o
o u r s e l v e s t h i s C o n s t i t u t i o n . " B y t h a t p r o f e s s i o n of f a i t h , w e p r o
c l a i m e d t o t h e w o r l d t h a t w e a c k n o w l e d g e d n o t m e r e l y som-e,
b u t all, o u r o b l i g a t i o n s t o O u r D i v i n e L o r d , J e s u s C h r i s t , T r u e
G o d a n d T r u e M a n , J u d g e of all m a n k i n d . Y e t , in r e g a r d t o t h e
c e n t r a l p o i n t of t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d , n a m e l y , t h e r e l a t i o n of
our nation to the one T r u e Church which Our L o r d came d o w n
o n e a r t h t o f o u n d , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n fails l a m e n t a b l y t o a c k n o w
l e d g e t h e R i g h t s of G o d a n d i t s o b l i g a t i o n s t o O u r D i v i n e L o r d .
T h e r e f e r e n c e is to A r t i c l e 4 4 o n R e l i g i o n .
I n S e c t i o n I of t h a t A r t i c l e , t h e S t a t e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e
h o m a g e of p u b l i c w o r s h i p is d u e t o A l m i g h t y God. F r o m this
t h e l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t t h i s h o m a g e of w o r s h i p s h o u l d b e
g i v e n t o H i m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e a n d in t h e m a n n e r H e H i m s e l f
has laid d o w n , namely, t h r o u g h the Catholic C h u r c h instituted
able t o read t h e account of t h e M a n s i o n House meeting in The Free
man's Journal of F e b r u a r y 5, 1918, t h a n k s to the kindness of the
E d i t o r of The Hibernian Journal in securing me a p h o t o g r a p h e d copy
of the issue in question. A c c o r d i n g to the Freeman's Journal, the
meeting was organized by the Socialist P a r t y of I r e l a n d and was
presided over by Mr. O ' B r i e n .
BB
354 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

by Christ. Yet there is nothing like this in the Constitution. The

State does not acknowledge that the one true religion according
to which Almighty God desires to be worshipped is that of the
Church established by Our Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, namely, the
Catholic Church. Instead, the State recognizes the position of the
Catholic Church as ihc Church of the great majority of the citi
zens, just as it recognizes the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ire
land, the Methodist Church in Ireland, the Religious Society of
Friends in Ireland, as well as the Jewish Congregations and the
other religions denominations existing in Ireland at the date of
its coming into operation, as the Churches of minorities. The
expression used with regard to the Catholic Church, namely, that
the State recognizes the special position of the Catholic Church as
the guardian of the Faith professed by the great majority of Irish
citizens, may leave a superficial reader under the impression that
the Irish State follows up the declaration of the opening sub
section to its logical conclusion. Alas! it does nothing of the
kind. The State simply acknowledges what is evident to anybody
who can count, namely, that the majority of Irishmen in Ireland
profess the Catholic Faith.
In addition, by the use of the word "recognizes" for all the
different forms of religion, the Irish State seems to attribute
rights to erroneous systems as such and, by putting all religions on
the same level, professes that religious indifference condemned
in such forcible terms by Pope Leo XIIT: " T o hold, therefore/'
writes Pope Leo, "that there is no difference in matters of reli
gion between forms that are unlike each other, and even contrary
to each other, most clearly leads in the end to the rejection of all
religion in both theory and practice. And this is the same thing
as atheism, however it may differ from it in name. Men who
really believe in the existence of God must, in order to be con
sistent with themselves and to avoid absurd conclusions, under
stand that differing modes of divine worship involving dissimilar
ity and eoniiict even on most important points, cannot nil be
29J
equally probable, equally good, and equally acceptable to God."*
The influence of the French Revolution is most clearly visible in

(29)Encyclical Letter, fmrnortale Dei\ On the Christian Constitution

of Stnten. Previously, in the same Letter, Pope Leo had stressed the
fact that the acknowledgment of the one True Kelijdon by the. State
is " the bounden duly of rulers to the people over whom they rule." In
the Kncyclical Letter on Human Liberty, Pope Leo XTII points out that
41
right is a moral power which it is absurd to suppose^thafc nature has
accorded indifferently to truth and falsehood . . for it is contrary to
reason that error and trulh should have equal rights." Cf. The Mystical
Body of Christ in ihc Modern World ( 2 n d Ldition), p. 251.
1
It- is w e l l to not* , in {uldition, that acknowledgment of the Catholic
Church as the one True Church does not necessarily^ involve State-
endowment of the Church. The two things are quite distinct.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 355

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I r i s h S t a t e p r o c l a i m s itself i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e
T r u e M e s s i a s w h o h a s c o m e a n d to the n a t u r a l Messias looked
f o r w a r d to by the J e w i s h C o n g r e g a t i o n s . T h e different P r o t e s t
a n t s e c t s , in t h e o r y a t l e a s t , a c k n o w l e d g e t h e d i v i n i t y of O u r
L o r d a n d t h u s a r e t u r n e d t o w a r d s t h e o n e t r u e o r d e r of t h e
w o r l d . T h e J e w i s h N a t i o n l o o k s f o r w a r d t o t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of
that order.
A n o t h e r a m b i g u i t y in t h e s a m e a r t i c l e m u s t b e p o i n t e d o u t ,
for i t is t o be f o u n d in p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n
stitution. " F r e e d o m of c o n s c i e n c e " a n d " t h e f r e e p r o f e s s i o n
a n d p r a c t i c e of r e l i g i o n " a r e , " s u b j e c t t o p u b l i c o r d e r a n d
morality/' g u a r a n t e e d t o e v e r y c i t i z e n . B u t w h o is t o d e c i d e w h a t
is m o r a l a n d w h a t is i m m o r a l ? P o p e L e o X I I I e x p r e s s l y t e a c h e s in
t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , lrnmortalc Dei, t h a t " t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h
is t h e t r u e a n d sole t e a c h e r of v i r t u e a n d g u a r d i a n of m o r a l s . "
H e r d i v i n e m i s s i o n t o s a f e g u a r d t h e m o r a l l a w is, h o w e v e r , n o t
a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e S t a t e , a s w e h a v e s e e n . S h e is p u t o n t h e
s a m e level as v a r i o u s o t h e r m a n - m a d e bodies t h a t claim to h a v e
the r i g h t to give a u t h o r i t a t i v e decisions w i t h r e g a r d to morality.
A c c o r d i n g l y , if a conflict a r i s e s a b o u t a q u e s t i o n i n v o l v i n g m o r a l
i s s u e s , i t will b e l o n g t o t h e S t a t e t o d e c i d e it. T h u s t h e S t a t e
will a r r o g a t e t o itself t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . T h i s
m e a n s t h a t , in t h e l a s t r e s o r t , t h e s u p r a n a t i o n a l , n a t u r a l i s t i c
o r g a n i z a t i o n s of F r e e m a s o n r y a n d t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , w h i c h h a v e
b e e n g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r i n g c o n t r o l s i n c e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , will
i m p o s e t h e i r v i e w of m o r a l i t y . S o N a t u r a l i s m will o u s t t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l a n d m e n will c e a s e t o t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r a s m e m b e r s
of C h r i s t .
It is one thing to declare that erroneous systems as such have
rights and another to recognize the rights of persons ivho hold
erroneous opinions. T h e S t a t e m a y and ought to recognize the
r i g h t s of p e r s o n s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e p e r s o n s . A s p e r s o n s t h e y h a v e
t h e r i g h t n o t t o be forced t o a c c e p t e v e n t h e t r u t h , b u t this r i g h t
p r e s u p p o s e s t h e d u t y of a c c e p t i n g t h e t r u t h freely. The State
m u s t r e s p e c t t h e g o o d f a i t h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e a n d n o t
c o n s t r a i n it, b u t , w h i l e d o i n g t h i s , i t m u s t n o t lose s i g h t of i t s
p a r a m o u n t social d u t y of a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e o r d e r i n s t i
t u t e d b y G o d a n d r e c o g n i z i n g u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t .
I n t h e t e x t s f r o m t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r s of P o p e L e o X I I I
q u o t e d in t h e P r e f a c e w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e g r e a t P o n t i f f i n s i s t s
p r i m a r i l y o n t h e R i g h t s of G o d . T h e e s s e n t i a l ( o r per se) o r d e r
of t h e w o r l d , t h e o r d e r w h i c h G o d w a n t s , d e m a n d s t h e a c k n o w
l e d g m e n t of t h e s e R i g h t s . " S i n c e t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n is t h e
o n l y t r u e religion/'" h e w r i t e s in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r on F r e e
m a s o n r y , " t o p u t it o n t h e s a m e level as o t h e r r e l i g i o n s is t o t r e a t
it w i t h t h e g r a v e s t i n j u s t i c e a n d offer it t h e w o r s t f o r m of i n s u l t . "
" T h e C h u r c h , " h e a g a i n w r i t e s in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r o n The
356 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
Christian Constitution of States, "deems it unlawful to place the
various forms of divine worship on the same footing as the true
religion." He then mentions what is secondary and accidental
(per accidens). "The Church docs not/' he says/" condemn those
rulers who, for the sake of securing some great good or of hinder
ing some great evil, patiently allow custom or usage to be a sort
of sanction for each kind of religion having its place i n the State."
Finally, he proclaims the deep respect of the Catholic Church for
the liberty of the human person: "the Church is wont to take
earnest heed that n o one shall be forced t o embrace the Catholic
faith against his will."
On account of his hatred of the Supernatural Life of Grace,
Satan has steadily striven to get every country that once ac
knowledged the essential or per sc order of the world to reject
that order and to revolt against it. fie consider* that he has made
a notable advance towards his goal when he has succeeded in hav
ing other religions placed on the same level as the True Church
of Christ. He is well aware of the anti-supernatural influence of
that official attitude on the average member of society.
The Rights of God and the Divine Plan for order in the world
must not be allowed to become obscure in men's minds. They
have been specially emphasized in this book, in order to prepare
the full reaction against the so-called Reformation and the French
Revolution. " First and foremost," writes Pope Leo XTII towards
the encj. of the Encyclical Letter on The Christian Constitution of
States, " it is the duty of all Catholics worthy of the name and
wishful to be known as most loving children of the Church
to endeavour to bring back all civil society to the pat
tern and form of Christianity which we have described/'
He stressed the same duty in other words in the
Encyclical Letter on Human Liberty. *' Justice therefore
forbids," he writes, "and reason itself forbids, the State
to be godless; or to adopt a line of action which would end
in godlessnessnamely, to treat the' various religions (as they
call them) alike, and to bestow upon them promiscuously equal
rights and privileges. Since, then, the profession of one religion
is necessary in the State, that religion must be professed which
alone is true, and which can be recognized without difficulty, es
pecially in Catholic States, because the marks of truth arc, as it
were, engraven upon it,"
Cardinal Pic ascribed the decay of French governmental
and public life primarily to the neglect of the Rights of God.
"Why is it," he writes, " that our fine body of priests, our splen
did army of convinced and practising Catholics cannot succeed in
remedying the sufferings of the country in a greater degree and
in a more efficacious manner? Foreigners who know, who admire,
and who envy all the magnificent qualities of French Catholicism
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 357,

o f t e n p u t t h e m s e l v e s t h i s q u e s t i o n . W h a t is t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of
t h e f a c t t h a t s o m u c h c h a r i t y , s o m u c h a c t i v i t y , s o m u c h self-
s a c r i f i c e a r e s o i n e f f e c t u a l a n d p r o d u c e s o l i t t l e f r u i t in r e g a r d t o
t h e a m e l i o r a t i o n of p u b l i c a f f a i r s ? T h e r e a s o n is t h a t in r e g a r d
t o p u b l i c a f f a i r s a n d s o c i a l o r d e r , t h e f a i t h f u l a n d , in t o o m a n y
c a s e s , t h e p r i e s t s of o u r g e n e r a t i o n h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t e v e n in a
C h r i s t i a n c o u n t r y , a s o r t of n e u t r a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e C a t h o l i c
faith c o u l d b e a d o p t e d , a s if O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t h a d n e v e r
come or had disappeared from the world. . . . If w c h a v e n o t
s u c c e e d e d in t r i u m p h i n g o v e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s p i r i t w h i c h m a k e s
u s a s p e c t a c l e f o r o t h e r p e o p l e s , t h e evil w h i c h is s a p p i n g o u r
s t r e n g t h a n d l e a d i n g u s t o t h e t o m b is t h a t w h i l e w e h a v e t h e
faith in p r i v a t e w e h a v e a c c e p t e d o u r s h a r e of n a t i o n a l infidelity.
. . . O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t d o c s n o t r e i g n a m o n g s t us a n d o u r
C o n s t i t u t i o n is f a r f r o m b e i n g w h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n of a C h r i s t
i a n a n d C a t h o l i c c o u n t r y s h o u l d b e . O u r p u b l i c l a w l a y s clown
t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n is t h e r e l i g i o n of t h e m a j o r i t y of F r e n c h
m e n , b u t i t a d d s t h a t t h e o t h e r f o r m s of w o r s h i p h a v e a r i g h t t o
e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n . I s n o t t h a t e q u i v a l e n t t o p r o c l a i m i n g that, t h e
Constitution gives equal protection to truth and e r r o r ? . . . .
W h e n e r r o r h a s o n c e b e c o m e i n c a r n a t e in l e g a l f o r m u l a e a n d in
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r a c t i c e , it p e n e t r a t e s so deeply into people's minds
30
t h a t i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o e r a d i c a t e it."< >
L e t u s f o r t h e s a k e of c l e a r n e s s p u t , in p a r a l l e l c o l u m n s , t h e
o u t l i n e s of a C o n s t i t u t i o n fully r e s p e c t f u l of t h e R i g h t s of G o d
a n d in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e fidelity of o u r a n c e s t o r s t o O u r Divine
Lord, and the actual Constitution.

(30) The Kingship of Christ according to Cardinal Pic of Poitiers,

p p . 198. 199. 78, 52. Cf. the q u o t a t i o n from the SMIIIC at the end of
C h a p t e r X V I I . Cf. also p a g e 168 i n the same book, where the C a r d i n a l
insists u p o n the p o i n t 1 have been strewing. There lie .say*: " If
the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h were consulted, she v c i d d t a k e account of all the
difficulties which have arisen in the course of time and wo'.dd imd for
mulae which would be a solemn act of faith on the p;r't ot the nalion
a n d of the sovereign, without t h i s a u t h e n t i c profession of the T r u e .Faith
h i n d e r i n g i n the least the t o l e r a t i o n become necessary for other forms
of ^worship. . . . If the law p r o c l a i m s t h a t ic allows the exercise, of nil
religions, because in the eyes of the law all are equally good or Ijecart.se
the p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y is i n c o m p e t e n t to come to a decision on ihe m a t t e r ,
the law is i m p i o u s and atheistical. The law thus makes profession, not
of civil t o l e r a t i o n , b u t of c r i m i n a l n e u t r a l i t y , and iu'-tifi-s the m o i l
absolute religious indifference i n the subjects of Stak**::. On ihe con
t r a r y , if, while recognising t h a t One Religion alone- i.s ivr.c a n d good,
the law t o l e r a t e s a n d p e r m i t s the peaceful practice, of the others, the
law m a y be wise and necessary according to circumstances.''
358 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Draft of Constitution fully Article 44 of the Constitution aa

respectful of God's Rights it now stands.
(Art. 44).

I. The State acknowledges I. (1) The State acknowledges

A l m i g h t y God's Right to public that the homage of public wor
worship in the manner which He ship is d u e t o Almighty God. It
has clearly shown to be H i s will. shall hold H i s Name in reverence
and shall respect and honour
religion.
I L Accordingly, the State shall
hold in honour the H o l y Name of
God and shall reckon it amongst
i t s chief duties to favour and po-
tecfc religion and shall not enact-
any measure prejudicial to it.

(2) The S t a t e recogn i&e& t he

I I I . The State acknowledge.-* .special position of the Holy,
t

that (he true religion is that Catholic, Apostolic and Roman

established by our l ) i v i n e Lord
Jesus Christ Himself when He
instituted the Holy, Catholic,
Apostolic and Roman Church;
and that that Church has, there
fore, the d i v i n e mission to ipro-
pagate t h e t r u e religion and to be
the guav<\ian an< 1 interpreter of
the moral law.
Church, a** ( h e m i a r d i a n of t h e
faith ^ professed ^ by the great
majority of its citizens.
(3) The State also recognises the
Church of Ireland, the Presby
terian Church in Ireland, the
Methodist Church in Ireland, the
Religious Society of Friends in
Ireland, as well as the Jewish
Congregations and the other reli
gious denominations existing in
Treland at the date of the coming
into operation of this Constitu
tion.

IA". The State recognizes the

Catholic Church as a perfect
society, having in itself full com
petence and sovereign authority
in regard to man's spiritual good.
V. (1) Whatever may be classed
as belonging to the civil and poli
tical order is rightly subject to
the supreme authority of the other
perfect society, the State, whose,
function it i<> to procure the tem
poral good, moral and material,
of society.
(2) The State pledges itself,
therefore, in virtue of the sove
reign authority i t holds from God
in the temporal sphere, to enforce
respect, by just laws, for the. in
alienable rights of the person
 REACTIONS AGAINST
and the family, a n d to p r o m o t e ,
with all i t s s t r e n g t h , c o n d i t i o n s of
social a n d m o r a l well-being.
(3) W h e r e v e r the j u r i s d i c t i o n of
the Catholic Church a n d t h a t of
the S t a t e d e m a n d to be h a r m o n i
ously co-ordinated, the S t a t e will
make a special a r r a n g e m e n t with
the C h u r c h . I t may also make
special a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h other
Religious Bodies concerning p a r
t i c u l a r m a t t e r s , civil, p o l i t i c a l
and religious, in o r d e r to safe
g u a r d the p e r s o n a l r i g h t s of t h e i r
members.
V I . The S t a t e g u a r a n t e e s to ail
its citizens freedom of religious
conviction a n d liberty to p r a c t i s e
their religion, in public a n d in
p r i v a t e , d u e r e g a r d however be
ing h a d to social order a n d t r u e
morality.
V I I . T h e S t a t e pledges itself
not t o impose a n y d i s a b i l i t i e s t h a t
would be c o n t r a r y to n a t u r a l
rights a n d social justice, on t h e
g r o u n d of religious conviction.
VIII. Legislation providing
State a i d for schools shall n o t d i s
c r i m i n a t e between schools u n d e r
the m a n a g e m e n t of the Catholic
Church a n d of the other Religions
Bodies.
IX. The Catholic C h u r c h a n d
the other Religious Bodies in the
State shall have the r i g h t to m a n
age t h e i r own affairs, own, a c q u i r e
and a d m i n i s t e r p r o p e r t y , movable
and immovable, and m a i n t a i n in
stitutions for religious a n d charit
able p u r p o s e s .
X. N e i t h e r the p r o p e r t y of the
Catholic C h u r c h nor of a n y other
Religious Body shall be d i v e r t e d
save for necessary works of p u b l i c
utility a n d on p a y m e n t of j u s t
compensation.
REVOLUTION 359
I I . (1) Freedom of conscience
and the free profession a n d p r a c
tice of religion are, subject to
public order and morality, guar
anteed lo every citizen.
(-2) The S t a t e g u a r a n t e e s not to
endow any religion.
(3) The S t a t e shall not impose
a n y disabilities or make any -dis
c r i m i n a t i o n on the g r o u n d of reli
gious profession, belief or status.
(4) Legislation p r o v i d i n g Stat^
aid for schools shall not discrim
inate between schools u n d e r tin-
management of different religious
d e n o m i n a t i o n s , nor be such as to
affect prejudicially the r i g h t of
any child to a t t e n d a school re
ceiving public money without
a t t e n d i n g religious instruction at
t h a t school.
(5) Every religious d e n o m i n a
tion shall have the r i g h t to man
age its own affairs, own, acquire,
a n d a d m i n i s t e r p r o p e r t y , movable
a n d immovable, and m a i n t a i n in
s t i t u t i o n s for religious and char
itable purposes.
(6) The p r o p e r t y of any relig
ious d e n o m i n a t i o n or any educa
t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n shall not be
d i v e r t e d save for necessary works
of public u t i l i t y a n d on p a y m e n t
of compensation.
360 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

A logical conclusion from the section on Religion in the Irish

Constitution may he seen in the Register of Population, 1943, Form
A. This was sent round to be filled up, in connexion with the
rationing of supplies, in November, 1943. On this form, after the
column marked Surname there is a column for Other Names. As
Irish Citizens who d o not accept membership of Christ are placed
by the Constitution o n the same level as those who do, officially we
may no longer speak of Christian Names in Ireland. Those who
reject membership of the Mystical Iiody of Christ by Baptism
would object, so we eliminate what our ancestors so nobly died for.
If wc wish to react against all the attacks being made on family
life wc ought not only to restore Christian Names but substitute
Family Name for Surname.
As has been already remarked, nations do not stand still any
more than individuals, so Ireland will either return to integral
acknowledgment of Christ the King or will drift further towards
the camp of His enemies. The pressure towards the Left will be
maintained by the organized forces of the Jewish Nation and of
F r e e m a s o n r y . T h e Masonic Society functions freely both in
the Twenty-Six Counties and in the Six Counties of the North-
East. Communist propaganda is striving to unite all Irish workers
for the ideals of Marx and Lenin. The failure to stand for the
Rights of God in regard to the essential point, namely, the question
of religion, may be followed later on by a union with the North-
East in a manner calculated to favour Judaeo-Masonic Naturalism.
Our Divine Lord may be incensed at the forgetfulncss of Him and
the ingratitude shown to Him, in this article of our Constitution,
and may leave us without the light and strength we need,

T H E IRISH MONETARY SYSTEM.

hi Part V of this work, which treats of Economic Decay and
the Divine Plan for Order, we shall sec that the functioning of
the English financial system has resulted in a complete perversion
of social order. Right order demands the subordination of the
manipulation of money or exchange-medium to the production,
distribution and exchange of material goods, in view of the de
velopment of family life and human personality through mem
bership of Christ. Under the English Gold Standard System,
hitman beings are subordinated to the production of material goods
and the production and distribution of material goods are sub
ordinated to finance. M. Maritain lias excellently expressed the
above idea, though somewhat less explicitly, while considering
the three elements, man, production of material goods, and money.
In Religion and Culture, he writes as follows: "Instead of being
CM) Wo have in Dublin a ft'nai JS'rith Lodge, as has been already
remarked.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 361

considered as a m e r e feeder enabling a living organism, which the

p r o d u c t i v e u n d e r t a k i n g is, to p r o c u r e the n e c e s s a r y m a t e r i a l ,
e q u i p m e n t and r e p l e n i s h i n g , m o n e y has come to be considered t h e
living o r g a n i s m , a n d t h e u n d e r t a k i n g w i t h its h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s a s
t h e f e e d e r a n d i n s t r u m e n t of m o n e y ; s o t h a t t h e p r o f i t s c e a s e t o
be t h e n o r m a l f r u i t of t h e u n d e r t a k i n g fed w i t h m o n e y , a n d b e
c o m e t h e n o r m a l f r u i t of t h e m o n e y fed b y t h e u n d e r t a k i n g . T h a t
is w h a t I call t h e f e c u n d i t y of m o n e y . V a l u e s h a v e b e e n r e v e r s e d ,
a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e is t o g i v e t h e r i g h t s of d i v i d e n d
p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h o s e of s a l a r y , a n d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e w h o l e e c o n
o m y u n d e r t h e s u p r e m e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e l a w s of t h e fluidity o f
t h e sign m o n e y , p r e d o m i n a t i n g o v e r t h e t h i n g , c o m m o d i t i e s u s e
32
ful t o m a n k i n d . " < >
T h e r e h a s b e e n n o real r e a c t i o n in I r e l a n d a g a i n s t this funda
mental disorder. P r o f e s s o r O ' R a h i l l y p o i n t s t h i s o u t in Money
( p . 3 9 4 ) : " W e m u s t n o t b e m i s l e d by c u r r e n t p h r a s e o l o g y / ' h e
writes, " i n t o thinking that we have at present a separate cur
r e n c y w h i c h happens to be k e p t at parity with British Currency.
W h a t w e h a v e is n o t p a r i t y b u t i d e n t i t y s u b j e c t t o s e p a r a t e b o o k -
e n t r y . " T h i s i d e n t i t y w a s d i s a s t r o u s for o u r f a r m e r s , w h e n t h e
B a n k of E n g l a n d e n t e r e d u p o n i t s p o s t - w a r d e f l a t i o n in v i e w of
t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e G o l d - S t a n d a r d in 1925. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l
d i s o r d e r i n s p i r i n g t h e s y s t e m is m i l i t a t i n g a g a i n s t t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
of r u r a l life a n d t h e p r o m o t i o n of s o c i a l j u s t i c e . I r i s h w o r k i n g -
m e n , h a v i n g n o t h i n g b u t t h e i r l a b o u r t o offer for s a l e m u s t n o w
g o a c r o s s t o E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t w a r ( 1 9 3 9 ? ) , in o r d e r
t o b e a b l e t o s e c u r e s o m e of t h e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m f r e e l y i s s u e d
there. By p r e s e n t i n g this English exchange-medium, their fam
ilies c a n o b t a i n I r i s h e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m . Meanwhile the recom
m e n d a t i o n s of t h e Report of the Drainage Commission (Dublin,
1941) a r e n o t b e i n g a t t e n d e d t o a s t h e y o u g h t . T h e s e r e c o m
m e n d a t i o n s w o u l d m e a n t h e i s s u e of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m for w o r k
(33
h e r e , h i g h l y p r o f i t a b l e w o r k in t h e l o n g r u n . > Reafforestation,
too, w o u l d m e a n highly profitable w o r k . T h e morally inevitable
c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e m i g r a t i o n a n d r e t u r n f i t in well w i t h t h e
p l a n s of t h e a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s in t h e w o r l d f o r t h e a t t a c k
on t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e in o u r c o u n t r y . , A n y o n e c a n verify t h i s
b y r e a d i n g Irish Freedom, t h e C o m m u n i s t organ . p u b l i s h e d
<32) T r a n s l a t i o n , Sheed a n d W a r d , p. 62.
(33) " We have p u r s u e d the a m a z i n g policy t h a t before an I r i s h p o u n d
note c a n be issued in I r e l a n d someone h a s to acquire an English pound
or lend a p o u n d t o the E n g l i s h -Government. A n d so wc c a n n o t issue
money to" sett the I r i s h u n e m p l o y e d to work, c r e a t i n g real wealth on
which they may l i v e . We have allowed o u r productive workers to crowd
into the e m i g r a n t ships a n d to e n d u r e the c o n d i t i o n s in other countries
which they have h a d to e n d u r e , a n d have p u t a b a n k e r ' s fetish before the
l i t e s of tens of t h o u s a n d s of I r i s h men a n d women " (The Neto Central
Bank, No. 1 of The I r i s h P e o p l e P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
 362 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

i n E n g l a n d f o r t h e diffusion of C o m m u n i s t i c i d e a s a m o n g s t I r i s h
w o r k i n g m e n o v e r t h e r e . A n e x t r a c t , t a k e n f r o m t h e J u n e (1942)
i s s u e of Irish Freedom, is t o b e f o u n d in i t s p r o p e r s e t t i n g
in The Workingmen's Guilds of the Middle Ages, b y t h e p r e s e n t
w r i t e r . Irish Freedom n o t o n l y a p p r o v e s of a t t a c k s o n t h e a c k n o w
l e d g m e n t of t h e o n e T r u e R e l i g i o n b y a n y S t a t e " r e l i g i o u s d i s
tinctions a r c p r o t e c t e d only by t y r a n t s " h u t a d v o c a t e s t h e con
f i s c a t i o n of C h u r c h p r o p e r t y a n d t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e r i g h t of
a c q u i r i n g p r o p e r t y b y i n h e r i t a n c e . T h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e r i g h t of
i n h e r i t a n c e is o n e of t h e p o i n t s i n s i s t e d u p o n in The Communist
Manifesto of M a r x a n d E n g e l s . I t a i m s a d e a d l y b l o w a t f a m i l y
'life and sane farming.
GERMANY'S REACTION.
PRUSSIA AND JUDAEO-AIASOXRY.
I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i f f e r e n t c u r r e n t s in t h e G e r m a n
r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t J u d a e o - M a s o u i c i n f l u e n c e s , w e m u s t b e a r w e l l in
m i n d t h a t t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a n d F r e e m a s o n r y a r e w o r k i n g in
t h e c a m p of S a t a n for t h e r e i g n of N a t u r a l i s m , t h a t is, f o r t h e
d i s r u p t i o n of t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r a n d t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of
S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e a n d love f r o m t h e Avorld. T h e y will h o t l y
d e n y t h i s o r scoff at i l , b u t t h e o b j e c t i v e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d r e
m a i n s . Tn a d d i t i o n , t h e l e a d e r s of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n a i m a t t h e
i n a u g u r a t i o n of t h e r e i g n of t h e n a t u r a l M e s s i a s a n d t h e r e j e c t i o n
of O u r D i v i n e L o r d , in v i e w of t h e i r o w n d o m i n a t i o n , a n d t h e y
u s e t h e i r u n d e n i a b l e i n f l u e n c e o n F r e e m a s o n r y for t h a t p u r p o s e .
A c c o r d i n g l y , w e m u s t be p r e p a r e d t o s e e t h e s e n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s
f a v o u r P r o t e s t a n t p o w e r s like E n g l a n d a n d P r u s s i a in s o f a r a s
t h e y m a y b e u s e f u l i n s t r u m e n t s in p r o p a g a t i n g N a t u r a l i s m a n d
a t t h e s a m e t i m e s e e k t o u s e t h e m f o r t h e u l t e r i o r s c h e m e s of
J u d a c o - M a s o n r y . W c m u s t be p r e p a r e d , t o o , for r e a c t i o n s , w h e n
these P r o t e s t a n t countries perceive that w h a t they consider their
n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s have been sacrificed to J e w i s h i n t e r e s t s on vari
o u s o c c a s i o n s a n d t h a t t h e i r n a t i o n a l life is in d a n g e r of c o r
ruption and decay.
W e n e e d n o t b e a s t o n i s h e d , t h e n , t o find, o n t h e o n e
hand, in books like Les Societes Secretes et la
Sociitc, b y P e r e D c s c h a m p s , S.J., a n d Les Pourqtroi de la Gnerre
Mondialc, b y M g r . D e l a s s u s , l e n g t h y a c c o u n t s of t h e d i f f e r e n t
w a y s in w h i c h J e w r y a n d F r e e m a s o n r y f a v o u r e d t h e h e g e m o n y
of P r u s s i a o v e r t h e G e r m a n i c c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of
B e r l i n f o r V i e n n a as t h e c u l t u r a l c e n t r e of t h e G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g
p e o p l e s . I t m a y be well t o m e n t i o n o n e of t h e l e s s e r k n o w n inci
d e n t s in t h i s s t o r y . W e s a w t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n of a P r u s s i a n E m
p i r e w a s a m o n g s t t h e a i m s of P a l m e r s t o n o u t l i n e d in t h e Globe
of 1 2 t h M a y , 1849. A l r e a d y a t t h e D i e t of F r a n k f o r t in 1848, M g r .
K e t t e l e r , a f t e r w a r d s B i s h o p of M a y e n c e , w a s a s t o n i s h e d t o h e a r
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 363

one of the deputies propose, at a preliminary reunion, the exten

sion of the frontiers of Prussia to the Main, thus mak
ing himself the champion of an enormous violation of
law and justice. " I never thought," he wrote in one
of his books, " that, twenty years later, as Bishop of May-
ance, I should see the realization of this plan. . . . / am now
T
certain that this deputy w as not expressing a merely personal
34
opinion, but that he was revealing the plan of a secret society."* *
Prussia showed its gratitude by protecting Freemasonry. In a
book published by General Gelazinski with the authorization of the
German Grand Lodge, shortly after the appearance of Pope Leo
XIIPs Encyclical Letter, Humannrn genus, on Freemasonry, we
read: " Of all the European powers that have been in contact with
Freemasonry, only two have been consistent in their line of con
duct : Prussia which has always protected it, and the Papacy which
35)
has always combated it."<
It was from Prussia that the movement for the emancipation
of the Jews started. The Jew, Wilhelm Dohm, Secretary of the
Prussian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, wrote a book entitled
Political Reform and the Jews, which appeared in 1781. Accord
ing to the Jewish convert, l'abbe Joseph Lemann, this book had
an enormous influence on Mirabcau and the other French revo
lutionaries. Dohm, who was later Plenipotentiary for Prussia in
negotiations with Napoleon, was a very intimate friend of Mira-
beau, when the latter frecjuented the salon of Henrietta Tier/- in
Berlin (1783-1788). In 1788 Mirabeau himself published a pam
phlet in London containing Dohm's ideas. L'abbe Lemann says
that Dohm simply applied to the Jews the theories exposed in
Rousseau's Contrat Social. Rousseau substituted " men " and
" citizens" for " members of Christ." Dohm then claimed that
the Jews who refused to become members of Christ should be
(36
treated as men and citizens. ' And the Jews showed their grati
tude by the way in which they favoured the increase of Prussia's
power. One testimony will suffice. In Le Noitveau Mercure
(Paris, May, 1922), a Jewish writer, M. Rene Gross, contributed
an article entitled The Jewish Question by a Jew. In the course
of this article, he said: "On November 11, 1918, Germany gave
up the struggle and laid down her arms. France had lost 1,600,000
of her youth killed on the field of battle. . . . It is doubtful whe
ther this sacrifice has been of any use. After forty-two months
of peace, France, bled white, devastated and ruined, is to-day in

i'ii) Germany After the War of 1800, by Mgr. Ketbeler (quoted from
the French translation by Belet, in Deschamps, Vol. II, p. 402).
35
< > Quoted by Mgr. Delassus in Les Pourquoi de la Guerre Mondiale,
Vol. II, p. 52.
(3G)
Cf. L'Entree des Juifs dans la Societe F ran raise, by l'abbe
Joseph Lemann, pp. 368-381.
364 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a m o r e d a n g e r o u s s i t u a t i o n , in f a c e of G e r m a n y , t h a n in 1914.
. . . Tf F r a n c e d o e s n o t l o o k o u t , t h e c o n q u e r e d of y e s t e r d a y ,
v i c t o r i o u s t o - d a y , will b e t h e c o n q u e r o r s of t o - m o r r o w . T h e t w o
I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , w h i c h a r c s i m p l y t h e t w o f a c e t s of t h e J e w i s h
I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o w e r , Finance a n d Revolution, are w o r k i n g fever
i s h l y f o r t h a t e n d . It is n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v e t h i s t h e s i s .
. . . T h e criminals h a v e c o m e f o r w a r d into the l i m e l i g h t too
o p e n l y a n d in t o o m a n y c o u n t r i e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e . T h e c o n
f l a g r a t i o n in R u s s i a l i g h t s u p t h e c r i m e w i t h f l a m e s t h a t a r e
r e a l l y t o o h i g h a n d t o o l u m i n o u s f o r t h e r e t o be a n y l o n g e r a n y
j>ossibility of c o n c e a l m e n t . "
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e find in b o o k s l i k e t h a t of D r . F r i e d r i c h
Wichtl, Wcltfrcimaiirrrei, W ellr evolution, Weltrepublik, the
a c c u s a t i o n l e v e l l e d a t J e w r y a n d P V e e m a s o n r y of h a v i n g c o n t i n u
a l l y w o r k e d a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r e s t s of G e r m a n y . F o r example,
W i c h t l s h o w s that F r e e m a s o n r y t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d turned
a g a i n s t G e r m a n y d u r i n g the G r e a t W a r (1914-1918). In particular,
h e p r o v e s t h a t it w a s t h r o u g h M a s o n i c p r e s s u r e t h a t I t a l y e n t e r e d
t h e vvar a g a i n s t A u s t r i a a n d G e r m a n y . H e s h o w s a l s o t h a t t h e
C o m m u n i s t R e p u b l i c in M u n i c h a n d t h e w h o l e C o m m u n i s t m o v e
m e n t in G e r m a n y a n d R u s s i a a f t e r t h e G r e a t W a r w a s t h e w o r k
of J u d a c o - M a s o n r y w i t h B r o t h e r s . ' . T o l l e r , L e v i e n , A x e l r o d ,
( 3 7 )
Wadler, Fwinger, Lenin and Trotsky, & c , &c. O n p a g e 286,
lie g i v e s a s h i s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t " n e i t h e r w e , G e r m a n s , n o r t h e
v i s i b l e G o v e r n m e n t s of o u r e n e m i e s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e t e r r i b l e
s l a u g h t e r of t h e G r e a t W a r , b u t t h a t d a r k , s e c r e t p o w e r w h i c h w c
h a v e c a l l e d W o r l d - M a s o n r y , b e h i n d w h i c h is h i d d e n t h e i n v i s i b l e
r u l e r of t h e d e s t i n i e s of all S t a t e s a n d p e o p l e s , W o r l d - J e w r y . "
I n t h e i r b o o k s , P e r e D e s c h a m p s , S.J., a n d M g r . D e l a s s u s s t r e s s
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o r g a n i z e d n a t u r a l i s t i c f o r c e s f a v o u r e d P r u s s i a , in
v i e w of u t i l i z i n g t h a t P o w e r ' s a n t i - C a t h o l i c a t t i t u d e , f o r t h e e l i m
i n a t i o n of t h e s p i r i t of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t f r o m G e r m a n y .
W i c h t l i n s i s t s u p o n t h e f a c t t h a t in t h e e n d , P r u s s i a b e g a n t o see
t h a t s h e w a s b e i n g s a c r i f i c e d in h e r t u r n f o r " h i g h e r i n t e r e s t s . "
O n e is s t r o n g l y r e m i n d e d of a r e m a r k m a d e t o t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
h i s t o r i a n , C a r d i n a l P i t r a , a t V i e n n a , in 1889. A h i g h l y - p l a c e d p e r
sonage, w h o s e n a m e he does not give, said to h i m : " T h e Catholic
N a t i o n s m u s t b e c r u s h e d b y t h e P r o t e s t a n t N a t i o n s . W h e n this
r e s u l t h a s b e e n a t t a i n e d , a b r e a t h will be sufficient t o b r i n g a b o u t
t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of P r o t e s t a n t i s m . T h u s w e shall a r r i v e a t S t a t e
? {:I8
A t h e i s m . ' > So t h e p o i n t s of v i e w d e f e n d e d b y t h e s e t w o g r o u p s
3 9 1
of w r i t e r s a r c c o m p l e m e n t a r y r a t h e r t h a n c o n t r a d i c t o r y /
f37
> Op. cit., p p . 211-231, 278-281.
(33) Quoted by Alio*. Delassus, op. cit., Vol. I I , )>. -IS.
Wichtl asserts (op. cit., p. 186) t h a t , t h o u g h F r e d e r i c k the Great
was a F r e e m a s o n , he was never a d m i t t e d to the real secrets of the Lodges.
As the founder of the A n c i e n t a n d Accepted Scottish Kite, to which,
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 365

GERMANY'S REACTION IS ANTAGONISTIC TO T H E

CATHOLIC CHURCH.

T h e G e r m a n r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c o r r u p t i n g n a t u r a l i s t i c in
f l u e n c e of J e w r y a n d F r e e m a s o n r y , i n s t e a d of i n a u g u r a t i n g t h e
r e t u r n of t h e w h o l e G e r m a n n a t i o n t o t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r ,
f r o m w h i c h N o r t h G e r m a n y t u r n e d a s i d e i n t h e 16th c e n t u r y , h a s
i n t e n s i f i e d t h e d i s o r d e r . T h e r e a c t i o n is a p u r e l y n a t u r a l i s t i c o n e ,
b y w h i c h t h e G e r m a n R a c e is p u t in t h e p l a c e of t h e M y s t i c a l
B o d y of C h r i s t , G e r m a n b l o o d is s u b s t i t u t e d for S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e ,
t h e L i f e - b l o o d of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y , a n d t h e i n s t i n c t i v e a s p i r a
t i o n s of t h e G e r m a n r a c e b o u n d , n a t i o n a l s o u l , as i n t e r p r e t e d b y
t h e l e a d e r s of t h e r a c e , r e p l a c e t h e m o r a l l a w . O v e r a g a i n s t t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l , s u p r a n a t i o n a l M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t , t h e J e w s
p u t t h e i r r a c e a n d t h e i r n a t i o n , t h u s d e c l a r i n g t h a t o r d e r is t o
c o m e t o t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h all n a t i o n s b e i n g m o u l d e d by t h e
Jewish Nation. I n c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l d i s o r d e r in
J e w i s h t h o u g h t , P a n t h e i s m h a s l a r g e l y t a k e n t h e p l a c e of belief
in t h e T r a n s c e n d e n t G o d of t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , a n d t h e T a l m u d h a s
o u s t e d t h e l a w of G o d . I n this w a y the J e w s have come to put
t h e i r r a c e a n d n a t i o n i n t h e p l a c e of G o d , h a v e deified t h e m in
f a c t . I n s t e a d of d r a w i n g t h e o b v i o u s l e s s o n f r o m t h e J e w i s h r e
j e c t i o n of C h r i s t a n d s t r i v i n g t o b r i n g b a c k G e r m a n y t o a c c e p t
His Divine Plan, the National-Socialist movement has denounced
t h e w h o l e C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n a s a s u p e r i m p o s e d d e f o r m a t i o n of
t h e G e r m a n n a t i o n a l s o u l a n d s e t u p t h e G e r m a n r a c e a n d its
n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a c e b o t h of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of
C h r i s t a n d , a fortiori, of t h e J e w i s h r a c e a n d n a t i o n .
Accordingly, National-Socialism substitutes the G e r m a n race
a n d i t s e x i g e n c i e s of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ,
s u p r a n a t i o n a l M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t a n d i t s e x i g e n c i e s of social
o r g a n i z a t i o n , e x p r e s s e d b y t h e I n d i r e c t P o w e r of t h e C h u r c h ,
C h r i s t i a n M a r r i a g e a s t h e u n i o n of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , a n d
C h r i s t i a n E d u c a t i o n a s t h e f o r m a t i o n of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . So
one can readily conclude that the National-Socialist reaction
a g a i n s t t h e c o r r o d i n g i n f l u e n c e of J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m o n G e r m a n
n a t i o n a l life l e a d s , n o t o n l y t o m e a s u r e s of r e p r e s s i o n a g a i n s t t h e

however, a d d i t i o n s were m a d e a t the e n d of the 18th century, F r e d e r i c k

was well a w a r e of t h e i n n e r m e a n i n g of Masonic N a t u r a l i s m . I n fact
the Mason, B l u n t s c h l i , claims for him the honour of being the i n i t i a t o r
of the r e v o l u t i o n a r y era, which, he says, should d a t e from the y e a r of
F r e d e r i c k ' s accession, n a m e l y 1740, r a t h e r t h a n from 1789. The modern
7
S t a t e " i n d e p e n d e n t of all t h e o c r a c y / t h a t is, owing no submission to
the d i v i n e law, began w i t h F r e d e r i c k , he m a i n t a i n s . Cf. Deschamps,
op. cit., Vol. I I , p. 19.
366 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
(40
J e w s b u t t o a d i r e p e r s e c u t i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . > The
deified G e r m a n r a c e h a s a t t a c k e d d i r e c t l y t h e r i v a l n a t u r a l d e i t y ,
t h e J e w i s h r a c e , a n d h a s p r o c e e d e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o g e t rid
of i t a s c o r r u p t i n g t h e v e r y f o u n t of d e i t y , G e r m a n b l o o d . It
undermines and seeks to eliminate directly and indirectly the
supernatural, supranational Catholic Church. C a t h o l i c s a r e still
a l l o w e d t o p r o f e s s a t M a s s t h a t t h e y will e n d e a v o u r t o live t h e i r
l i v e s a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t a n d t h a t t h e y w i l l s t r i v e t o o r g a n i z e
s o c i e t y s o a s t o be a i d e d in s o l i v i n g . But, from the moment
C a t h o l i c s in G e r m a n y a n d A u s t r i a l e a v e t h e C h u r c h a f t e r M a s s ,
t h e y find s o c i e t y o r g a n i z e d o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e h i g h e s t f o r m
of life is G e r m a n n a t i o n a l life a n d t h a t G e r m a n b l o o d is h i g h e r
a n d n o b l e r t h a n S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e , t h e L i f e - b l o o d of t h e M y s t i c a l
Body. National-Socialism d e m a n d s an education which forms the
y o u n g t o r e g a r d m e m b e r s h i p of t h e G e r m a n r a c e , n o t m e m b e r s h i p
of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y , a s t h e h i g h e s t g o o d . T h e m o r a l l a w
of w h i c h t h e s o l e d i v i n e l y - a p p o i n t e d g u a r d i a n is t h e C a t h o l i c
C h u r c h is r e p l a c e d b y t h e e x i g e n c i e s of G e r m a n b l o o d a s d e c l a r e d
b y t h e c h o s e n l e a d e r s of t h e p e o p l e . H e n c e t h e w h o l e s o c i a l o r g a n
i z a t i o n of G e r m a n life a n d t h e i d e a l s a n i m a t i n g it a r e c o m p l e t e l y
anti-Catholic.
W e can n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h a t National-Socialism m e a n s by
" Positive Christianity," Revelation, Faith, Sin and Redemption.
Positive Christianity is C h r i s t i a n i t y a s t h e G e r m a n N a t i o n a l S o u l ,
t h e n o b l e s t of all s o u l s , u n d e r s t a n d s it u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of its
special instinctive impulses. Catholicism and P r o t e s t a n t i s m both
s t a n d f o r a n e g a t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y w h i c h is a l w a y s c o n d e m n i n g a n d
f o r b i d d i n g c o u r s e s of a c t i o n , t h u s b a r r i n g t h e w a y t o t h e p o s i t i v e
e x p a n s i o n of t h e G e r m a n s o u l . It is o n l y w h e n a m a n h a s b r o k e n
w i t h C a t h o l i c i s m t h a t h e b e c o m e s f r e e f o r a r e a l l y o r g a n i c cul
t u r e , a t r u e faith in G e r m a n b l o o d . Revelation s i g n i f i e s t h e in
s p i r a t i o n c o m i n g f r o m t h e b l o o d of t h e G e r m a n r a c e a n d f r o m
t h e h i s t o r y of t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e . Faith is n o t h i n g e l s e t h a n s u b
l i m e u n s h a k a b l e c o n f i d e n c e in t h e f u t u r e of t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e
a n d in t h e t r u t h of t h e L e a d e r ' s m i s s i o n . T h e L e a d e r h a s b e e n
t h r o w n u p b y t h e G e r m a n r a c i a l s o u l f o r t h e n a t i o n a l h o u r of
n e e d . T h e o n e r e a l l y m o r t a l sin is t o m i n g l e g o o d G e r m a n b l o o d
w i t h t h e i n f e r i o r b l o o d of o t h e r r a c e s a n d t o d e f o r m t h e m i n d by
d o c t r i n e s o p p o s e d to the N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t Weltanschauung
(40) I n The Rulers of Russia ( p p . 74-77), two q u o t a t i o n s are given
from d i s t i n g u i s h e d G e r m a n Catholic w r i t e r s to show the e n o r m o u s extent
of J e w i s h influence in G e r m a n y . D r . K u r t Ziesche, Professor in the
U n i v e r s i t y of Breslau, insists upon the prevalence of J e w i s h N a t u r a l i s m
in t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic life of the c o u n t r y , in his book, Das
Konigtum Christi in Buropa, published in 192G. lJr. Eberle, the E d i t o r
of Schbncre Zukunft, sets o u t in 1927 the a c t u a l power a n d m i g h t of
J e w i s h influence in h a n k i n g , i n p u b l i s h i n g a n d c o m m e r c i a l life, etc., etc.
Cf. The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modem World, p. 310.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 367
41
(World-outlook or View of the World).< > Redemption consists
in the liberation of the German soul from extraneous influences
of blood and all anti-racial deforming doctrines.
We can thus see the radical opposition between the National-
Socialist Weltanschauung, with its deification of the German
Race, and the Divine Plan for order through the Catholic Church,
the Mystical Body of Christ. Hence persecution of the Catholic
Church by a National-Socialist Government is inevitable. In
Mein Kampf, Herr Hitler is quite explicit in this regard. "A
Weltanschauung is intolerant," he writes, " and cannot permit an
other to exist side by side with it. It imperiously demands its own
recognition as unique and exclusive and a complete transforma
tion in accordance with its views throughout all the branches of
public life. It can never allow the previous state of affairs to con
tinue in existence by its side. . . . It may be objected here that
. . . . such fanaticism and intolerance are typical symptoms of a
Jewish mentality. That may be a thousandfold true; and it is a
fact deeply to be regretted . . . . but the fact does not change
conditions as they exist to-day. The men who wish to liberate
our German nation from the conditions in which it now exists
cannot cudgel their brains with thinking how excellent it would
be if this or that event had never arisen. They must strive to
find ways and means of abolishing what actually exists. A
philosophy of life which is inspired by an infernal spirit of intoler
ance can only be set aside by a doctrine that is advanced in an
equally ardent spirit and fought for with as determined a will.
. . . Political parties are prone to enter into compromises ; but a
Weltanschauung never does this. . . . A general Weltanschauung
will never share its place with something else. Therefore il can
never agree to collaborate in any order of things it condemns.
On the contrary it feels obliged to employ every means in fight
ing against the old order and the whole order of ideas belonging
to that order and to prepare the way for its destruction. Any
new philosophy of life will bring its ideas to victor}- only if the
must courageous and active elements of its epoch and its people
are enrolled under its standards and grouped firmly together in a

<4D Mr. James Murphy, the translator of the Unexpurgated Kdition

of Mein JCampf* writes in the introduction to that work: " Weltans
1
chauung literally means outlook on the world.' But as generally used
in German this outlook on the world means a whole system of'ideas asso
ciated together in an organic unityideas of human life, human
values, cultural and religious ideas, politics, economics, etc., in fact
& totalitarian view of human existence. Thus Christianity could he
called a Weltanschauung . . . National Socialism claims definitely to
be a Weltanschauung." Weltanschauung is a complete philosophy of
human life. Complete philosophy or comprehensive all-embracing view
of human life expresses what Mr. Murphy means by "a totalitarian view
of human existence."
368 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

powerful fighting organization. T o a c h i e v e t h i s p u r p o s e i t is

a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t o s e l e c t f r o m t h e g e n e r a l s y s t e m of d o c
t r i n e a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of i d e a s w h i c h will a p p e a l t o s u c h i n d i
v i d u a l s a n d w h i c h , o n c e t h e y a r c e x p r e s s e d in a p r e c i s e a n d clear-
c u t f o r m , will s e r v e a s a r t i c l e s of f a i t h for a n e w a s s o c i a t i o n of
m e n . . . . T h e p r o g r a m m e of a Weltanschauung represents a
d e c l a r a t i o n of w a r a g a i n s t a n e x i s t i n g o r d e r of t h i n g s , a g a i n s t
p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s , in s h o r t , a g a i n s t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d Weltan
schauung. It is n o t n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r , t h a t e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l
l i g h t e r f o r s u c h a n e w d o c t r i n e n e e d h a v e a full g r a s p of t h e u l t i m
a t e i d e a s a n d p l a n s of t h o s e w h o a r c t h e l e a d e r s of t h e m o v e
ment."^
O p p o s i t i o n to t h e m o u l d i n g p r o c e s s c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e N a t i o n a l -
S o c i a l i s t Weltanschauung, o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h is i n c u m b e n t o n e v e r y
C a t h o l i c B i s h o p a n d P r i e s t , is t r e a t e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t
G o v e r n m e n t a s i n t e r f e r e n c e i n p o l i t i c s a n d a s a n e x p r e s s i o n of
hostility to the G e r m a n Reich. A c c o r d i n g to the National-Social
i s t G o v e r n m e n t , t o f o r m c h i l d r e n t o c o n s i d e r m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t
a s t h e i r h i g h e s t d i g n i t y , i n f i n i t e l y h i g h e r t h a n m e m b e r s h i p of a n y
r a c e , is " p o l i t i c s " a n d a n a c t of d i r e c t e n m i t y t o t h e G e r m a n
S t a t e as at present constituted.
P e r s e c u t i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h is t h e r e f o r e i n e v i t a b l e , as
h a s been said. But, a c c o r d i n g to the National-Socialist Govern
m e n t , t h e r e is no p e r s e c u t i o n of C a t h o l i c s f o r r e l i g i o n . All t h a t
h a p p e n s is t h a t p r i e s t s w h o i n t e r f e r e in p o l i t i c s a n d s h o w t h e m
s e l v e s e n e m i e s of t h e G e r m a n S t a t e a r e d e a l t w i t h a s t h e y d e s e r v e .
A c c o r d i n g l y , w e find flagrant c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e affirm
a t i o n s of t h e H e a d of t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t , H e r r A . H i t l e r , on
t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h o s e of t h e P o p e a n d t h e G e r m a n B i s h o p s , on
the other.
F o r e x a m p l e , in a n Official N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t B u l l e t i n , News
from Germany ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 9 ) , in a s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y H e r r H i t l e r
in t h e R e i c h s t a g on J a n u a r y 3 0 t h , 1939, w e r e a d : " N o o n e in
G e r m a n y h a s so f a r b e e n p e r s e c u t e d for his r e l i g i o u s v i e w s , n o r
w i l l a n y o n e be p e r s e c u t e d o n t h a t a c c o u n t . . , , W e s h a l l p r o
t e c t t h e G e r m a n c l e r g y in t h e i r c a p a c i t y a s G o d ' s m i n i s t e r s ; b u t
w e s h a l l d e s t r o y m e m b e r s of t h e c l e r g y w h o a r e t h e e n e m i e s of
t h e G e r m a n R e i c h . " Y e t , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , P o p e P i u s X I , s p e a k
i n g t o t h e C o l l e g e of C a r d i n a l s on C h r i s t m a s E v e , 1937, s a i d :
" W c m u s t call t h i n g s b y t h e i r right n a m e s . In Germany, there is
vndeniahly a religious persecution. F o r a l o n g time, t h e y have
b e e n t r y i n g t o m a k e u s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e is n o p e r s e c u t i o n . W c
k n o w w e l l , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e is a g r i e v o u s persecution.
Nay more, there has rarely been a persecution so grievous, so
fearful, so painful, and so devastating in its far-reaching effects.
Op. oil-., p p . 378-380. ( U n e x p u r g a t c d E d i t i o n , H u r s t & Blackett,
L t d . . 1930).
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 369

I t is a p e r s e c u t i o n in w h i c h n e i t h e r t h e e x e r c i s e of f o r c e , n o r t h e
p r e s s u r e of t h r e a t s , n o r t h e s u b t e r f u g e s of c u n n i n g a n d d e c e i t
h a v e b e e n s p a r e d . . . . W e a r c n o t m e d d l i n g in p o l i t i c s . . . .
i t is u n d e n i a b l y O u r d u t y t o i n s i s t t h a t t h e o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n is
o b l i g e d t o m a i n t a i n his civic life in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e l a w of
G o d , t h e l a w of C h r i s t . Is t h a t w o r k i n g for r e l i g i o n o r is it
m e d d l i n g in p o l i t i c s ? I t c e r t a i n l y is n o t m e d d l i n g in p o l i t i c s . . . .
T h i s it is t h a t p r o f o u n d l y g r i e v e s t h e S o v e r e i g n Pontiff, n a m e l y ,
t h e r e p e a t e d a c c u s a t i o n of t h e a b u s e of r e l i g i o n for p o l i t i c a l e n d s
a n d t h e l a u n c h i n g of s u c h a c a l u m n y a g a i n s t so m a n y of H i s
V e n e r a b l e B r e t h r e n in t h e E p i s c o p a t e , a g a i n s t m e m b e r s of t h e
S a c r e d C o l l e g e of C a r d i n a l s , a g a i n s t s o m a n y p r i e s t s , a g a i n s t s o
m a n y g o o d l a v m e n , s o l i c i t o u s for n o t h i n g else t h a n to o b e v G o d ' s
law ^.
A g a i n , in t h e i r J o i n t P a s t o r a l L e t t e r of 19th A u g u s t , 1938,
the G e r m a n Bishops w r o t e as f o l l o w s : " W e G e r m a n Catholic
B i s h o p s h a v e a l r e a d y in e a r l i e r P a s t o r a l s d e a l t w i t h t h e s t r u g g l e
which has b e e n forced upon us. A n d a g a i n to-day, from r e p e a t e d
e x p e r i e n c e s , w e h a v e t o p l a c e it o n r e c o r d t h a t t h e s e a t t a c k s h a v e
not been m o d e r a t e d or become m o r e bearable, but have grown
fiercer a n d a r e b e i n g p r e s s e d h o m e w i t h g r e a t e r e n m i t y t h a n e v e r ,
w h i l e it is a l s o t r u e t h a t o u r e n e m i e s ' a i m s h a v e n o w b e c o m e m o r e
e v i d e n t . T h e y a r c t r y i n g t o r e s t r i c t u s on e v e r y s i d e , t o b l e e d
o u r C a t h o l i c life to d e a t h . Yea, more, the// aim at the complete
ovcrthroio of the Catholic Church on German soil, a n d e v e n a t
t h e e n t i r e e l i m i n a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y of w h a t e v e r s o r t , a n d t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n in i t s p l a c e of a f o r m of belief w h i c h is u t t e r l y alien
t o t h e t r u e f a i t h in G o d a n d belief in a f u t u r e life. . . . M e n of
standing and authority h a v e themselves announced with the great
e s t p u b l i c i t y t h a t t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l a i m is n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n of G e r m a n C a t h o l i c i s m . N o r can it be u r g e d a g a i n s t
this t h a t , a f t e r all, n o h i n d r a n c e is p l a c e d in t h e w a y of h o l d i n g
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h s e r v i c e s . O n t h e w h o l e t h i s is still t h e c a s e . In
a c t u a l f a c t , h o w e v e r , c o n s t a n t e f f o r t s a r e b e i n g m a d e in t h a t
d i r e c t i o n , n o t a b l y b y t h e e n d e a v o u r t o e n g e n d e r in y o u t h a n d in
t h o s e in v a r i o u s c a m p s a d i s t a s t e for g o i n g to C h u r c h , b y p u t t i n g
difficulties in t h e w a y of t h e i r d o i n g so, also b y r e p r e s e n t i n g
' d e n o m i n a t i o n a l i s m * a s d e s t r u c t i v e of t h e u n i t y of t h e n a t i o n ,
a n d s t r i v i n g t o d r i v e e v e r y t h i n g e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o u t of t h e p u b l i c
g a z e . T h e r e h a s t h u s b e e n a l l o t t e d t o u s a life like t h a t in t h e
c a t a c o m b s , w h i c h is t o be t h e b e g i n n i n g of the end. . . . \Hcre
the Bishops mention some of the waj/s in which the persecution is
carried on)
" A c c o r d i n g t o the p r i n c i p l e s of t h e racial a n d ' b l o o d ' t h e o r i e s ,
t h e p e r s o n a n d life of C h r i s t a r e in c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e G e r m a n
T r a n s l a t e d from the I t a l i a n t e x t in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis,
31 J a n u a r y , 1938, p. 21.
CC
370 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

ideal of humanity, as are also the principles of His teaching and,

in particular, the doctrines of Original Sin, Redemption, reward
and punishment after death, which are said to be drawn from the
superstitious legends of barbarous peoples who imposed their be
liefs on the Germans by force. Imbued with these principles,
young people, in different parts of the country, took it upon them
selves to clear the public places of the Crucifix, the symbol of
Christianity. They even went so far as to destroy very ancient
Calvaries, taking no account of the artistic value of several among
them. . . . They seek t o banish the Christian God, and to set up
a ' German God ' in His place. Is this ' God ' a different God from
the God of other nations? If He is, then there are as many 'Gods'
as there are races and peoples, which is as much as to say that
none of them is 'God* at all, since the true God is necessarily
unique. . . . It has been proclaimed in an official statement that
4
the German will not accept a Creator-God.' If that is so, the
German is turning this passing world into something eternal, and
in so far as the one and only true God is rejected he can under
1
stand by the word God ' at most some manifestation of the racial
soul. Such a * God' as this has no meaning. . . . Just as was
done to the Holiest one of all, who said, * I am the Way, the
Truth and the Life/ they can take Christian truth prisoner,
scourge her, hand her over to the civil power, crown her with
the thorns of calumny, condemn her to death and crucify her on
a German Calvary. But for her, short indeed will be the silence
of the grave, and she will rise again and gaze in triumph at the
tomb men dug for her and sealed over her, and at the silent graves
<44)
of her enemies, closed for ever "
The radical opposition of German racial theories to Catholic
teaching is made clear in the instruction to combat them, issued
by the Sacred Congregation for Seminaries and Universities to
Rectors of Seminaries and Catholic Universities. The document,
which was issued on April 13th, 1938, runs as follows: " Last year,
on Christmas Eve, our August Pontiff and gloriously reigning
Pope, in his allocution to the Cardinals and Prelates of the Roman
Curia, referred in grave and sorrowful terms to the grievous per
secution of the Catholic Church in Germany. It was a cause of
the greatest pain to the heart of the PToly Father that, in order
to excuse such flagrant injustice, barefaced calumnies were in
vented, and most pernicious doctrines, falsely alleged to be scien
tific, were spread far and wide, with the intention of creating
dire confusion in minds and uprooting the true religion. Tn view
of this state of things, the Sacred Congregation of Studies urges
This translation is in great part taken from The Persecution of
(44)
the Catholic Church in the Third Jieirh. published by Burns and Oates,
but the translation made by the present writer for The Rulers of Russia,
pp. 67, 68, has also been used.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 371
Catholic Universities and Faculties to direct all their resources
and efforts to the defence of truth against the inroads of these
errors. Accordingly, those who are teaching in these centres of
higher studies must mobilize all the means at their command, in
biology, history, philosophy, apologetics, legal and moral science,
and thus forge the weapons with which to refute decisively and
expertly the following absolutely untenable and erroneous doc
trines :

" 1) The human races by their natural and immutable char

acters are so different, one from another, that the lowest of them
is further removed from the highest than it is from the highest
species of animal.
"2) The vigour of the race and blood-purity must be pre
served and cultivated by every means. Anything that conduces
to this end is by that very fact honourable and permissible.
" 3) The intellectual and moral qualities of man come mainly
from his blood, the source of racial characteristics.
"4) The essential aim of education is' to develop the charac
ters of the race and to inflame men's minds with a burning love
of their own race as of the supreme good.
" 5) Religion is subject to the law of race and must be adapted
to it.
" 6) The primary source and supreme rule of the whole juri
dical order is the racial instinct.
"7) Only the Cosmos or Universe exists, a living being; all
things, man included, are only diverse forms, increasing through
the ages, of the Universal Living Being.
"8) Individual men exist by the State and for the State:
whatever rights they possess come to them exclusively through
M 45)
a concession from the State <
SOURCES OF T H E GERMAN RACE-THEORY.

What are the sources of the present-day deification of the

German Race ? They are many -and varied. We may begin by
distinguishing between the remote and the proximate sources. The
remote source is the Lutheran revolt in the 16th century. The
proximate sources are the philosophy of Kant, Fichte and Hegel
and the race-theories of the Frenchman, Gobineau, and the Eng
lishman, H. St. Chamberlain. Let us say a few words about each
of these in turn.

(45) F
o r the introductory part of the document the translation in
The Persecution of the Catholic Church in the Third lieich (Burns and
Oates) has been used. The propositions themselves have been translated
directly from the original.
372 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRTST

T H E LUTHERAN REVOLT.

T h e L u t h e r a n r e v o l t is t h e r e v o l t of t h e indiridnaf against that

s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r b y w h i c h t r u e personality
is d e v e l o p e d . G o d a l o n e , a s w c s a w in C h a p t e r J. p o s s e s s e s p e r
s o n a l i t y in t h e full s e n s e of t h e w o r d , for 1 le a l o n e is fully i n d e
p e n d e n t , in H i s B e i n g a n d in U i s A c t i o n , n o t m e r e l y of m a t t e r ,
b u t a l s o of e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is n o t H i m s e l f . A c c o r d i n g l y , h u m a n
p e r s o n a l i t y is d e v e l o p e d , in p r o p o r t i o n a s w c t e n d t o u n i o n w i t h
G o d a l o n g t h e lines H e h a s laid d o w n . T h i s m e a n s t h a t , in o u r
c o n d i t i o n of fallen b u t r e d e e m e d b e i n g s , o u r p e r s o n a l i t y is d e
v e l o p e d in p r o p o r t i o n a s w e live in l o v i n g u n i o n w i t h t h e B l e s s e d
T r i n i t y p r e s e n t in u s t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l
B o d y , t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , t h u s o b s e r v i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e o r d e r of
life i n c u m b e n t u p o n u s b e c a u s e of t h e a c t u a l D i v i n e P l a n . G r o w t h
of p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e r e f o r e , i m p l i e s a d e v e l o p e d g r a s p of t h a t o r d e r e d
t e n d e n c y a n d a n i n t e n s e l o v e of t h e o r d e r s o g r a s p e d . T h i s love
w i l l m a n i f e s t itself b y a c a p a c i t y for s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , t h a t is, b y an
i n c r e a s i n g p o w e r of s u p p r e s s i n g t h e i n c l i n a t i o n t o m a k e of self
t h e c e n t r e of life. I n t h i s w a y w e r e s p e c t t h e o r d e r e d t e n d e n c y
of all b e i n g s t o G o d , t h e C o m m o n G o o d of t h e u n i v e r s e .
T o d e v e l o p o n e ' s individuality, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is t o lead
a s e l f - c e n t r e d e x i s t e n c e a l l o w i n g o n e ' s will t o be s w a y e d a g a i n s t
o r d e r u n d e r t h e i m p u l s e of p a s s i o n . L u t h e r ' s h i s t o r y is t h e
s t o r y of a r e v o l t a g a i n s t o r d e r u n d e r t h e s w a y of p a s s i o n . "As
L u t h e r g e t s o l d e r , b i s e n e r g y b e c o m e s l e s s a n d less a s o u l ' s en
e r g y , a n d m o r e a n d m o r e , t h e e n e r g y of a t e m p e r a m e n t . Driven
b y g r e a t desires and v e h e m e n t longings possessed by the
passions, loosing the t e m p e s t a r o u n d him, b r e a k i n g every obstacle
a n d all e x t e r n a l d i s c i p l i n e . . , . L u t h e r is t h e v e r y t y p e of m o d
e r n i n d i v i d u a l i s m ( t h e p r o t o - t y p e of m o d e r n t i m e s , F i c h t e calls
him). B u t ' i n r e a l i t y h i s p e r s o n a l i t y is r e n t a s u n d e r a n d r u i n e d .
. . . All t h a t c o m e s f r o m t h e s a m e c a u s e : t h e a b s o l u t e p r e d o m i n
a n c e of F e e l i n g a n d A p p e t i t e W i t h L u t h e r . . . t h e will
h a s t h e p r i m a c y , t r u l y a n d a b s o l u t e l y . . . . T h a t a t t i t u d e of soul
naturally goes with a profound anti-intcllectualism, which was
b e s i d e s h e l p e d b y t h e O c k h a m i s t a n d N o m i n a l i s t t r a i n i n g in phil-
o s p h y , w h i c h L u t h e r h a d r e c e i v e d . . . . S o in L u t h e r t h e s w o l l e n
c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e self is e s s e n t i a l l y a c o n s c i o u s n e s s of will, of
realization of freedom,, as G e r m a n philosophy said l a t e r on. W e
s h o u l d h a v e t o s t r e s s t o o h i s e g o c e n t r i s m , a n d s h o w h o w t h e self
is c e n t r e f o r h i m , n o t c e r t a i n l y , a s in K a n t , f r o m a c l a i m of the
h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e t o b e t h e m e a s u r e of i n t e l l i g i b l e t h i n g s , but
f r o m t h e c l a i m of t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l , c u t off f r o m t h e u n i v e r s a l
b o d y of t h e C h u r c h , t o s t a n d s o l i t a r y b e f o r e G o d a n d C h r i s t , in
o r d e r t o e n s u r e its j u s t i f i c a t i o n . . . . B e h i n d L u t h e r ' s a p p e a l s
t o t h e r e d e e m i n g L a m b , b e h i n d h i s o u t b u r s t s of c o n f i d e n c e and
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 373

his faith in the forgiveness of sins, there is a human creature

which . . . . will follow the will to power . . . . and work
4fi)
its will in the world "<
The Lutheran revolt, therefore, in the last resort consisted
in the setting-up of the passionate will of a human creature against
the Divine Plan. It inaugurated the conflict of the Gospel and Law,
of Faith and Works, and gave rise to the immanentist and sub-
jectivist tendency by which the objective order of the world is
considered to be an obstacle hampering the development of the
inner self. With it, the Germanic peoples began to set up their
will to mould the world against ordered subjection to the Mystical
Body of Christ. The philosophy of Kant, Fichte and Hegel de
finitely put man in the place of God.
T H E P H I L O S O P H Y O F K A N T , F I C K T E AND H E G E L .

To understand the full effect of those philosophers, we must

go back for a moment to the two currents which we saw issuing
from Nominalism. The Nominalism of Descartes sacrificed man's
sense-faculties to his intelligence and led to the Pantheism of
Spinoza, by which man is identified with God. The Nominalism
of Locke, Berkeley and Hume sacrificed man's intelligence which
was finally reduced to the rank and function of an internal sense.
Kant's philosophy was a reaction against the consequences of the
sensism or empiricism of Hume. Sensism leaves before the mind
only discontinuous phenomena like grains of dust with no intellig
ible explanation of the groupings to be met with in nature. Kant
saw that the empiricism of Locke and Hume not only could not
explain the unity of individual beings but was in flagrant contra
diction with the fact of the necessary and universal judgements
of science, that is, of the existence of a necessary and universal
order in the world. The temptation for Kant to ascribe to the
mind the phenomena themselves, as subject to order and law, thus
making of them a product of human thought, was very great.
As he had no knowledge of the Thomistic doctrine of abstraction,
by which the intellect grasps the objective order of the world in
the data furnished to it by the sense-faculties, he succumbed to
the temptation. The universe of ordered phenomena is absorbed
in the subject and appears as immanent to the mind, and the
human mind constructs the order of the world. The' mind of
man takes on the function of the Divine Mind, for the Divine
47
Intelligence is the measure of things/ *
Fichte completed the work of putting man in the place of
W) Three Reformers, by J. Maritain, pp. 27-37, passim (Sheed and
Ward).
<4J> Of. Les Sources de Vldealhine, by Rciris Jolivet, pp. 104-110, and
Maritain, liefleccions sur VIntelligence, p. 30.
 374 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

G o d b y teaching- t h a t the h u m a n mind p r o d u c e d n o t o n l y the

form, b u t t h e matter of t h o u g h t . H e s a w t h a t , if t h e m a t t e r c a m e
f r o m o u t s i d e , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o it of t h e c a t e g o r i e s w o u l d b e
a r b i t r a r y a n d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o g u a r a n t e e of its " m a l l e a b i l i t y "
o r " p l i a b i l i t y " u n d e r t h e a c t i o n of t h e h u m a n m i n d . M i g h t it n o t
o n e d a y refuse to be m o u l d e d and so leave n o t h i n g b u t c h a o s a n d
c o n f u s i o n ? T h e M i n d ( o r E g o ) for F i c h t e m u s t be t h e A b s o l u t e l y
F i r s t Being, p r o d u c i n g the p h e n o m e n a l world by an unconscious
and involuntary creation. H e n c e t h e c r e a t e d m i n d is i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h God. T h i s is w h a t F i c h t e s t r e s s e s s o s t r o n g l y in h i s
Addresses to the German Nation. F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e T h i r d
A d d r e s s , h e s a y s : " T h e pupil of t h i s e d u c a t i o n is n o t m e r e l y a
m e m b e r of h u m a n s o c i e t y h e r e o n t h i s e a r t h . . . . H e is a l s o
. . . . a l i n k in t h e e t e r n a l c h a i n of s p i r i t u a l life in a h i g h e r
T
s o c i a l o r d e r . . . . L n d e r p r o p e r g u i d a n c e h e will . . . . find at
the end that nothing really exists but life, the spiritual life which
lives in thought, and that everything else does not really exist,
but only appears to exist. . . . He will perceive that . . . accord
ing to a law founded, in God Himself, the spiritval life which
alone really exists is one, the divine itself, which exists and
manifests itself only in living thought. H e will t h u s l e a r n
to k n o w and k e e p holy his o w n and e v e r y o t h e r spiritual
life as an eternal link in the chain of the manifestation of the
divine life"iw

H o w d o c s t h e E g o or m i n d p r o d u c e t h e n o n - e g o ? Uncon
sciously and involuntarily. F i c h t e d i s t i n g u i s h e s in t h e k n o w i n g
s u b j e c t t h e e m p i r i c a l , finite a n d i n d i v i d u a l e g o c o n s c i o u s of it
s e l f a n d t h e i n f i n i t e a n d u n i v e r s a l E g o , w h i c h is t h e r a t i o n a l life
o f h u m a n s o c i e t y m a n i f e s t e d in p r a c t i c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n G e r m a n
science and philosophy. T h i s p r a c t i c a l r a t i o n a l life of h u m a n
society ever tends to know better and to bring about the moral
o r d e r of t h e w o r l d . G e r m a n t h o u g h t is c a l l e d u p o n t o m o u l d
t h e w o r l d a n d t o i n t r o d u c e o r d e r i n t o it. T h e G e r m a n m i n d is t h e
c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t o f t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e e v e r - e v o l v i n g
( 4 9 )
d e i t y i m m a n e n t in h u m a n i t y . W e c a n t h u s g r a s p t h e full f o r c e
of t h e c o n c l u s i o n of F i c h t e ' s F o u r t e e n t h A d d r e s s . " If t h e r e is
a n y t r u t h i n w h a t I h a v e s a i d in t h e s e a d d r e s s e s / ' w e r e a d , " it
is t o y o u , t h e p a r e n t s t o c k of m o d e r n E u r o p e , t h a t , a m o n g s t all
m o d e r n p e o p l e s , t h e g e r m of h u m a n p e r f e c t i o n is in a s p e c i a l
s e n s e e n t r u s t e d a n d o n y o u t h a t t h e l e a d in i t s d e v e l o p m e n t h a s

(48) T h e T r a n s l a t i o n of the Addresses by J o n e s a n d T u r n b u l l (1922)

h a s been chiefly used.
(49) << H u m a n i t y itself is the l i v i n g God. . . . I loathe every f o r m of
religion which considers God as a p e r s o n a l being. Such an idea is
u n w o r t h y of the h u m a n race " (Quoted from F i c h t e ' s Criticism of any
Form of Revelation-, b y Pere G a r r i g o u - L a g r a n g e , O . P . , De Revelatione>
I, p. 242).
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 375
been conferred. If you fail in this your special"call, with you
fails all hope of the whole human race."
This Pantheism or identification of God with man is modified
in expression in Fichte's successors, Schelling and Hegel, but the
50
transcendence of God is just as strenuously denied by them/ *
God is immanent in the world especially in the German Race. In
the evolution of the Humanity-God. one State or people always
leads, according to Hegel. Greece and Rome led the ancient
world. In Europe to-day, there is a Chosen People to carry on
the development of the world and introduce order into itthe
German Race.
GERMAN RACIAL INSTINCT REPLACES T H E GERMAN MINI) AS
T H E FORCE MOULDING T H E WORLDGOBrNEAU
AND H. ST. CHAMBERLAIN.

It would take too long to enumerate all the influences which

have led to the present form of the divinization of the German
race. We have seen the current coming from Fichte and Hegel.
Even the partial reactions against these philosophers never ques
tioned the basic principle, namely, that German thought was
destined to mould the world. For example, German absorption in
metaphysical speculation was the object of much criticism, when
it was perceived that other countries which had been more con
cerned with colonization, raw materials and manufacture, had
accumulated enormous wealth and power. As a consequence,
Feuerbach's materialism went to the extreme of putting matter
and body as the essence of the Ego, but it retained the position
of the Ego, and also the German guidance of the moulding pro
cess. Haeckel applied the Darwinian theory of selection to human
life, and war took its place as part of the Germanic contribution
to world-progress. Accordingly, the new current coming from
Gobineau and H. St. Chamberlain readily fitted into the existing
mentality. According to them, purity of blood and race is the
great principle of progress for humanity, not only of physical
but of mental and moral progress. Therefore, that the German
mind and soul may mould the world, the indispensable condition

<50) "According to Hegel, the common source of the Ego and nature
does not transcend reality. It is immanent to it. . . . The Absolute
is the succession, the perpetual generation of things. . . . For Hegel,
the Absolute is the evolutionary process itself. l does not engender
movement and life. It is itself the movement. . . . In the same way,
it is not above the intellectual capacity of man. If one understood by
God, the Being transcending human reason, Hegel would be the most
atheistic of philosophers, since no one affirmed as categorically as he
did the immanence and complete intelligibility of the Absolute. Spinoza
himself, the (philosopher of immanence, seems not to go so far"
(Histoire de la Philosophic Ewropeenne, by Alfred Weber, p. 362).
376 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
is the purity of the German blood and race. As, according to
this theory, the mind of man, that is, his intellectual and moral
qualities, come mainly from his blood, Gobineau and H. St. Cham
berlain can claim that they are only laying bare the ultimate
foundations of the philosophies of Fichte and Hegel. In reality,
their pantheism is more decidedly materialistic.
The National-Socialist State is the means by which German
racial instincts, sprung from German blood and German soil, gen
erate order in the world. "The fundamental principle," we read in
Mtdn Kampft "is that the State is not an end in itself, but the
means to an end. . . . The excellence of a State' . . . . must
be judged by the degree to which its institutions serve the racial
stock which belongs to it. . . . As a State, the German Reich
shall include all Germans. Its task is not only to gather in and
foster the most valuable sections of our people but to lead them
slowly and surely to a dominant position in the world. . . . It
will be the task of the People's $tate to make the race the centre
of the life of the community. It must make sure that the purity
of the racial strain will be preserved. . . . It must see to it that
only those who are healthy shall beget children. . . . But, on
the other hand, it must be considered as reprehensible conduct
to refrain from giving healthy children to the nation. . . . It
[the State] must proclaim as unfit for procreation all those who
are affected with some visible hereditary disease or are the car
riers of it; and practical means must be adopted to have such
people rendered sterile. . . . The Weltanschauung which bases
the State on the racial idea must finally succeed in bringing about
a noble era, ifi which men will no longer pay exclusive attention
to breeding and rearing pedigree dogs and horses and cats, but
will endeavour to improve the breed of the human race itself. . . .
" If we consider it the first duty of the State to serve and pro
mote the general welfare of the people, by preserving and en
couraging the development of the best racial elements, the logical
consequence is that this task cannot be limited to measures con
cerning the birth of the infant members of the race and nation
but that the State will also have to adopt educational means for
making each citizen a worthy factor in the further propagation
of the racial stock. . . . The People's State will have to direct
the education of girls just as that of boys and according to the
same fundamental principles. Here again special importance must
be given to physical training, and only after that must the im
portance of spiritual and mental training be taken into ac
count
"The main lines of action must not only be in accord with the
fundamental idea of our Weltanschauung but must actually be an
expansion of it in the practical world of foreign affairs. . . . The
fundamental and guiding principles which we must always bear in
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 377
mind when studying this question is that foreign policy is only
a means to an end and that the sole end to be pursued is the
welfare of our own people. Every problem in foreign politics must
be considered from this point of view, and from this point of view
alone. Shall such and such a solution prove advantageous to our
people now or in the future or will it injure their interests?
That is the question. This is the sole preoccupation that must
occupy our minds in dealing with a question. Party politics,
religious considerations, humanitarian idealsall such and all
,(51)
other preoccupations must absolutely give way to this.'
It is clear that a long road has been travelled since Kant car
ried out the Copernican revolution by which the human mind
became the mould of the moral law, but the descent was inevit
able, in spite of the glowing terms in which Kant extolled the
absoluteness of that law. The human mind, withdrawn from
ordered subjection to God, falls inevitably under the sway of
525
passion/
No wonder Pope Pius XI felt obliged to write, in the
Encyclical Letter, Mil hrennender Sorge: " He who takes the race,
or the people, or the State, or the form of Government, the
bearers of the power of the Stale or other fundamental elements
of human societywhich in the temporal order of things have
an essential and honourable placeout of the system of their
earthly valuation, and makes them the ultimate norm of all, even
of religious values, and deifies them with an idolatrous worship,
perverts and falsifies the order of things created by God. Such
a one is far from true belief in God and a conception of life cor
responding to true belief. . . . It is part of the trend of the day
to sever more and more not only morality, but also the foundation
of law and jurisprudence, from true belief in God and from His
revealed commandments. . . .
" B y this standard we must judge the principle: 'What helps
the people is right.' A right meaning may be given to this sent
ence if it is understood as expressing that what is morally illicit
can never serve the true interests of the people. Hut even anci
ent paganism recognised that the sentence, to be perfectly accur
ate, should be inverted and read: 'Never i$ anything useful, if
it is not at the same time morally good. And not because it is
useful is it morally good, but because it is morally good, it is
Mein Kampf (Unexpurgatcd Edition), Hurst and Blackett, pp.
328, 331, 334, 338, 341, 347, 497.
(52) Nietzsche bad already manifested the decay. "The mind," he
vt
declares, counts for us only as a symptom of relative imperfection and
weakening of Ihe organism. . . . Our true life is to be looked for not in
experiences that have been 'sifted through-with reason/ but in the
dark, unconscious and instinctive elements of our nature . . . I submit
that egoism belongs to the essence of a noble soul. . . . Life itself is the
Will to Power." Quoted by J. II. Muirhead in Oxford Pamphlets.
 378 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

also useful.' C u t l o o s e f r o m t h i s r u l e of m o r a l i t y t h a t p r i n c i p l e
w o u l d m e a n , in i n t e r n a t i o n a l life, a p e r p e t u a l s t a t e of w a r b e
t w e e n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s . I n p o l i t i c a l life w i t h i n t h e S t a t e , since
i t 'confuses c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of u t i l i t y w i t h t h o s e of r i g h t , i t m i s
t a k e s the basic fact that m a n as a p e r s o n possesses God-given
r i g h t s , w h i c h m u s t b e p r e s e r v e d f r o m all a t t a c k s a i m e d a t d e n y
ing, s u p p r e s s i n g or d i s r e g a r d i n g them. . . .
" W c h a v e n o t t i r e d , V e n e r a b l e B r e t h r e n , of p o r t r a y i n g t o the
r e s p o n s i b l e g u i d e s of t h e d e s t i n i e s of y o u r c o u n t r y t h e c o n s e
q u e n c e s t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y follow, if s u c h t r e n d s a r e l e f t u n h i n d e r e d
a n d m u c h m o r e if t h e y a r e v i e w e d w i t h f a v o u r . W e h a v e d o n e
e v e r y t h i n g t o d e f e n d t h e s a n c t i t y of a w o r d s o l e m n l y p l e d g e d , to
p r o t e c t t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y of o b l i g a t i o n s f r e e l y u n d e r t a k e n , a g a i n s t
t h e o r i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s w h i c h , if officially a p p r o v e d , m u s t d e s t r o y
all c o n f i d e n c e a n d r e n d e r v a l u e l e s s a n y w o r d t h a t m i g h t a l s o be
p l e d g e d in t h e f u t u r e . . . . E v e r y o n e in w h o s e m i n d t h e r e is a
t r a c e of f e e l i n g a n d j u s t i c e , will t h e n h a v e t o a d m i t t h a t , in t h e s e
g r i e v o u s a n d e v e n t f u l y e a r s a f t e r t h e s i g n i n g of t h e C o n c o r d a t , in
e v e r y w o r d a n d in e v e r y a c t i o n of O u r s , W e h a v e s t o o d faithful
t o t h e t e r m s of t h e a g r e e m e n t . B u t with a m a z e m e n t and deep
a v e r s i o n h e will be o b l i g e d to a d m i t t h a t t o c h a n g e t h e m e a n i n g
of t h e a g r e e m e n t , t o e v a d e t h e a g r e e m e n t , t o e m p t y t h e a g r e e
m e n t of all i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , a n d finally m o r e o r l e s s o p e n l y to
v i o l a t e t h e a g r e e m e n t , h a s b e e n m a d e t h e u n w r i t t e n l a w of con
5 3
duct by the other party/'* '
G i v e n t h e G e r m a n r a c i a l p h i l o s o p h y , h o w will t h e G e r m a n m i n d
organize the world? T h e r e w i l l be a h i e r a r c h y of " r a c e s / ' it
m a y be p r e s u m e d . T h e G e r m a n s will, of c o u r s e , b e a t t h e top,
a s s i g n i n g t o all t h e o t h e r s t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n a n d t h e i r
s p e c i a l r o l e . U n d e r t h e G e r m a n s will b e t h e o t h e r N o r d i c A r y a n s .
T h e n u n d e r t h e s e a g a i n t h e v a r i o u s r a c e s will find p l a c e in p r o
p o r t i o n to t h e i r r e s e m b l a n c e to the N o r d i c A r y a n d o m i n a n t type.
Democracy, a s w e h a v e k n o w n it, h a s t r i e d t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m
of w o r l d - o r g a n i z a t i o n b y a l l y i n g N a t i o n a l i s m in p o l i t i c s , t h a t is,
t h e e x i s t e n c e of s e p a r a t e n a t i o n a l S t a t e s , w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m
( t e n d i n g t o J e w i s h s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m ) in e c o n o m i c s a n d e s p e c i a l l y
i n finance. Communism, w h i c h is t h e l e f t w i n g of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
finance, aims a t eliminating national frontiers, thus doing away
with separate national States. National Socialism a i m s a t insti
t u t i n g o r d e r b y G e r m a n racial h e g e m o n y , w h i c h will necessarily
i n v o l v e n o t o n l y p o l i t i c a l b u t e c o n o m i c a n d financial s u b o r d i n a t i o n
t o t h e e v o l v i n g d e i t y i m m a n e n t in t h e G e r m a n r a c e . L e a v i n g the
q u e s t i o n of finance t o b e d e a l t w i t h in P a r t V , l e t u s n o w s e e w h a t
b e c o m e s of p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y in a N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n
of t h e w o r l d .
(53) The Encyclical L e t t e r , Mil brenneder Horge, On the Persecution
of the Church in Germany, was p u b l i s h e d on M a r c h 14, 1937.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 379

THE GERMAN RACIAL THEORY AND PERSONAL LIBERTY.

We must first set forth briefly the aim of the State and the
meaning of personal liberty. Man, as a spiritual being, is neces
sarily endowed with free will, that is to say, the human will in its
inner domain is not only not subject to external constraint, but
is delivered from any necessitating determination. By its intrinsic
nature, the human will is determined to love the unlimited or
infinite good and. by that very fact, no good which is not the
unlimited or infinite good can determine it necessarily. This
freedom of choice or initial liberty is not itself an end to itself.
It is meant to bear fruit in the psychological and moral order.
By our efforts we are meant to become completely masters of
ourselves and become capable of willing, in complete independence
of any created thing, the order incumbent upon us as creatures.
This terminal liberty^ which we must conquer, is the liberty of
54
autonomy or complete personal liberty.* ^ As we have seen in
Chapter 1, in our fallen condition, we can attain to this liberty
only through membership of Christ, and we are meant to be aided
in the struggle for it by an organization of society respectful of
the Rights of God according to the order laid down by Christ.
Thanks to Sanctifying Grace, which is a created participation in
the Divine Nature, we share in the Life of God and can remain
firmly united to the Blessed Trinity present in us already here
below in preparation for the definitive union in the Beatific Vision.
Civil society is essentially ordained, not merely to allow free
play to the liberty of choice of each individual as to a little god,
as Rousseau and the French Revolution declared, but to the attain
ment of the common temporal good of the people. This common
temporal good being itself intrinsically subordinate to the con
quest of the liberty of autonomy by the human persons compos
55J
ing the society, is only an intermediary end.< Man, as an indi
vidual, is for the State and must sacrifice himself for the Common
Good, but the Common Good itself of the State is for man, as a
person. The State is for the personal development of its subjects
through membership of Christ. It is not the State's business to
lead the human person to his spiritual perfection and to the ful
ness of his liberty of autonomy, for that belongs to the Church,
the Mystical Body of Christ. The State is, however, destined
essentially by its nature to strive for the realization of such in
tellectual, moral and material conditions amongst its subjects that
each person will be positively helped in the arduous work of con
quering his liberty of autonomy through union with God as a
member of Christ.
M
< > Cf. Maritain, Du rdgime temporel et de la liberte (pp, 6-40), for
the development of the ideas outlined here.
(55) Maritain, op. oit., p.58.
 380 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y of life i s s u i n g f r o m t h e conflu
e n c e of t h e P a n t h e i s m of F i c h t e a n d H e g e l w i t h t h e r a c e - t h e o r i e s
of G o b i n e a u a n d H . S t C h a m b e r l a i n , all h u m a n b e i n g s a r e e m a n
a t i o n s o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e i m m a n e n t d i v i n e life, w h i c h is
i t s e l f m o u l d e d b y t h e b l o o d of. t h e r a c e . A s s u c h , t h e y a r e c o m
p l e t e l y s u b j e c t t o t h e c o l l e c t i v i t y . T h e y e x i s t a s m e m b e r s of t h e
r a c e f o r t h e g o o d of t h e r a c e , a n d t h e i r d u t y is t o s a c r i f i c e t h e m
s e l v e s c o m p l e t e l y for t h e g o o d of t h e r a c e a l o n g t h e l i n e s laid
( 5 G )
d o w n b y the racial l e a d e r s . " T h e race-bound national soul,"
w r i t e s R o s e n b e r g in The Myth of the Twentieth Century, " is t h e
m e a s u r e of all o u r t h o u g h t s , v o l u n t a r y a s p i r a t i o n s a n d a c t i o n s ,
( 5 7 )
t h e final c r i t e r i o n of o u r v a l u e s . " H e n c e there can be no such
t h i n g a s p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y a s e x p l a i n e d a b o v e . All m e n a r e m e r e l y
individuals b e l o n g i n g b o d y a n d soul to the race a n d to the State,
w h i c h is s i m p l y a m e a n s f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of r a c i a l p u r i t y .
L i b e r t y , a s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e will t o p o w e r a n d t h e a c q u i s i
t i o n of d o m i n a t i o n , is t o b e a t t a i n e d in a n d b y t h e r a c e a n d its
o r g a n , t h e S t a t e , a n d in c o m p l e t e s u b j e c t i o n t o it. Accordingly,
h u m a n b e i n g ' s a r e m e r e l y individualV," n o t persons, and only by
s a c r i f i c i n g t h e m s e l v e s c o m p l e t e l y f o r t h e d o m i n a t i o n of t h e r a c e
d o t h e y e n j o y t r u e l i b e r t y . T h i s is t r u e , a fortiori, of t h e m e m b e r s
of t h e G e r m a n r a c e , f o r " o n l y t h e G e r m a n r e a l l y h a s a p e o p l e
a n d is e n t i t l e d t o c o u n t o n o n e . 1 Ie a l o n e is c a p a b l e of r e a l and
< 5 8 )
r a t i o n a l love for bis n a t i o n . " T h e g l o r y of t h e G e r m a n r a c e is,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o m p l e t e final e n d of e v e r y G e r m a n . H e n c e t h e aim
of t h e S t a t e m u s t be t o b r i n g a b o u t s u c h i n t e l l e c t u a l , m a t e r i a l and,
i n r e a l i t y , immoral conditions t h a t e v e r y G e r m a n will acquiesce
i n t h i s p e r v e r s i o n of o r d e r a n d w o r k for i t b y e v e r y m e a n s . W e
m a y e x p r e s s o u r j u d g e m e n t o n t h i s in o n e p h r a s e : i t is e x t r e m e l y
s a d t o s e e s u c h a n e n o r m o u s c a p a c i t y for d i s c i p l i n e p l a c e d at the
s e r v i c e of a d i s o r d e r e d i d e a l .

P R U S S I A N F R E E M A S O N R Y AND T H E NATIONAL-
SOCIALIST M O V E M E N T .

M a s o n i c f o r m a t i o n , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is o b j e c t i v e l y t h e g r a d u
a t e d a c c e p t a n c e of p a n t h e i s m o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of G o d w i t h
m a n , f o r M a s o n r y is p a n t h e i s t i c in its s y m b o l i s m a n d in its i n n e r
or esoteric signification. G e r m a n F r e e m a s o n r y , both G r a n d Orient
a n d P r u s s i a n , c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a m e n t a l i t y f a v o u r
a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t d e i f i c a t i o n of t h e G e r m a n r a c e . I n a s m u c h as

(56) " A s if a man could bo m a d e for a n y t h i n g else t h a n for his fellow-

beings " (Mein i\a?npf. T r a n s l a t i o n , llursfc an'd Ulackctt, p.
(5?) By a decree of the N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t Oovernnient of Oernmny
d a t e d J a n u a r y 31st, 1934, Rosenberg was given c o n t r o l of the Intelluitutil
and philosophical formation of the N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t p a r t y .
(58) Fichte, Eighth Address to the German Nation.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 381
Prussian Freemasonry was to some extent a reaction against
Jewish domination, by its exclusion of Jews from membership,
it may be said to have contributed thereto in an especial way.<59>
By its exclusion of Jews, who were freely admitted to member
ship of the Grand Orient o r Humanitarian Lodges, stress seemed
to be specially laid on the deification of the Prussian or German
race and not of "Humanity" in general, in the statement drawn
up by the Assembly of the Prussian Grandmasters on 16th Feb
ruary, 1924, this point of view is clearly stressed. The statement
declares that the three Prussian G r a n d L o d g e s s t a n d f o r " a
German and Christian view of life. . . . because they are per
suaded that there is no universal Humanitarian ideal and that,
just as every personality has its root in race, only boundless love
of and fidelity to one's race can develop personality."
Tn 1933, the Prussian Grand Lodges transformed themselves
into Orders of Chivalry with a purely German symbolism. The
National Grand Lodge, "At the Three Globes," founded by Fred
erick the Great in 1740, became the National Christian Order of
Frederick the Great, with an ideal of pure Germanic Racial Na
tionality. It has been stated that even that transformation did
not save them from being suppressed like the Grand Orient Lodges,
One thing at least is certain, namely, that the " German Christian"
attempt to introduce the neo-paganism of the so-called " German
Faith " amongst German Protestants, which has been favoured by
the National-Socialist Government, follows exactly the lines in
(i0
dicated in the declarations of the three Prussian Grand Lodges. ( >
In addition, the persistent hatred of the Supernatural Life of
Grace displayed by the National-Socialist Government seems in
dicative of the presence behind the scenes of some satanically-
inspired group-such as Masonry. It is true that it is unequivocally
stated in Mein Kampf that & Weltanschauung, unlike a political
party, cannot compromise. Still, every purely human movement
tends to become less narrow in outlook and less bitter in action,
when its leaders discover that dangers lie ahead. Yet the Pastoral
Letter of the German Catholic Bishops read on July 6th, 1941,
makes it clear that the fury of the persecution is not abating.

ITALY'S REACTION.

Jt is not necessary to speak in detail of the triumph of Judaeo-

Masonic Naturalism in Italy and of the need for a reaction. The
history of the Italian Revolution and the names of Mazzini and

(59) For the attitude of the three Old Prussian Lodges to Jews, cf.
Wichtl, WeltfreimaurereL etc., p. 55.
(60) Cf. The Mystical Body of Christ in the Modem World, pp. 311,
312.
382 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
6 1 )
G a r i b a l d i a r e familiar to e v e r y o n e . < T h e e n e m i e s of t h e S u p e r
n a t u r a l L i f e s e e m e d t o h a v e r e a c h e d t h e z e n i t h of t h e i r p o w e r
w h e n , in 1907, t h e M a s o n i c J e w , E r n e s t o N a t h a n , w a s e l e c t e d
M a y o r of R o m e . " A J e w i s h M a y o r in t h e E t e r n a l C i t y , " w r o t e
(< ( G 2 )
t h e J e w , P e t e r R y s s , is s y m b o l i c of t h e n e w a g e . "
T h e b e s t w a y t o s e t f o r t h t h e g u i d i n g l i n e s of t h e I t a l i a n
R e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e N a t u r a l i s m of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n is t o
p o i n t o u t t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n it a n d t h e P o r t u g u e s e R e a c t i o n ,
I n P o r t u g a l , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e S t a t e , w h i l e n o t officially
a c k n o w l e d g i n g the Catholic Church, yet accepts the fundamental
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e personality a n d t h e individuality of the
h u m a n b e i n g , a n d is g u i d e d in g r e a t p a r t b y s o u n d p h i l o s o p h y
a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s of P o r t u g a l . H e n c e , t h o u g h it a l l o w s of d i v o r c e
f r o m civil m a r r i a g e , it d o e s n o t a l l o w of it in t h e c a s e of C a t h o l i c
m a r r i a g e s , a n d p r e p a r e s for t h e d a y w h e n the P o r t u g u e s e nation,
r e g e n e r a t e d a f t e r l o n g y e a r s of n a t u r a l i s t i c d e c a y , will j o y f u l l y
a c k n o w l e d g e t h e full D i v i n e P l a n f o r o r d e r .
I n I t a l y , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e S t a t e h a s r e t u r n e d t o full
a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a n d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l
order. I n t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Casti Couni/bii, On Christian
Marriage, P o p e P i u s X I s i n g l e s o u t for s p e c i a l p r a i s e A r t i c l e 34
l<
of t h e I t a l i a n C o n c o r d a t w i t h t h e H o l y S e e , in w h i c h the Italian
S t a t e d e s i r o u s of r e s t o r i n g t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of M a t r i m o n y , w h i c h
is t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y , t h a t d i g n i t y c o n f o r m a b l e t o the
t r a d i t i o n s of i t s p e o p l e , a s s i g n s a s civil effects of t h e S a c r a m e n t
of M a t r i m o n y all t h a t is a t t r i b u t e d t o it b y C a n o n L a w . ' * H e t h e n
a d d s : " T h i s p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t a n d f r i e n d l y c o - o p e r a t i o n is such
a s b e f i t t e d t h e g l o r i o u s h i s t o r y of t h e I t a l i a n p e o p l e a n d i t s anci
e n t a n d s a c r e d t r a d i t i o n s . . . . T h i s m i g h t well be a s t r i k i n g
e x a m p l e t o all, of h o w , e v e n in t h i s o u r o w n d a y ( i n w h i c h , sad
t o s a y , t h e a b s o l u t e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e civil p o w e r f r o m t h e C h u r c h ,
a n d i n d e e d f r o m all r e l i g i o n , is s o o f t e n t a u g h t ) , t h e o n e s u p r e m e
a u t h o r i t y can be united and associated w i t h the o t h e r without
d e t r i m e n t t o t h e r i g h t s a n d s u p r e m e p o w e r of e i t h e r , t h u s p r o t e c t
i n g C h r i s t i a n p a r e n t s f r o m p e r n i c i o u s e v i l s a n d m e n a c i n g ruin."
N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r , the
I t a l i a n S t a t e h a s s h o w n u n m i s t a k a b l e s i g n s of a w r o n g p h i l o s o p h y ,
in r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r of life, e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g the
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n personality a n d individuality. Signor Musso
lini h a s w r i t t e n : " F a s c i s m c o n c e i v e s of t h e S t a t e a s a n a b s o l u t e , in
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h w h i c h all i n d i v i d u a l s o r g r o u p s a r e r e l a t i v e , only
(G3
t o b e c o n c e i v e d in t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e S t a t e . " > A g a i n , in the
61
< ) Cf. Deschamps, S.J., Les Societes Secretes et la Societe, pp.. 253-
394. Mazzini a n d G a r i b a l d i were, of course, both Masons.
<G2) La Tribune Juive, 14th May, 1921. Quoted by W i c h t l , op. cit.,
p. 56.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 383

Encyclical Letter, Non abbiamo bisogno, Concerning the Apos-

tolate of the Laity, speaking of the attacks on Catholic Associations
o f Youth by the Italian Government, Pope Pius XI wrote: " W e
find ourselves confronted by a mass, of authentic affirmations and
no less authentic facts which reveal beyond the slightest possi
bility of doubt the resolve . . . . to monopolize completely the
young from their tenderest years up to manhood and woman
hood, for the exclusive advantage of a party and of a regime
based on an ideology which clearly resolves itself into a true, a
real pagan worship of the Statethat Statolatry, which is not less
in contrast with the natural rights of the family than it is in con
tradiction with the supernatural rights of the Church." Hence
the formula adopted by Signor Mussolini: "Nothing against the
State; nothing outside the State; everything in the State and for
the State," must be interpreted as denying that the State is for
the development of the personality of members of Christ. Accord
ingly, human beings are merely individuals, emanating as it were
from the national organism and having for complete final end of
their existence the good of the State.
This stressing of human individuality to the exclusion of
human personality seems to me to be the ultimate reason for the
differences between the Portuguese corporate organization and
the Italian. Or. Lnecy, in an article on The Principles of Fascism
in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record of April, 1939, sums them up in
41
excellent fashion. " In the first place," he writes, the Portu
guese Corporations are intended to be autonomous bodies, where
as the Italian Corporations are governmental organs. In the sec
ond place, Portuguese corporatism is integral, whereas I talian
corporatism is exclusively economic. Integral corporatism, the
corporatism of the Encyclicals, is defined in the authoritative
1
Le Siecle du Corporatisme by M. Manoi'lesco as that which con
siders as corporations, endowed with an autonomous organiza
tion and their own rights, not only the economic corporations, but
also the social and cultural corporations of the nation, such as
the army, the judiciary, the corporations of national education,
of public health, of the sciences and of the arts.' Fascist cor
poratism, on the other hand, embraces: only the forces of pro
duction, namely, business, trade, agriculture and certain of the'
professions." Instead of being free associations of human persons
destined to aid families to cultivate the personality of their mem
bers, Italian corporations seem to be emanations of the State.
In the Encyclical, Quadragesima Atmo, Pope Pius XI praises the
good work done by them, but makes certain reservations with
regard to their excessively bureaucratic character. " Little re-
*3) The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism. Quoted by Rev.
C. Lucey, D.D., in I. E. Record, March, 1939, p. 249.
384 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

f l e c t i o n is r e q u i r e d , " he w r i t e s . " t o p e r c e i v e t h e a d v a n t a g e s of the

i n s t i t u t i o n t h u s s u m m a r i l y d e s c r i b e d : p e a c e f u l c o l l a b o r a t i o n of
t h e c l a s s e s , r e p r e s s i o n of S o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d e f f o r t s , the
m o d e r a t i n g influence of a s p e c i a l m i n i s t r y . . . . [ N e v e r t h e l e s s ]
it is f e a r e d t h a t t h e n e w s y n d i c a l a n d c o r p o r a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n
p o s s e s s e s a n e x e e s s i v c l v b u r e a u c r a t i c a n d p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r , and
t h a t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the g e n e r a l a d v a n t a g e s r e f e r r e d to above,
it risks s e r v i n g p a r t i c u l a r political aims r a t h e r than contributing
t o t h e i n i t i a t i o n of a b e l t e r social o r d e r / '
W h a t are the currents that have contributed to b r i n g about
t h i s d e v i a t i o n f r o m C a t h o l i c t r a d i t i o n a n d s o u n d p h i l o s o p h y in
t h e Italian s y s t e m as c o m p a r e d with the P o r t u g u e s e ? T h r e e m u s t
b e s i n g l e d o u t for s p e c i a l m e n t i o n .
T h e first is t h e r e v i v a l of t h e I m p e r i a l t r a d i t i o n s of t h e a n c i e n t
R o m a n S t a t e . T h e d e i f i c a t i o n of I m p e r i a l R o m e a n d t h e p r a c
tical c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h a t d o c t r i n e in t h e r e l a t i o n s of t h e S t a t e
and its subjects are w e l l - k n o w n . T h e S t a t e - d i v i n i t y b e c a m e in
c a r n a t e in t h e K m p e r o r a n d t h e E m p e r o r ' s w i l l w a s l a w . The
g r e a t e s t j u r i s c o n s u l t of a n t i q u i t y , U l p i a n , s e t f o r t h t h e d o c t r i n e
i n m o s t p r e c i s e t e r m s . " T h e p r i n c e ' s g o o d p l e a s u r e h a s t h e force
of l a w , " h e w r i t e s , " s i n c e in v i r t u e of t h e R o y a l L a w w h i c h is
t h e s o u r c e of h i s a u t h o r i t y , t h e p e o p l e h a v e c o n f e r r e d o n him
a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d in h i m t h e w h o l e b o d y of t h e i r r i g h t s a n d their
, , ( , 5 4 J
powers. T h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of s u c h a t h e o r y are
(r,5
e v i d e n t . T h e E m p e r o r c o u l d d o w h a t h e l i k e d . > Pie w a s a b o v e
fr,r>
all l a w s a n d w a s b o u n d b y nonc. > E v e r y t h i n g b e l o n g e d t o h i m :
p o s s e s s i o n s , b o d i e s , s o u l s . H e w a s t h e a r b i t e r of all e x i s t e n c e s ,
t h e f o u n t of all r i g h t s , t h e raison d'etre of all h u m a n effort. T h e
s u b j e c t s of s u c h a S t a t e w e r e m e r e i n d i v i d u a l s . P e r s o n a l rights,
a s is c l e a r f r o m a w e l l - k n o w n i n c i d e n t in t h e G o s p e l , w e r e n o n
e x i s t e n t . T h e f e a r of t h e l o s s of C a e s a r ' s f r i e n d s h i p , of t h e friend
s h i p of t h e o m n i p o t e n t d e s p o t g o v e r n i n g t h e w o r l d , c a u s e d P i l a t e
t o d i s r e g a r d t h e r i g h t s of t h e J u s t O n e . H e r e w e h a v e one
s o u r c e of t h e e x a g g e r a t i o n of t h e r o l e of t h e S t a t e in m o d e r n
Rome.
T h e s e c o n d s o u r c e , w h i c h i t is u n n e c e s s a r y t o d w e l l u p o n , is
the tendency towards State-omnipotence and State-socialization
d e v e l o p e d b y y e a r s of M a s o n i c d e f o r m a t i o n . W h e n all t h o s e little
d i v i n i t i e s c a l l e d m e n , w h o a r c all e q u a l l y G o d , c o n s t i t u t e a society
b y a n a r b i t r a r y c o n t r a c t , all p o w e r is c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e Sov
e r e i g n P e o p l e . This c u r r e n t leads to the D i v i n i t y - S t a t e .

(64) U l p i a n , L. I. Dig., tit. I V , p a r . 1. Quoted by (Jodefroid Kurth,

Les Onginea de la Civilisation- Moderne, vol. I, p p . V2, 13.
<6S) Quod libet, licet {8 parti an in Anton. Caracalla, p. 132, A,
Casaubon).
66) Princeps legibus solutus est, L. I. Dig., t i t . I l l , p a r . 3 1 , Cljyian.
 REACTIONS AGAINST REVOLUTION 385

T h e t h i r d s o u r c e is t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e H e g e l i a n p h i l o s o p h e r .
G i o v a n n i G e n t i l e . T h a t H e g e l i a n p h i l o s o p h y leads to t h e d i v i n i z a -
tion of t h e S t a t e w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n w h e n s t u d y i n g G e r m a n y ' s
reaction. T h e H e g e l i a n c h a r a c t e r of G e n t i l e ' s t h o u g h t m a y be
readily d e d u c e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : " T h e S t a t e , " h e
w r i t e s , " i s w i t h i n u s . I t lives a n d is d e s t i n e d to live in o u r in
t e l l i g e n c e s , o u r wills a n d o u r h e a r t s . T h e r e it is d e s t i n e d t o g r o w
and d e v e l o p , a n d b e c o m e e v e r m o r e c o n s c i o u s of its d u t i e s a n d i t s
(67
e n d s . " > T h a t G e n t i l e e x e r c i s e d a n u n d o u b t e d influence on t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of F a s c i s t t h o u g h t d u r i n g s o m e r e a r s is q u i t e c e r
tain, a c c o r d i n g t o M o n s i e u r P a u l C u c h e in his l e c t u r e at t h e
Semainc Social? dc Reims in 1933.
T h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y of t h e r o l e of t h e S t a t e led 10 a b r e a c h of
the C o n c o r d a t a n d t o a s h a r p p r o t e s t f r o m P o p e P i u s X I , in
N o v e m b e r , 1938. S i g n o r M u s s o l i n i , a s M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r ,
d r e w u p a d e c r e e for t h e d e f e n c e of t h e I t a l i a n r a c e . T h e first
article of t h i s d e c r e e s t a t e d t h a t ' ' ' M a t r i m o n y b e t w e e n a n I t a l i a n
citizen of A r y a n r a c e a n d a p e r s o n b e l o n g i n g to a n o t h e r r a c e is
f o r b i d d e n . M a t r i m o n y c e l e b r a t e d in a w a y c o n t r a r y t o t h i s d e c r e e
is i n v a l i d / ' T h i s A r t i c l e v i o l a t e s A r t i c l e 34 of t h e C o n c o r d a t
s i g n e d in t h e L a t e r a n P a l a c e o n F e b r u a r y 11, 1929, w h i c h w e h a v e
a l r e a d y q u o t e d . A m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n an I t a l i a n C a t h o l i c a n d a
J e w i s h c o n v e r t t o C a t h o l i c i s m c e l e b r a t e d in d u e f o r m b y the
C h u r c h w o u l d t h u s be d e e m e d i n v a l i d b y t h e S t a t e . N o w , t h e
I t a l i a n S t a t e c o u l d q u i t e l e g i t i m a t e l y w i t h d r a w the r i g h t s r e s e r v e d
to c i t i z e n s f r o m J e w s a n d f r o m t h e o f f s p r i n g of a m a r r i a g e s u c h
as t h a t j u s t m e n t i o n e d , t h u s u n d o i n g in p a r t the w o r k of t h e
French R e v o l u t i o n , b u t it should r e s p e c t their r i g h t s as p e r s o n s .
One of t h o s e r i g h t s is t h a t of c o n t r a c t i n g a valid m a r r i a g e b y
o b s e r v i n g t h e l a w s of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h c o n c e r n i n g m a r r i a g e .
T h e n e w I t a l i a n S t a t e did s p l e n d i d w o r k in s u p p r e s s i n g F r e e
m a s o n r y , w h i c h is n o t o n l y a n i n s u l t t o O u r D i v i n e L o r d b u t a
d i s g r a c e t o c i v i l i z a t i o n . It is t o be h o p e d t h a t I t a l y will g o o n t o
b r i n g i t s p h i l o s o p h y of life fully i n t o h a r m o n y w i t h t h e r u l e of
Christ t h e K i n g , b y g e t t i n g rid of t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n s of a n c i e n t a n d
modern p a g a n i s m , which result from man's usurping the place
of God.

7
(&> Quoted by Monsieur P. Cuche in h i s lecture a t the Sema.ine
Sociale de Reims, 1933.
DD
 PART V.

ECONOMIC DECAY

and

THE DIVINE PLAN FOR ORDER.

CHAPTERS X V I I - X X l .
 CHAPTER XVII.

S O M E ASPECTS O F ECONOMIC DECAY.

W e h a v e s e e n i n C h a p t e r I I I t h a t E c o n o m i c s is t h e s c i e n c e
w h i c h s t u d i e s t h e c o m p o n e n t c e l l s of t h e S t a t e , n a m e l y , f a m i l i e s ,
in t h e c o n s t i t u e n t r e l a t i o n s of t h e i r m e m b e r s a n d i n t h e i r c o n d i
t i o n s of e x i s t e n c e . E c o n o m i c s , t h e n , will s t u d y : firstly, t h e c o n
s t i t u e n t r e l a t i o n s of t h e m e m b e r s of C h r i s t w h o f o r m t h e f a m i l y ;
s e c o n d l y , t h e s c i e n c e of t h e p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e
of n a t u r a l w e a l t h , in v i e w of s e c u r i n g t h a t sufficiency of m a t e r i a l
g o o d s , w h i c h is n o r m a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e for t h e v i r t u o u s life of
m e m b e r s of f a m i l i e s ; t h i r d l y , t h e a u x i l i a r y a r t of t h e m a n i p u l a
t i o n of m o n e y o r a r t i f i c i a l w e a l t h , w h i c h is m e a n t t o f a c i l i t a t e
f a m i l i e s i n p r o c u r i n g b y e x c h a n g e t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d suffici
ency. A c c o r d i n g to right order, then, m o n e y or e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m
is for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l g o o d s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of
m a t e r i a l g o o d s is f o r t h e v i r t u o u s life of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , of
w h i c h t h e f o u n d a t i o n is l a i d in t h e C h r i s t i a n f a m i l y . A full
a c c o u n t of e c o n o m i c d e c a y s i n c e t h e 13th c e n t u r y , t h e r e f o r e , w o u l d
h a v e t o i n c l u d e : firstly, t h e s t o r y of t h e d i s r u p t i o n of f a m i l y - l i f e
t h r o u g h d i v o r c e a n d a n o u t l i n e of t h e h a v o c c a u s e d b y t h e u p r i s e
of m o d e r n i n d i v i d u a l i s m u n d e r t h e influence of t h e CaJvinist
d o c t r i n e of p r e d e s t i n a t i o n a n d of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e , " all
m e n a r e e q u a l . " T h i s s h o u l d e m b r a c e a l s o t h e h i s t o r y of t h e r u i n
of t h e g u i l d s , t h e a u x i l i a r i e s of f a m i l y - l i f e , a n d of t h e g r a d u a l
s u b o r d i n a t i o n of m a n t o p r o d u c t i o n , l e a d i n g t o t h e S o c i a l i s t and
C o m m u n i s t r e a c t i o n ; s e c o n d l y , t h e s t o r y of t h e i n c r e a s i n g d o m i n
a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n a n d p r o d u c e r s b y t h o s e w h o c o n t r o l finance
a n d m a n i p u l a t e m o n e y ; t h i r d l y , a n o u t l i n e of t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e
organized naturalistic forces which are ever seeking to eliminate
t h e i d e a of m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t f r o m social a n d e c o n o m i c life.
T h e l a s t - n a m e d f o r c e s w o u l d h a v e t o be c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h e p o i n t
of v i e w of t h e i r c o n n e x i o n w i t h all t h o s e p r o c e s s e s of d e c a y . I n
t h i s C h a p t e r , h o w e v e r , w e c a n o n l y t o u c h briefly u p o n s o m e a s p e c t s
of t h i s c o m p l i c a t e d q u e s t i o n .

THE E N G L I S H R E V O L U T I O N O F 1688 A N D THE

RANK OF ENGLAND.

T h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n w a s q u i c k l y followed by t h e found
a t i o n of t h e P>ank of E n g l a n d . T h a t w a s an e v e n t of o u t s t a n d i n g
 390 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

i m p o r t a n c e in e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y . W i t h t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e
B a n k of E n g l a n d , t h e S o v e r e i g n a u t h o r i t y in E n g l a n d , t h e c o u n
t r y t h a t w a s destined to exercise a p r e p o n d e r a t i n g influence on
c o m m e r c e a n d finance in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , d e f i n i t e l y h a n d e d o v e r
t h e c r e a t i o n of m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m t o a p r i v a t e c o m
p a n y . " T h e s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i s n e w i n s t i t u t e , t h e B a n k of
E n g l a n d ( t h e c h a r t e r of w h i c h d a t e s f r o m J u l y 27, 1694), l a y in
t h i s , " w r i t e s M r . B e l l o c , *' t h a t w h e n i t m a d e o u t a p a p e r p r o
m i s e t o p a y , all t h e r e s o u r c e s of E n g l a n d w e r e t o b e p u t a t its
d i s p o s a l t o e n a b l e it t o k e e p t h a t p r o m i s e i n o t h e r w o r d s , i t s
c r e d i t w a s n o t p r i v a t e b u t p u b l i c . . . . T h i s w a s in effect t o
g i v e t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d t h e r i g h t of c r e a t i n g m o n e y . I t c o u l d
n o t coin the m e t a l s , gold a n d silver; the G o v e r n m e n t r e s e r v e d its
1
r i g h t t o d o t h a t ; b u t i t c o u l d p r i n t on a b i t of p a p e r , T, t h e B a n k
of E n g l a n d , p r o m i s e t o p a y t h e b e a r e r five p o u n d s , ' a n d t h e b e a r e r
k n e w t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e n o d e f a u l t s o l o n g as a g o v e r n m e n t
r e s p o n s i b l e for the B a n k C h a r t e r e x i s t e d and could force people
t o p a y t a x e s , . . . T h e B a n k of E n g l a n d p a p e r b e i n g t h u s g u a r
a n t e e d t h e r e need be n o h u r r y to cash i t : it could pass from h a n d
t o h a n d in t h e s a m e w a y a s c u r r e n t m e t a l l i c coin. B u t t h e B a n k
of E n g l a n d w a s n o t a d e p a r t m e n t of G o v e r n m e n t , a s it s h o u l d
h a v e been. I t w a s an i n d e p e n d e n t c o r p o r a t i o n , privileged and
g u a r a n t e e d b y G o v e r n m e n t , b u t p u r s u i n g a p o l i c y of i t s o w n :
a n d f r o m t h a t d a y o n w a r d in g r e a t e r a n d g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h e B a n k
of E n g l a n d h a s h a d t h e l a s t s a y in a n y G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y in
v o l v i n g e x p e n s e , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e m a t t e r of f o r e i g n w a r s
a n d c o e r c i o n of d e p e n d e n c i e s . T h e e f f e c t s of t h i s r e v o l u t i o n in
n a t i o n a l finance w e r e e n o r m o u s . I n t h e first p l a c e , it p o w e r f u l l y
s t r e n g t h e n e d the already s t r o n g support given by the big money-
d e a l e r s in t h e C i t y t o W i l l i a m ' s G o v e r n m e n t . A J a c o b i t e r e s t o r
a t i o n w a s u n d e r n o o b l i g a t i o n to h o n o u r t h e b o n d of t h e u s u r p
i n g Government, and thus . . . . e v e r y o n e w h o h e l d B a n k of
E n g l a n d p a p e r h a d a n i n t e r e s t in m a i n t a i n i n g W i l l i a m u p o n his
f U
imitation throne."
T h a t p o i n t h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d . W h a t h a s n o t been
s o f r e q u e n t l y n o t i c e d is t h a t w i t h t h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n of 1688
t h e r e b e g a n t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e of t h e J e w i s h financial c e n t r e from
A m s t e r d a m to London. T h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , in p u r s u i t of its
n a t u r a l i s t i c M e s s i a n i c i d e a l , h a s a l w a y s a i m e d a t c o n t r o l of t r a d e
a n d c o m m e r c e a n d a l s o of b u l l i o n . T h a t m e a n s , as w e s a y t o - d a v ,
c o n t r o l of r a w m a t e r i a l s , of i m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s , of p r i c e - f i x i n g
a n d of g o l d . W h e n t h e a r r o g a n c e of t h e J e w s a n d t h e i r d o u b l e -
d e a l i n g w i t h r e g a r d t o r e l i g i o n h a d led t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
t h e I n q u i s i t i o n a n d t h e i r e x p u l s i o n f r o m S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l , they
t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r c e n t r e of financial a c t i o n t o A m s t e r d a m a n d the

(i> A Shorter History of England* pp. 455, 456.

 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 391
2)
Netherlands.< The Dutch drove the Portuguese out of some of
their positions in the East Indies, such as Ceylon and Java, dur
ing the 16th century, and Amsterdam and Antwerp became great
centres of trade. With the Revolution, the change-over to Lon
don began. We read in Hyamson: " The Jewish merchants who
accompanied William III transferred the bullion trade from
3
Amsterdam to London."* *
T H E JEWS AND WILLIAM OF ORANGE'S
EXPEDITION TO ENGLAND.
Amongst Jewish writers who refer to the matter, Lucien Wolf,
James Picciotto and Albert M. Hyamson may be quoted. In his
Essays in Jewish History, Lucien Wolf writes: *" Isaac or Antonio
Suasso of Amsterdam, who was created by Charles II of Spain,
Baron d'Avernas . . . . presented William of Orange with two
million crowns for the purpose of the expedition which won him
the English throne, stipulating only that it should be repaid in
(4)
the event of the enterprise being successful." Again, James
Picciotto in his Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History states: "It is
asserted that without the Jews of Amsterdam, the King could
never have reached the throne of England, for his intended ex
pedition was at a standstill for want of funds, until they advanced
some very large sums. If such was the case, the loans in ques
tion must have been effected to the Government of the Republic,
and not to the Stadtholder personally, for we are informed by
Lord Macaulay, that soon after the Chief Magistrate of Holland
had ascended the throne of England, the English Parliament voted
a grant of 600,000 to repay the Dutch Republic for the costs of
(5)
the expedition."
On the other hand, Albert M. Hyamson in his History of the
Jews in England, just before the statement previously quoted
from him about the transference of the bullion trade from Amster
dam to London, remarks: " Tt has been said that Dutch Jews
were largely instrumental in furnishing the means that rendered
(2) T h e Inquisition, as we know, did not succeed in putting an end to
double-dealing with regard to religion. We read in The History of the
Jews in England, by the Jewish writer, Albert M. Hyamson : "At the
same time [1643] the Portuguese ambassador in London, Antonio de
Souza, was himself a Marrano or Crypto-Jew, and it was in the chapel
of his embassy that the small colony of Spanish and Portuguese mer
chants used to assemble weekly, nominally to hear Mass, in reality,
however, to join in divine service in accordance with Jewish rites."
3
<> Op. cit., p. 188. For an interesting outline of the relations of
the Jews with Spain, Portugal, Holland and England, see a pamphlet,
The Jews and the British Empire, by L. Fry (the M.C.P., 93 Chancery
Lane, London, W.C.2).
W Jewish Historical Society of England, 1934, p. 215.
f
5) Trubner and Co., 1875, p. 53.
 392 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

his descent on Kngland possible, and the Dutch-Jewish financier,

Francisco Lopez Suasso, Uaron d'Avcrnas-le-Gras, who after
wards settled in Kngland, has been singled out for mention as
one who advanced large sums t o William. The authority for this
statement lias, however, never been given, and no reference to it
can be found cither in the State records o r in those of the Suasso
family."**'* Further o n , Hyamson adds: *' L'nder William and
Mary, Suasso became famous in political and financial circles, and
in the following reign Sir Solomon Medina ('the Jew Medina')
was, to the outside world, the leading Jew of his day. Following
William JII to Kngland, Medina became the great army con
tractor in the wars that succeeded his arrival. For his services
he was knighted, being the first professing Je\v to receive that
honour, but his chief title to notoriety consisted in the charges
preferred against him, and more or less proved, of having bribed,
on an extensive scale, the great Duke of Marlborough. A con
temporary of Medina, Manasseh Lopez, was also one of the most
prominent financiers of his day. In that department of activity,
however, the leading member of the Community was undoubtedly
Sampson Gideon, known in the Synagogue as Sampson de Rebual
Abudiente (1699-1762). The son of a West Indian merchant, who
was engaged in business in the City, Gideon, by a remarkable
display of sagacity, judgment, and courage, succeeded in raising
himself from very modest beginnings to the position of trusted
adviser to the Government, a landowner, and the founder of a
noble house. . . . In an earlier crisis, that of the South Sea Bubble,
Gideon was also among the few who were not carried away by
the whirlwind of speculative excitement, and consequently stood
clear of the crash that succeeded. The Jews, as a whole, stood
aside from the wild speculations of the time, and were among
7
the few whose fortunes passed through the ordeal unimpaired."' *
We know that it was the treason of John Churchill, Duke of
Marlborough, thai decided the issue in favour of William of
Orange and against James 11, the legitimate ruler of Kngland,
after William's landing. At the baseness of Churchill's act of
8
treachery, even William expressed a measure of disgust/ ' Had
Churchill already been in touch with those who were providing
William with funds? It is not impossible in view of his later
relations with Medina.
W> L o n d o n , M e t h u c n , 2 n d E d i t i o n , 1928, p . 187.
<7) The History of the Jews in Kngland, p p . 210, 217.
8
<> Cf. Bclloc's Shorter History of Ifnyland- (p. 4 4 1 ) as well as nis
James the Second ( p . 2 2 3 ) , a n d The. Enigma of J u n i t * II, by M. V. Hay
(p. 14 J). Cf. also King J a n a s the h y J a n e Lain* fp. 2 2 2 ) . The
pool, J o h n Drydcn, says i Inif ihos* who drnv o n I J unit's IF and
b r o u g h t in W i l l i a m of O r a n g e wore " a c o m p a n y of m e n p e r h a p s
as d e s t i t u t e of h o n o u r a n d as Cod-forsaken as any of which h i s t o r v has
r e c o r d " (Quoted in Ureal Catholic*. S h n d and W a r d . p . 2(>io."
 ASPECTS OP ECONOMIC DECAY 393

W i t h r e g a r d to Piceiotto's r e m a r k t h a t the s u m s advanced wore

g i v e n n o t t o W i l l i a m , b u t t o t h e D u t c h R e p u b l i c , i t is h a r d l y c o n
clusive, even w h e n supported b y Macaulay's testimony. A pro
m i s e of a n a r m y c o n t r a c t o r s h i p , f o r e x a m p l e , by W i l l i a m of
O r a n g e , i n t h e e v e n t of s u c c e s s , w o u l d c e r t a i n l y elicit a n a d v a n c e .
H y a n i s o n i n f o r m s u s of M e d i n a ' s c o n t r a c t o r s h i p f o r t h e c o n t i n
e n t a l a r m y . H e also m e n t i o n s t h a t I s a a c P e r e y r a a c t e d as C o m
m i s s a r y - G e n e r a l of t h e A r m y in I r e l a n d a n d s p e a k s of t h e p a y
(9
m e n t h e received. >
T h e non-Jewish writer, W e r n e r Sombart, has some interest
i n g r e m a r k s a b o u t the n u m b e r of J e w s w h o a c c o m p a n i e d W i l l i a m
of O r a n g e . " T o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e 17th c e n t u r y , " h e w r i t e s ,
" w e find t h e R o y a l E x c h a n g e ( s i n c e 1698 C h a n g e A l l e y ) a l r e a d y
full of J e w s . T h e i r n u m b e r w a s s o g r e a t t h a t a s p e c i a l s e c t i o n of
t h e b u i l d i n g w a s k n o w n a s J e w s ' W a l k . ' T h e A l l e y is t h r o n g e d
1 0 1
with J e w s / writes a contemporary.* . . . W h e n c e came this
s u d d e n i n f l u x of J e w s ? W e k n o w all a b o u t i t n o w . I t w a s d u e
t o t h e n u m e r o u s J e w s w h o c a m e o v e r f r o m A m s t e r d a m in W i l l i a m
I l l ' s s u i t e . T h e y b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m , as w e h a v e already said,
t h e c o m p l e t e t e c h n i q u e of S t o c k - E x c h a n g e b u s i n e s s .
" T h a t the s t a t e m e n t s m a d e b y J o h n Francis w i t h regard to
t h e s e e v e n t s a r e in c o m p l e t e a c c o r d w i t h t h e f a c t s is p r o v e d b y
the n u m e r o u s t e s t i m o n i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t f o r w a r d in
r e c e n t y e a r s f o r t h e first t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y b y J e w i s h w r i t e r s .
T h e S t o c k - E x c h a n g e a p p e a r e d s u d d e n l y like M i n e r v a , in o t h e r
w o r d s , it c a m e o n t h e s c e n e fully e q u i p p e d . T h e chief n e g o t i a
t o r s of t h e first E n g l i s h l o a n s w e r e J e w s . T h e y w e r e t h e a d
v i s e r s of W i l l i a m of O r a n g e a n d o n e of t h e m , t h e r i c h J e w , M e d i n a ,
w a s Marlborough's banker. H e paid Marlborough a yearly pen
s i o n of 6,000 a n d in r e t u r n o b t a i n e d t h e first f r u i t s of w a r n e w s .
T h e v i c t o r i e s of t h e E n g l i s h a r m y w e r e a s p r o f i t - y i e l d i n g f o r h i m
a s t h e y w e r e g l o r i o u s f o r E n g l a n d . All t h e t r i c k s a n d a r t i f i c e s
c a p a b l e of b r i n g i n g a b o u t a r i s e o r a fall, t h e f a l s e n e w s f r o m
t h e w a r z o n e , t h e c o u r i e r s s u p p o s e d t o h a v e a r r i v e d , t h e secret-
coteries on the S t o c k - E x c h a n g e , the whole carefully concealed
w o r k of p l o t a n d i n t r i g u e w i t h w h e e l s w i t h i n w h e e l s , w e r e w e l l -
k n o w n t o t h e first ' F a t h e r s of C h a n g e ' a n d d u l y e x p l o i t e d b y
them. Resides Sir S o l o m o n M e d i n a , the J e w M e d i n a , as he w a s
called, w h o m o n e m a y c o n s i d e r t o be t h e f o u n d e r of s p e c u l a t i v e
b u y i n g a n d s e l l i n g | o f s h a r e s | in E n g l a n d , w c k n o w of a w h o l e
g r o u p of b i g J e w i s h m o n e y - d e a l e r s in Q u e e n A n n e ' s r e i g n , w h o
carried on large style speculation. Manassch Lopez, wc know,
m a d e a l a r g e f o r t u n e t h a n k s t o a p a n i c c a u s e d b y a false r e p o r t
of t h e Q u e e n ' s d e a t h . H e b o u g h t u p all t h e G o v e r n m e n t s t o c k s
<o> Op. c i t , p . 189.
" 0 ) The Anatomy of E.rrhanfjr Alley or a System of Stork JnUhhig
(1719). p r i n t e d by J. F r a n c i s .
394 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

w h i c h r a p i d l y fell i n p r i c e . A s i m i l a r s t o r y is told a t a l a t e r d a t e
of S a m p s o n G i d e o n w h o w a s k n o w n a m o n g s t t h e G e n t i l e s a s t h e
great J e w Broker.
" T o g e t a n i d e a of t h e financial s t r e n g t h of L o n d o n J e w s a t
t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 18th c e n t u r y , w e m u s t b e a r in m i n d t h a t
t h e r e w e r e t h e n o n e h u n d r e d J e w i s h f a m i l i e s w i t h a n a n n u a l in
c o m e of 1,000 t o 2,000 a n d a t h o u s a n d w i t h a n a n n u a l i n c o m e
o f 300, w h i l e s o m e J e w s , s u c h a s M e n d e s d a C o s t a , M o s e s H a r t ,
A a r o n F r a n c k s , K a r o n d A g u i l l a r , M o s e s Lopez^ F e r e i r a , M o s e s
o r A n t h o n y d a C o s t a , w h o w a s a d i r e c t o r of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d
t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e 17th c e n t u r y , a n d o t h e r s , w e r e a m o n g s t
L o n d o n ' s richest m e r c h a n t s . B u t e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n this
c r e a t i o n of l a r g e s t y l e E x c h a n g e s p e c u l a t i o n b y b i g m o n e y - l e n d e r s
seems to m e the fact that professional stock-exchange business
a n d t h u s p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c u l a t i o n , a s it is c a l l e d , w e r e i n t r o d u c e d
by J e w s on the London S t o c k - E x c h a n g e .

THE BANK OF ENGLAND, LOCKE, AND FREEMASONRY.

(a) T H E BANK O F ENGLAND.
I t is e x t r e m e l y difficult t o g e t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e g r o u p of
m e n t h a t f o u n d e d t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . T h i s is r e g r e t t a b l e , for
t h e i r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e d a n e n o r m o u s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e h i s t o r y of
E n g l a n d a n d of t h e w o r l d . T h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e B a n k s e e m s t o
h a v e b e e n a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e s c h e m e t o m a k e of L o n d o n in
( 1 2 >
s t e a d of A m s t e r d a m t h e w o r l d ' s financial c e n t r e . In Belloc's
Shorter History of England, w e r e a d : " W e n o w a p p r o a c h w h a t
is m u c h t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t l a n d m a r k in all t h e s e y e a r s a n d ,
a f t e r t h e R e f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e m o n a r c h y , t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t e v e n t i n m o d e r n E n g l i s h h i s t o r y . A t t h e e n d of
t h e y e a r 1692 a g r o u p of r i c h m e n , w h o m a d e t h e p o l i t i c i a n M o n
t a g u e t h e i r a g e n t , p r o p o s e d t o f o l l o w t h e m e t h o d of S t a t e finance
w h i c h t h e D u t c h h a d f o u n d e d l o n g b e f o r e , a n d t o m o r t g a g e to
13
t h e i r a d v a n t a g e t h e p o w e r s of g o v e r n m e n t . " * * T h u s t h e B a n k
of E n g l a n d a n d t h e N a t i o n a l D e b t c a m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e in 1694.
T h e P r o t e s t a n t w r i t e r , W i l l i a m C o b b c t t , is v e r y s e v e r e in his
r e m a r k s o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e B a n k of K n g l a n d . " A n A c t of
P a r l i a m e n t w a s p a s s e d in t h e y e a r 1694," h e w r i t e s , " b e i n g the
5 t h y e a r of W i l l i a m a n d M a r y . . . . T h u s a r o s e l o a n s , f u n d s ,
banks, bankers, bank-notes, and a national debt; things that Eng
l a n d h a d n e v e r h e a r d o r d r e a m e d of b e f o r e t h i s w a r ' f o r p r e -
UD Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben, p p . 104-106. T h e first
e d i t i o n of t h i s i m p o r t a n t work a p p e a r e d i n 1911. F i v e e d i t i o n s had
a p p e a r e d before 1924.
H y a m s o n says t h a t A n t h o n y d a Costa, the first Jewish d i r e c t o r of
t h e R a n k of E n g l a n d , was a n a g e n t for t h e G e o r g i a C o m p a n y .
12
< > Cf. J)ie Juden n>nd das Wirtxvhaftslchev y bv W e r n e r Sombart,
p. 104.
(13) Op. c i t , p . 455.
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 395
serving the P r o t e s t a n t religion as by law established/ . . . T h e
s u m a s first b o r r o w e d w a s a m e r e trifle. I t d e c e i v e d b y i t s s e e m
ing insignificance. . . . T h e t h i n g soon began to swell at a great
r a t e , a n d b e f o r e t h e e n d of t h e ' g l o r i o u s ' n o - p o p e r y w a r , t h e in
t e r e s t a l o n e of t h e d e b t , t h e a n n u a l i n t e r e s t , a m o u n t e d t o 1,310,492
a y e a r , w h i c h , o b s e r v e , w a s a g r e a t e r s u m t h a n t h e w h o l e of
the" t a x e s h a d y e a r l y a m o u n t e d t o in t h e r e i g n of t h e C a t h o l i c
J a m e s I I ! S o t h a t h e r e w e r e t a x e s laid on f o r e v e r , m i n d t h a t :
m e r e l y o n a c c o u n t of t h i s ' g l o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n / w h i c h
w a s e x p r e s s l y m a d e f o r t h e p u r p o s e of g e t t i n g r i d of a C a t h o l i c
K i n g ; h e r e w e r e a d d i t i o n a l t a x e s laid o n for e v e r t o a g r e a t e r
a m o u n t t h a n t h e w h o l e of t h e t a x e s r a i s e d b y t h a t C a t h o l i c K i n g !
T h u s d o e s t h e j u s t i c e of G o d w o r k ! . . . T h e s c h e m e , t h e c r a f t y ,
t h e c u n n i n g , t h e d e e p s c h e m e , h a s f r o m its o m i n o u s b i r t h b e e n
b r e e d i n g a n d f a t t e n i n g o n t h e v i t a l s of t h e c o u n t r y , till a t l a s t it
h a s p r o d u c e d w h a t t h e w o r l d n e v e r s a w b e f o r e s t a r v a t i o n in t h e
( 1 4 )
m i d s t of a b u n d a n c e ! "
I n t h e q u i t e " o r t h o d o x " History of the Bank of England, by
t h e G r e e k p r o f e s s o r , A n d r e a d e s , t h e r e is s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
W i l l i a m P a t e r s o n , b u t v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h a t
1 5 J
g r o u p of r i c h m e n s p o k e n of b y H i l a i r e B e l l o c / Paterson,
<14) History of the Protestant Reformation in England and Ireland
( p a r s . 402-411).
H e n r y V I I I p r e p a r e d the d o w n f a l l of the E n g l i s h p o p u l a r Mon
archy,, when he a t t a c k e d the D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r . T h e families t h a t
rose t o "wealth a n d power, t h a n k s to the confiscation of the possessions
of t h e C a t h o l i c Church, the Cecils, t h e Russells, the Cromwells a n d the
rest, g r a d u a l l y hemmed in t h e M o n a r c h y , then revolted a g a i n s t i t a n d
finally t u r n e d o u t the l e g i t i m a t e r u l e r of E n g l a n d , J a m e s I I , the
c r e a t o r of the E n g l i s h fleet. . T h e y always feared a Catholic reaction
which m i g h t e n d a n g e r some of t h e -possessions taken from the p o o r
a n d f r o m t h e e d u c a t i o n of t h e .people. W i t h the a d v e n t of W i l l i a m
of O r a n g e the t r i u m p h of the A r i s t o c r a c y over the M o n a r c h y was
complete. B u t the f o u n d a t i o n of the B a n k of E n g l a n d m e a n t t h a t
power a n d wealth g r a d u a l l y passed i n t o the h a n d s of the financiers
and t h e speculators. T h e r u l e of the l a t t e r is called Democracy. An
excellent o u t l i n e of the s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the Monarchy is to be found
i n The Tragedy of the Stuarts, by J . D . Gleeson (Cecil P a l m e r ) .
(15) I n The Fascist of Oct., 1935, A r n o l d S. Leese speaks of W i l l i a m of
O r a n g e h a v i n g been financed n o t o n l y by .Suasso b u t also by F r a n z von
Schoonenberg, who was one of t h e J e w Belmontes, a n d a d d s t h a t t h u s
i t is e a s i e r to u n d e r s t a n d " how, so soon a f t e r w a r d s , the B a n k cf
E n g l a n d was projected bv a J e w , H e n r i q u e s . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y , he does
not give a n y references. Belmonte is, of course, the I t a l i a n form of
St'hanherg.
1
" I n t h e seventeenth c e n t u r y / w r i t e s C h r i s t o p h e r H o l l i s in The Tiro
Nations ( p . 63), " E n g l a n d was an i m p o r t e r of c a p i t a l from H o l l a n d .
A t t h e t u r n of the c e n t u r y L o n d o n established itself as ' all t h a t
A m s t e r d a m w a s / a n d E n g l a n d became i n s t e a d an e x p o r t e r of c a p i t a l .
Or, to p u t t h e t r u t h with m o r e exact accuracy, a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l g a n g
which h a d u p t i l l then o p e r a t e d from A m s t e r d a m , found i t more con
7
venient t o o p e r a t e from L o n d o n i n s t e a d /
 396 THK MYSTICAL BODY OP CHRIST

a c c o r d i n g t o A n d r c a d e s , w a s b o r n in D u m f r i e s h i r e in 1658 and
w c n l to A m s t e r d a m a b o u t 1685, A m s t e r d a m b e i n g t h e n t h e h e a d
q u a r t e r s of t h e K n g l i s h W h i g s . H e a p p a r e n t l y t o o k p a r i in the
r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t of 1688, a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n d c e p l v in
v o l v e d in t h e L i b e r a l a g i t a t i o n w h i c h p r e c e d e d t h e c a m p a i g n in
England. A f t e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n h e s e t t l e d in L o n d o n , w h e r e he
b e c a m e rich and influential. In 1691. in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h M i c h a e l
Godfrey and o t h e r Loudon m e r c h a n t s , he proposed the foundation
of t h e B a n k of K n g l a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e p o i n t i n g o u t t h e n e e d
f o r a r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e c o i n a g e . P a t e r s o n w a s t h e chief p r o
m o t e r , b u t in s p i l e of h i s r e p e a t e d e f f o r t s , n o t h i n g c a m e of it for
three y e a r s . W h e n the Hank w a s founded, P a t e r s o n b e c a m e a
d i r e c t o r , w i t h a s a l a r y of 2,000, b u t t h e B a n k did n o t c o m p l e t e l y
fulfil his e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d a y e a r l a t e r h e r e s i g n e d , a f t e r a dis
a g r e e m e n t w i t h h i s c o l l e a g u e s . A s a m a t t e r of f a c t , t h e e x a c t
1 1
c a u s e of P a t e r s o n ' s r e t i r e m e n t is n o t k n o w n . " '

(b) LOCKE.
W e h a v e s e e n s o m e t h i n g of t h e i n f l u e n c e of L o c k e ' s phil
o s o p h y o n t h e m o n e t a r y p o l i c y of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . A few
d e t a i l s a b o u t L o c k e ' s c a r e e r m a y b e i n t e r e s t i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o the
a r t i c l e o n h i m i n t h e Encyclopaedia Britannica, L o c k e r e t i r e d to
H o l l a n d in 1683. . . . F o r a t i m e h e w a s in d a n g e r of a r r e s t a t
t h e i n s t a n c e of t h e K n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t . A f t e r m o n t h s of con-
(Ki) A c c o r d i n g to A n d r c a d e s , P a t e r s o n d i e d in London in 1719,
after h a v i n g t a k e n p a r t in the famous D a r i a n o r P a n a m a e x p e d i t i o n ,
in which he lost 10,000. P a r l i a m e n t voted h i m 18,241 in 1715.
In The. Old Lady i-uedled, by J . R. J a r v i e (London, W i s h a r r and
Co., 1933), p. 9, we r e a d : " T h e b i b l i o g r a p h y of the B a n k is meagre
a n d leads nowhere in p a r t i c u l a r . T h e r e is a q u i t e excellent orthodox
h i s t o r y p u b l i s h e d in 1908, b u t i t reveals n o t h i n g of the v i t a l secrets of
the i n s t i t u t i o n which would have a -direct b e a r i n g on the financial
debacle of the ' t h i r t i e s . ' . . . As Professor I I . S. Foxwell says, in his
preface to the book by Professor A n d r c a d e s j u s t referred to : ' ft fthe
B a n k ] never seems t o have published a n y r e p o r t s or even to have pre
served i t s own m i n u t e s a n d accounts. W e have m a i n l y to rely for any
official knowledge of its o p e r a t i o n s on the occasional r e t u r n s extracted
by P a r l i a m e n t a r y Committees, ami on the weekly r e t u r n s u n d e r the
Act of 1844, which competent j u d g e s h a v e declared to he ihc most valu
able r e s u l t secured by t h a t Act. . . . A n d the_ r e t u r n s u n d e r the Act of
1844 a r e very i n a d e q u a t e . Neil her source gives the mass of valuable
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d in the a n n u a l r e p o r t s of the B a n k s of Prance
a n d O e r m a n y , a n d indeed of most of (he foreign bunks. Hence there
arc many q u e s t i o n s of Bank policy which can only be s t u d i e d upon
such basis as is afforded by h e a r s a y , and the articles and occasional
utterance^ of i n d i v i d u a l s . ' Dr. Audi-cades' history is one of two works
written since 1900 v. Inch are lo he, found at the British Museum. The
second volume. Tin Haul' af J'J/if/fnnd from Within. l()91-Hn!n In Mr. \Y.
M a r s t o n Acres, v.Inch was published t wo y e a r s ago, caused no per
t u r b a t i o n amomx the d i r e c t o r s . So i n n o c u o u s is it. in fact, thai . . . .
Mr. M o n t a g u N o r m a n -wrote a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e b o o k . "
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 397

c e a l m e n t a t A m s t e r d a m , u n d e r t h e a s s u m e d n a m e of D r . V o n
d e r L i n d e n , h e e s c a p e d ; b u t h e w a s d e p r i v e d of h i s s t u d e n t s h i p
at C h r i s t C h u r c h by o r d e r of t h e K i n g ( J a m e s I I ) . a n d O x f o r d
w a s t h u s c l o s e d a g a i n s t h i m . In 1688, L o c k e w a s a t R o t t e r d a m ,
w h e r e h e w a s a c o n f i d a n t of p o l i t i c a l e x i l e s i n c l u d i n g B u r n e t a n d
t h e K a r l of P e t e r b o r o u g h , a n d h e b e c a m e k n o w n t o W i l l i a m ,
P r i n c e of O r a n g e . W i l l i a m l a n d e d in E n g l a n d in N o v e m b e r , 1688;
L o c k e f o l l o w e d in F e b r u a r y , 1689, in t h e s h i p w h i c h c a r r i e d t h e
Princess Mary.
44
A c c o r d i n g to William Cobbett, B u r n e t received the t h a n k s
of P a r l i a m e n t f o r his History of the Reformation, t h a t is t o s a y ,
a m a s s of t h e m o s t b a s e f a l s e h o o d s a n d m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t
e v e r w e r e p u t u p o n p a p e r . . . . T h i s m a n h a d , at t h e a c c e s s i o n
of J a m e s J J, g o n e t o H o l l a n d , w h e r e h e b e c a m e s e c r e t a r y t o
William ( a f t e r w a r d s the ' D e l i v e r e r ' ) , and w h e r e he corresponded
w i t h a n d " a i d e d t h e ' G l o r i o u s R e v o l u t i o n i z e s ' in E n g l a n d , a n d in
1689, t h e y e a r a f t e r t h e ' d e l i v e r a n c e / t h e ' D e l i v e r e r ' m a d e h i m
B i s h o p of S a l i s b u r y a s a r e w a r d f o r h i s ' g l o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n '
s e r v i c e s . T h i s w a s t h e f i t t e s t m a n in t h e w o r l d t o i n v e n t t h a t
w h i c h w a s d e s t i n e d t o b e a s c o u r g e t o E n g l a n d ( t h e B a n k of E n g
l a n d a n d t h e f u n d i n g - s y s t e m ) . . . . Tt h a d t h e t w o - f o l d o b j e c t
of r a i s i n g m o n e y t o c a r r y o n t h e ' n o - p o p e r y ' w a r a n d of b i n d i n g
l o t h e * n o - p o p e r y ' g o v e r n m e n t all t h o s e p e r s o n s w h o w i s h e d t o
lend m o n e y a t h i g h i n t e r e s t T h e scheme, which was quite
w o r t h y of t h e m i n d of t h e P r o t e s t a n t B i s h o p B u r n e t , a n s w e r e d
its p u r p o s e s : i t e n a b l e d t h e ' D e l i v e r e r ' t o c a r r y o n t h e ' n o -
p o p e r y ' w a r , it b o u n d fast to t h e ' D e l i v e r e r ' a n d his b r i n g e r s - i n
all t h e b a s e a n d selfish a n d g r e e d y a n d u n f e e l i n g p a r t of t h o s e
w h o h a d m o n e y . T h e s c h e m e s u c c e e d e d in e f f e c t i n g i t s i m m e
d i a t e o b j e c t s , b u t . . . w h a t a s c o u r g e did it p r o v i d e f o r
( 1 7 )
future generations! " B u r n e t , a S c o t c h m a n , would thus be
b e h i n d t h e s c h e m e l i n k e d w i t h t h e n a m e of a n o t h e r S c o t c h m a n ,
P a t e r s o n , b u t b o t h s e e m t o h a v e b e e n in close t o u c h w i t h " D u t c h "
financiers. L o c k e w a s useful as a writer.
T h e r e is a n o t h e r i t e m of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t L o c k e , w h i c h is
n o t m e n t i o n e d in t h e Encyclopaedia Britaiuiiea. In The Consti
tutions of Freemasonry or Ahiman llezon,^ w e find a l e t t e r f r o m
" t h e l e a r n e d M r . J o h n L o c k e , to t h e R i g h t Hon. T h o m a s , Earl of
P e m b r o k e , w i t h an o l d m a n u s c r i p t o n t h e s u b j e c t of F r e e
m a s o n r y / ' T h e l e t t e r is d a t e d t h e 6 t h M a y , 1696, a n d in it w e
r e a d : " M y L o r d , I h a v e a t l e n g t h , b y t h e h e l p of M r . C o l l i n s , p r o -

(17) History of the Protectant Reformation in England and Inland

(par--. 406-410). F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n about B u r n e t as a historian,
cf. The Enigma of James I/, by Malcolm Y. H a y . D r y d e n speaks of him
: i
as " i n v u l n e r a b l e in his i m p u d e n c e (Quoted in Essay on .John Dryden
in Great Catholics, Sheed a n d W a r d ) .
(18) Cf. notes (5) a n d (7) of C h a p t e r I X .
398 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

c u r e d a c o p y of t h a t M S . i n t h e B o d l e i a n l i b r a r y w h i c h y o u w e r e
c u r i o u s t o s e e ; a n d in o b e d i e n c e t o y o u r L o r d s h i p ' s c o m m a n d s , I
h e r e w i t h s e n d it t o y o u . M o s t of t h e n o t e s a n n e x e d t o i t a r e
w h a t I m a d e y e s t e r d a y for t h e r e a d i n g of m y L a d y M a s h a m , w h o
is b e c o m e s o f o n d of M a s o n r y , a s t o s a y , t h a t s h e n o w m o r e t h a n
e v e r w i s h e s h e r s e l f a m a n , t h a t s h e m i g h t b e c a p a b l e of a d m i s s i o n
into the fraternity. . . . I k n o w n o t w h a t effect t h e s i g h t of
t h i s old p a p e r m a y h a v e u p o n y o u r L o r d s h i p , b u t f o r m y o w n
p a r t , I c a n n o t d e n y t h a t i t h a s s o m u c h r a i s e d m y c u r i o s i t y a s to
induce m e to enter myself into the fraternity, which I a m deter
m i n e d t o d o (if I m a y be a d m i t t e d ) t h e n e x t t i m e I g o t o L o n d o n ,
(18
a n d t h a t will be shortly." >
In connexion with Locke's expressed intention to become a
F r e e m a s o n , i t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t in t h e s a m e v o l u m e from
w h i c h L o c k e ' s l e t t e r is t a k e n t h e r e is t o b e f o u n d t h e s t a t e m e n t
20
t h a t W i l l i a m I I I w a s i n i t i a t e d in 1690.< >

(c) T H E BANK O F ENGLAND LODGE.

M a n y r e a d e r s m a y be u n a w a r e t h a t t h e r e is a M a s o n i c l o d g e
k n o w n a s t h e Bank of England Lodge No. 263. F r o m t h e h i s t o r y
of t h i s L o d g e , p u b l i s h e d b y o r d e r of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d L o d g e
a n d p r i n t e d b y H a d d e n , B e s t & Co., L t d . , in 1932, w e l e a r n t h a t
" of t h e n i n e F o u n d e r s of t h e L o d g e n a m e d in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n
t h r e e w e r e e n g a g e d in t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d , viz., B r o s . W i l l i a m
Mullins, W i l l i a m G a r r e t t a n d T h o m a s Bliss. Bro. W i l l i a m Mullins
w a s t h e first T r e a s u r e r , a n d B r o . W i l l i a m G a r r e t t t h e first Sec
r e t a r y , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g s u c c e e d e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r b y Bro.
T h o m a s B l i s s . F u r t h e r , B r o . B e n j a m i n K i d d e l l , w h o w a s t h e first
j o i n i n g m e m b e r of t h e L o d g e o n 2 3 r d O c t o b e r , 1788, w a s an
official of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . T h i s , of c o u r s e , m a k e s i t per-
(19) W h e t h e r Locke actually became a F r e e m a s o n the p r e s e n t w r i t e r does
n o t know. If he d i d so, he would be one of the m a n y "prominent writers
who were s t r o n g l y influenced in the d i r e c t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m by their
m e m b e r s h i p of secretsocieties, foriexample, Descartes ( p r o b a b l y ) , Spinoza,
Leibniz, Goethe, S i r W a l t e r Scott, R o b e r t B u r n s a n d D u g a l d Stewart.
W i t h r e g a r d to the affiliation of Descartes a n d Leibniz to the Rosicru-
<dan Society, cf. J . M a r i t a i n , Le Songe de Descartes ( p p . 10 a n d foil.).
C o n c e r n i n g R o b e r t B u r n s ' s a n d D u g a l d S t e w a r t ' s membership of
M a s o n r y , cf. Robert Burns and his Masonic Circle, by D u d l e y Wright.
S i r W a l t e r S c o t t ' s Masonic affiliation is certified t o us by no less a per
son t h a n S i r Alfred Robbins in English-speahina F reemasonry (p. 226).
The proofs of the connexion of the J e w i s h philosopher, B a r u c h Spinoza,
with the R o s i c r u c i a n Society a r e to be found in the It. I. S. S* (Revue
Internationale des Societes Secretes) of F e b r u a r v 9th, 1930. The occult
signification of Goethe's work is t r e a t e d in the / . S. S., Partie
Occultiste, vol. I (1928), p p . 129 a n d foil. : the article o p e n s with the
r e m a r k t h a t several G e r m a n Masonic Lodges claim the h o n o u r of having
h a d him on t h e i r roll of membership. Cf. articles by M. P . Masclaux
in Le Mercnre de France, 1925 a n d 1928.
(20) The Constitutions of Freemasonry, p. 184.
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 399

f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e L o d g e w a s p r i m a r i l y d u e
t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s of F r e e m a s o n s in t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d h e n c e
t h e t i t l e g i v e n t o t h e L o d g e . T h e F o u n d e r s , h o w e v e r , a c t e d in
t h e t r u e M a s o n i c s p i r i t b y a l l o w i n g t h e L o d g e t o be a v a i l a b l e
f o r all s u i t a b l e m e n w h o w e r e d e s i r o u s of j o i n i n g t h e F r a t e r n i t y ,
and n o t confining its m e m b e r s to a n y p a r t i c u l a r I n s t i t u t i o n . . . .
A s b e a r i n g u p o n t h i s q u e s t i o n of t h e t i t l e of t h e L o d g e , r e f e r e n c e
m a y be m a d e to the s t o n e discovered d u r i n g recent excavations
f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e n e w B a n k of E n g l a n d b u i l d i n g , of
w h i c h s t o n e a p h o t o g r a p h i c c o p y is g i v e n . The two Masons
w h o s e n a m e s a r e e n g r a v e d u p o n it, B r o s . T h o s . D u n n a n d J o h n
T o w n s e n d , w h o w e r e c o n t r a c t o r s f o r t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d b u i l d
i n g , w e r e , in 1732, m e m b e r s of a L o d g e , N o . 5 in t h o s e d a y s , w h i c h
m e t a t t h e S h i p a t t h e b a c k of t h e R o y a l E x c h a n g e , a n d
t h e L o r d M o n t a c u t e w a s G r a n d M a s t e r in t h a t y e a r . I t m a y w e l l
be, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e r e w a s s o m e connection b e t w e e n this L o d g e ,
N o . 5, a n d t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . "

D E F E C T I V E P R I N C I P L E S A D O P T E D BY T H E BANK
OF ENGLAND W I T H REGARD TO T H E
ISSUE OF MONEY.

M o n e y , a s w e h a v e s e e n , h a s b e e n i n v e n t e d to s e r v e a s a
s t a b l e m e a s u r e of e x c h a n g e in v i e w of f a c i l i t a t i n g f a m i l i e s in p r o
c u r i n g t h e m a t e r i a l g o o d s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e v i r t u o u s life of t h e
persons composing them. Material goods are produced by the
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e a v a i l a b l e l a b o u r t o t h e r e s o u r c e s of t h e c o u n
t r y . M o n e y is t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e m e a n s t o e n a b l e t h i s t o be e a s i l y
d o n e in a c o m p l e x s o c i e t y a n d t h u s p e r m i t t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of a
2 1
c o u n t r y t o be r e a d i l y a c t u a l i z e d / * But the principle g o v e r n i n g
t h e i n j e c t i o n of m o n e y i n t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s i n d u s t r i a l s y s t e m m u s t
be t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o a c t u a l i z e t h e c o u n t r y ' s p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s
.in v i e w of t h e C o m m o n G o o d . T h e e n d e a v o u r m u s t be t o r e a c h
t h e p o i n t at w h i c h all t h e a v a i l a b l e l a b o u r a n d r e s o u r c e s a r e b e i n g
u t i l i z e d in a m a n n e r r e s p e c t f u l of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ' s p r o g r a m m e
21
* ) I n any highly-developed society, t h a t is, in a n y society with
m u l t i p l e exchanges, money in some form is the conditio sine qua non
of the r e d u c t i o n from potency to act of all the resources of the com
m u n i t y , to use the phraseology of scholastic philosophy.
" T h e physical cost of afforestation is inescapable," writes Prof.
O'Rahilly, " whether we as a c o m m u n i t y can afford to do this or t h a t
is primarily not a problem of money-tickets a t a l l ; i t d e p e n d s ultim
ately on the available l a b o u r a n d resources. Forests c a n n o t be grown
in the S a h a r a ; p l a n t i n g c a n n o t be c a r r i e d o u t if there are no available
man-power, p l a n t a n d tools. B u t , as we a r e l i v i n g neither in a simple
barter-economy n o r in a regime of dictatorship-cum-serfs, money is an
indispensable means, n o t on the physical level like soil and tools . . . .
b u t on the h u m a n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l level " (Money, p. 308. Cf. also p p .
310,. 322).
400 TIIK M Y S T I C A L DODY OF CHRIST

of t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e diffusion of p r o p e r t y . T h e r e lias to be a
planned gradual development, but the increasing capacity of a
n a t i o n to m a k e a n d s u p p l y g o o d s o u g h t n e v e r t o be h a m p e r e d
b y t h e l a c k o f t h e means t o c a r r y on t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e e x c h a n g e s .
A s m o n e y is, b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , a c l a i m on t h e g o o d s c a p a b l e of
b e i n g p r o d u c e d by t h e p e r s o n s o w n i n g p r o p e r t y in a c o m m u n i t y ,
i t s r a t e of i s s u e m u s t be r e g u l a t e d b v t h e r a t e o f a c t u a l i z a t i o n
of t h e s e g o o d s . T h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e i s s u e o f m o n e y o n o t h e r
p r i n c i p l e s will lead i n e v i t a b l y t o a d e f e c t i v e a n d l o p s i d e d d e v e l o p
m e n t of a c o u n t r y ' s r e s o u r c e s .
In t h e h i s t o r y of t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d , w e find t h e i s s u e ot
m o n e y r e g u l a t e d by t w o v e r y d e f e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s . T h e first of
t h e s e is m o r e o r less c l e a r l y e m b o d i e d in t h e T o n n a g e A c t o r
Rill of 1694, b y w h i c h t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d c a m e i n t o b e i n g a l m o s t
(
b y t h e b a c k door. --^ T h e p r e a m b l e r e a d s : " A Hill f o r g r a n t i n g
t o t h e i r M a j e s t i e s s e v e r a l R a t e s a n d D u t i e s u p o n T o n n a g e s of
S h i p s , V e s s e l s a n d u p o n Heer, A l e a n d o t h e r L i q u o r s : for s e c u r i n g
c e r t a i n R e c o m p e n s e s a n d A d v a n t a g e s , in t h e said Rill m e n t i o n e d ,
t o S u c h P e r s o n s a s shall v o l u n t a r i l y a d v a n c e t h e s u m of F i f t e e n
h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d p o u n d s t o w a r d s c a r r y i n g on t h e W a r a g a i n s t
F r a n c e . " T h e chief of t h e " R e c o m p e n s e s a n d A d v a n t a g e s , " w h i c h
w e r e g r a n t e d to the s u b s c r i b e r s to t h e loan, w h o w e r e to c o n s t i t u t e
a c o r p o r a t i o n t o be k n o w n a s " T h e G o v e r n o r and t h e C o m p a n y
of t h e R a n k of K n g l a n d " w a s t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n w a s t o h a v e
t(
the right to issue notes np to the volume of its total capital. The
B a n k ' s c a p i t a l w a s 1,200,000," w r i t e s 15. D . K n o w l e s , " t h e w h o l e
of w h i c h s u m w a s t o be a d v a n c e d t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t a t a r a t e
of 8 p e r c e n t . , p l u s 4,000 p e r a n n u m f o r e x p e n s e s , o r 100,000 p e r
a n n u m in all. T h e p r i v i l e g e s of a b a n k w e r e g r a n t e d f o r t w e l v e
y e a r s t o t h e C o r p o r a t i o n , w h i c h w a s a l l o w e d t o d e a l in bills of
e x c h a n g e o r b u l l i o n , b u t n o t in m e r c h a n d i s e , a n d . . . . to
m a n u f a c t u r e a n d i s s u e n o t e s u p to a v o l u m e e q u a l t o t h a t of its
capital. T o use William P a t c r s o n ' s o w n w o r d s : ' T h e Rank bath
b e n e f i t of i n t e r e s t on all m o n e y s w h i c h it c r e a t e s o u t of n o t h
ing/ W h e n t h e B a n k ' s C h a r t e r w a s r e n e w e d in 1709, the
r i g h t w a s g r a n t e d to d o u b l e i t s c a p i t a l a n d so its n o t e i s s u e .
T h u s t h e i s s u e of n e w m o n e y d e p e n d e d , n o t u p o n t h e r a t e of
a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e c o u n t r y ' s r e s o u r c e s , b u t u p o n t h e a m o u n t s
b o r r o w e d f r o m t i m e to t i m e b y (he G o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e s e bor
r o w i n g s w e r e l a r g e l y for f o r e i g n w a r s . T h i s w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g
221 (( M
< The expression almost by Ihe b a e k door is iliai employed in
the Encyelopat tlia Hritanniea (Mth l u l . ) , Vol. TI I, A r t . Hank of
11
England, p. 53. The expression is fully justified, for n e i t h e r the title
(
of the Bill, Tonnaire B i l l / nor its p r e a m b l e was i n d i c a t i v e of the
f u n d a m e n t a l a n d far-reaching c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which were e n t a i l e d . " Cf.
Britain's Problem., by B. D . Knowles, .p. 47,
'23) Britain's Problem, by B. D. Knowles, p. 49.
 ASPECTS OP ECONOMIC DECAY 401

of t h a t p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h h a s g i v e n r i s e l o s o m u c h c r i t i c i s m
s i n c e t h e G r e a t W a r ( 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 ) . M o n e y is f o r t h c o m i n g i n a b u n c h
a n c e f o r w a r b u t n o t f o r t h e p e a c e f u l d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e c o u n t r v .
" T h e first a d v a n c e / ' w r i t e s M r . B e l l o c , " h a d b e e n j u s t o v e r "a
million. I n f o u r y e a r s t h e N a t i o n a l D e b t w a s t w e n t y m i l l i o n s , a n d
in t w e n t y y e a r s i t w a s a l r e a d y o v e r fifty millions." It b e c a m e a
p e r m a n e n t institution. I n this fashion G o v e r n m e n t s were enabled,
for t h e i r i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e s , t o s a d d l e p o s t e r i t y w i t h t h e d u t y
of financing t h e i r w a r s , w h i l s t w h a t w a s w o r s e , w e a l t h y m e n f o u n d
an o p p o r t u n i t y for levying a p e r m a n e n t t a x upon t h e " c o m m u n i t y .
If y o u h a d 10,000 t o i n v e s t all y o u h a d t o d o w a s t o b u y G o \ e r n -
m e n t s t o c k , a n d y o u w e r e c e r t a i n of g e t t i n g y o u r i n t e r e s t f o r
24
e v e r o u t of t h e t a x p a y e r . " * *
A n o t h e r d e f e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i s s u e of m o n e y
w a s a d o p t e d b y t h e B a n k of K n g l a n d a b o u t 1783. I n t h e Rise of
the London Money Market, b y W . ft. B i s s c h o p , o n p a g e s 168 a n d
169, w e r e a d : " W h i l s t i n 1780 t h e v a l u e of t h e n o t e s in c i r c u l a
tion w a s a b o u t 6,500,000, t h i s a m o u n t h a d r i s e n t o 9,500,000 in
1783. A b o u t t h i s t i m e t h e B a n k a d o p t e d t h e u n f o r t u n a t e t h e o r y
that the note circulation should be contracted simultaneously with
a n efflux of g o l d f r o m t h e B a n k , in o r d e r t o b r i n g a b o u t a r e f l u x
of t h e s p e c i e w i t h d r a w n . . . . T h e a u t h o r of t h i s i d e a w a s M r .
Bosanquet." In a n o t e t h e s a m e a u t h o r a d d s : " A c c o r d i n g t o
M r . B o s a n q u e t t h e s i n g l e f a c t sufficed t h a t g o l d w a s w i t h d r a w n
f r o m t h e B a n k i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r it w a s r e
quired for i n t e r n a l circulation o r for a b r o a d . "
L e a v i n g f o r a l a t e r C h a p t e r t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e u s e of g o l d in
f o r e i g n t r a d e , i t is q u i t e c l e a r t h a t m a k i n g t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y
d e p e n d e n t o n t h e v o l u m e of g o l d n o t o n l y d i v o r c e d t h e s u p p l y
of m o n e y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e c o u n t r y f r o m a n y r e l a t i o n t o t h e a c t u a l
i z a t i o n of t h e c o u n t r y ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t b y c a u s i n g t h e a m o u n t
of m o n e y t o fluctuate w a s b o u n d t o p r o v e d i s a s t r o u s for t h e s t a
b i l i t y of t h e p r i c e - l e v e l . I t is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o e l a b o r a t e t h e first
f 2 1 , b i s
p o i n t , a s it is q u i t e c l e a r . ' T h e s e c o n d is e x c e l l e n t l y t r e a t e d b y

(24) J Shorter History of England, p . 457.

" A s t h e years went by, cheques came to oust bank-notes as a medium
of exchange, a n d there was n o longer a n y need for the B a n k of E n g l a n d
to go t o t h e trouble, or even t h e small expense, of m a n u f a c t u r i n g notes
o n e \ i ' r v occasion of ( J o v e r n m e n t borrowing " ( l i r i 1 1 t i n ' s f'rofdttn. p . 53,
by B . D . Knowles).
(24 bis) " This a m o u n t [ t h e a m o u n t of gold hold by the hanks] heart*
n o relal ion io the volume o f world p r o d u c t i o n , itiul e s p e c i a l l y of world
harvests, which v a r y seasonally. T h e value o f world a g r i c u l t u r a l )>r<>-
duciion g r e a t l y exceeds t h a t of all other p r o d u c t i o n . So a big world
harvest, oi still more a series of such, means more food but n o t more
money, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a fall in f a r m prices. B u t most people in
the world a r e still working on the l a n d . I f farm prices fall, the p u r
chasing power of TO p e r cent, of the w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n falls, a n d
EE
402 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

M r . G e o f f r e y C r o w t h e r in An Ovtlinc of Money. " T h e t w o func

t i o n s of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d , " h e w r i t e s , " a r e q u i t e d i s t i n c t . The
first, a i m i n g a t c o n t r o l of t h e v o l u m e of n o t e i s s u e , is o b v i o u s l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l v a l u e of t h e c u r r e n c y ; w e m a y , t h e r e
f o r e , call it t h e D o m e s t i c Gold S t a n d a r d . T h e s e c o n d , a i m i n g at
t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e e x t e r n a l v a l u e of t h e c u r r e n c y , w e c a n call t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o l d S t a n d a r d . T h e c a r d i n a l p o i n t in t h e D o m e s t i c
G o l d S t a n d a r d is c l e a r l y t h e p r o p o r t i o n of v o l u m e e n f o r c e d by
the law b e t w e e n the gold reserve and the currency. T h e essence
of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o l d S t a n d a r d is t h e c o n v e r t i b i l i t y of t h e c u r
r e n c y i n t o g o l d t h a t is, t h e fixed p r o p o r t i o n of v a l u e b e t w e e n a
u n i t of g o l d a n d a u n i t of t h e c u r r e n c y . . . . N o t o n l y is a m i n i
m u m g o l d r e s e r v e a w a s t e f u l w a y of r e g u l a t i n g t h e v o l u m e of
t h e c u r r e n c y , it is a l s o a m o s t c a p r i c i o u s o n e . F o r it d o e s n o t
s t a b i l i z e t h e v o l u m e of t h e c u r r e n c y , it m e r e l y s t a b i l i z e s t h e
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e v o l u m e of g o l d a n d t h e v o l u m e of t h e c u r
r e n c y , a n d if t h e v o l u m e of g o l d is itself f l u c t u a t i n g , t h e D o m e s t i c
G o l d S t a n d a r d d o e s n o t s t a b i l i z e t h e v o l u m e of t h e c u r r e n c y b u t
f o r c e s it l o f l u c t u a t e . . . . A n e x p a n d i n g , p r o g r e s s i v e w o r l d
n e e d s an e x p a n d i n g s u p p l y of c u r r e n c y , a n d if the a n n u a l p e r c e n t
age i n c r e m e n t to the gold stock docs not equal the annual per
c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e in t h e d e m a n d for c u r r e n c y t h e r e will t e n d t o be
e i t h e r an e x c e s s o r a deficiency of c u r r e n c y , a n d h e n c e a t e n d e n c y
t o r i s i n g o r f a l l i n g p r i c e s . T h i s c a n be c l e a r l y s e e n f r o m the
1 2 5 1
m o n e t a r y h i s t o r y of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y / * Since " p u r s u i t
of p r i c e s t a b i l i t y is n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e gold
121 0
s t a n d a r d / * ' t h e p r i n c i p l e a d o p t e d b y t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d a b o u t
\ 7 M Was in r e a l i t y t h e a b a n d o n m e n t , by tho.se m a n i p u l a t i n g the
p r i m a r y c u r r e n c y of t h e w o r l d , of t h e e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t y of an
exchange-medium.
A n o t h e r evil a r i s i n g o u t of t h e a d o p t i o n of t h e D o m e s t i c Gold
S t a n d a r d i s t h a t gold c a n be c o r n e r e d a n d t h u s t h e p o w e r to
" s e c - s a w * ' p r i c e s in d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s will fall i n t o t h e h a n d s
of a f e w m e n . I t is b a d e n o u g h t o h a v e t o e n d u r e i n s t a b i l i t y of
p r i c e s o w i n g t o t h e a c t i o n of w h a t w e m a y call n a t u r a l c a u s e s

i n d u s t r i a l i s t s lose their m a i n m a i k e t . _ So i n d u s t r i a l p r i c e s fall, and

w i t h them, -confidence. -Slump c o n d i t i o n s then p r e v a i l , with their
a c c o m p a n i m e n t of -unemployment a n d unsaleable surpluses of goods "
(Look to the Land, by Lord N o r t h h o u r n e , p. 30).
(25) Op. cit., p p . 318-322.
(26) Op. cit., p. 356. Cf. pages 345 a n d 358 of the same work. On
page 345 the a u t h o r w r i t e s : " T h e Golden Rule is n o t a device for
m a i n t a i n i n g the sobriety of the price-level, hut for e n s u r i n g t h a t each
n a t i o n a l price-level shall be as d r u n k as every o t h e r . " The Golden
Rode, according to the same a u t h o r (p. 342), i s : " e x p a n d c r e d i t when
gold is c o m i n g i n : c o n t r a c t c r e d i t when gold is going o u t . "
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 403

o n t h e s u p p l y of g o l d : i t is t h e v e r y r e v e r s a l of o r d e r t o h a v e t h e
w e l l - b e i n g of t h e c o m m u n i t y , t h e C o m m o n G o o d , a t t h e m e r c y of
a few s c h e m e r s while t h e National G o v e r n m e n t looks on help
lessly. " A l w a y s r e m e m b e r , " w r i t e s M i s s G. M . C o o g a n in 1935,
" t h a t t h e p r i c e of a n o u n c e of g o l d in t e r m s of t h e c u r r e n c y of
a n y n a t i o n , is purely arbitrary: it is fixed e i t h e r b y l a w , a s in
so-called fixed-conversion countries (U.S., Holland, F r a n c e ) , or
by o p e n m a r k e t b i d d i n g b y t h e g o l d b r o k e r s ( E n g l a n d , t h e C o l o n
ies, A r g e n t i n e , &c.) . . . . G o l d b r o k e r s , i t is r e p o r t e d , m e e t d a i l y
in L o n d o n a t t h e office of t h e R o t h s c h i l d s . T h e R o t h s c h i l d s a r e
ven~ c o n v e n i e n t l y t h e a g e n t s f o r t h e R o y a l M i n t . T h e f o l l o w i n g
firms a p p e a r t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e a s s e m b l y of g o l d b r o k e r s : S a m u e l
M o n t a g u e & C o m p a n y , 114 O l d B r o a d S t r e e t , L o n d o n , E . C . 2 ;
M o c a t t a and Goldsmid, 7 T h r o g m o r t o n Ave., London, E.C.2; P i x -
ley a n d A b e l l , P a l m e r s t o n H o u s e , O l d B r o a d S t , L o n d o n , E . C . 2 ;
S h a r p s a n d W i l k i n s , 19 G r e a t W i n c h e s t e r S t r e e t , L o n d o n , E.C.2.
A f t e r E n g l a n d s u s p e n d e d g o l d p a y m e n t s in 1931 t h e g o l d b r o k e r s
b e g a n t o c h a n g e t h e p u r e l y a r b i t r a r y p r i c e of a n o u n c e of gold in
27
L o n d o n a n d in t h e B r i t i s h C o l o n i e s . " * *
" G o l d h a s b e e n c o r n e r e d , s c r a m b l e d for, a n d h o a r d e d , " s a i d
the R t . H o n . W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l in 1932. " Tt h a s r i s e n e n o r m o u s l y
in p r i c e , a n d t h e v a l u e of e v e r y t h i n g w e h a v e o r e a r n h a s b e e n
diminished accordingly. This m o n s t r o u s process has only to be
c o n t i n u e d l o n g e n o u g h u> s h a t t e r t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n , a s i t h a s a l r e a d y
( 2 8 )
b r o k e n t h e p r o s p e r i t y , of t h e w o r l d a s w e h a v e k n o w n i t . "
T h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d will b e d e a l t w i t h at
s o m e l e n g t h in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
27)
< Money Creators, p p . 8 6 , 8 4 , 8 5 . I n Britain's Jewish Problem,
by M. G. M u r c h i n (p. 1 3 6 ) we r e a d : " A t a b o u t t e n m i n u t e s to eleven
each m o r n i n g , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h r e e Gentile firms ( S h a r p s a n d
Wilkins, P i x l e y a n d Abell, a n d J o h n s o n M a t t h e y ) meet the r e p r e
sentatives of three well-known J e w i s h concerns ( M o c a t t a a n d Goldsmid,
Samuel M o n t a g u e a n d Co., a n d N . M. Rothschild a n d Sons) a t the
Rothschild office in St. S w i t h i n ' s L a n e , a n d i n a r e m a r k a b l y s h o r t
space of t i m e the d a y ' s p r i c e for gold is fixed. . . . One of the firms
mentioned, J o h n s o n M a t t h e y , is n o t a b u l l i o n d e a l i n g firm, b u t a n
assaying firm."
T o reconcile w h a t M i s s C o o g a n says h e r e "with, w h a t we shall h a v e
to say i n the n e x t c h a p t e r a b o u t the d e t e r m i n i n g influence -of the
American price-level, the following r e m a r k s of Mr. Geoffrey Crowtber
are u s e f u l : " A s t h i n g s a r e , the v a l u e of gold is now u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n
dent only on the fact t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s T r e a s u r y is willing to go
on p a y i n g 3 5 d o l l a r s a n o u n c e for it. Gold, i n fact, is a pensioner of
the d o l l a r , a n d if ever i t s 3 5 d o l l a r p e n s i o n is w i t h d r a w n , its v a l u e
might sink to what i t would fetch in d e n t i s t r y . T h e U n i t e d States, as
the w o r l d ' s g r e a t e s t h o l d e r of gold, a n d the B r i t i s h E m p i r e , as t h e
world's g r e a t e s t p r o d u c e r of gold, both have an i n t e r e s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g
its v a l u e . "
Quoted in the I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Tyranny of Gold, by H i s k e t t .
404 THK MYSTICAL B O D Y OK CHRIST

BERKELEY'S REDISCOVERY OF SOME SANE

PRINCIPLES CONCERNING MONEY.

19,
C h r i s t o p h e r l l o l l i s in h i s r e m a r k a b l e h o o k , The Two Nations^
h a s a n e x c e l l e n t c h a p t e r on the o u t l i n e s of m o n e t a r y r e f o r m p r o
p o s e d b y G e o r g e B e r k e l e y , P r o t e s t a n t B i s h o p of C l o y n c in I r e l a n d ,
in his w o r k , The Querist ( 1 7 3 5 - 1 7 3 9 ) . B e r k e l e y b e l o n g e d t o ihe
E n g l i s h c o l o n i s t m i n o r i t y in I r e l a n d w h o m t h e t r i u m p h of William
of O r a n g e a n d t h e P e n a l L a w s had p l a c e d in c o m p l e t e d o m i n a
t i o n o v e r t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y , t h e a n c i e n t C a t h o l i c in-
h a b i t a n f s of t h e c o u n t r y . In o t h e r w o r d s , he b e l o n g e d t o w h a t
w a s c a l l e d in I r e l a n d in l a t e r t i m e s t h e A s c e n d a n c y . This Pro
t e s t a n t B i s h o p , in s p i t e of his a c c e p t a n c e of N o m i n a l i s m in phil
o s o p h y , r e d i s c o v e r e d in g r e a t p a r t t h e n a t u r e of m o n e y , t h a t is.
s o m e of t h e e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s of its o r d e r e d f u n c t i o n i n g in
s o c i e t y . A f e w e x t r a c t s f r o m C h r i s t o p h e r I l o l l i s ' s s u m m a r y will
o b v i a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y of q u o t i n g loo m a n y of t h e d i s c o n n e c t e d
queries from Berkeley's work.
" O n e m a y t h r o w t h e g e n e r a l l e s s o n of t h e q u e r i e s i n t o a co
h e r e n t n a r r a t i v e . . . as f o l l o w s : T h e f u n d a m e n t a l service
w h i c h a m o n e t a r y s y s t e m c a n r e n d e r t o a s o c i e t y is t o p r o v i d e
1
a sufficiency of c o u n t e r s ' t o e n a b l e s u c h g o o d s a s t h e p r o d u c e r s
w i s h t o sell a n d b u y e r s t o b u y to c h a n g e h a n d s , T h e b u s i n e s s
of t h e G o v e r n m e n t is t o s e e t h a t t h e g e n e r a l p r i c e - l e v e l r e m a i n s
s t a b l e . O n e a r t i c l e , t h r o u g h t h e d e m a n d for it i n c r e a s i n g , m a y
g o u p in p r i c e a n d a n o t h e r c o m e d o w n . But t h e p r i c e of a r t i c l e s
in g e n e r a l m u s t n e i t h e r i n c r e a s e n o r d e c r e a s e . A n y s u c h g e n e r a l
i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e ' s u c h a r b i t r a r y c h a n g i n g the d e n o m i n a t i o n
( 3 0 )
of c o i n , is a p u b l i c c h e a t ' ( Q u e r y 2 8 ) . " O n t h e o t h e r hand,
a n i n c r e a s e of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s to be e x c h a n g e d d e m a n d s an
i n c r e a s e of t o k e n s if t h e p r i c e - l e v e l is t o be k e p t s t a b l e . " W h e
t h e r c o u n t e r s b e n o t r e f e r r e d t o o t h e r t h i n g s , w h i c h , s o l o n g as
t h e y k e e p p a c e a n d p r o p o r t i o n w i t h t h e c o u n t e r s , it m u s t be
o w n e d t h e c o u n t e r s a r e u s e f u l ? " h e a s k e d in O u c r v 310. T h u s Ave
c a n s e e t h a t B e r k e l e y h a d r e d i s c o v e r e d t h e . t w o chief functions
f o r w h i c h m o n e y had b e e n i n v e n t e d , a c c o r d i n g to St. T h o m a s . He
s a w , t o o , w h a t will be e x p o s e d at l e n g t h in the n e x t C h a p t e r , that
a r b i t r a r y i n c r e a s e s a n d d e c r e a s e s in t h e a m o u n t of m o n e y , w h e
t h e r t h r o u g h t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of n o t e s o r c h e q u e ( c r e d i t ) " m o n e y ,
is a g a i n s t j u s t i c e , a n d h e e v e n a s k e d in Q u e r y 2 0 0 : " W h e t h e r it
be n o t a m i g h t y p r i v i l e g e for a p r i v a t e p e r s o n t o be a b l e to c r e a t e
a h u n d r e d p o u n d s w i t h a d a s h of his pen ? "
H e w a s q u i t e c l e a r a l s o t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l of w h i c h national
m o n e v o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m w a s c o m p o s e d wa> a m a t t e r of in-

(29) L o n d o n , George R o u t l e d g e and Sons, Ltd. fI03M.

(30) The. Two Nations, p . 5fi
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 405

d i f f e r e n c e , for, i n Q u e r y 3 5 , h e a s k e d : " W h e t h e r p o w e r t o c o m
m a n d t h e i n d u s t r y of o t h e r s b e n o t r e a l w e a l t h ? A n d w h e t h e r
m o n e y be n o t in t r u t h t i c k e t s o r t o k e n s for r e c o r d i n g a n d con
v e y i n g s u c h p o w e r ? A n d w h e t h e r i t b e of c o n s e q u e n c e w h a t m a
terial t h e t i c k e t s a r e m a d e o f ? " N e i t h e r w a s B e r k e l e y u n a w a r e
t h a t t h e r e a l b a c k i n g b e h i n d all m o n e y is t h e n a t i o n a l c r e d i t , t h a t
is, t h e n a t i o n a l c a p a c i t y t o p r o d u c e g o o d s a n d r e n d e r s e r v i c e s .
" W h e t h e r all c i r c u l a t i o n b e n o t a l i k e t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of c r e d i t ,
w h a t s o e v e r m e d i u m ( m e t a l o r p a p e r ) is e m p l o y e d , a n d w h e t h e r
gold b e a n y m o r e t h a n c r e d i t f o r s o m u c h p o w e r ? " h e a s k s in
Q u e r y 426. I n Q u e r y 4 4 h e h a d a l r e a d y a s k e d : " W h e t h e r t h e
o p i n i o n of m e n , a n d t h e i r i n d u s t r y c o n s e q u e n t t h e r e u p o n , be n o t
the t r u e w e a l t h of H o l l a n d , a n d n o t t h e s i l v e r s u p p o s e d t o b e d e
p o s i t e d in t h e b a n k of A m s t e r d a m ? "
B e r k e l e y , t h e n , s a w q u i t e c l e a r l y t h a t gold o r s i l v e r w a s n o t
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i n t e r n a l e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m of a c o u n t r y in o r d e r
to d e v e l o p i t s p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s . " W i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o m m o n
s e n s e , " w r i t e s C h r i s t o p h e r H o l l i s , " h e t a c k l e d t h e p r o b l e m of
p o v e r t y . T h e first b u s i n e s s of a c o u n t r y ' s e c o n o m i c s y s t e m is
to g i v e i t s c i t i z e n s t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of life. D o e s o u r s y s t e m d o
this? It does not. W h y n o t ? Because there are not enough
goods ? No, b u t because the p o o r h a v e n o t enough m o n e y . . . .
So l o n g a s t h e r e w a s o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e l a b o u r , t h e r a w m a t e r
ial, a n d t h e s k i l l t o p r o d u c e n e w g o o d s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e d e
sire t o c o n s u m e t h e m w h e n p r o d u c e d , f o r s o l o n g w o u l d t h e p r o
vision of m o n e y , sufficient t o m a k e t h a t d e m a n d effective, d o g o o d
31
to e v e r y b o d y a n d h a r m to nobody."* ^
B e r k e l e y p u t t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s in Q u e r i e s 59 a n d 6 2 :
" W h e t h e r to provide plentifully for the poor be not feeding the
root, t h e s u b s t a n c e w h e r e o f will s h o o t u p w a r d s into t h e b r a n c h e s
and cause t h e t o p to flourish? W h e t h e r a country inhabited by
a p e o p l e w e l l fed, c l o t h e d , a n d l o d g e d w o u l d n o t b e c o m e e v e r y
day m o r e p o p u l o u s ? A n d w h e t h e r a n u m e r o u s s t o c k of p e o p l e i n
such c i r c u m s t a n c e s w o u l d n o t c o n s t i t u t e a f l o u r i s h i n g n a t i o n ?
and h o w f a r t h e p r o d u c t s of o u r o w n c o u n t r y m a y suffice f o r c o m
passing this e n d ? " A n d later on he a s k e d : " W h e t h e r upon the
c i r c u l a t i o n of a n a t i o n a l b a n k m o r e l a n d w o u l d n o t b e t i l l e d , m o r e
hands employed and consequently m o r e commodities e x p o r t e d ?
W h e t h e r t r a d e be n o t on a r i g h t foot w h e n foreign commodities
a r e i m p o r t e d in e x c h a n g e o n l y f o r d o m e s t i c s u p e r f l u i t i e s ? Whe
t h e r t h e q u a n t i t i e s of beef, b u t t e r , w o o l a n d l e a t h e r e x p o r t e d f r o m
this i s l a n d , c a n b e r e c k o n e d t h e s u p e r f l u i t i e s of a c o u n t r y , w h e r e
there are so m a n y natives n a k e d and famished? Whether we
are n o t in f a c t t h e o n l y p e o p l e w h o m a y b e said t o s t a r v e in (he

<8D The Two Nations, p . 82.

 406 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

m i d s t of p l e n t y ? W h e t h e r t h e r e c a n h e a w o r s e s i g n t h a n that
(:32)
p e o p l e s h o u l d q u i t t h e i r c o u n t r y for a l i v e l i h o o d ? *'
N e v e r t h e l e s s , in s p i t e of t h i s c l e a r p e r c e p t i o n o n B e r k e l e y ' s
p a r t of t h e r e l a t i o n of m o n e y t o p r o d u c t i o n a n d of p r o d u c t i o n to
h u m a n b e i n g s , we must not omit to point out the fundamental
disorder of his mind, with regard to the full order of the world.
B e r k e l e y ' s i n t e r e s t in t h e Irish p o o r , w h o m , in s o m e of
: J : n
his Queries, be c o m p a r e s to Tartars,' w a s all directed
towards getting them lo abandon the one True Faith.
W e s e e t h i s q u i t e c l e a r l y in Q u e r i e s 255 a n d 2 8 9 : " W h e t h e r
a s c h e m e for t h e w e l f a r e of t h i s n a t i o n s h o u l d not take
in t h e w h o l e i n h a b i t a n t s ? A n d w h e t h e r it b e n o t a vain
a t t e m p t t o p r o j e c t t h e f l o u r i s h i n g of o u r P r o t e s t a n t g e n t r y , ex
c l u s i v e of t h e b u l k of t h e n a t i v e s ? " T h i s Q u e r y 255 w a s followed
in t h e first e d i t i o n of The Querist by Q u e r y 289 of P a r t 1 in the
A p p e n d i x , w h i c h r u n s a s f o l l o w s : " W h e t h e r , t h e r e f o r e , it d o t h
n o t g r e a t l y c o n c e r n t h e S t a t e , t h a t o u r I r i s h n a t i v e s s h o u l d be
c o n v e r t e d , a n d t h e w h o l e n a t i o n u n i t e d in t h e s a m e r e l i g i o n , the
s a m e a l l e g i a n c e , a n d t h e s a m e i n t e r e s t ? a n d b o w t h i s m a y most
p r o b a b l y b e effected F o r B e r k e l e y t h e w a y t o g e t rid of the
i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of t h e c o u n t r y w a s not t o r e l a x t h e i n f a m o u s
P e n a l C o d e b u t to m a k e P r o t e s t a n t s of t h o s e , w h o m in his
E:r Jtor lotion to Roman Catholic Clergy, h e calls " t h e t r u e Abori
g i n e s , t h e n a t u r a l I r i s h . l i e g o e s o n to s u g g e s t t h e u s e of
t h e I r i s h l a n g u a g e a n d of s o m e t h i n g l i k e w h a t l a t e r r e c e i v e d the
n a m e of " B i r d s - n e s t s " a s t h e best m e a n s for t h e p u r p o s e :
" W h e t h e r c a t c c h i s t s in t h e I r i s h t o n g u e m a y n o t e a s i l y b e p r o
c u r e d a n d s u b s i s t e d ? A n d w h e t h e r t h i s w o u l d n o t b e t h e most
p r a c t i c a b l e m e a n s for c o n v e r t i n g t h e n a t i v e s ? W h e t h e r , in defect
of a b l e m i s s i o n a r i e s , p e r s o n s c o n v e r s a n t in l o w life, a n d s p e a k i n g
(32) The Querist, Queries 467, 172, 173, 446, 447. After h a v i n g enume
r a t e d i n Query 142 the a m o u n t s of beef, ipork a n d b u t t e r e x p o r t e d from
C o r k in one year, he goes on to ask in Query 143 : " Whether a foreigner
could i m a g i n e t h a t one-half of the people wen; s t a r v i n g , in a country
31
which sent o u t such p l e n t y of -provisions?
('&) Query 5 1 3 r u n s as f o l l o w s : " Whether the T a r t a r progeny is not.
n u m e r o u s in this l a n d ? " Cf. Q u e r y 512 also for an expression of the
sailio " b e n e v o l e n t " a t t i t u d e , with a sneer at S p a i n thrown in.
:
< *4) F r a s c r ' s collection of Berkeley's works, published by the Clar
e n d o n P r e s s (1901), has been used for Tin Querist. The Queries with
d r a w n by the a u t h o r i n t h e second e d i t i o n have been placed by Fraser
in a n A p p e n d i x and a r e n u m b e r e d as in the Three P a r t s , publisher]
in 1735, 1736, 1737.
:i:,
< > On page 10 of Francesco O l g i a t i ' s work on Berkeley, //fdralismo
t(
di Giorgio Berkeley,
t we read : A s Bishop of Cloync in Ireland, in
s p i t e of his Anglicanism, he a r d e n t l y si rives to relieve the miserable
economic c o n d i t i o n s of t h e I r i s h C a t h o l i c s . " T h i s would need to he
modified in view of Berkeley's real aims as shown by his writings, his
Primary Visitation fJharge to the. Protestovt C/fitjy of Cloyve in
particular.
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 407

t h e I r i s h t o n g u e , if w e l l i n s t r u c t e d in t h e first p r i n c i p l e s of reli
g i o n , a n d in t h e p o p i s h c o n t r o v e r s y . . . . m a y n o t b e fit t o m i x
w i t h and b r i n g o v e r o u r p o o r illiterate natives to t h e Established
C h u r c h ? . . . . A n d w h e t h e r , in t h e s e v i e w s , it m a y n o t be r i g h t
t o b r e e d u p s o m e of t h e b e t t e r s o r t i n t h e c h a r i t y - s c h o o l s , a n d
(;ifi
qualify t h e m for missionaries, catechists and readers ? " >
B e r k e l e y d i d g r a s p t h e r e l a t i o n of m o n e y o r t o k e n w e a l t h t o
t h e p r o d u c t i o n of r e a l w e a l t h a n d of t h e l a t t e r to h u m a n life, b u t
his m i n d w a s in d i s o r d e r w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e w a y C h r i s t h a d laid
d o w n f o r m e m b e r s h i p of H i s M y s t i c a l B o d y . T h e p o o r " a b o r i
g i n e s o r n a t u r a l I r i s h " h a d a f a r c l e a r e r view of t h e full o r d e r
of t h c ' w o r l d in t h a t r e s p e c t . T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l d i s o r d e r p r e v e n t e d
Berkeley from s e e i n g t h a t his c o m m o n sense views with r e g a r d to
t h e f u n c t i o n of m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m w o u l d b e b r o u g h t t o
n a u g h t b y t h e c u r r e n t of L i b e r a l i s m o r S e p a r a t i s m , i n i t i a t e d b y
Nominalism a n d e n o r m o u s l y increased by the L u t h e r a n separation
of t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d t h e C i t i z e n . B e c a u s e of b o t h t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s ,
a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y h a d c e a s e d t o be
s u b j e c t t o m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t a n d t o t h e n a t u r a l m o r a l l a w .
B e r k e l e y , h o w e v e r , w a s blind t o t h e fact t h a t P r o t e s t a n t I n d i
vidualism, i n t o which he w i s h e d to d r a w Irish Catholics, w a s
p a v i n g t h e w a y for t h e d o m i n a t i o n of m o n e y . N o t o n l y P r o
t e s t a n t i s m b u t t h e N o m i n a l i s m p r e v a l e n t in t h e 18th c e n t u r y a l s o
t e n d e d t o r e n d e r n u g a t o r y B e r k e l e y ' s p a r t i a l g r a s p of t h e nature
of m o n e y .
Berkeley resolutely t h r o w s o v e r b o a r d the hesitant s e m i - E m
p i r i c i s m o r s e m i - N o m i n a l i s m of L o c k e , w h o , t h o u g h h e c o n f u s e d
i n t e l l e c t a n d i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t h e i d e a o r i n t e l l e c t u a l g r a s p of t h e
n a t u r e of a b e i n g w i t h a n i m a g e o r s e n s e - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of it,
y e t c o n t i n u e d t o s p e a k of a n a b s t r a c t i d e a of s u b s t a n c e . F o r B e r
k e l e y , a s a s t r i c t N o m i n a l i s t of t h e O c k h a m i s t t r a d i t i o n , e v e r y
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r i m a g e , c o n s e q u e n t l y e v e r y idea, is c o n c r e t e a n d
37
particular.< > N o w , it is only- t h r o u g h o u r i n t e l l e c t u a l g r a s p of
t h e n a t u r e of a n o b j e c t t h a t w e a r e a b l e to see t h a t o u r v i e w s of
it a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y a s p e c t s of o n e w h o l e . Sense-knowledge
t e n d s t o s e c t i o n a n d s e p a r a t e . O n e i n d i v i d u a l is d i s t i n c t f r o m
a n o t h e r . S o , g i v e n t h e s e p a r a t i o n a n d s e c t i o n i n g of t h e p r e v a l
e n t p h i l o s o p h y , it w a s in v a i n f o r B e r k e l e y t o t r y t o g e t h i s v i e w
of m o n e y a c c e p t e d a n d e m b o d i e d in a c o h e r e n t v i e w of. life a s a
w h o l e . By t h e v e r y f o r c e of t h i n g s , h i s a t t e m p t w a s d e s t i n e d t o
(36) Queries 261 a n d 264. Berkeley was of opinion t h a t i t would he
better to let Catholics enter T r i n i t y College, without a s k i n g them t o
apostatize on e n t r a n c e , better, t h a t is, from his point of view, as a
prosclytizer. Cf. Query 191 i n t r o d u c e d in the second edition of The
Querist,
(37) Cf. Introduction to the Principles of Human Knowledge in
F r a s e r ' s E d i t i o n . Cf. also Le Point de Depart de la Metaphysiq'ne, bv
le R. P . M a r e c h a l , S. J., p p . 144-45.
408 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

b e a f a i l u r e . I n s p i t e of h i s e f f o r t s , m o n e y w o u l d g o i t s o w n w a y
a s an i n d e p e n d e n t e n t i t y g o v e r n e d by its o w n l a w s , w i t h disas
t r o u s r e s u l t s for h u m a n life. T h e m o d e r n w o r l d w a s t o l e a r n the
t r u t h of O u r L o r d ' s w o r d s : " N o m a n c a n s e r v e t w o m a s t e r s . . . .
Y o u cannot serve God and m a m m o n " (St. M a t t h . , V I , 24).

F R E N C H E C O N O M I C L I F E S A C R I F I C E D IN O R D E R T O
ELIMINATE M E M B E R S H I P OF CHRIST.

(a) FREDERICK. T H E GREAT AND T H E FRENCH

REVOLUTION.
T h e h i s t o r y of F r a n c e s i n c e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a f f o r d s a
s t r i k i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of w h a t w e h a v e s e e n t o be t h e mot d'ordre
of t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c o r a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s f a v o u r for a time
a P r o t e s t a n t P o w e r in o r d e r to ruin a Catholic P o w e r . I n the
M a s o n i c w o r k , a l r e a d y q u o t e d , The Constitutions of Freemasonry
or Ahiman Rezon, p u b l i s h e d b y t h e G r a n d L o d g e of I r e l a n d in
1858, c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t d a t e s a r e g i v e n w h i c h m u s t be h e r e r e
c a l l e d . W e l e a r n t h a t F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t of P r u s s i a w a s initi
a t e d in 1738 a n d t h a t , in 1761, h e o r d e r e d his d e p u t y t o c o n v e n e a
G r a n d C o n s i s t o r y of P r i n c e s of t h e R o y a l S e c r e t a t P a r i s , t o give
a p a t e n t t o B r o t h e r S t e p h e n M o r i n t o i n t r o d u c e t h a t s y s t e m t o the
w o r l d . L a s t l y , in 1762, F r e d e r i c k , K i n g of P r u s s i a , w a s p r o c l a i m e d
S o v e r e i g n G r a n d I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l , 33rd d e g r e e , for b o t h hemi
spheres. These dates are mentioned, because Frederick the Great
u s e d all h i s influence in F r e e m a s o n r y t o u r g e o n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a n d t o w e a k e n F r a n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , h e did all
i n h i s p o w e r t o d i v i d e F r a n c e a n d A u s t r i a a n d t o undo, t h e g o o d
e f f e c t of t h e m a r r i a g e of M a r i e A n t o i n e t t e t o t h e f u t u r e k i n g ,
L o u i s X V I , in 1770. H o w f e w r e a l i z e t h a t b e h i n d t h e e f f o r t s to
m a k e M a r i e A n t o i n e t t e u n p o p u l a r a n d to p r o v o k e s u c h e x c l a m a
t i o n s a s " A b a s r A u t r i c h i e n n e ! " w a s t h e s i n i s t e r f i g u r e of t h a t
c y n i c a l s c o u n d r e l , t h e K i n g of P r u s s i a !
F e w e r still u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e h o u n d i n g of t h e u n f o r t u n a t e
d a u g h t e r of M a r i a T h e r e s a t o h e r d e a t h w a s o n l y a n e p i s o d e in
t h e l o n g d r a w n - o u t s c h e m e b y w h i c h P r o t e s t a n t B e r l i n t o o k the
p l a c e of C a t h o l i c V i e n n a a s t h e c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l of t h e G e r m a n -
s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s . " ' T h e h a t r e d of t h e Q u e e n f o r e v e r y t h i n g t h a t
b e a r s t h e n a m e of P r u s s i a n / w r o t e t h e G e r m a n e n v o y , B a r o n
von Alvensleben, ' i s indisputable.* . . . . T h i s w a s o n e of the
g r e a t c r i m e s of t h e u n h a p p y Q u e e n t h a t s h e w a s a n t i - P r u s s i a n .
T h o s e a m o n g s t the F r e n c h w h o still r e v i l e h e r m e m o r y w o u l d do
w e l l t o r e m e m b e r t h a t s h e w a s t h e first a n d g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e to
t h o s e d r e a m s of E u r o p e a n d o m i n a t i o n t h a t , o r i g i n a t i n g w i t h F r e
d e r i c k t h e G r e a t , c u l m i n a t e d in t h e a g g r e s s i o n of 1870 a n d 1914.
M a r i e A n t o i n e t t e paid h e a v i l y for h e r a v e r s i o n t o P r u s s i a . T h e r e
c a n b e n o d o u b t w h a t e v e r t h a t c e r t a i n of t h e libels a n d scditiotis
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 409

pamphlets published a g a i n s t her, before and d u r i n g the Revolu

tion, w e r e c i r c u l a t e d b y V o n d e r G o l t z , t h e P r u s s i a n A m b a s s a d o r ,
at t h e i n s t i g a t i o n of t h e K i n g of P r u s s i a . . . . T h e r e w a s t h u s a
d o u b l e s t r a i n of G e r m a n i n f l u e n c e a t w o r k b e h i n d t h e F r e n c h
Revolutionpolitical and philosophical. T h e first, i n s p i r e d b y
Frederick the G r e a t and carried o u t by Von der G o l t z ; the sec
ond, i n s p i r e d b y W e i s h a t i p t a n d c o n d u c t e d b y A n a c h a r s i s C l o o t z ,
3 8 1
the P r u s s i a n s e n t t o F r a n c e for t h e p u r p o s e . " '

(b) BISMARCK AND GAMBETTA.

T h e w o r k of d e s t r u c t i o n s o a b l y i n a u g u r a t e d by F r e d e r i c k t h e
Great w a s carried on by G a m b e t t a a n d the F r e e m a s o n s w h o suc
c e e d e d h i m in p o w e r f r o m 1877 o n w a r d s , t h a t is, f r o m a f e w
y e a r s a f t e r t h e d i s a s t r o u s d e f e a t of F r a n c e in 1870. A w e l l -
d o c u m e n t e d b o o k b y M g r . L a n d r i e u x , B i s h o p of D i j o n , e n t i t l e d
La Legon du Passe, g i v e s a m o v i n g a c c o u n t of t h e b e t r a y a l a n d
(39
t h e r u i n of a g r e a t c o u n t r y . > Les Povrquoi de la Guerre Mon-
diale, b y M g r . D e l a s s u s , P r o t o n o t a r y A p o s t o l i c , g o e s o v e r t h e
s a m e g r o u n d a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h . I n 1870, in t h e c o u r s e of a c o n
v e r s a t i o n , B i s m a r c k r e m a r k e d t o t h e M a y o r of R h e i m s : " T h e
Latin nations, F r a n c e and the o t h e r s , have their g r e a t e s t source
of s t r e n g t h in C a t h o l i c i s m . O n c e w e h a v e o v e r t h r o w n C a t h o l i c i s m
in F r a n c e , w e s h a l l be m a s t e r s of F r a n c e . " H i s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o
C o u n t V o n A r n i m , G e r m a n A m b a s s a d o r in P a r i s in 1871 a n d 1872,
c o n t i n u e t h i s l i n e of t h o u g h t . " I a m a b o u t t o b e g i n a c a m p a i g n
a g a i n s t t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , w h i c h will be l o n g a n d p e r h a p s t e r
rible. . . . I shall b e a c c u s e d of p e r s e c u t i o n a n d I s h a l l p e r h a p s
b e o b l i g e d t o h a v e r e c o u r s e t o it. I t is n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r , in
o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e t h e o v e r t h r o w of F r a n c e a n d ( t o ) e s t a b l i s h o u r
religious and diplomatic superiority as we have already established
o u r m i l i t a r y s u p r e m a c y . W e l l , I r e p e a t it, in t h i s t a s k , t h e F r e n c h
Republicans will aid u s : t h e y a r e p l a y i n g our game. W h a t I a m
a t t a c k i n g in o r d e r t o f u r t h e r m y p o l i t i c a l p l a n s , t h e y will a t t a c k
b e c a u s e of t h e i r a n t i - r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m . W e can c o u n t o n t h e i r
h e l p ( L e t t e r of N o v . 16, 1871). . . . T h e m o s t c e r t a i n m e a n s

(38) The French Revolution, by N e s t e r H. Webster, p. 27 (1922). I t

is well k n o w n t h a t i t was in a Masonic Assembly a t F r a n k f o r t - o n - M a i n
in 1784 t h a t the deaths of Louis X V I of F r a n c e a n d G u s t a v u s I I I of
Sweden were ^ decreed. F a t h e r Abel, S.J., declared,, in a sermon
preached a t V i e n n a in 1898, t h a t it was his g r a n d f a t h e r who had p r o
posed t h i s assassination. T h e p r o p o s a l was accepted, a n d the two
B r o t h e r s .'. B a d e and K n i g g were sent to P a r i s and Stockholm to stir
up the lodges of the two countries to c a r r y o u t the general p l a n of the
Revolution. F a t h e r Abel said also t h a t i t was his father's d y i n g wish
t h a t he should t h u s make r e p a r a t i o n for this horrible crime. Cf. Lex
P'*urfjoni dr In Guerre Mond'ude, by M g r . Delassus, Vol. T, p p . 213, 214,
(39) T h i s work, written before the G r e a t W a r (1914-1918), was pub
lished some years after t h a t war.
 410 T H K M Y S T I C A L P.ODY OF. C H R I S T

t o h a m p e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of F r a n c e t o o u r a d v a n t a g e is t o w e a k e n
Catholicism. . . . If w e c a n s u c c e e d i n t h i s , F r a n c e i s definitely
finished" ( L e t t e r of 1872).
G a m h e t t a . a half-Jew. Italian and Freemason, already M e m b e r
of t h e P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t w h i c h c o u n t e d t e n F r e e m a s o n s
o u t of e l e v e n m e m b e r s , r a i s e d t o p o w e r by J u d a e o - M a s o n r y in
1877, w a s H i s m a r c k V a g e n t a n d a c c o m p l i c e . In a g r e e m e n t w i t h
B i s m a r c k , " G a m h e t t a o r g a n i z e d t h e m o s t t e r r i b l e of all civil
w a r s , t h e r e l i g i o u s w a r w h i c h p a r a l y s e d all t h e e f f o r t s of the
4 1 1
F r e n c h n a t i o n to rise a g a i n . " ' While Gamhetta was stirring
u p F r e n c h p a t r i o t i s m b y his fiery s p e e c h e s , h e ' w a s d i n i n g e v e r y
w e e k at t h e r e s i d e n c e of t h e J e w e s s . Pai'va, w i t h I ' i s m a r c k ' s
e m i s s a r y , H e n c k c l , w i t h w h o m h e w a s d i s c u s s i n g t h e t e r m s of an
entente cordial e w i t h G e r m a n y o n t h e b a s i s of a n a l l i a n c e a g a i n s t
the Catholic Church. G a m b c t l a ' s s l o g a n : ' ' F r a n c e ' s e n e m y is
C l e r i c a l i s m , " b e c a m e t h e r a l l y i n g c r y of all t h e s u b s e q u e n t M a s o n i c
G o v e r n m e n t s w h i c h m i s g o v e r n e d P r a n c e in t h e i n t e r e s t s of G e r
4 2
many. It w a s p r a c t i c a l l y s u g g e s t e d by I'.ismarck.' '- '

(c) TTIK . \ T T \ C K OX T H E CHRISTIAN FAMILY UY

DIVORCE.

W c k n o w t h a t t h e s a c r a m e n t a l u n h u i of h u s b a n d a n d wife
s y m b o l i z e s t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l u n i o n of C h r i s t a n d H i s C h u r c h .
G i v e n t h a t f a c t , it w a s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c F r e n c h
R e v o l u t i o n should assail Christian m a r r i a g e and introduce divorce.
D i v o r c e w a s l e g a l i z e d in F r a n c e in 1702. A l r e a d y , in 1793, t h e r e
w e r e a s m a n y d i v o r c e s a s m a r r i a g e s , a n d in t h e y e a r VI t h e r e

<4<)j This second letter was r e a d in the C h a m b e r of D e p u t i e s and

i n s e r t e d in the Journal Offirief of A p r i l 7, 1911. Bismarck was a
M a s o n , needless t o aav. Cf. Deschanips. he* Sorieten Secrete* et la
Soriefe, Vol. II, pp. 377-379.
(41) Quoted from Jteponse a Deronlede, by M a d a m e A d a m , in ha
heron Ju /V/.w. F o r full d o c u m e n t a t i o n the two works referred to
f

should be consulted.
(42) F r o m the time of the W a d d i n g r o n M i n i s t r y in 1879, in which
t h e r e were a l r e a d y six F r e e m a s o n s out of nine Ministers, Freemasons
were a l w a y s i n a m a j o r i t y i n the G o v e r n m e n t . T h e F r e y c i n e t Ministry
i n 1 8 9 0 h a d six out of t e n ; the Loubet M i n i b t r y in 1892 counted seven
o u t of ten ; the Rihot M i n i s t r y , also in 1802, seven out of ten. Even
iho Famous Meline M i n i s t r y , opposed by the Lodges because it w,i>
too m i k b counted seven o u t oF eleven. Tim l h m v i e r M i n i s t r y in 1905
h a d eleven out o f fourteen. The number o f F r e e m a s o n s in Parliament
was out of p r o p o r t i o n to their numbers in the c o u n t r y . When one
reckons t h a t there a r c not more t h a n 2 5 , 0 0 0 F r e e m a s o n s in France,
a n d t h a t there is only one S e n a t o r for everv 3 0 , 0 0 0 electors and one
d e p u t y fov every 2 0 , 0 0 0 . there ought to he at. most one Freemason in
the S e n a t e instead of 150 a n d two in the C h a m b e r of D e p u t i e s instead
of 2(2 ( h a heron du Pti**t\ p. 21).
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 411
4 3
were more.* ' Napoleon m a i n t a i n e d divorce. T h e Restoration
a b o l i s h e d it. T h e T h i r d R e p u b l i c s e t a b o u t its r e i n t r o d u c t i o n . A
J e w , N a q u e t , p r o p o s e d it in 1876. It w a s r e j e c t e d . I t w a s p r o
p o s e d a g a i n in 1881 a n d a g a i n r e j e c t e d , b u t in 1884, it w a s a d o p t
ed. In t h e Dicfionnaire Laroussr, A l f r e d N a q u e t is g i v e n a s t h e
man w h o got the divorce law voted.
In 1885, t h e y e a r f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n of t h e l a w , t h e r e
w e r e 4,123 d i v o r c e s . I n 1912 t h e r e w e r e 14,579 as a g a i n s t 311.959
m a r r i a g e s o r o n e d i v o r c e for e v e r y t w e n t y - o n e m a r r i a g e s . " T h e
o r a t o r s w h o s p o k e in f a v o u r of t h e d i v o r c e l a w in t h e S e n a t e
a n d in t h e C h a m b e r of D e p u t i e s , " w r i t e s M g r . D e l a s s u s , " m a i n
t a i n e d t h a t t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n of t h e l a w w o u l d s e e a d i m i n u t i o n
in ( h e n u m b e r of a d u l t e r i e s . Y e t t h e n u m b e r of c o n d e m n a t i o n s
for t h i s c r i m e w e n t on i n c r e a s i n g . T h e y held a l s o t h a t d i v o r c e
w o u l d e x e r c i s e a b e n e f i c e n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e n u m b e r of b i r t h s .
T h e n u m b e r of b i r t h s s t e a d i l y d i m i n i s h e d . T h e y p r o c l a i m e d t h a t
t h e relief g i v e n to t h o s e in d e s p a i r w o u l d lead to a d i m i n u t i o n in
the n u m b e r of t h o s e c o m m i t t i n g s u i c i d e b e c a u s e of family
t r o u b l e s . In 1883, t h e r e w e r e 1,108 s u c h c a s e s : in 1889, t h e r e w e r e
1,404. A n d M o n s i e u r G e o r g e s M i c h e l w r o t e , in a special s t u d y
of t h e q u e s t i o n in 1901, t h a t t h e r e w e r e t h r e e or f o u r t i m e s as
m a n y suicides a m o n g s t divorced m e n and w o m e n as a m o n g s t m a r
44
ried p e o p l e . " * '

(cl) FINANCIAL COST OF ELIMINATING M E M B E R S H I P OF

CHRIST FROM F R E N C H SCHOOLS.
T h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y of t h e G r a n d O r i e n t h a d , a l r e a d y in
1870, v o t e d in f a v o u r of l a i c i z i n g all p r i m a r y s c h o o l s , t h a t is, of
e l i m i n a t i n g e v e r y a l l u s i o n to G o d , t h e P r e s s e d T r i n i t y , M e m b e r
s h i p of C h r i s t , a n d t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life, from t h e m i n d s of
French children. The proposal was again accepted unanimously
b y t h e s a m e A s s e m b l y in 1877. In 1879, J u l e s F e r r y , a F r e e
m a s o n , p r e v a i l e d on t h e C h a m b e r of D e p u t i e s to v o t e in f a v o u r
of his Rill, w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to t h e M a s o n i c B u l l e t i n , w a s e s s e n
tially M a s o n i c . A r t i c l e V I I of t h i s Bill f o r b a d e a n y m e m b e r of
a n o n - a u t h o r i z e d c o n g r e g a t i o n t o t e a c h . T h e Bill w a s r e j e c t e d b y
t h e S e n a t e , b u t it w a s a c c e p t e d a f e w y e a r s l a t e r . In 1882, a l a w
was passed excluding religious instruction from school-pro
g r a m m e s , a n d in 1886, a l a w p r o h i b i t i n g r e l i g i o u s f r o m t e a c h i n g
in t h e S t a t e s c h o o l s . M a n u a l s of Civics, t h e n , t o o k t h e place of
the C a t e c h i s m . E v e r y t r a c e of C h r i s t i a n thought w a s e l i m i n a t e d
43
< ) I n the a u t u m n of 1793, the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a new C a l e n d a r was
decreed by the Convention. The new e r a from which every trace of the
S u p e r n a t u r a l Life of Christ was to be banished was supposed to begin
on 22nd September, 1792. This C a l e n d a r was used for official purposes
up to 1806. Cf. Marion, Histoire de VEglint. Vol. IV, p. 307.
U4t j j k Ponrqaoi de la Guerre Mondwle, Vol. I, p. 155.
 412 TIIK M Y S T I C A L BODY OF CHRIST

f r o m t h e c l a s s - b o o k s , , a n d t h e old a u t h o r s w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o an
anti-God censorship and revision. T h e n a m e of G o d w a s c o n
d e m n e d t o d i s a p p e a r e v e n f r o m L a F o n t a i n e ' s FablesM^ Ferry
b r o u g h t in t h r e e P r o t e s t a n t s t o c a r r y o u t t h e d e c h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n
of F r a n c e , n a m e l y , B u i s s o n , S t e e g a n d P e c a u t . B u i s s o n r e m a i n e d
d i r e c t o r of p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n for e i g h t e e n y e a r s u n d e r t w e n t y -
46
s e v e n m i n i s t r i e s , f r o m 1878 to 1896.< >
I t w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o t r a c e all t h e s t e p s b y w h i c h t h e
s o u l s of F r e n c h c h i l d r e n w e r e p e r v e r t e d a n d t h e g r o u n d p r e
p a r e d for t h e S o c i a l i s t s , t h e C o m m u n i s t s a n d t h e A n a r c h i s t s . A t
t h e t i m e of w r i t i n g h i s b o o k , M g r . L a n d r i e u x s t a t e d t h a t 97,000
F r e n c h p r i m a r y t e a c h e r s w e r e affiliated t o t h e C o m m u n i s t I n t e r
national and other revolutionary groups, while the remaining
20,000 n o n - r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e a c h e r s g o t l i t t l e e n c o u r a g e m e n t f r o m
( 4 7 J
the ruling p o w e r s . T h i s s t o r y of p e r v e r s i o n w o u l d t a k e t o o
long, however. W e m u s t limit ourselves to s h o w i n g at w h a t a
h e a v y financial cost t o F r a n c e t h e b e h e s t s of t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c
o r g a n i z a t i o n s were carried out. W h e n the p r i m a r y school w a s
m a d e o b l i g a t o r y for all a n d all t h e e x p e n s e s w e r e t a k e n o v e r by
the Public Authorities, F r e n c h Catholics built and endowed their
o w n s c h o o l s . F r o m 1882 t o 1904, t h e y p a i d t h e p u b l i c t a x e s for
schools, to which t h e y did not send their children, a n d a t the
s a m e t i m e m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r o w n s c h o o l s t a u g h t by r e l i g i o u s . All
the time the Masonic Society was crying out against the Catho
lic s c h o o l s a n d d e m a n d i n g t h a t t h e S t a t e s h o u l d h a v e a m o n o p o l y
of e d u c a t i o n o r at l e a s t t h a t n o r e l i g i o u s s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o
t e a c h in a p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e s c h o o l . T h e r e l i g i o u s w e r e d r i v e n o u t
of t h e s c h o o l s in 1904. W h i l e t h e f a i t h f u l C a t h o l i c f a m i l i e s w e r e

(45) I n s t e a d of Petit poison deviendra grand paurvu que Dieu liu

prete -vie, which is w h a t L a F o n t a i n e h a d w r i t t e n , y o u n g c h i l d r e n had
t o r e a d Petit poiwon deviendra grand pourvu* qu'on lui laisse la vie.
I n the Grammar of L a r i v e et F l e u r y , the name of God k e p t its place,
a m o n g s t the. examples, d o w n t o 1905; in the e d i t i o n of t h a t year, God.
was r e p l a c e d by Wine. A n d so on.
r
T h e Masonic p r o g r a m m e w a n o t c a r r i e d o u t because of a d e m a n d for
i t on the p a r t of the people. The laicization laws were voted by 329
d e p u t i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g 2,738,204 electors out of 10,179,345 on the registers.
" W a s the c o u n t r y consulted a b o u t the laicization l a w s ? N o : and
r i g h t l y so. The c o u n t r y , p o o r l y i n s t r u c t e d , would -perhaps have replied
t h a t i t d i d not w a n t Godless teaching " (Clemenceau, in La J nut ire of
2nd December, 1886).
'4*s> In Lex Pourljuoi de le Guerre .\f and late, Vol. I, p. 361, it is
s t a t e d t h a t Buisson was expelled from S w i t z e r l a n d because of anti-
C h r i s t i a n lectures and ( h a t he was a Freemason. Steeg's father, wv
r e a d on page 302 of the same work, was a P r u s s i a n - w h o / w i t h o u t being
able to prove t h a t he h a d taken out his n a t u r a l i z a t i o n p a p e r s , was
elected d e p u t y for B o r d e a u x . As soon as the y o u n g e r Steeg hoc am e
m i n i s t e r , he began to brim- in his relations.
U7) Mgr. L a n d r i e u x refer* to / / / nstit uteur franca in of 15th J u n e ,
1922.
 ASPECTS OF.ECONOMIC DECAY 413

e n g a g e d u p o n t h i s f o r m i d a b l e t a s k of t r y i n g t o s a v e t h e i r c h i l d r e n ,
let u s s e e t h e c r u s h i n g financial b u r d e n laid u p o n t h e F r e n c h
p e o p l e a s a w h o l e in o r d e r t o m a k e w a r o n O u r L o r d .
if w c t a k e t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l f i g u r e s p e n t o n E d u c a t i o n by
t h e S t a t e d u r i n g t h e t e n y e a r s t h a t p r e c e d e d 1882, w e find t h a t
it w a s a b o u t 90J- m i l l i o n f r a n c s (90,412,138, t o be a c c u r a t e ) .
Accordingly, t h e total e x p e n d i t u r e on Education for the thirty
y e a r s f r o m 1SS2 to 1912 s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a b o u t 2,715 million
f r a n c s . A s a m a t t e r of fact, t h e s u m e x p e n d e d w a s 7.000 million
francs. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o f i g u r e s , 2,715 m i l i u m s
a n d 7,000 m i l i u m s , n a m e l y , 4,285 million f r a n c s , represents
w h a t il c o s t t h e F r e n c h S t a t e f i n a n c i a l l y to e l i m i n a t e all t e a c h i n g
t o u c h i n g t h e K i n g s h i p of C h r i s t a n d m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t from
F r e n c h s c h o o l s . A n d in t h i s f i g u r e , t h e a d d i t i o n a l e x p e n s e s in
curred by the D e p a r t m e n t s a n d the Communes are not comprised.
M g r . L a n d r i e u x s a y s t h a t t h e figure w o u l d h a v e t o b e d o u b l e d ,
if t h e y w e r e i n c l u d e d . H e c i t e s t h e c a s e of t h e M u n i c i p a l Council
of P a r i s w h i c h h a d t o b o r r o w 77 m i l l i o n s in o r d e r t o r e p l a c e t h e
f4PJ
s c h o o l s c l o s e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e l a w of 1 9 0 1 . A n d it w a s t h e
s a m e s t o r y f r o m o n e e n d of t h e c o u n t r y to t h e o t h e r .
W e h a v e m e n t i o n e d o n l y t h e financial e x p e n s e n e c e s s i t a t e d
by the fact that " they [the F r e e m a s o n s ] had introduced the
r e p u b l i c a n a n d d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t in v i e w of u s i n g it a s a
f i r s t - c l a s s i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e i r p r o g r a m m e of
f 4 9 )
universal laicization and national a p o s t a s y . " T h e moral results
of t h e e x e c u t i o n of t h i s p r o g r a m m e w e r e d e p l o r a b l e . Le Temps,
a P a r i s i a n n o n - C a t h o l i c p a p e r , in i t s i s s u e of 30th D e c e m b e r , 1911 T

b e w a i l e d t h e m . " T h e w a s t a g e of h u m a n r e s o u r c e s is on t h e in
c r e a s e , " w e r e a d , " t h e n u m b e r of t h o s e w h o a r e w o r t h l e s s a t
s c h o o l a n d in t h e a r m y , w h o a r e u s e l e s s for w o r k , t h e n u m b e r of
(48) T h e L a w of 1901 is 'usually k n o w n as Waldcck-Rousseau's Asso
c i a t i o n L a w . By the terms of t h i s m o n u m e n t of hypocrisy and iniquity
i t was d e c l a r e d on t h e o n e h a n d , in Article 2, that " persons may freely
form associations, without a n y p r e l i m i n a r y a u t h o r i z a t i o n , " b u t on
the o t h e r h a n d , according to A r t i c l e 13, " no religious congregation can
he formed w i t h o u t a special a u t h o r i z a t i o n accorded by l a w , " Hence
f o r w a r d , a l l F r e n c h citizens h a d t h e r i g h t to form associations in thou
s a n d s , if they so wished, all except religious, who ceased to he persons,
a n d this in spite of Article 10 of the famous Declaration of the rights
cc
of m a n : Nobody m a y be molested for his opinions, even his religious
o p i n i o n s . " H o r r i b l e crimes were committed in F r ance i n the name
of this law. The Journal flex Debats of J a n u a r y , 1910, related t h a t
the people of Pleslin, in B r i t t a n v . on the outbreak of a n epidemic of
typhus, d e m a n d e d back the three Sisters who h a d been driven out.
At a word from the M a y o r , the three came back a n d spent themselves
night a n d d a y for the sick. They were denounced by a local Mason
to the G o v e r n m e n t a n d condemned at Bennes for infringement of the
law.
<40) Journal Offjcic] ] la Maronhrrir
( r frntteaixt. 1 ^ 5 . p . i>(>2. Quold
by M<rr. L a n d r i e u x , op. cit., p. i s .
414 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

v a g a b o n d s a n d s c a m p s of all k i n d s is o n t h e i n c r e a s e . . . . T h e
n u m b e r of i l l i t e r a t e s is o n t h e i n c r e a s e . " In 1882, t h e p r o p o r t i o n
o f i l l i t e r a t e s w a s 14 p e r c e n t . , o r 10 p e r c e n t , a c c o r d i n g to P a u l
B e r t ; in 1907, it h a d g o n e u p t o 2 5 o r 3 0 p e r c e n t . I n 1912, t h e
n u m b e r of i l l i t e r a t e s e n t e r i n g t h e a r m y w a s 2 4 , 0 0 0 ; in 1919 t h e
n u m b e r h a d g o n e u p t o 30,967.
In addition, the children would not go to a State-school, when
t h e r e w a s a C a t h o l i c s c h o o l t o g o t o . In o n e d e p a r t m e n t , M a i n e -
e t - L o i r e , 4 6 S t a t e - s c h o o l s h a d o n l y live p u p i l s e a c h , 2 9 S t a t e -
s c h o o l s o n l y t h r e e , a n d 2 4 s c h o o l s h a d n o t a n y p u p i l . In a n o t h e r ,
l ' A r d e c h e , 65 S t a t e - s c h o o l s h a d in all 255 p u p i l s , w h i l e 65 C a t h o
lic s c h o o l s h a d 3,062. O n e of t h e t e a c h e r s o f a S t a t e - s c h o o l in
t h i s d e p a r t m e n t h a d o n l y o n e p u p i l , his o w n d a u g h t e r . H e s e n t
h e r t o t h e C a t h o l i c s c h o o l a n d c o n t i n u e d t o d r a w his s a l a r y for
d o i n g n o t h i n g , a s s o m a n y of h i s f e l l o w - t e a c h e r s , w h o h a d n o
p u p i l s , w e r e d o i n g . X o w o n d e r d e c e n t F r e n c h p e o p l e , w h o did
n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g of M a s o n i c N a t u r a l i s m , m a r v e l l e d a t
t h e w a s t e of m o n e y . T h e y m a r v e l l e d m o r e w h e n t h e y l e a r n e d
w h a t b e c a m e of t h e c o n f i s c a t e d p r o p e r t y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s d r i v e n
o u t of t h e s c h o o l s a n d e x i l e d . T h e s h a m e f u l s t o r y is n a r r a t e d a t
( 5 < n
length by Mgr. L a n d r i e u x .

(c) LEGALIZE!) ROBBERY UNDER FALSE I'RETKXCKS.

T h e a n n u a l a s s e m b l i e s of F r e n c h M a s o n r y u r g e d on t h e G o v
e r n m e n t to suppress the Religious Orders and Congregations and
confiscate their properly. T h e A s s e m b l y of 1896 p r o p o s e d t h e
c o n f i s c a t i o n of t h e p r o p e r l y of t h e r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t i e s in o r d e r t o
d e v o t e it t o old a g e p e n s i o n s for w o r k i n g m c n . In 1898, ihe
L o d g e s v a l u e d t h e p r o p e r t y at 10,000 m i l l i o n s , a n d in a d d i t i o n l o
w o r k i n g m c n ' s pensions proposed to double the p r i m a r y teachers'
1 5 1 1
salaries. T h e p r o p e r t y of t h e r e l i g i o u s w a s c o n f i s c a t e d , b u t t h e
w o r k i n g m c n n e v e r g o t t h e i r p e n s i o n s n o r t h e t e a c h e r s t h e i r in
c r e a s e of s a l a r y . W h y ? Because the liquidators and the lawyers
filled t h e i r p o c k e t s , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e x p e n s e s of l i q u i d a t i o n
\Vere s o h e a v y a n d t h e w h o l e w r e t c h e d b u s i n e s s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h
s u c h l i t t l e r e s p e c t for t h e C o m m o n G o o d t h a t n o t h i n g r e m a i n e d
except a few crumbsand ruins.
" O u t of 108 l i q u i d a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t in 1907, 45 left o n l y d e b t s ,
n i n e j u s t b a l a n c e d t h e c o s t of c a r r y i n g t h e m o u t , w h i l e o n e , t h a t
of t h e S i s t e r s of S t . B e r n a r d in I ' A i s n e , s h o w e d a p r o f i t of 50

(50) Op. cit., pp. 76-133.

_ <5U I n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t the u t t e r l y r i d i c u l o u s figure of 10,000
m i l l i o n s , the p r o p e r t y of several c o n g r e g a t i o n s was c o u n t e d twice.
B u i l d i n g s t h a t were s i m p l y leased by religious from M u n i c i p a l Councils
a n d U r b a n Councils, a n d which belonged t o t h e cities a n d t o w n s , were
reckoned as belonging t o the religious, and HO on. Cf. M g r . L a n d r i e u x ,
op. cit., pp. 94-95.
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 415

centimes. . . . A T r a p p i s t i n e C o n v e n t in t h e P y r e n e e s h a d c o s t
a million. It w a s s o l d for 21,000 f r a n c s , o u t of w h i c h a d o n a t i o n
of 120,000 f r a n c s h a d t o b e p a i d b a c k . T h e n e t r e s u l t w a s , t h e r e
fore, a l o s s t o t h e S t a t e of 99,000 f r a n c s . . . . Hut in e v e r y c a s e ,
w h e t h e r t h e s a l e r e s u l t e d in a g a i n o r a loss for t h e S t a t e , t h e
l i q u i d a t o r d i d n o t n e g l e c t h i m s e l f . H e a l w a y s m a d e s u r e to g e t
his s h a r e . T h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e C a r m e l i t e s at T o u r s a n d t h e
U r s u l i n e s a t N i c e j u s t c o v e r e d t h e e x p e n s e s of t h e i r s a l e , so t h a t
the S t a t e m a d e n o p r o f i t ( b u t a t l e a s t the t a x p a y e r s h a d n o t t o
p a y for t h e r u i n of a g o o d w o r k a n d t h e exile of s o m e of t h e b e s t
F r e n c h w o m e n ) . T h e l i q u i d a t o r s e t a s i d e for himself 6,500 f r a n c s
52
a n d -6,255 f r a n c s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . ' ^ *
T h e s o r d i d affair c a u s e d s u c h a s c a n d a l t h a t a t l a s t , in s p i t e
of all t h e e f f o r t s of t h e L o d g e s , it w a s b r o u g h t to l i g h t . "We
should n e v e r have k n o w n a n y t h i n g about the business," w r i t e s
M g r . L a n d r i e u x , " if t h e b a n d of v u l t u r e s c h a r g e d w i t h p l u n d e r
ing and r o b b i n g the Religious O r d e r s and C o n g r e g a t i o n s had dis
p l a y e d e v e n a t i n y bit of s h a m e , a t l e a s t o u t w a r d l y , f o r t h e s a k e
of a p p e a r a n c e s . Hut t h e y p e r p e t r a t e d so m a n y c r i m e s , t h e y w e n t
to s u c h l e n g t h s a n d b e h a v e d in s o s h a m e l e s s a f a s h i o n , t h a t n e i t h e r
the L o d g e s , n o r t h e P u b l i c P r o s e c u t o r , n o r t h e P a r l i a m e n t , n o r
the P r e s i d e n t of the R e p u b l i c , n o b o d y in fact, c o u l d p r e v e n t t h e
scandal from b e c o m i n g public. In 1912, the G o v e r n m e n t h a d t o
yield t o the p r e s s u r e o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n a n d u f the P r e s s a n d h a n d
o v e r its l i q u i d a t o r s to a C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y . A n d t h e n t h e
r c a l i t v w a s f o u n d to be w o r s e t h a n it h a d been said to b e . "
i t is u n n e c e s s a r y l o g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s of t h e s u m s t h e l i q u i d a
t o r s k e p t for t h e m s e l v e s o r g a v e t o t h e i r l a w y e r f r i e n d s . Some
of t h e t i t - b i t s g i v e n by M g r . L a n d r i e u x a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e figures
given in t h e C h a m b e r of D e p u t i e s a n d from the p e n of n o less a
p e r s o n a g e t h a n M. C o m b e s , t h e M i n i s t e r w h o , w i t h M . W a l d c c k -
R o u s s e a u , a n o t h e r F r e e m a s o n , is chiefly r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e w h o l e
b u s i n e s s . T h e l i q u i d a t o r s a l l o w e d t h e m s e l v e s for t r a v e l l i n g e x
p e n s e s f o u r t i m e s t h e p r i c e of f i r s t - c l a s s r a i l w a y t i c k e t s . One
l a w y e r in t h e dossier of t h e P a r n a b i t e C o n g r e g a t i o n c o p i e d o u t a
law-book which had no connexion with the m a t t e r , four times
o v e r , just f o r t h e s a k e of l e n g t h e n i n g his w o r k a n d g e t t i n g m o n e y
for d o i n g n o t h i n g . C o m b e s h i m s e l f a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e l i q u i d a t o r s
h a d m a d e of h i s g r e a t w o r k , t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s ,
a r e g u l a r h i g h w a y r o b b e r y . " M o d e r n s o c i e t y , " he a d d e d , " c e r
t a i n l y h a d t h e r i g h t (sic) t o d i s s o l v e t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n s , b u t n o t
53
to d e l i v e r t h e m o v e r t o t h e r a p a c i t y of v a m p i r e s . " * )
Of c o u r s e , a s Mgr.' L a n d r i e u x p o i n t s o u t , h o n e s t C a t h o l i c b u y
e r s c o u l d n o t be f o u n d t o t a k e p a r t in t h e a u c t i o n of r e l i g i o u s
152) Mgr. L a n d r i e u x , op. cit., p p . 122-123.
5:
<*> I n t e r v i e w given by M. Combes to Le Journal, October. 1909.
Quoted by Mgr. L a n d r i e u x , op. cit., p. 120.
416 T H E MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

houses a n d stolen p r o p e r t y , with the result that they w e r e bought

b y J e w s for little o r n o t h i n g . It w a s a m a g n i f i c e n t s p e c u l a t i o n
for t h e m , h e a d d s , l o g e t t h e F r e e m a s o n s t o d r i v e o u t t h e r e l i g i o u s
f 5 4 )
and then take over sonic o f t h e religious houses as a b a r g a i n .
T h e final c r i m e w a s c o m m i t t e d w h e n a g e d r e l i g i o u s w h o had
been promised a pension from their plundered c o n v e n t s were
a l l o w e d t o die in w a n t . M g r . L a n d r i e u x quotes letters from a
F r e e m a s o n like M . D r i a n d on t h e s u b j e c t a n d e v e n a p r o t e s t a t i o n
f r o m M . C o m b e s . It is t i m e t o r i n g d o w n t h e c u r t a i n o n t h e s e
d i s g u s t i n g e p i s o d e s in t h e s y s t e m a t i c d e g r a d a t i o n of a g r e a t
C a t h o l i c c o u n t r y . " W h a t is r e a l l y a s t o u n d i n g , " w r i t e s M . R o b e r t
V a l l e r y - R a d o l , " i s t h a t n e v e r o n c e d u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s of n a t i o n a l
55
d i s g r a c e w a s t h e G r a n d O r i e n t t a k e n b y s t o r m a-nd p i l l a g e d . " ' *

(f) T I I K W A R N IN (J Oh* T H K (i K K A T W A R UNHEEDED.

s T h e organized forces o f Naturalism continued their nefarious
5
w o r k a f t e r t h e G r e a t W a r (1914-1918).< ) T h e y finally left F r a n c e
w i t h o u t a e r o p l a n e s o r t a n k s for i t s d e f e n c e , w h e n t h e s e c o n d
E u r o p e a n W a r b e g a n in S e p t e m b e r , 1939, t h a t is, a f e w w e e k s
a f t e r t h e official c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e 150th a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e M a
(57)
s o n i c r e v o l u t i o n of 1 7 8 9 .
I n t h e b o o k b y M . F r a c h e , La Petition eontre la Franc-Magon-
nerie, t o w h i c h a l l u s i o n h a s j u s t b e e n m a d e , t h e a u t h o r w r i t e s as
follows concerning " T h e G r a n d Orient Commission for External
R e l a t i o n s " : " F r e n c h F r e e m a s o n s a r e r u n n i n g t h e r i s k of b e i n g
f o o l e d a n d of c o m p r o m i s i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s of o u r c o u n t r y b y t h e i r
s e c t a r i a n hate and their cosmopolitan d r e a m s , which a r e designedly
a n d c l e v e r l y e n c o u r a g e d b y f o r e i g n e r s . T h i s is t o o u r m i n d the
g r e a t d a n g e r w h i c h is h i d d e n b e h i n d t h a t m y s t e r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n
called ' T h e Grand Orient Commission for E x t e r n a l Relations.'
F r e n c h F r e e m a s o n s arc repeating t h e blunders of their predeces-

(
54) ' ' T h e s e shady t r a n s a c t i o n s enabled the Twelve Tribes to plunge
a few more roots in French soil " (-Mgr. L a n d r i e u x . op. cit.. p. 1-27).
v55) f
j(It Dictating, /ft la- Maeamu i it, p. '27-2. A petition a g a i n s t the
n e f a r i o u s action of F r e e m a s o n r y , signed by 8 0 , 0 0 0 citizens, was pre
sented to the Chamber of Deputies in 190:2. CP. La Petition eontre la
F ra nc-^f aromurir, by "M. Praehe.
(
fi> Mgr. L a n d r i e u x quotes t h e d e m a n d of t h e ( h a n d Orient in 1923
for t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of the laws of 1901 n n d 1904 a g a i n s t religious. Op.
cit., p. 70.
<7> The French wire outnumbered six (o-one i n ihe a i r in 1910.
G e n e r a l Cham he, on the occasion o f La> Smatine <le V A eiation al Vichy,
as r e l a t e d in t h e Xourelh* fir France, :27th May. 191:2, sniff t h a i the
F r e n c h and English h a d only 1,700 aeroplanes a g a i u M G e r m a n y ' s 5,200.
Of course, what is said here would need l o b e completed by an account
of the traffic of the iron ore of L o r r a i n e from behind the M a g i n o t Line
to G e r m a n y , for months after the outbreak of the war in 19'39. Cf.
a r t i c l e by F r a n k V. I f a n n i g h e n in Harper's Ma amine, M a r c h , 1940.
T h e iron ore r e t u r n e d in the form of t a n k s a n d a e r o p l a n e s l a t e r on.
 ASPECTvS O F E C O N O M I C DECAY 417

sons u n t l c r t h e S e c o n d E m p i r e : t h e y s e e m t o h a v e f o r g o t t e n t h e
t e r r i b l e \c*>on of 1870." T h e w a r w h i c h b e g a n in 1939 w a s a r u d e
a w a k e n i n g for the d r e a m e r s .
i n d e f a u l t of t h e J u d a e o - M a s o n i e c o n n e x i o n s of t h e F r e n c h
M i n i s t e r * a t t h e o u t b r e a k of t h e w a r , let us p u t d o w n t h o s e of
the D a l a d i e r M i n i s t r y , a c c o r d i n g t o Le Pilori, of J u l y , 1938. T h e y
were as follows:
" E d o u a r d D a l a d i e r , P r e s i d e n t of t h e Council. L e c t u r e r in
( 5 a J
Masonic L o d g e s . M e m b e r of t h e L e a g u e of t h e R i g h t s of M a n .
" C a m i l l e C h a u t e m p s , V i c e - P r e s i d e n t . 32nd D e g r e e . Sublime
P r i n c e of t h e R o y a l S e c r e t . V e r y i n f l u e n t i a l m e m b e r of I n t e r n a
tional M a s o n r y .
" G e o r g e s ttonnet, M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n Affairs. D i g n i t a r y of
the L o d g e * La liepuhliqite/ AliMost c e r t a i n l y affiliated t o E n g
lish M a s o n r y .
" Paul R e y n a u d , Minister for Justice. Jewish A g e n t . Presid
e n t of t h e C o m m i t t e e f o r t h e D e f e n c e of C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n J e w s .
"Albert Sarraut, Home Secretary. D i g n i t a r y of t h e G r a n d
O r i e n t , l l r o t h c r of M a u r i c e S a r r a u t , o n e of F r a n c e ' s chief M a s o n s .
" C e s a r Campinchi. N a v y . L e c t u r e r in Masonic L o d g e s . M e m
b e r of t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e of t h e J e w i s h L e a g u e a g a i n s t R a c i a l
ism a n d A n t i - S e m i t i s m ( L . L C\ A . ) .
" G u y L a C h a m b r e . A i r - M i n i s t e r . M a s a l w a y s b e e n a faithful
f o l l o w e r of M a s o n i c p o l i c y .
" P a u l M a r c h a n d e a u . M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e . V e n e r a b l e of t h e
L o d g e * La Since'rite ' of R h e i m s . M e m b e r of t h e L e a g u e of t h e
R i g h t s of M a n .
" L . O. F r o s s a n l . P u b l i c W o r k s . H a l f - J e w b y his m o t h e r n e e
L e v y . M e m b e r of t h e L o d g e * L'Internationale: M e m b e r of t h e
L e a g u e of t h e R i g h t s of M a n a n d of t h e L . I . C . A .
" H e n r i Q u e u i l l e . M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e . L e c t u r e r i n M a s o n i c
Lodges.
" J e a n 'Any. M i n i s t e i of N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n . J e w . M e m b e r
of t h e L o d g e ' fitienne Dolet.'
" P a u l R a m a d i e r . M i n i s t e r of L a b o u r . M e m b e r of t h e L o d g e
* UInternationale: M e m b e r of t h e L e a g u e of t h e R i g h t s of M a n
a n d of t h e L . I . C . A .
" F e r n a n d G e n tin. M i n i s t e r of C o m m e r c e Affiliated t o s e v e r a l
M a s o n i c G r o u p s . M e m b e r of t h e L e a g u e of t h e R i g h t s of M a n .
" G e o r g e s Mandel. Colonial Minister. J e w , w h o s e real n a m e
is J e r o b o a m R o t h s c h i l d . D i g n i t a r v of t h e J e w i s h L o d g e s 'lYnai
B'rith:
" J u l e s J u l i e n , M i n i s t e r of P o s t s a n d T e l e g r a p h s . N o inform
ation concerning him.
56
t > A l e c t u r e r i s a m a n who c a n be relied u p o n tn speak in a w a y
calculated to favour M a s o n r y ' s p l a n s . T o these lectures, though given
i n lodges, n c n - M a s o n s a r e a d m i t t e d .
FF
418 THK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

" Marc Rucard. M i n i s t e r of P u b l i c H e a l t h . 33rd D e g r e e .

4
M e m b e r of t h e C o u n c i l of L e D r o i t H u m a i n . ' M e m b e r of t h e
C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e of t h e L e a g u e of t h e R i g h t s of M a n a n d of
xbe L . f . C A .
" C h a m p c t i c r dc Ribes. P e n s i o n s . F o l l o w s Masonic policy, but
w e have no information concerning him.
" D e C h a p p e d c l a i n e . M e r c a n t i l e M a r i n e . Affiliated t o t h e M a
s o n i c G r o u p k n o w n a s LWcIion la'ique.
li
R a y m o n d P a t c n o t r e . N a t i o n a l F c o n o m i c s . L e c t u r e r in M a
s o n i c L o d g e s . C o n t r i b u t e d f u n d s to t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t . "
W e can a d d t o t h i s a s o m e w h a t e a r l i e r m i n i s t r y , t h e C h a u -
t e m p s M i n i s t r y , a s g i v e n in t h e Revue Internationale des Socie'tes
Secretes of F e b r u a r y 1, 1938. T h i s M i n i s t r y c o m p r i s e d t w e l v e
F r e e m a s o n s a n d f o u r l e c t u r e r s \n l o d g e s . T h e F r e e m a s o n s w e r e :
C a m i l l e C h a u t e m p s , 32nd D e g r e e L o d g e . ' . Les Dcmophiles
of T o u r s .
G e o r g e B o n n e t , L o d g e . ' . IS I nternationale.
L. O. F r o s s a r d , L o d g e . ' . IS Internationale.
M a r c h a n d e a t i , L o d g e . S i n c e r i t e of R h e i m s .
J e a n Z a y , L o d g e . * . Ctienne Dofet of O r l e a n s .
S a r r a u l , H o n o r a r y M e m b e r of t h e L o d g e . ' . Fraternite ton--
hi noise.
W i l l i a m B o r i n m d . L o d g e . ' . L'lhiion retabiie of M a r e n n e s .
F o r m e r M e m b e r of t h e C o u n c i l of t h e G r a n d O r i e n t .
Ramadier. Lodge . ' . L'Internationale.
M a r c K u c a r t , L o d g e . ' . L'lnternatronafe of O r l e a n s .
Max l l y m a n s , Lodge 1 sis~M ont i/on, Conscience et Volonte.
}
M o m i e r v i l l e , ' L o d g e . " . La I revo//a/iee.
R a o u l A u b a u d , 32nd D e g r e e , F o r m e r M e m b e r of t h e C o u n c i l
of t h e G r a n d O r i e n t .
T h e 1 .eel tire rs w e r e : fid* ma rd D a l a d i e r . Y v o n Del b o s , P i e r r e
C o t , de T c s s a n .
T h e r e a r e s o m e s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h r e g a r d t o a f e w of t h e
M i n i s t e r s f i g u r i n g on b o t h l i s t s . A t t h e t i m e of w r i t i n g ( N o v e m
b e r , 1 9 4 H , it is i m p o s s i b l e , on a c c o u n t of t h e w a r , to i n v e s t i g a t e
these details.

APPENDIX.

CARDINAL PIE OF POITIERS AND N A P O L E O N III.

In a m e m o r a b l e i n t e r v i e w , in 1856, t h e B i s h o p of P o i t i e r s , l a t e r
C a r d i n a l , s a i d t o t h e E m p e r o r of t h e F r e n c h , N a p o l e o n I I I , w h o
h a d b o a s t e d of h a v i n g d o n e m o r e for r e l i g i o n in F r a n c e t h a n the
B o u r b o n s h a d d o n e a f t e r t h e i r R e s t o r a t i o n in 1 8 1 5 : " I a m q u i t e
r e a d y to do j u s t i c e t o y o u r M a j e s t y ' s r e l i g i o u s d i s p o s i t i o n s a n d I
c e r t a i n l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e s e r v i c e s t h a t y o u h a v e r e n d e r e d to
 ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC DECAY 419

R o m e and to the Church P e r h a p s t h e R e s t o r a t i o n did n o t

do m o r e t h a n y o u h a v e d o n e . 1 a m o b l i g e d , h o w e v e r , t o a d d t h a t
n e i t h e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n n o r y o u h a v e d o n e for G o d w h a t y o u
s h o u l d h a v e d o n e . N e i t h e r of y o u r a i s e d u p H i s t h r o n e : n e i t h e r
of y o u d i s a v o w e d t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , of w h i c h , n e v e r
theless, y o u c o m b a t the p r a c t i c a l consequences. T h e social gospel
w h i c h f u r n i s h e s i n s p i r a t i o n t o t h e S t a t e is t h e D e c l a r a t i o n of
t h e r i g h t s of m a n , w h i c h is p u r e l y a n d s i m p l y t h e f o r m a l n e g a t i o n
of t h e R i g h t s of G o d .
" G o d h a s t h e r i g h t t o c o m m a n d n a t i o n s as w e l l a s i n d i v i d u a l s .
It is f o r t h i s t h a t O u r L o r d c a m e o n e a r t h . H e is m e a n t t o r e i g n
b y inspiring* t h e l a w s , s a n c t i f y i n g t h e n a t i o n a l h a b i t s a n d c u s
toms, enlightening the teaching, directing the councils, regulat
i n g t h e a c t i o n s of g o v e r n m e n t s a s w e l l as of t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
W h e r e v e r O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t d o e s n o t r u l e in t h i s m a n n e r ,
t h e r e is d i s o r d e r a n d d e c a y .
" N o w , i t is m y d u t y t o tell y o u t h a t H e d o e s n o t r e i g n in
o u r c o u n t r y a n d t h a t o u r C o n s t i t u t i o n is f a r f r o m b e i n g w h a t t h e
C o n s t i t u t i o n of a C h r i s t i a n a n d C a t h o l i c c o u n t r y s h o u l d b e . O u r
public l a w l a y s d o w n t h a t t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n is t h e r e l i g i o n
of t h e m a j o r i t y of F r e n c h m e n , b u t it a d d s t h a t the other forms of
worship have a right to equal protection, Fs n o t t h a t e q u i v a l e n t
to p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n g i v e s e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n t o
truth and e r r o r ? W e l l ! does Y o u r Majesty know w h a t reply Our
L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t will g i v e t o g o v e r n m e n t s w h i c h a r e g u i l t y of
s u c h a c o n t r a d i c t i o n ? O u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , K i n g of h e a v e n a n d
e a r t h , will r e p l y : * T o you, g o v e r n m e n t s which succeed one an
other, I also g r a n t equal p r o t e c t i o n . 1 accorded this p r o t e c t i o n to
the E m p e r o r , y o u r u n c l e ; I a c c o r d e d the same p r o t e c t i o n to the
Bourbons, the same protection to Louis-Philippe, the same pro
t e c t i o n t o t h e R e p u b l i c a n d t o y o u a l s o t h e s a m e p r o t e c t i o n will
be a c c o r d e d . ' ' *'
T h e E m p e r o r i n t e r r u p t e d the B i s h o p : " B u t surely you do
n o t b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h a s t a t e of t h i n g s is s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n t
day a n d t h a t the time h a s c o m e to establish this religious rule
t h a t y o u a s k of m e . D o y o u n o t k n o w , M g r . , t h a t all t h e f o r c e s
of evil w o u l d b e let l o o s e ? "
" Sire, w h e n g r e a t politicians like your M a j e s t y inform m e
t h a t t h e t i m e h a s n o t y e t c o m e , I h a v e o n l y t o b o w m y h e a d , for
I a m n o t a g r e a t politician. B u t I a m a bishop, and as a bishop I
(
r e p l y : If t h e t i m e h a s n o t yet. c o m e for O u r L o r d t o r e i g n , w e l l !
t h e t i m e h a s n o t y e t c o m e f o r g o v e r n m e n t s to l a s t /
L a t e r o n , a f t e r t h e d e f e a t of 1870 a n d t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of
N a p o l e o n 111, t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s b e i n g m a d e for t h e g o d l e s s s c h o o l ,

d> The Kingship of Christ according to Cardinal Pie of Poitiers,

p p . 76-79.
420 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

b y t h e M a s o n i c G o v e r n m e n t of t h e T h i r d R e p u b l i c , s e e m e d to
C a r d i n a l P i e t o s o u n d t h e f u n e r a l k n e l l of F r a n c e . " I f y o u a r e
f
g o i n g t o s e t u p s c h o o l s , " h e said, ' a t w h i c h e v e r y b o d y m u s t assist
a n d in w h i c h e v e r y b o d y m u s t be p r e s e n t e x c e p t G o d , t h a t o u t r a g e
o n h u m a n l i b e r t y a n d o n r e l i g i o n will b e t h e f i n i s h i n g s t r o k e , the
d e a t h - s e n t e n c e . S a c r i l e g i o u s a n d m u r d e r o u s h a n d s will h a v e w r i t
t e n o n t h e t o m b s t o n e of o u r c o u n t r y : Finis GaUiae"^
If t h e g r e a t C a r d i n a l w e r e a l i v e t o - d a y h e w o u l d b e s a d d e n e d
o n r e a d i n g t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e i s s u e of M a r c h 2 3 , 1943, of the
F r e n c h d a i l y p a p e r , Franct\ p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e p a t r o n a g e of the
A s s o c i a t i o n d e s F r a n g a i s de G r a n d e - B r e t a g n e . T h i s i s s u e con
t a i n s t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t of t h e n e w C o n s t i t u t i o n f o r X o r t h e r n
Africa and F r e n c h Equatorial Africa d r a w n up by General Giraud.
According to this Constitution, the regulation, drawn up by Mar
s h a l P e t a i n f o r m e m b e r s of t h e J e w i s h N a t i o n , w i t h r e g a r d t o
F r e n c h c i t i z e n s h i p , is d o n e a w a y w i t h e v e r y w h e r e e x c e p t in
A l g e r i a . " It is t h e r e t u r n t o t h e p o s i t i o n a d o p t e d b y t h e F r e n c h
p e o p l e in t h e D e c l a r a t i o n of t h e r i g h t s of m a n of 1789." A c c o u n t
is t a k e n of M o h a m m e d a n o p p o s i t i o n in A l g e r i a . T h e d e c r e e of the
M a r s h a l f o r b i d d i n g f u n c t i o n a r i e s o r a g e n t s of t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n
m e n t t o b e m e m b e r s of s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s is a l s o a b r o g a t e d . Free
m a s o n r y is a g a i n f r e e t o c o n t i n u e i t s a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r k . I n
t h e l i g h t of w h a t w e h a v e s e e n t h i s m a k e s s a d r e a d i n g .

W Ibid., p. 100.
 CHAPTER XVIII.

THE FUNCTIONING OF T H E GOLD STANDARD AND

E C O N O M I C DECAY.

S O M E FINANCIAL P R I N C I P L E S OP ST. T H O M A S
AQUINAS.

M o n e y , a c c o r d i n g t o S t . T h o m a s , w a s i n v e n t e d b y t h e a r t of
m a n f o r t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of e x c h a n g e b y s e r v i n g a s a c o m m o n
m e a s u r e of t h i n g s s a l e a b l e . " N a t u r a l w e a l t h , " he w r i t e s ( l a I l a e ,
Q. 2, a . l , c ) , " i s t h a t b y w h i c h n a t u r a l w a n t s a r e s u p p l i e d , for
e x a m p l e , food, d r i n k , c l o t h i n g , v e h i c l e s , d w e l l i n g s a n d s u c h l i k e .
Artificial w e a l t h is t h a t w h i c h is h o t a d i r e c t h e l p t o n a t u r e , a s
for i n s t a n c e , m o n e y . T h i s w a s i n v e n t e d b y t h e a r t of m a n , for
t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of e x c h a n g e b y s e r v i n g as a c o m m o n m e a s u r e of
t h i n g s s a l e a b l e . " A s a common m e a s u r e it o u g h t t o b e stable.
" A s a m e a s u r e u s e d for e s t i m a t i n g t h e v a l u e of t h i n g s / ' w r i t e s St.
T h o m a s ( C o m m e n t , in E t h i c , L i b . V , L e c t . I X ) , " m o n e y m u s t
k e e p t h e s a m e v a l u e , s i n c e t h e v a l u e of all t h i n g s m u s t b e
e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of m o n e y . T h u s e x c h a n g e s c a n r e a d i l y t a k e
place and, as a consequence, c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n men are
f a c i l i t a t e d . " M o n e y is, t h e r e f o r e , e s s e n t i a l l y a n e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m .
S t a b i l i t y in v a l u e is a p r o p e r t y o r n e c e s s a r y a t t r i b u t e of a n
exchange-medium. M o n e y is m e a n t to f a c i l i t a t e f a m i l i e s in p r o
c u r i n g b y e x c h a n g e t h e sufficiency of m a t e r i a l g o o d s r e q u i r e d for
t h e v i r t u o u s life of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t i e s c o m p o s i n g t h e m . T h e
v i r t u o u s life of h u m a n p e r s o n s is s i m p l y t h e i r o r d e r e d d e v e l o p
m e n t a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t .
T h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d w i t h i t s a l t e r n a t e b o o m s
a n d s l u m p s h a s led, n o t o n l y t o u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d s t a r v a t i o n in
e v e r y c o u n t r y in s p i t e of p o t e n t i a l sufficiency, b u t t o s o m e t h i n g
of a d e a d l o c k in i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e c o u p l e d w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
of f o o d a n d t h e l e s s e n i n g of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e a s o n
f o r t h i s lies in t h e p e r v e r s i o n of o r d e r i n v o l v e d in t h e s y s t e m .
S t . T h o m a s i n s i s t s t h a t m o n e y is i n t e n d e d t o f a c i l i t a t e p r o d u c t i o n ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e , in v i e w of s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e f a m i l v
life of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , a c t u a l a n d p o t e n t i a l . I n s t e a d of t h a t ,
m e n a r e sacrificed for p r o d u c t i o n , while production and c o n s u m p
t i o n , in t h e i r t u r n , a r e s a c r i f i c e d f o r i n t e r e s t o n d e b t . I n s t e a d of
b e i n g a n i n s t r u m e n t of P o l i t i c s a n d E c o n o m i c s , money has
become an end. T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l d i s o r d e r , t h e d o m i n a t i o n of
 422 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

s o c i e t y b y m o n e y a n d b y t h o s e w h o m a n i p u l a t e m o n e y , m u s t be
rectified. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e c t i f i c a t i o n is t h e r e t u r n t o t h e full
d o c t r i n e of M e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t ' s M y s t i c a l B o d y w i t h all that
it i m p l i e s , as P o p e P i u s X I p o i n t s o u t in Qnatl'ragesimo Anno:
" T h e n o n l y will it b e p o s s i b l e t o u n i t e all in h a r m o n i o u s s t r i v i n g
f o r t h e c o m m o n g o o d , w h e n all s e c t i o n s of s o c i e t y h a v e t h e in
t i m a t e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e m e m b e r s of a s i n g l e f a m i l y and
c h i l d r e n of t h e s a m e H e a v e n l y F a t h e r , a n d f u r t h e r t h a t t h e y are
' o n e b o d y in C h r i s t , a n d e v e r y o n e m e m b e r s o n e of a n o t h e r ' ( R o m . ,
X I I , 5 ) , s o t h a t ' i f o n e m e m b e r s u f f e r a n y t h i n g , all t h e m e m b e r s
s u f f e r w i t h it ' ( 1 Cor., X I I , 2 6 ) . " W i t h o u t t h a t , p e a c e c a n n o t he
lasting.

THE BANKERS' DISCOVERY.

W e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n t h a t b r o n z e , iron a n d s i l v e r speedily
c a m e t o be u s e d a s m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m / " F o r m a n y cen
t u r i e s , s i l v e r w a s t h e c o m m o d i t y chiefly e m p l o y e d , a n d it w o r k e d
w e l l , w h e n e x c h a n g e s w e r e few o r r e l a t i v e l y few. G o l d c a m e to
be used as m o n e y or e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m m u c h later. T h e n arose
t h e b u s i n e s s of s t o r i n g t h e g o l d a n d s i l v e r t o k e n s e m p l o y e d in the
p r o c e s s of e x c h a n g e . I n d i v i d u a l s w e n t i n t o b u s i n e s s as the
k e e p e r s of s t r o n g - r o o m s for s t o r i n g p r e c i o u s m e t a l s till t h e o w n
e r s n e e d e d t h e m , t h e o w n e r s m e a n w h i l e r e c e h i n g r e c e i p t s for their
d e p o s i t s . S i n c e e v e r y b o d y w a s a s s u r e d of t h e s a f e t y of t h e preci
o u s m e t a l s d e p o s i t e d in t h e s t r o n g - r o o m s , p e o p l e b e g a n t o hand
t h e r e c e i p t s f r o m o n e t o a n o t h e r w i t h o u t g o i n g to t h e t r o u b l e of
g e t t i n g o u t t h e g o l d o r o t h e r p r e c i o u s m e t a l a n d p a s s i n g it on.
I t w a s m u c h m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o t r a n s f e r t h e r e c e i p t o r t h e piece
of p a p e r . T h e s e p i e c e s of p a p e r w e r e t h e s t o r e k e e p e r ' s o r gold
s m i t h ' s or b a n k e r ' s p r o m i s e s to p a y p r e c i o u s metals u p o n demand.
F r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e h i s t o r y of t h e g r a d u a l a d v a n c e of
b a n k e r s t o t h e i r p r e s e n t d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n in m o d e r n S t a t e s , this
m a y be t e r m e d t h e first s t e p . F r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of the
o r d i n a r y m a n , a n d e s p e c i a l l y of t h e p o o r , w h o suffer m o s t from
t h e a b s e n c e of social j u s t i c e , it w a s t h e first m i s t a k e . " T h e public
e r r o r , h o w e v e r / ' w r i t e s M i s s G. M . C o o g a n , " l a y n o t in t r u s t i n g
t h e p r i v a t e b a n k e r w i t h t h e i r real m o n e y , b u t in c a r e l e s s l y allow
i n g t h e p r i v a t e b a n k e r to i s s u e his sh'/ts of paper in snbsti/afion
a n d l a t e r in m u M i p l i c a t e for real money. T h i s p l a c e d his p r i v a t e
seal on a p a r i t y w i t h t h e seal of t h e G o v e r n m e n t on i t s lawful
m o n e y . T h i s w a s t h e initial s t e p of t h e p r o c e s s b v w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y

U> The t e r m " e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m " is p e r h a p s better, as i t recalls

t h e essential function of money. I t also brings home better the reason
of the d e m a n d for stability in the- p u r c h a s i n g power of money. Stab
i l i t y is a p r o p e r t y or necessary a t t r i b u t e of an exchange-medium. Cf.
C h a p t e r ITT, p . 60.
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 423

t h e m o n e y s e a l of t h e p r i v a t e b a n k e r a c t u a l l y t o o k p r e c e d e n c e
7 21
o v e r t h e m o n e y seal of t h e G o v e r n m e n t i t s e l f / '
T h e s e c o n d p u b l i c e r r o r l a y in a l l o w i n g t h e g o l d s m i t h s or
b a n k e r s to exploit an o b s e r v a t i o n that they had made. They saw
t h a t a b o u t 9 0 p e r c e n t of t h e i r t o t a l s t o c k of g o l d r e m a i n e d in
t h e i r v a u l t s e n t i r e l y u n d i s t u r b e d , a n d t h a t o n l y a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t
of t h e p r e c i o u s m e t a l w a s r e q u i r e d for t h e n o r m a l t r a n s a c t i o n of
business. T h e b a n k e r s t h e n b e g a n to circulate far m o r e p r o m i s e s
to p a y gold t h a n t h e y h a d gold to m e e t , and to collect i n t e r e s t
on the fictitious money. T h e bankers " discovered that they
c o u l d l e n d f a r m o r e m o n e y t h a n t h e y p o s s e s s e d , t h a t is to s a y ,
t h a t t h e y c o u l d i s s u e f a r m o r e p r o m i s e s t o p a y in g o l d t h a n
t h e y c o u l d m e e t w i t h all t h e g o l d in t h e i r coffers. T h i s w a s b e
c a u s e it w a s f o u n d in p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e p r o m i s e d p a y m e n t s w e r e
n e v e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e m a n d e d ; in f a c t , e x c e p t in c r i s e s , n e v e r
m o r e t h a n o n e - t e n t h of t h e s e a t a n y o n e t i m e . T h i s l a m e n t a b l e
d i s c o v e r y w a s t h e o r i g i n of t h e w o r l d ' s m o n e t a r y s y s t e m t o -
3
day."' ) '
W h a t t h e b a n k e r s h a d d i s c o v e r e d w a s s i m p l y t h e w o r k i n g of
t h e l a w of a v e r a g e s . M o d e r n o r g a n i z a t i o n of m o n e y a n d b a n k i n g
d e p e n d s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o n t h e l a w of l a r g e n u m b e r s . If t o k e n s
w e r e issued, say, to a b o u t a d o z e n people, y o u could n e v e r predict
w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n . T h e w h o l e d o z e n m i g h t w a l k in a n d c l a i m
g o l d . B u t w h e n y o u a r e d e a l i n g w i t h m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e t h e l o d g e
m e n t s a n d w i t h d r a w a l s will t e n d t o c a n c e l o u t . S i m i l a r l y a c o m
p a n y c o u l d n o t i n s u r e o n l y t w e l v e p e o p l e , for it c o u l d n o t p r e d i c t
t h e i r m o r t a l i t y ; b u t it c a n m a k e a g o o d s t a t i s t i c a l p r o p h e c y a b o u t
t w e l v e t h o u s a n d . I n t h e d a y s of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d , " r e d e e m a -
b i l i t y of n o t e s c o u l d n o r m a l l y be k e p t u p , b e c a u s e t h o u g h a n u m
b e r of p e o p l e p r e s e n t e d n o t e s a n d o b t a i n e d g o l d , a p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l
n u m b e r presented gold a n d obtained notes. T h u s it w a s n o t
n e c e s s a r y to k e e p a gold b a c k i n g for e v e r y n o t e issued. I t w a s
sufficient . . . . t o k e e p a m a r g i n a l a m o u n t , t h a t is, sufficient
to cover fluctuations about the average. . . . If t h e n , r e d e e m
a b l e t o k e n s a r e i s s u e d o n a sufficiently l a r g e s t a t i s t i c a l s c a l e , t h e
e x c e s s of w i t h d r a w a l s o v e r l o d g e m e n t s i n a n y p e r i o d a n d t h e
e x c e s s of l o d g e m e n t s o v e r w i t h d r a w a l s in s o m e o t h e r p e r i o d w i l l
b e r e d u c e d t o a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l c o n c e r n e d . M o r e o v e r ,
t h e s e fluctuations will b e c o m e r e g u l a r a n d p r e d i c t a b l e . . . . T h u s
it b e c o m e s q u i t e s a f e . . . t o i s s u e r e d e e m a b l e t o k e n s t o w h i c h
4
no gold corresponds."* *
Jn o t h e r words, the goldsmiths or bankers found that they
(2) Money Creators, p . 16. F o r an excellent s u m m a r y of the
h i s t o r i c a l development of b a n k i n g , see C h a p t e r I of Prof. O ' R a h i l l y ' s
book, Money.
<3) The Hoot of All Evil, by S i r R e g i n a l d Rowe, p. 13.
Money, by Prof. O R a h i l l y , p p . 8, 9.
 424 THK MYSTICAL l . O D Y OK CHRIST

c o u l d n o t o n l y lend n i n e - t e n t h s of t h e g o l d o r i g i n a l l y e n t r u s t e d to
thern. but also thai they could p u t into circulation, through
" c r e d i t - w o r t h y " b o r r o w e r s , t h e i r o w n n o t e s o r r e c e i p t s u p to ten
t i m e s t h e a m o u n t of t h e s e n i n e - t e n t h s a n d y e t be c e r t a i n in p r a c
t i c e of b e i n g a b l e t o p a y o u t g o l d o n d e m a n d for t h e p r o p o r t i o n
of n o t e s p r e s e n t e d a t t h e c a s h i e r ' s d e s k . My t h e c o v e r i n g of 10
p e r c e n t , t h e b a n k e r s w e r e a l w a y s a b l e t o m a i n t a i n t h e illusion
t h a t t h e w h o l e of t h e i r n o t e s a n d r e c e i p t s w e r e c o n v e r t i b l e into
g o l d or w e r e " b a c k e d " by gold. " T h e successful m a i n t e n a n c e
of t h i s i l l u s i o n , " w r i t e s J e f f r e y M a r k , " w h i c h d e p e n d s e s s e n t i a l l y
o n t h e p r o p o r t i o n of p e o p l e in t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o , in p r a c t i c e ,
a r c l i k e l y to a n d d o p r e s e n t t h e i r n o t e s for g o l d r e d e m p t i o n at
t h e s a m e t i m e , is t h e ' c o n v e r t i b l e p a p e r * a n d t h e ' s o u n d ' m o n e y
of t h e m o d e r n b a n k i n g s y s t e m ,
" L e t u s n o w c o n s i d e r s o m e of t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o n s e q u e n c e s
of t h i s p r o c e e d i n g . T h e r e a r e , let u s s u p p o s e , 10 o r i g i n a l d e p o s i
t o r s , w h o e a c h left w i t h t h e g o l d s m i t h g o l d e q u a l t o o n e m a j o r
u n i t of t h e c u r r e n c y . T h e r e a r e n o w in c i r c u l a t i o n 10 g o l d s m i t h ' s
r e c e i p t s , c o l l e c t i v e l y e q u a l to a n d a c t i v e l y f u n c t i o n i n g a s 10 u n i t s
of c u r r e n c y . Hut by l o a n i n g o u t t h e 9 u n r e c l a i m e d u n i t s of gold
t o 90 b o r r o w e r s a s d e s c r i b e d . . . 9 0 of t h e g o l d s m i t h ' s p e r s o n a l
n o t e s a r e n o w in c i r c u l a t i o n a n d a l s o f u n c t i o n a s 90 u n i t s of the
c u r r e n c y . P>y v i r t u e of t h e i l l u s o r y g o l d - b a c k i n g t o his n o t e s ( t h e
illusion never b e i n g destroyed as no m o r e than 9 notes a r e simul
t a n e o u s l y p r e s e n t e d for t h e 10 u n i t s of g o l d in h i s v a u l t s ) t h e
g o l d s m i t h h a s c r e a t e d 90 u n i t s of c u r r e n c y , w h i c h w e r e n o t in
e x i s t e n c e b e f o r e , which, he claims as his property, which there
f o r e m u s t b e r e p a i d h i m , a n d on w h i c h h e will c h a r g e i n t e r e s t , s a y
a t 5 p e r cent, until such time as t h e y a r e repaid him The
f a c t e m e r g e s t h a t t h e r e a r c n o w 100 u n i t s of c u r r e n c y in c i r c u l a
t i o n : 10 t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e d e p o s i t o r s , a n d 90 t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e
g o l d s m i t h , .with a fixed y e a r l y c h a r g e o w i n g t o t h e l a t t e r o n e v e r y
unit.
" I t s h o u l d be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h i s p r o
c e e d i n g t h e g o l d s m i t h owned nothing whatever ( e x c e p t of c o u r s e
t h e s t o r e - r o o m ) . A t t h e end of t h e t r a n s a c t i o n t h e o r i g i n a l d e
p o s i t o r s still o w n t h e s a m e n u m b e r of currency u n i t s a s t h e y did
at the beginning whereas the goldsmith now mnns, and
therefore controls <)() anils of currency : his t o t a l r e c e i p t s for both
s e r v i c e c h a r g e a n d i n t e r e s t ( o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e o w n e r s h i p of the
c r e a t e d c u r r e n c y ) b e i n g 5 u n i t s of c u r r e n c y , i.e., half (he v a l u e of
t h e o r i g i n a l g o l d d e p o s i t s , - t h e w h o l e of i b i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y c r e a
t i o n a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n of i n t e r e s t - b e a r i n g c u r r e n c y b e i n g b a s e d on
other people's money d e p o s i t e d w i t h h i m for ' safe c u s t o d y /
7
" If w e a d d t o t h i s f a c t t h a t t h e s e ' fictitious l o a n s ( t o b o r r o w
a c o n v e n i e n t p h r a s e from Prof. S o d d y ) w e r e only g r a n t e d against
e v i d e n c e of t a n g i b l e s e c u r i t y d e p o s i t e d w i t h t h e g o l d s m i t h in an
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 425

a m o u n t a l w a y s in e x c e s s of t h e l o a n , a n d t h a t t h i s s e c u r i t y w a s
c o n f i s c a t e d b y t h e g o l d s m i t h if t h e s e ' l o a n s ' w e r e n o t ' r e p a i d '
w h e n c a l l e d , w e h a v e a n a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e in m i n i a t u r e of t h e
m o d e r n financial s y s t e m , u n d e r w h o s e d i c t a t e s w e all n e c e s s a r i l y
live a n d suffer. M o d e r n finance, e v e n in t h e c o m p l i c a t e d m e d l e y
of b u g a b o o w h i c h is c a r r i e d o n u n d e r t h e s o u n d i n g t i t l e s of H i g h
F i n a n c e a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i n a n c e , is s i m p l y a v a s t e l a b o r a t i o n
a n d m y s t i f i c a t i o n b a s e d a b s o l u t e l y on t h e s e s i m p l e b u t m o n s t r o u s
5
principles."* *
T h e t o l e r a t i o n by t h e S t a t e of t h i s p r a c t i c e of l e n d i n g p r o m i s e s -
t o - p a y t o t e n t i m e s t h e a m o u n t of m o n e y w h i c h t h e b a n k e r s h a d
in t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n w a s t h e s e c o n d a n d t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t s t e p in
t h e b a n k e r s * a d v a n c e t o c o n t r o l in m o d e r n S t a t e s . F r o m t h e p o i n t
of v i e w of t h e o r d i n a r y m a n , a n d e s p e c i a l l y of t h e p o o r , it w a s t h e
second a n d m o r e fatal e r r o r . In p o i n t of fact, G o v e r n m e n t s
failed t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e s o - c a l l e d p r o m i s e s - t o - p a y , i.e. c h e q u e s ,
h a d b e c o m e m o n e y , in f a c t , a f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t c a t e g o r y of
m o n e y than that issued by the S t a t e .
H a v i n g seen the fundamental principles underlying the o r t h o
d o x f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d , l e t u s n o w e x a m i n e t h e
s y s t e m a t w o r k , first in n a t i o n a l f i n a n c e , a n d , s e c o n d l y , in i n t e r
national trade. B e f o r e d o i n g s o , h o w e v e r , i t is w e l l t o r e m i n d
ourselves once m o r e t h a t m o n e y , according to St. T h o m a s , has
b e e n i n v e n t e d b y t h e a r t of m a n for t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of e x c h a n g e
by s e r v i n g a s a c o m m o n m e a s u r e of t h i n g s s a l e a b l e . L i k e all
c o m m o n m e a s u r e s , such as the yard-stick and the pound-weight,
i t is m e a n t t o b e s t a b l e . W e s h a l l s e e e v e n m o r e c l e a r l y a s w e
g o o n t h a t t h o s e i n t o w h o s e h a n d s t h e c r e a t i o n of m o n e y w a s
a l l o w e d t o fall did n o t a i m a t f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d w e a l t h , b u t a t m a k i n g m o n e y a s o u r c e of r e v e n u e
t o t h e i s s u e r a n d a m e a n s of a r r i v i n g a t t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e c o n
t r o l f o r t h e m s e l v e s , b y t h e c r e a t i o n of" d e b t a n d t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n
of t h e p r i c e level.

NATIONAL FINANCE AND THE GOLD STANDARD.

L e t u s first e x a m i n e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e figures of t h e v a r i o u s e l e
m e n t s c o m p o s i n g t h e m e d i u m of e x c h a n g e in G r e a t B r i t a i n , t h e
c o u n t r y of o r i g i n of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d s y s t e m of finance. T h e fig
u r e s a r e t a k e n f r o m p a g e 55 of t h e e x c e l l e n t w o r k a l r e a d y , q u o t e d ,
n a m e l y , The Modern Idolatry, by Jeffrey M a r k . They are not
m e a n t b y t h e a u t h o r of t h i s b o o k , p u b l i s h e d in 1934, t o s e t f o r t h
t h e e x a c t a m o u n t i n u s e , b u t t o g i v e a f a i r l y a c c u r a t e idea of
t h e p r o p o r t i o n w h i c h e a c h k i n d of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m b e a r s t o t h e
o t h e r s a n d t o t h e w h o l e a m o u n t . T h e a c t u a l figures m a y v a r y
very considerably, but the ratios between the categories remain
substantially the same.
<5) The Modern Idolatry, by Jeffrey M a r k , p p . 66, 67.
 426 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

I n G r e a t B r i t a i n , o u t of 2,500 m i l l i o n s of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m ,
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 m i l l i o n s a r e in c o p p e r o r b r o n z e , 4 0 m i l l i o n s a r e
i n s i l v e r , 450 m i l l i o n s in B a n k of E n g l a n d n o t e s , a n d 2,000 millions
a t e w h a t a r e c a l l e d B a n k d e p o s i t s . B a n k d e p o s i t s a r c r e a l l y loans
m a d e b y t h e B a n k s a n d finally c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C e n t r a l B a n k ,
i n t h i s c a s e , t h e H a n k of E n g l a n d . " Of t h e 450 m i l l i o n s in b a n k
n o t e s s o m e 250 m i l l i o n s r e p r e s e n t t h e B r i t i s h 1 a n d 1 0 / - T r e a
s u r y n o t e s i s s u e d d u r i n g t h e W o r l d W a r , w h i c h in 1928, u n d e r
t h e t e r m s of t h e B a n k n o t e s a n d C u r r e n t ' } " A c t , c a m e u n d e r the
c o n t r o l a n d a r e n o w t h e v i r t u a l p r o p e r t y of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d .
. . . S t a t e - i s s u e d m o n e y n o w c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y of t h e b r o n z e (or
c o p p e r ) a n d s i l v e r c o i n s , t h a t is, a b o u t 50 m i l l i o n s . T h e B a n k s
n o w o w n a n d c l a i m a s t h e i r p r o p e r t y s o m e 2,450 m i l l i o n s o u t
of 2,500 m i l l i o n s . It is t h e r e f o r e c l e a r t h a t t h e B r i t i s h b a n k s h a v e
c r e a t e d , e x c e p t f o r a b o u t 2 p e r c e n t . , a n d n o w o w n all t h e m o n e y
i n c i r c u l a t i o n in E n g l a n d , a s a d e b t a g a i n s t t h e c o m m u n i t y . . . .
T h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e U . S . A . , a n d i n d e e d in all civilised c o u n t r i e s
1 1
t o d a y , is s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e . " "
In 1934, t h e r e f o r e , a b o u t 9 8 p e r c e n t of t h e m o n e y of G r e a t
Britain w a s controlled by the B a n k s . W e need n o t m a k e any
d i s t i n c t i o n f r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w b e t w e e n n o t e s a n d b a n k de
p o s i t s , f o r w h e t h e r o n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s e c u r i t y 1,000 is
c r e d i t e d t o a m a n ' s a c c o u n t in a b a n k l e d g e r a n d he w r i t e s cheques
a g a i n s t it, o r h e o b t a i n s t h a t b a n k ' s o w n n o t e s for 1,000 a n d
s p e n d s t h e m , a " d e p o s i t " has been c r e a t e d or an " a d v a n c e "
6
< > The. Modern Idolatry, txing an Analysis of Usnry, by Jeffrey
M a r k , p p . 55, 56. The p r o p o r t i o n of money in G r e a t B r i t a i n t h a t is
n o t bank-created is r e a l l y less t h a n 2 p e r cent, a c c o r d i n g to Mr.
R e g i n a l d M c K e n n a , q u o t e d by Mr. M a r k on p . 56.
" T h e a m o u n t of h a n k - c r e a t e d money i n c r e a s e d from n o t h i n g a t all
i n 1694, the d a t e of the establishment of the B a n k of E n g l a n d , to about
2,300,000,000 i n l20. A l t h o u g h the bulk of the e x p a n s i o n took plate
i n t h e w a r y e a r s , t h a t increase is a t the a v e r a g e r a t e of well over 800,000
p e r m o n t h for 226 y e a r s ! ! . . . F o r over two h u n d r e d y e a r s , as pro
d u c t i o n h a s e x p a n d e d , so have v a r i o u s people u s u r p e d to a n ever
g r e a t e r e x t e n t the r i g h t of i s s u i n g money (claims for goods a n d ser
vices). As a consequence, the N a t i o n h a s never been able to r e a p the
full benefit of i t s work. . . . The c r e a t i o n of money h a s always out
s t r i p p e d the p r o d u c t i o n of commodities. . . . T h e system does not
always mean p r o s p e r i t y for all the money-creators. . . . On the other
h a n d , the a p p a l l i n g system of a l l o w i n g people to issue money whenever
i t s u i t s them to d o so, r e g a r d l e s s of whether i t is in the i n t e r e s t s of the
n a t i o n as a whole, b r i n g s p o v e r t y w i t h o u t fail lo the bulk of the popula
t i o n " (The Principal (Ja?n*e of tl'nemptoyment, by 1). W. Maxwell,
p p . 41, 42. P u b l i s h e d by W i l l i a m s & N o r g a t e , L t d . , L o n d o n ) .
I n s t e a d of the expression " o w n , " used in the above q u o t a t i o n fnrtu
M r . Jeffrey M a r k , " c o n t r o l s ' * or " a d m i n i s t e r s " would be more accu
r a t e . The B a n k s control the issue of claims a g a i n s t the community
for goods a n d services. On the word " o w n , " cf. Money, bv Professor
O ' R a h i l l y , p p . 70-148, 358.
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 427

madeand money or exchange-medium has been brought into

being. Notes give a clearer impression of new exchange-medium
being put into circulation: that is all. "What is created in the
first instance is a bank deposit or what is called a * deposit.' For
instance, if Mr. X obtains an ' advance ' of 50 against Security
on Dec. 30 and does not spend it, the bank balance sheet of Dec.
31 will include the following items among many similar items:
Liabilities. Assets,
Deposit of Mr. X 50. Advance to Mr. X 50.
7
A bank ' deposit' has been created."* *
" There is no economic difference," writes Prof. O'Rahilly,
"between these two methods [notes and cheques] of creating
new purchasing power. There would be no difference at all if,
instead of giving the customer a book of blanks to be filled tip
as required, the bank were to issue a block of coupons of denom
inations such as 10/-, 1, etc. As things arc, there is merely a
slight juridical distinction between a bank note and a cheque: a
note is an absolute obligation to pay; a cheque is a contingent
obligation, it may be dishonoured if the customer has overdrawn
beyond his agreement. . . . Hence there is no real social or
economic difference between (1) a bank-of-issue which creates
new purchasing-power by the emission of notes, and (2) a bank-
of-deposit which creates new purchasing-power by the issue of
credit transferable by cheque. The confusion of thought is chiefly
due to the persistence of the word ' deposit' which no longer
t8)
means depositnm but a debt."
These points must be insisted upon because of the mistaken
idea that people have that " the function of the banker is, firstly,
The Principal Cause of Unemployment, by D. "W. Maxwell, p. 11*7.
Money, pp. 69, 70. Cf. quotation from the same work in Chapter
(8)
XXI, p. 528.
"T!he Bank Charter Act of Sir Robert Peel of 1844 nominally fixed
the monetary system in this country up to the War. . . . It legislated
to limit and ultimately to extinguish the issue of bank-notes in England
except by the Bank of England, limiting the latter's issue to fourteen
millions above the gold reserve (the so-called fiduciary issue). This
effectively checked the expansion of the note currency, and the upshot
was that the cheque, at first secretly, took the place of the note as a means
(

of creating new money, and soon became the overwhelmingly preponder

ating form of thf> credit medium of exchange. . . . The borrower with
out money was allowed to draw cheques just as if he had money and
to create an overdraft at the hank. The bank's balance-sheet was
falsified sothat it still balanced. For, on the one side, could be credited
to the individual the limiting sum to which he was authorised to over
draw, and, on the other side, the same sum as owing as a debt of the
individual to the bank " {The Role of Money, by Prof. Soddy, pp.
GO, 61).
 J28 T I I K - M Y S T I C A L MODY UK C H R I S T
1
l o l a k e c a r e o t t h e i r * m o n e y , a n d , s e c o n d l y , to m a k e p r o f i t s by
l e n d i n g * t h e i r ' m o n e y t o o t h e r p e o p l e a t a h i g h e r r a t e of i n t e r
est than they themselves allow on deposits or on checking
accounts. In t h e t r u e s e n s e of t h e w o r d , t h e p u b l i c d o n o t o w n
a n y m o n e y a t a l l , a n d t h e p h r a s e ' b a n k - d e p o s i t ' is a l e g a l e u p h e m
i s m . S e e i n g t h a t all m o n e y c o m e s i n t o e x i s t e n c e a s a d e b t c r e a t e d
in f a v o u r of t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m s of t h e w o r l d , t h e p l a i n t r u t h is
t h a t b a n k e r s n n i s l a l w a y s lend t h e i r o w n ( c r e a t e d ) m o n e y , h o w
e v e r m u c h it m a y b e c r i s s - c r o s s e d b e t w e e n p r i v a t e ' d e b t o r s ' a n d
' c r e d i t o r s ' s u b s e q u e n t l y . N o one really h a s a n y m o n e y to lend
l o t h e b a n k s o n ' d e p o s i t ' b e c a u s e all m o n e y ' o w n e d ' b y d e p o s i t o r s
d e r i v e s from a loan m a d e by the h a n k s to s o m e b o d y else
. . . Yet the line t a k e n by b a n k e r s , w h e n publicly explaining any
n e w m o v e in p o l i c y , is t h a t t h e y h a v e d o n e s o t o p r o t e c t t h e i r
t 9 )
depositors' money. . . . T h e s i t u a t i o n is s i m p l y t h i s . Seeing
t h a t all c r e d i t is c r e a t e d b y b a n k l o a n s , f o r e v e r y ' d e p o s i t ' in a
b a n k , t h e r e is a n e q u i v a l e n t loan s o m e w h e r e else in t h e h a n k i n g
s y s t e m , s o t h a t t h e t o t a l of ' d e p o s i t s ' is e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l i t y of
M 0 )
the bank loans. . . . T h e a m o u n t of m o n e y in e x i s t e n c e is
i n c r e a s e d if t h e a g g r e g a t e of l o a n s g r a n t e d is g r e a t e r t h a n the
a g g r e g a t e of l o a n s r e p a i d o r c a l l e d in ( c r e d i t e x p a n s i o n ) . I t is
d e c r e a s e d if t h e a g g r e g a t e of l o a n s g r a n t e d is less t h a n t h e a g g r e
g a t e of l o a n s called in o r r e p a i d ( c r e d i t c o n t r a c t i o n ) . . . . Ncftv
t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a b a n k c a n m a k e l o a n s is d e t e r m i n e d b y its
' c a s h ' h o l d i n g s , w h i c h , in K n g l a n d , v a r i e s w i t h t h e a m o u n t of
i t s b a l a n c e a t t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d , a s t h e R t . H o n . R e g i n a l d
M c K e n n a , t h e a b l e C h a i r m a n of t h e M i d l a n d H a n k , l a i d d o w n a t
a m e e t i n g of t h e M i d l a n d H a n k s h a r e h o l d e r s ( i n 1 9 2 7 ) : ' V a r i a
t i o n s in t h e q u a n t i t y of m o n e y a r e d u e t o v a r i a t i o n s in t h e t o t a l
^ f b a n k c a s h . . . . T h e t o t a l of b a n k c a s h is d e t e r m i n e d solely
b v t h e a c t i o n of t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d / T h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e
H a n k of K n g l a n d in fixing t h e a m o u n t of m o n e y in K n g l a n d is
t h e r e f o r e a b s o l u t e . T h e g e n e s i s of all i n l l a t i o n s o r d e f l a t i o n s of

(9) T h i s is the line t a k e n by the I r i s h C o r r e s p o n d e n t of the English

p a p e r , The Sunday Times, Oth Oct., 1038, a c c o m p a n y i n g the defence
with sneering references to the Kncyelical Letter, Quadragesima Anno.
UO) The a u t h o r p o i n t s out i n a note t h a t " these, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s are
t r u e , only if the t o t a l i t y of bank loans is considered t o i n c l u d e (as it
should do) the d i s c o u n t i n g of bills a n d the purchase of investments
by the hanks. Hut as both of these, processes g e n e r a t e the same m u t u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p between banks a n d (he public, the i m p l i c a t i o n i n the state
m e n t is t r u e . "
In an excellent article in the Standard ( D u b l i n ) , M r . J . L. Bene-
v e n i s t i observes: " I t is sometimes s a i d t h a t every a d v a n c e creates a
d e p o s i t , but t h i s i s n o b q u i t e t r u e . An a d v a n c e to an i n d i v i d u a l cus
tomer by one p a r t i c u l a r b a n k m a y cause the e x t i n c t i o n of a n o t h e r
p e r s o n ' s o v e r d r a f t at that- p e r s o n ' s b a n k a n d so keep the t o t a l of all
the advances the same, b u t total advances m u s t in the n o r m a l way
p r o d u c e an increase in total d e p o s i t s . "
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 429

t h e c u r r e n c y c o m e s f r o m a p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n w h o s e policy is
t n
not controlled by P a r l i a m e n t . " >
B e f o r e p a s s i n g o n t o s p e a k of t h e evils of i n f l a t i o n a n d deflation,
it will b e w e l l t o e x p l a i n t h e m e a n i n g of t h e p h r a s e u s e d a b o v e ,
n a m e l y , t h a t * v a r i a t i o n s in t h e q u a n t i t i e s of m o n e y a r e d u e t o v a r i
a t i o n s in t h e t o t a l of b a n k c a s h / Briefly it m e a n s t h a t , a s b a n k e r s
a r e a c c u s t o m e d to l e n d p r o m i s e s - t o - p a y u p t o t e n t i m e s t h e
a m o u n t of l e g a l - t e n d e r m o n e y w h i c h t h e y e i t h e r p o s s e s s o r can
c o u n t u p o n s e c u r i n g in c a s e of a * r u n ' u p o n t h e m , b a n k e r s ' l o a n s
v a r y w i t h t h e a m o u n t of t h e i r a v a i l a b l e l e g a l - t e n d e r m o n e y . A
b a n k e r ' s balance sheet s h o w s h o w much legal-tender money he
can c o u n t upon under the h e a d i n g ' Cash and Deposits at the
Central B a n k / Cash is t h e a m o u n t of l e g a l - t e n d e r m o n e y h e h a s
a c t u a l l y in his p o s s e s s i o n . Deposits at the Central Bank a r e t h e
c r e d i t b a l a n c e of t h e p r i v a t e b a n k a t t h e C e n t r a l B a n k . D e p o s i t s
at the Central B a n k a r e r e c k o n e d as cash because they can be
immediately converted into legal-tender money. The Central Bank
will s e e t o t h a t .
T h e r e is o n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C a s h a n d D e
p o s i t s a t t h e C e n t r a l B a n k . C a s h is l e g a l - t e n d e r m o n e y . D e p o s i t s
a t t h e C e n t r a l B a n k a r e a c r e d i t b a l a n c e a t t h e C e n t r a l B a n k for
which legal-tender m o n e y can be obtained. T h e Central Rank, by
w h a t a r e called ' o p e n - m a r k e t o p e r a t i o n s / can increase or de
c r e a s e t h e p r i v a t e b a n k ' s a v a i l a b l e s u p p l y of l e g a l - t e n d e r m o n e y ,
on w h i c h it h a s lent t e n t i m e s t h e a m o u n t . W h e n the Central
B a n k b u y s securities in t h e o p e n - m a r k e t , it p a y s for t h e m b y
c h e q u e s ' d r a w n o n itself. " T h e s e l l e r s of t h e s e s e c u r i t i e s l o d g e
t h e s e c h e q u e s t o t h e i r c r e d i t in t h e i r o w n b a n k s . . . t h u s i n
creasing their own deposits. T h e banks pass these cheques into
the central bank, thus increasing their balance at the central bank.
. . . Plence the central b a n k by its ' o p e n - m a r k e t o p e r a t i o n ' has
i n c r e a s e d t h e c a s h - r a t i o of t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m . A n d it is e a s y
t o s e e t h a t if t h e c e n t r a l b a n k sells s e c u r i t i e s ( i n s t e a d of b u y i n g
(12
t h e m ) i t d e c r e a s e s t h e c a s h - r a t i o of t h e b a n k s a s a w h o l e . " >
H e n c e t h e C e n t r a l B a n k c a n c o n t r o l t h e l e n d i n g p o w e r s of t h e
p r i v a t e b a n k s a n d i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t of e x c h a n g e -

11
l ) The Modern Idolatry, being an Analysis of Usury, by Jeffrey
M a r k , p.p. 88-91. I r e l a n d is w i t h i n the financial orbit of the B a n k of
E n g l a n d . Prof. OTiahilly writes in Money (p. 230): " He [Mr.
C o l b e r t ] goes on to s a y : ' A c t u a l l y the B a n k of E n g l a n d has as much
control over the volume of b a n k i n g credit in this country [ I r e l a n d ] as
i t has over the w e a t h e r / I do not agree with this. Irish hanks follow
the lead of the B a n k of E n g l a n d as r e g a r d s the bank-rate, and this
influences our volume of c r e d i t . I t is also strongly affected by the
policy of deflation or e x p a n s i o n p u r s u e d by the B a n k of E n g l a n d , for
t h i s g r e a t l y changes the c o n d i t i o n s of a c t u a l a n d would-be borrowers in
E i r e a n d the willingness of our banks to give credit-facilities."
fi2; Money, by Professor O ' R a h i l l y , p. 93.
 430 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

m e d i u m in t h e c o u n t r y . T h e C e n t r a l B a n k is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e
m o v e m e n t s of g o l d , w h e n t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d is f u n c t i o n i n g . An
e x p o r t of g o l d f o r c e s t h e C e n t r a l B a n k t o r e d u c e t h e c r e d i t b a l
a n c e s of t h e p r i v a t e b a n k s .
T h e Rt. Hon. Reginald M c K e n n a w a s even m o r e explicit at
t h e m e e t i n g of t h e M i d l a n d B a n k in J a n u a r y , 1924, t h a n in 1927.
A t t h a t m e e t i n g h e s a i d : " I a m a f r a i d t h e o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n will
n o t like to be told that the b a n k s can, a n d do, create m o n e y . T h e
a m o u n t of m o n e y in e x i s t e n c e v a r i e s o n l y w i t h t h e a c t i o n of t h e
b a n k s in i n c r e a s i n g a n d d e c r e a s i n g d e p o s i t s a n d b a n k p u r c h a s e s .
E v e r y loan, overdraft, or bank p u r c h a s e creates a deposit, and
e v e r y r e p a y m e n t of a l o a n , o v e r d r a f t , o r b a n k s a l e d e s t r o y s a
d e p o s i t . A n d t h e y w h o c o n t r o l t h e c r e d i t of a n a t i o n , d i r e c t t h e
p o l i c y of G o v e r n m e n t s a n d h o l d i n t h e h o l l o w of t h e i r h a n d s t h e
d e s t i n y of t h e p e o p l e . " I n h i s 1927 s p e e c h , t h e s a m e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b a n k e r a n d f o r m e r C h a n c e l l o r of t h e E x c h e q u e r s a i d t h a t t h e t o t a l
of a v a i l a b l e b a n k c a s h o n w h i c h t h e q u a n t i t y of l o a n s o r d e p o s i t s
of p r i v a t e b a n k s d e p e n d e d , w a s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e B a n k of E n g
( i : n
land. T h u s w c can conclude that, according to this one-time
C h a n c e l l o r of t h e E x c h e q u e r , t h e G o v e r n o r of t h e B a n k of E n g
l a n d d i r e c t s t h e p o l i c y of t h e E n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t a n d p r a c t i c a l l y
h o l d s in h i s h a n d s t h e d e s t i n y of t h e E n g l i s h p e o p l e . W e s h a l l
h a v e m o r e to say about this point l a t e r on.

THE MEANING OF INFLATION AND DEFLATION.

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t by f a r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t , in f a c t all e x c e p t
( l e s s t h a n ) 2 p e r c e n t , of t h e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m in u s e i n G r e a t

U3> Professor O ' R a h i l l y , in Money, p p . 102-112, quotes a g r o a t num

ber of e x t r a c t s from ' o r t h o d o x ' b a n k e r s a n d economists, t h a t is, from
w r i t e r s in favour of the e x i s t i n g system of h a n k i n g , to show that the
b a n k s d o create exchange-medium. Of these, two may be cited as typical
of the others. T h e first is from the Hoport of the M a c m i l l a n Com
m i t t e e on F i n a n c e a n d I n d u s t r y , issued i n 1931; " I t is n o t u n n a t u r a l
to t h i n k of the deposits of a bank as being created by the public
t h r o u g h the d e p o s i t of cash, r e p r e s e n t i n g either savings ov a m o u n t s
which are not for the t i m e being r e q u i r e d t o meet e x p e n d i t u r e . B u t
the bulk of the deposits arise out of the action of the banks themselves;
for by g r a n t i n g loans, allowing money to be -drawn on o v e r d r a f t , or
p u r c h a s i n g securities, a b a n k creates a c r e d i t i n i t s hooka, which is the
e q u i v a l e n t of a d e p o s i t . "
T h e second is from the article on Banking and Credit in t h e JCnry-
eloihtedia Jiritanniva, by H. J. H a w t r e y , S e c r e t a r y t o the B r i t i s h
T r e a s u r y . He writes as follows: " When a h a n k lends by g r a n t i n g an
a d v a n c e or d i s c o u n t i n g a bill . . . . two d e b t s are c r e a t e d : the t r a d e r
who borrows a n d becomes i n d e h t e d t o t h e h a n k a t a f u t u r e d a t e , a n d
the b a n k which becomes i m m e d i a t e l y indebted t o the t r a d e r . T h e bank's
d e b t is a m e a n s of p a y m e n t ; i t is credit-money. I t is a clear a d d i t i o n to
the a m o u n t of m e a n s of p a y m e n t in the c o m m u n i t v . T h e b a n k does not
lend m o n e y . "
 GOLD STANDARD A N D ECONOMIC DECAY 431

B r i t a i n , c o m e s i n t o e x i s t e n c e a s a l o a n f r o m t h e h a n k s , in t h e
f o r m of p r o m i s e s - t o - p a y . W e m a y s a y , t h e n , t h a t t h e e x c h a n g e -
m e d i u m of t h a t c o u n t r y is p r a c t i c a l l y c r e a t e d by t h e b a n k s a n d
t h a t t h e r a t e of its c r e a t i o n is r e g u l a t e d by t h e p r i v a t e c o r p o r a
t i o n c a l l e d t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . " " I n s t e a d of l e n d i n g n o t e s , t h e
b a n k s , in effect, n o w l e n d c h e q u e - b o o k s a n d the r i g h t t o d r a w
c h e q u e s up to limited s u m s b e y o n d w h a t the b o r r o w e r possesses.
F o r n e a r l y a c e n t u r y , u n t i l t h e r e v e l a t i o n s of t h e W a r m a d e it
impossible to conceal t h e t r u t h from the general public, the
b a n k e r s s t o u t l y d e n i e d t h a t t h e y w e r e c r e a t i n g m o n e y at all, a n d
claimed t h a t they w e r e m e r e l y lending the deposits their clients
w e r e n o t u s i n g . T h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e B a n k of M o n t r e a l n o t a
y e a r a g o c o n t i n u e d t o r e p e a t t h i s , b u t , n e a r e r t h e c e n t r e of t h i n g s ,
all t h i s w a s k n o w n a n d a d m i t t e d b y t h e o r t h o d o x a p o l o g i s t s for
this m o n s t r o u s s y s t e m e v e n b e f o r e t h e W a r , u s u a l l y by s o m e s u c h
l y i n g p h r a s e a s ' L v e r y l o a n m a k e s a d e p o s i t . ' A l o a n , if it is a
1 4 1
genuine l o a n / d o e s not m a k e a d e p o s i t , b e c a u s e w h a t t h e b o r
r o w e r g e t s , t h e l e n d e r g i v e s u p , a n d t h e r e is no i n c r e a s e in t h e
q u a n t i t y of m o n e y , b u t o n l y an a l t e r a t i o n in t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e
i n d i v i d u a l o w n e r s of it. H u t if t h e l e n d e r g i v e s u p n o t h i n g at all,
w h a t t h e b o r r o w e r r e c e i v e s is a n e w i s s u e of m o n e y a n d t h e
q u a n t i t y is p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y i n c r e a s e d . S o e l a b o r a t e l y h a s t h e r e a l
n a t u r e of t h i s r i d i c u l o u s p r o c e e d i n g b e e n s u r r o u n d e d w i t h c o n
f u s i o n b y s o m e of t h e c l e v e r e s t a n d m o s t skilful a d v o c a t e s i h e
w o r l d h a s e v e r k n o w n , t h a t it still is s o m e t h i n g of a m y s t e r y t o
o r d i n a r y people, who hold their heads and confess they are ' unable
15
to u n d e r s t a n d finance.' It is n o t i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d . " * )
L e t u s n o w e x a m i n e t h e a l t e r n a t e p e r i o d s of b o o m a n d d e p r e s s
ion k n o w n a s t h e T r a d e C y c l e o r C r e d i t C y c l e . D u r i n g t h e o p e n i n g
s t a g e , m o n e y is i n c r e a s e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t m o r e b a n k l o a n s a r e
m a d e t h a n a r c r e p a i d . T h i s c a u s e s a rise in p r i c e s a n d a c o r r e s
p o n d i n g d i m i n u t i o n in p u r c h a s i n g - p o w e r in t h e m o n e y a l r e a d y in
t h e h a n d s of p e o p l e . T h i s h a p p e n s , b e c a u s e t h e a m o u n t of e x
c h a n g e - m e d i u m is i n c r e a s e d b e f o r e g o o d s a r e r e a d y to -be e x
c h a n g e d , in c o n s e q u e n c e of i t s b e i n g left to p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s ,
f r e q u e n t l y m e r e s p e c u l a t o r s , t o d e c i d e h o w m u c h m o n e y shall g o
i n t o c i r c u l a t i o n . T h e i r a i m , of c o u r s e , is n o t to k e e p t h e p r i c e
level s t a b l e , w h i l e e n a b l i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e c o u n
t r y t o be d e v e l o p e d , b u t t o m a k e profit for t h e m s e l v e s . During
t h e first s t a g e , e m p l o y m e n t i n c r e a s e s , p r o d u c e r s a n d t r a d e r s t a k e
loans. T h e r e is an i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d for g o o d s . Prices
c o n t i n u e to rise till p u r c h a s e r s , w h o s e s a l a r i e s a n d i n c o m e s
h a v e n o t r i s e n in p r o p o r t i o n , b e g i n to b u y a b r o a d . This
t h e y c a n d o b y s h i p p i n g g o l d i n s t e a d of g o o d s , for t h e p r i c e of

U4) A loan of genuine, a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g money.

(15) The Bole of Money, by Prof. Soddy, p. 62 (1934).
432 TIIK M I S T I C A L UODY OF CHRIST
16
g o l d is fixed a n d so h a s n o t r i s e n . * ) B u t t h e m o m e n t g o l d b e g i n s
t o l e a v e t h e c o u n t r y , t h e b a n k e r s f e a r for t h e i r s o l v e n c y , s o t h e y
d o not r e n e w t h e i r l o a n s w h e n the}- a r e r e p a i d . M o n e y is t h u s
w i t h d r a w n f r o m c i r c u l a t i o n a n d t h e s e c o n d s t a g e of f a l l i n g p r i c e s
begins.
T h e l o a n s , c o n t r a c t e d w h e n p r i c e s w e r e r i s i n g , h a v e n o w to be
paid b a c k w h e n p r i c e s a r e f a l l i n g b o r r o w e r s h a v e t o sell far m o r e
g o o d s in o r d e r to o b t a i n t h e s a m e q u a n t i t y of m o n e y t o p a y the
b a n k s s o a n u m b e r of t r a d e r s g o b a n k r u p t . T h e i r s e c u r i t i e s a r e
sold up by t h e b a n k s o r held u n t i l l a t e r , w h e n a n o t h e r b o o m will
e n a b l e t h e m to be d i s p o s e d of a d v a n t a g e o u s l v . T h e s p e c u l a t o r s sell
w h e n p r i c e s a r e still h i g h , t h a t is, if t h e y a r c " i n t h e k n o w , " and
t h e n w a i t b e f o r e b u y i n g a g a i n till p r i c e s h a v e fallen t o t h e l o w e s t
l e v e l , w h e n a p e r i o d of d e p r e s s i o n s e t s in a n d c o n t i n u e s till the
C e n t r a l H a n k , t h e H a n k of E n g l a n d , g i v e s t h e s i g n a l f o r a n e w
s e r i e s of l o a n s b y b u y i n g s e c u r i t i e s . T h a t a c t i o n g i v e s t h e s e l l e r ' s
b a n k a c r e d i t b a l a n c e at t h e H a n k of K n g l a n d . T h u s t h a t b a n k ,
h a v i n g m o r e " c a s h " at the C e n t r a l H a n k , can c r e a t e m o r e l e d g e r -
fl7
m o n e y . > A n e w C r e d i t Cycle b e g i n s a n d f o l l o w s t h e s a m e dis
a s t r o u s c o u r s e a s t h e f o r m e r . T h e r i s e of p r i c e s in t h e first s t a g e
s w i n d l e s all c r e d i t o r s for t h e b e n e f i t of d e b t o r s . T h e fall of p r i c e s
i n t h e s e c o n d s w i n d l e s all d e b t o r s for t h e benefit of c r e d i t o r s .
O r d i n a r y p e o p l e h a v e a difficulty in f o l l o w i n g all t h i s , b e c a u s e
t h e y a l w a y s t h i n k of t h e b a n k e r s a s l e n d i n g m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e -
m e d i u m t h a t h a s an e x i s t e n c e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e b a n k e r s ' flat.
" W h a t is n o t g e n e r a l l y r e a l i z e d a b o u t t h e * C r e d i t C y c l e ' is t h a t
t h e b a n k e r s a r e m a k i n g p r o f i t s b o t h w a y s , by c o m p e l l i n g b u y e r s
t o p a y t h e m t r i b u t e d u r i n g the b o o m s and by c o m p e l l i n g sellers
t o p a y t h e m t r i b u t e d u r i n g t h e s l u m p s a n d all t h i s b y m e a n s of
18
l o a n s of p r o m i s c s - t o - p a y w h a t n o n e of t h e m p o s s e s s e d m o n e y . " * )
O r d i n a r y p e o p l e s e e m t o h a v e a c c e p t e d , a s t h e y a r e m e a n t t o do,
11 1
Ofi) 7 i . quanf.jly of money in existence was kept in the -perpetual
u

s t a t e of ebb a n d flow, known as the T r a d e Cycle, by m a k i n g i t convert

(
ible with gold. The d e t a i l s of this beautifully working a u t o m a t i c
r e g u l a t i o n ' form the stock-in-trade of all pre-war c o n v e n t i o n a l money-
w r i t e r s and need not -detain us. The q u a n t i t y of money was regulated
by m e a n s of the gold s t a n d a r d . The l a t t e r m e a n t t h a t the v a l u e of the
money u n i t in a large number of c o u n t r i e s was kepi equal to t h a t of
a c e r t a i n weight of gold by m a k i n g the money, in theory, always ex
changeable with gold. Tn 'practice, i t m e a n t the g r o w t h ' o f a number
of new devilries h a v i n g for t h e i r object the f r u s t r a t i o n of every
a t t e m p t to exchange, it for gold, so soon as t h a t exchange began to
occur*' (The Poft^ of Monty, Sod<I\, p. (>5). There was only enough
gold for a mere fraction of the claims for gold b r o u g h t i n t o existence
by (he cheque-hook system, so hiss of gold meant a d a n g e r of insolvency.
07) Of The Principal Cause of Unemployment, bv D. W. Maxwell,
p . 54. "
M8> Promise to Pay, by R. M c N a i r Wilson, p . 3 2 (George "Routledge
& Sons, Ltd.).
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 433

the e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t all t h e s e c y c l e s a r e t h e w o r k i n g of a l a w o f
n a t u r e . T h e y will d o w e l l t o r e a d t h e i n t e r e s t i n g s p e e c h e s p u t
i n t o t h e m o u t h s of b a n k e r s a n d o t h e r s b y M i s s G. M . C o o g a n in
Money Creators ( p . 28) a n d R. M c N a i r W i l s o n in Promise to Pay.
A c c o r d i n g to Miss C o o g a n , the s t r o n g - r o o m keeper, speaking
at a m e e t i n g s u m m o n e d t o i n q u i r e i n t o t h e c a u s e s of d e p r e s s i o n ,
" i n a v e r y s a d v o i c e t o l d t h e c o m m i t t e e t h a t he r e g r e t t e d m o r e
t h a n a n y o n e in t h e c o m m u n i t y t h a t t h e l a w s of e c o n o m i c s w e r e
so r i g i d a n d did p l a c e s u c h b u r d e n s o n m a n k i n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y u p o n
the w e a k e r m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t y . I t m a d e h i m v e r y s a d
to s e e u n d e r - n o u r i s h e d a n d p o o r l y - c l a d c h i l d r e n . . . . but man
did n o t m a k e t h e l a w s of e c o n o m i c s a n d he, a s a g u a r d i a n of t h e
c o m m u n i t y ' s m o n e y , could d o n o t h i n g else b u t recognise those
b i t t e r l a w s . T h e r e w a s s i m p l y n o s o l u t i o n for t h e p r o b l e m e x c e p t
e c o n o m y . . . . B u t t h e c o m m u n i t y w o u l d h a v e to face its p r o b l e m
courageously and they would simply have to economize m o r e
until all t h e d e b t s f o o l i s h l y c o n t r a c t e d h a d b e e n w i p e d o u t , t h a t is,
until t h e people either paid w h a t t h e y o w e d or s u r r e n d e r e d their
p r o p e r t y . T h a t w a s the only s o u n d solution. T h e y certainly had
19)
no d e s i r e t o v i o l a t e t h e l a w s of e c o n o m i c s . " <
A c c o r d i n g t o R. M c N a i r W i l s o n , t h e b a n k e r w a x e s m o r e l y r i c a l
a b o u t t h e l a w s of n a t u r e : " T h i s m o v e m e n t of p r i c e s u p a n d d o w n , "
he d e c l a r e d , " is i n h e r e n t in h u m a n n a t u r e . I t b e l o n g s , t o o , t o t h e
n a t u r e of t h i n g s as w e l l a s t o t h e n a t u r e of m e n . L o o k a t t h e
s e a s o n s . O u t of W i n t e r d a r k n e s s e m e r g e s t h e s u n l i g h t of S p r i n g .
. . . B u t all t o o s o o n t h e d a y s b e g i n t o d r a w in. . . . N e v e r f o r
g e t t h a t a b a n k e r ' s first d u t y is t o w a r d s his c l i e n t s , t h e h o n e s t
a n d f r u g a l f o l k w h o h a v e e n t r u s t e d t o h i m t h e s a v i n g s of t h e i r
l i f e t i m e . . . . W o u l d y o u h a v e h i m m a k e u s e of y o u r s a v i n g s t o
a t t e m p t t o c h a n g e t h e l a w s of n a t u r e , t o t r y t o s o w in t h e t i m e
of r e a p i n g ? I t is c o n f i d e n c e w h i c h b e g i n s a b o o m , m y f r i e n d s ,
a n d it is l a c k of c o n f i d e n c e w h i c h b r i n g s it t o a n e n d . T h e r e is
no financial c o n j u r i n g t r i c k , b e l i e v e m e , w h i c h c a n c h a n g e b y a n
i o t a t h a t l a w of n a t u r e , t h a t e c o n o m i c l a w , t h a t i n e x o r a b l e e c o n o
,,f20
mic l a w . >

SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF

PLANNED DEFLATIONS.
T h e first e x a m p l e will b e t a k e n f r o m t h e m o n e t a r y h i s t o r y o f
the U . S . A . a s o u t l i n e d b y M i s s C o o g a n in h e r s p l e n d i d b o o k ,
Money Creators. S h e w r i t e s as f o l l o w s : " J u s t o n e w e e k a f t e r
President Cleveland w a s inaugurated, the ' P a n i c C i r c u l a r ' w a s
i s s u e d , M a r c h 12, 1893. I t a p p e a l e d t o t h e b o n d h o l d i n g c l a s s e s t o
* a d v o c a t e a n e x t r a s e s s i o n of C o n g r e s s for t h e r e p e a l , u n c o n d i
t i o n a l l y , of t h e S h e r m a n S i l v e r L a w / I t w a s i s s u e d d i r e c t l y f r o m
(19) Op. cit., p. 28.
(20) Op. cit., p. 33.
GO
 434 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t h e A m e r i c a n B a n k e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n a n d a d d r e s s e d t o all ' N a t i o n a l

B a n k s ' throughout the U.S.A." Miss Coogan then continues:
" T h e f o l l o w i n g is a d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n f r o m a R e s o l u t i o n i n t r o
d u c e d t o t h e 6 3 r d C o n g r e s s , F i r s t S e s s i o n , April 29, 1913, by
H o n . C h a r l e s A. L i n d b e r g h , S e n . , :
" ' Tn e i g h t e e n h u n d r e d a n d n i n e t y - t h r e e a c i r c u l a r w a s sent
o u t b y t h e A m e r i c a n I J a n k e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , an o r g a n i z a t i o n in
which m o s t b a n k e r s hold m e m b e r s h i p . 11 is k n o w n a s t h e ' P a n i c
C i r c u l a r of e i g h t e e n h u n d r e d a n d n i n e t y - t h r e e / b e a r s d a t e M a r c h
e l e v e n t h , e i g h t e e n h u n d r e d a n d n i n e t y - t h r e e , and w a s mailed to
t h e N a t i o n a l b a n k s . It r e a d a s f o l l o w s :
t(
' D e a r Sir,The interests of n a t i o n a l banks require immediate
financial legislation by Congress. Silver, silver certificates, and
T r e a s u r y notes must be r e t i r e d , a n d N a t i o n a l B a n k notes u p o n a gold
basis (the p h r a s e 'gold basis'' always means- a d e b t basis) made the
only money. This will require, the a u t h o r i z a t i o n of 500,000,000 dol
l a r s to 1,000,000,000 d o l l a r s of new bonds (debts) as the basis of
c i r c u l a t i o n . Yon will at over retire one-third of your circulation
(your paper money) and call in one-half of your loans. lie careful
to mafke a monetary st ringe.ncy oniony yottr patrons, especially among
influential hum'ne<x nun. Advocate an extra- session of Congress to
repeal ilie p u r c h a s i n g clause of the S h e r m a n Law, and act with other
banks of y o u r city in securing a large petition to Congress for its
u n c o n d i t i o n a l repeal per a c c o m p a n y i n g form. Use personal influence
-
with y o u r Congressmen and p a r t i c u l a r l y let you) wishes be known to
y o u r S e n a t o r s . The, f u t u r e life of n a t i o n a l banks, as fixed a n d safe
investments, -depends u p o n i m m e d i a t e action, as there is an increasing
sentiment in favour of g o v e r n m e n t legal-tender notes a n d silver
coinage.' (21)

" It w a s a n u n d i s p u t e d fact t h a t s i l v e r , s i l v e r c e r t i f i c a t e s , and

U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t l e g a l t e n d e r c u r r e n c y h a d p r o v e n very
d e s i r a b l e a s m o n e y s i n c e LS/S. In t h e s u m m e r of 1893 t h e A m e r i c a n
C o n g r e s s c o n v e n e d in e x t r a s e s s i o n for t h e v e r y p u r p o s e of viol
a t i n g t h e c o n f i d e n c e a n d t h e will of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Everyone
k n o w s that the result was a n o t h e r severe depression.
" T h e f o l l o w i n g is an e x c e r p t f r o m a c o n f i d e n t i a l b a n k e r s ' cir
c u l a r i s s u e d t w o y e a r s p r i o r to t h e P a n i c C i r c u l a r of 1 8 9 3 :
(21) 'The phrases in brackets in the, letter are, comments inserted by
Mr. L i n d b e r g h . Mr. Jeffrey M a r k quotes the letter in full in his book,
The Modern Idolatry, p p . 240-241, and a d d s t h a t Mr. A r t h u r Kitson,
who was still alive at the. time Mr. M a r k ' s book was w r i t t e n (1934),
h a d personally assured him t h a t the letter was still in his (Kitson's)
possession.
I n his evidence before the M a c m i l l a n Committee on F i n a n c e and
I n d u s t r y , a t London, May 15, 1030, Mr. K i t s o n said t h a t " w i t h i n a
few weeks of the issue of this letter, we. fin U . S . A . ] h a d the most
t e r r i b l e panic, t h a t had been known u p to that- d a t e , a n d several mil
lions of people were thrown o u t of e m p l o y m e n t . T h o u s a n d s of mer
c h a n t s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s were m a d e b a n k r u p t , and we h a d a period
of i n d u s t r i a l depression far worse t h a n we are h a v i n g here [in
England] now."
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 435

" 'We a u t h o r i s e o u r loan a g e n t s i n the States to loan o u r funds

on r e a l e s t a t e t o f a l l d u e o n S e p t . 1st, 1894, a n d a t n o t i m e t h e r e
after. On Sept, 1st, 1894, we will n o t renew our loans u n d e r any con
s i d e r a t i o n . On Sept. 1st we will d e m a n d our money. We will foreclose
a n d become mortgagees i n possession. We can take two-thirds of the
f a r m s west of the M i s s i s s i p p i , a n d t h o u s a n d s of them east of t h e
g r e a t M i s s i s s i p p i as well, a t o u r own price . . . . We may as well
own t h r e e - f o u r t h s of t h e f a r m s of t h e W e s t a n d t h e money of t h e
c o u n t r y . Then the f a r m e r s will become t e n a n t s as in E n g l a n d . . .

" A f t e r t h e b a t t l e o v e r t h e d i s h o n e s t d e m o n e t i z a t i o n of s i l v e r
in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d s u b s i d e d , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n n i v e r s s u c
ceeded in p a s s i n g t h e s o - c a l l e d G o l d S t a n d a r d Bill. T h i s bill w a s
a p p r o v e d o n M a r c h 14, 1900. . . .
" U n d e r t h e t e r m s of t h i s bill, u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n fact, C o n
g r e s s s u p p o s e d l y g a v e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s T r e a s u r y itself a n d t o
private individuals, the r i g h t to m a k e gold dollar contracts calling
for t h e p a y m e n t nf d o l l a r s a t f u t u r e d a t e s , e a c h d o l l a r of w h i c h
w a s c o n v e r t i b l e i n t o 25.8 g r a i n s of g o l d .9 fine. T h e falsifiers
s t a t e d t h a t a d o l l a r c o n s i s t i n g of 25.8 g r a i n s of g o l d .9 fine w a s
h e n c e f o r t h t h e s t a n d a r d of v a l u e . T h u s r e c e n t l y w a s b o r n o u r
g o o d o l d traditional g o l d s t a n d a r d .
" U n d e r t h e b a n k i n g l a w s , a n y p r i v a t e individual could b r i n g
gold i n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , o r t a k e g o l d o u t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
and h e n c e , a t h i s p l e a s u r e , c h a n g e t h e v o l u m e of g o l d w i t h i n t h i s
country. E a c h gold dollar could also be used as a so-called base
u p o n w h i c h t o b u i l d a p y r a m i d of m a n y b a n k - m a n u f a c t u r e d d o l l a r s .
By m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e v o l u m e of b a n k - m a n u f a c t u r e d d o l l a r s , t h e
a c t u a l p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of e v e r y d o l l a r in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d
22
be a l t e r e d a t t h e p l e a s u r e of a f e w i n d i v i d u a l s . " * *
T h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e " e c o n o m i c l a w "
of a l t e r n a t e b o o m a n d d e p r e s s i o n will b e t a k e n f r o m t h e r e c e n t
m o n e t a r y h i s t o r y of G r e a t B r i t a i n . I n r e g a r d t o t h i s e x a m p l e w e
are p a r t i c u l a r l y f a v o u r e d , f o r e i g h t y e a r s b e f o r e t h e " c o u p " t o o k
place, M r . A r t h u r K i t s o n f o r e t o l d t h a t i t w a s b e i n g p r e p a r e d . I n
his b o o k , A Fraudulent Standard, p u b l i s h e d b y K i n g & S o n , in
1917, w e r e a d :
" J u s t n o w a f e w of t h e g r e a t financiers a r e c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e
1 9
most gigantic d e a l t h a t has probably ever been conceived, and
o n e w h i c h if p e r p e t r a t e d b y a n y o t h e r c l a s s of t h e c o m m u n i t y ,
even o n a v e r y m u c h s m a l l e r s c a l e , w o u l d b e d e n o u n c e d a s b a r e
faced r o b b e r y . . . . T h i s d e a l is n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n d o u b l i n g t h e
n a t i o n a l , a n d i n c i d e n t a l l y all o t h e r , d e b t s , b y d o u b l i n g t h e p r e s e n t
v a l u e of o u r m o n e t a r y u n i t s . T h e o b j e c t of t h i s is t o d o u b l e t h e
v a l u e of t h e i r W a r L o a n i n v e s t m e n t s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e t e r r i b l y
d i s a s t r o u s industrial a n d social r e s u l t s w h i c h m u s t ensue. This
r o b b e r y w i l l b e a c c o m p l i s h e d , if it is n o t c h e c k e d in t i m e b y p u b l i c
(22) Money Creators, p p . 230-233
436 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRTST

s e n t i m e n t , in a p e r f e c t l y l e g a l m a n n e r b y a c o m p l a c e n t C h a n c e l l o r
u n d e r t h e g u i s e of a m e a s u r e f o r t h e p u b l i c w e l f a r e , f o r t h e sole
p u r p o s e of r e m o v i n g ' i n f l a t i o n ' a n d r e d u c i n g p r i c e s w h i c h have
r i s e n m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e v e r y c u r r e n c y and
c r e d i t c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e W a r L o a n s . T h e m e a s u r e will a i m at re
s t o r i n g w h a t m o n e y - d e a l e r s t e r m o u r ' g o o d , s o u n d , h o n e s t gold
c u r r e n c y / ' b y d e s t r o y i n g t h e T r e a s u r y n o t e s a n d r e d u c i n g hank
credit to the p r e - w a r proportions. T h e effect will n a t u r a l l y he
t o d o u b l e t h e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of t h e p o u n d at t h e e x p e n s e of
every wage earner, producer, merchant, manufacturer, tradesman,
a n d t a x p a y e r in t h e c o u n t r y . . . . N o m i n a l l y , of c o u r s e , the
a m o u n t of t h e W a r D e b t will u n d e r g o n o c h a n g e . T h e f i g u r e s will
r e m a i n t h e s a m e . . . . By a l t e r i n g t h e v a l u e of t h e p o u n d , which
is e a s i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d , t h e t r i c k is d o n e a n d t h e d e b t , a l t h o u g h
n o m i n a l l y 6,000,000,000, b e c o m e s in r e a l i t y 12,000,000,000, in
t e r m s of t h e p r e s e n t p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of m o n e y , c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o t h a t of t h e m o n e y a c t u a l l y l o a n e d ! S i m i l a r l y , a l t h o u g h the
n o m i n a l r a t e of i n t e r e s t is 5 p e r c e n t . , b y this m e t h o d of t a m p e r i n g
w i t h t h e v a l u e of t h e p o u n d , t h e s e i n v e s t o r s will a c t u a l l y receive
10 p e r c e n t , o n t h e i r o r i g i n a l i n v e s t m e n t . . . . T h i s will mean
t h a t e v e r y t a x p a y e r will h a v e to g i v e at l e a s t t w i c e t h e a m o u n t
of his g o o d s a n d l a b o u r to m e e t h i s t a x e s , t h a n t h a t w h i c h h e has
had to furnish u n d e r p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s .
I n The Bankers" Cons-piracy, w r i t t e n by t h e s a m e a u t h o r and
p u b l i s h e d b y E l l i o t S t o c k in 1933, in t h e s e c t i o n d e v o t e d to the
c r i t i c i s m of t h e R e p o r t of t h e Cunlifl'e C o m m i t t e e on C u r r e n c v
11
a n d f o r e i g n E x c h a n g e s of 1918, w e r e a d : In a d v i s i n g t h e r e s t o r
a t i o n of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d t h e y ( t h e CunlirTc C o m m i t t e e ] are
a d v i s i n g t h e G o v e r n m e n t t o i n c r e a s e t h e N a t i o n a l D e b t a n d so
a d d t o t h e b u r d e n s of t a x a t i o n w h i c h t h e British p u b l i c will have
to bear. At present our National Debt approximates
8,000,000,000! B u t w h a t a r e t h e s e p o u n d s a n d w i t h w h a t w e r e
t h e y s u b s c r i b e d ? T h e C o m m i t t e e m u s t k n o w that the W a r Loans
w e r e s u b s c r i b e d in ' c h e a p ' p o u n d s , a p p r o x i m a t i n g in v a l u e to only
o n e - h a l f of t h e p r e - W a r p o u n d s . H e n c e o u r w a r - d e b t , e x p r e s s e d
in p r e - W a r p o u n d s , w o u l d be l e s s t h a n 4,000,000,000! B y r e s t o r
i n g t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d , t h e p u b l i c d e b t w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be doubled
x
a n d b e c o m e 8,000,000,000 at pre-war eahn> Tlcnce every tax
p a y e r w o u l d b e c o m p e l l e d to p a y at least t w i c e t h e a m o u n t of
t a x e s in h i s o w n p r o d u c t s a n d s e r v i c e s by r e a s o n of t h e C o m m i t
t e e ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . V e r y n i c e for t h e b i g m o n e y - l e n d e r s and
w a r loan s u b s c r i b e r s , but r a t h e r h a r d on t h e w e a l t h p r o d u c e r s and
taxpayers !
" W h e n t h e A m e r i c a n G r e e n b a c k P a r t y o n c e p r o p o s e d to pay
off t h e A m e r i c a n N a t i o n a l D e b t in p a p e r m o n e y , a c r y of h o r r o r

Op. cit., p p . 2-5

 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 437

w e n t u p f r o m all t h e m o n e y - d e a l e r s a n d b a n k e r s a t t h e s h o c k
i n g l y i m m o r a l c r i m e c o n t e m p l a t e d of p a y i n g t h e p u b l i c d e b t in a
depreciated c u r r e n c y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the fact that a l a r g e p r o
p o r t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n N a t i o n a l D e b t h a d a r i s e n f r o m l o a n s m a d e
with t h e s e l f - s a m e c h e a p p a p e r m o n e y . R u t t h e s e s a m e g e n t l e m e n
later m a n a g e d t o s n e a k a bill t h r o u g h C o n g r e s s w h i c h c o m p e l l e d
the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e t o r e p a y t h e i r W a r d e b t in a n appreciated
c u r r e n c y w o r t h t h r e e t i m e s t h a t in w h i c h m o s t of t h e d e b t w a s
c o n t r a c t e d ! T h e m o n e y - l e n d e r s ' c o d e of m o r a l s w h i c h t h e C o m
m i t t e e a p p a r e n t l y e n d o r s e i s , t h a t w h i l s t it is v e r y w i c k e d f o r
d e b t o r s t o d e f r a u d t h e i r c r e d i t o r s , c r e d i t o r s a r e q u i t e j u s t i f i e d in
r o b b i n g t h e i r d e b t o r s . T h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e m o r a l b a s i s of t h e
Gold S t a n d a r d . "
I n t h e b o d y of t h e s a m e w o r k , p a g e s 25-27, M r . K i t s o n t o u c h e s
.briefly u p o n t h e r e s u l t s of t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e g o l d s t a n d
ard, f o r e t o l d b y h i m in 1917. " T h i s d o c u m e n t [ T h e Cunliffe C u r
r e n c y C o m m i t t e e ' s R e p o r t ] , " h e w r i t e s , " a d v i s e d t h e a d o p t i o n of
certain m o n e t a r y policies w h i c h w e r e accepted b y the Coalition
G o v e r n m e n t of M r . L l o y d G e o r g e i n 1920, u n d e r t h e c h a n c e l l o r
s h i p of M r . ( n o w S i r ) A u s t e n C h a m b e r l a i n , a n d is d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s
ible f o r t h e m o s t d i s a s t r o u s p e r i o d i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y of t h i s
c o u n t r y . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e r u i n o u s r e s u l t s of t h e d e f l a t i o n a r y
policy r e c o m m e n d e d in t h i s r e p o r t d u r i n g t h e y e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y
following its adoption, M r . W i n s t o n Churchill intensified these
evils b y e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d in 1925, w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e d
t h e g r e a t s t r i k e of 1926. . . . T h e g o l d s t a n d a r d , r e - e s t a b l i s h e d
in 1925, a f t e r i n f l i c t i n g u n t o l d l o s s e s u p o n o u r i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s e s
and t a x p a y e r s , h a d to be a b a n d o n e d six y e a r s l a t e r to save t h e
c o u n t r y from ruin. T h e s a m e policies as those r e c o m m e n d e d b y
t h e C o m m i t t e e , h a v e a l s o b e e n t r i e d in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s s i n c e t h e
W a r and with similarly ruinous r e s u l t s ; hence the present W o r l d
C r i s i s ! B y t h e u n i v e r s a l a d o p t i o n of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d a f t e r i t s
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n b y t h e Cunliffe C o m m i t t e e , w h i c h w a s o n e of t h e
m a i n p o l i c i e s a d v o c a t e d b y t h e L e a g u e of N a t i o n s , a n i r r e s p o n s
ible s u p e r - G o v e r n m e n t w a s c r e a t e d , c o m p o s e d of" a g r o u p o f
I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a n k e r s . It r e q u i r e d only a few y e a r s to prove the
u t t e r i n c a p a c i t y of t h e s e m e n t o m a n a g e t h e w o r l d ' s financial
affairs, a n d if t h e p e o p l e of all civilized c o u n t r i e s a r e n o t y e t c o n
v i n c e d of t h e t e r r i b l e d a n g e r s a t t e n d i n g t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e
b a n k i n g i n t e r e s t s , t h e r e will b e a r e p e t i t i o n of t h e e c o n o m i c d i s
a s t e r s of t h e p a s t f e w y e a r s b u t of a m u c h m o r e i n t e n s i v e
character."
I n h i s p a m p h l e t , Finance in the Melting Pot ( S t a n l e y N o t t ,
L t d . ) , M r . V i n c e n t C. V i c k e r s , f o r m e r d i r e c t o r of t h e B a n k of
E n g l a n d , o u t l i n e s t h e s a m e s t o r y in v e r y t e l l i n g f a s h i o n . " W e
h a v e t o r e m e m b e r , " h e w r i t e s , " t h a t t h e v a l u e t h a t is t o s a y , t h e
p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r o f m o n e y , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e p r i c e of
 438 T H E MYSTICAL B O D Y .OF CHRIST

goods, can be and h a s been v a r i e d intentionally a n d deliberately,

n o t by t h e will o r a c t i o n of t h e S t a t e , b u t b y t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who
t h e m s e l v e s m a n a g e a n d c o n t r o l t h e m o n e y t h o u g h t h e y con
s t a n t l y a v e r t h a t t h e y a c t for, a n d o n b e h a l f of, t h e c o m m u n i t y .
W c r e t u r n e d to t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d in 1925 for t h e b e n e f i t of the
C i t y of L o n d o n , a n d s o r u i n e d o u r b a s i c i n d u s t r i e s . It d o e s not
f o l l o w t h a t w h a t is b e s t f o r t h e C i t y of L o n d o n is b e s t for the
country. In c o n s e q u e n c e of p a s t p o l i c y , a f a r m e r w h o b o r r o w e d
f r o m h i s H a n k , s a y , in 1920, t h e m o n e y - e q u i v a l e n t of 100 s a c k s of
w h e a t , m i g h t be o b l i g e d t o sell 200 s a c k s of w h e a t a f e w y e a r s
a f t e r w a r d s in o r d e r t o r e p a y t h a t s a m e l o a n , s i m p l y b e c a u s e a
pound b e c a m e twice as valuable."
T h e e v i d e n c e of M r . M o n t a g u X o r m a n b e f o r e t h e M a c m i l l a n
C o m m i t t e e in 1930 is v e r y e v a s i v e a n d e v e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y in its
e v a s i v e n e s s , y e t t h e r e a r e s o m e i l l u m i n a t i n g a d m i s s i o n s w i t h re
g a r d t o t h e p l a n n i n g of d e f l a t i o n s . H e r e a r e s o m e e x t r a c t s as
g i v e n in M r . J o h n l l a r g r a v e ' s b o o k , Professor Skinner alias Mon
tagu Norman, p p . 150-161, w i t h s o m e of M r . l l a r g r a v e ' s c o m m e n t s :
" Lord Macmillan (the Chairman) put a very awkward question:
' I t is, of c o u r s e , t h e c a s e t h a t t h e v o l u m e of c r e d i t in t h e c o u n t r y
is, t o a v e r y l a r g e e x t e n t , in y o u r h a n d s , is it n o t ? '
Mr. Norman'Yes, 1 t h i n k it i s ! . . .
Chairman'And a g a i n , s p e a k i n g in t h e b r o a d e s t t e r m s , is it y o u r
v i e w t h a t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h a t i n t e r n a l r e s t r i c t i o n of credit,
u n f o r t u n a t e a s t h e y m a y a p p e a r t o b e , a r e o u t w e i g h e d b y the
a d v a n t a g e s of t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n ? '
Mr. Norman'Yes, t h e r e is v e r y l a r g e b e n e f i t . '
" T h a t is t o s a y : ' T h e r e is v e r y l a r g e b e n e f i t ' t o B r i t i s h in
d u s t r y i n h a v i n g t o suffer t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of i n t e r n a l re
s t r i c t i o n s of c r e d i t , ' u n f o r t u n a t e a s t h e y m a y a p p e a r t o b e . ' And
t h a t is n o t n o n s e n s e ? It is s h e e r n o n s e n s e , f o l l o w i n g logically
f r o m t h e b a s i c p h i l o s o p h y of P o v e r t y - i s - g o o d - f o r - y o u . I t is dan
g e r o u s n o n s e n s e , b e c a u s e it l e a d s i n e v i t a b l y t o w a r
M r , R. McKenna'You h a v e r e s t r i c t e d t h e q u a n t i t y of c r e d i t by
s e l l i n g s e c u r i t i e s o n b a l a n c e in t h e first t w o m o n t h s of this
year. . . . Is t h a t so? '
Mr. Norman'I am not sure.'
Mr. McKenna'You do n o t r e m e m b e r if y o u r e s t r i c t e d c r e d i t ? '
(
Mr. Norman I am not a w a r e that credit was restricted.'
Mr. McKenna' 1 h a v e t h e f i g u r e s . . . . B e t w e e n F e b r u a r y of last
y e a r a n d F e b r u a r y of this y e a r v o u sold m a n y m i l l i o n s of securi
M
ties?'< >
(24) B u t the B a n k [of E n g l a n d ] also holds at c o m m a n d the power
d i r e c t l y t o increase or decrease the a m o u n t of p u r c h a s i n g media in
the country by open m a r k e t o p e r a t i o n s . If the B a n k purchases securi
ties in the m a r k e t the transaction is settled by c r e d i t i n g the drawing
account of the broker or other p a r t y t h r o u g h whom they a r e purchased.
 GOLD STANDARD A N D ECONOMIC DECAY 439

Mr. Norman* O h , y e s /
Mr. McKenna' And y o u reduced credit?'
Mr. Norman'Yes/
" Y e t a m o m e n t before he said: ' I a m not aware that credit
was restricted/ . . . .
Mr. Keynes If t h e a m o u n t of a s s e t s h e l d b y t h e B a n k of E n g
l a n d w e r e r e d u c e d b y 5,000,000, b y h o w m u c h w o u l d t h a t r e d u c e
bank credit throughout the c o u n t r y ? '
Mr. Norman* I t h i n k y o u r n e i g h b o u r w o u l d tell y o u t h a t b e s t /
. . . T h e neighbour w a s Mr. McKenna.
Mr. McKenna A b o u t 5 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 t e n t i m e s t h e a m o u n t ? '
Mr. Norman' I d o n o t k n o w t h a t t h a t is n e c e s s a r i l y s o /

Mr, Keynes'You do not k n o w ? '

Mr. Norman' T e n t o o n e is a n a r b i t r a r y r e c k o n i n g b a s e d o n t h e
b a n k e r s * n o r m a l p e r c e n t a g e of C a s h /
Mr. Keynes' W o u l d t h e c u r t a i l m e n t of c r e d i t b y 50,000,000 h a v e
n o e f f e c t of a n y i m p o r t a n c e o n i n d u s t r y ? '
Mr. Norman' I d o n o t t h i n k i t w o u l d . . . . u n l e s s of c o u r s e i t
had to b e continued o v e r a n extended period.'
" W e l l , as it happened, it h a s been continued over an ' e x t e n d e d
period/ "
A s m a n y of m y r e a d e r s m a y h a v e l i t t l e k n o w l e d g e of t h e
p l a n n e d c h a r a c t e r of i n f l a t i o n s a n d d e f l a t i o n s , a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e
f r o m r e c e n t h i s t o r y m a y n o t b e s u p e r f l u o u s . O n p a g e 6 0 of Money
Creators, M i s s C o o g a n w r i t e s : " A s e c r e t b a n k e r s ' m e e t i n g w a s
h e l d o n M a y 18, 1920, i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . I n t h e n a m e a n d s t y l e
of T h e O r d e r l y D e f l a t i o n C o m m i t t e e of t h e A m e r i c a n B a n k e r s '
Association, a secret resolution w a s passed declaring for the con
t r a c t i o n of m o n e y a n d c r e d i t s . T h e p u b l i s h e d p r o c e e d i n g s of t h i s

T h i s e v e n t u a l l y leads t o a n increase i n t h e balances of t h e joint-stock

b a n k s a t t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . . . . T h e deposits of t h e joint-stock
b a n k s a t t h e B a n k a r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t of cash a n d the b a n k s t h u s find
themselves with more t h a n t h e i r usual p r o p o r t i o n of cash t o deposits
a n d a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o g r a n t f u r t h e r loans t o their customers o r
otherwise t o create a d d i t i o n a l c r e d i t . _ Since t h e hanks a s a whole
m a i n t a i n a cash p r o p o r t i o n t o deposits of from 10 to 11 p e r cent.,
a

they a r e i n fact able t o increase t h e i r d e p o s i t s by some t e n times t h e

cash created b y t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . B y t h e opposite process, a sale
of securities by the B a n k of E n g l a n d , or t h e calling i n of a loan, will
reduce t h e cash of the joint-stock banks -and e n t a i l a r e d u c t i o n of t h e i r
deposits. T h e B a n k of E n g l a n d is t h u s i n a position . . . . t o exercise
almost complete control over t h e a m o u n t of b a n k e r s ' cash i n the coun
t r y a n d t h u s . . . . over t h e t o t a l volume of deposits within such l i m i t s
as a r e set by t h e existence of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l gold s t a n d a r d "
(Official Report of the Macmillan Committee on Finance and Indus-
try, J u n e , 1931, p a r . 71).
Cf. The Principal Came of Unemploj/ment, by D . W. Maxwell,
p. 54, a n d also Promise to Pay, by E . M c N a i r Wilson, p . 146.
440 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

s e c r e t b a n k m e e t i n g s h o w t h a t i t w a s h e l d in t h e n a m e a n d style
of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d , t h e F e d e r a l A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l and
t h e Class ' A ' D i r e c t o r s of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B a n k s . T h e action
p r e s c r i b e d w a s t a k e n o n a r e s o l u t i o n a s s u m i n g to be p r e s e n t e d by
the American Hankers' Association. T h e n a m e s of all t h e m e n
p r e s e n t a t t h a t m e e t i n g , a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t s m a d e b y t h e m , can
b e o b t a i n e d b y a n y o n e w h o will t a k e t h e t r o u b l e t o w r i t e t o the
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of D o c u m e n t s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , a n d r e q u e s t
D o c u m e n t N o . 3 1 0 of t h e 6 7 t h C o n g r e s s , 4 t h S e s s i o n . T h o s e w h o
a t t e n d e d w e r e w a r n e d to hold t h e p r o c e e d i n g s in s a c r e d secrecy.
Hon. Finly H. Gray described the m e e t i n g : ' T h e manipul
a t i n g financiers a n d b a n k e r s , t h e m a s t e r m i n d s of f r e n z i e d finance
. . . w e r e not there, . . . but w e r e . . . directing . . . . their
c a t s p a w s from afar. . . . Mr. J o h n Skelton Williams, Comptroller
o f t h e C u r r e n c y , w h e n t h i s c o n t r a c t i o n of m o n e y w a s p r o p o s e d ,
e x p l a i n e d his efforts to stop the resolution. . . . D o n ' t y o u know,
h e s a i d , t h a t i t is g o i n g t o r u i n l o t s of f a r m e r s , a n d t h e y cold
bloodedly replied to h i m : they o u g h t to be r u i n e d t h e y a r e g e t t i n g
( 2 5 J
s o p r o s p e r o u s t h a t t h e y will n o t w o r k / "
T h e s e e x a m p l e s a r e sufficient t o m a k e o n e r e a l i z e t h e a b s u r d i t y
of t h e r e a s o n for m o n e t a r y d e p r e s s i o n s a d v a n c e d b y P r o f e s s o r
J e v o n s , w h o s e b o o k , Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, is
still a s t a n d a r d w o r k o n t h e s u b j e c t . P r o f e s s o r J e v o n s " w a s c o n
v i n c e d , w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e c o n o m i c a p o l o g i s t s , t h a t
n o p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e s e d e p r e s s i o n s c o u l d b e f o u n d w i t h
i n t h e m o n e t a r y s y s t e m itself, b u t w a s s o h a r d p u t t o it t o a c c o u n t
f o r t h e m o t h e r w i s e t h a t h e w a s d r i v e n t o s e e k an e x p l a n a t i o n in
2G)
t h e p e r i o d i c r e c u r r e n c e of s u n s p o t s . " <

(25) Cf. also The Truth About the Slump, by A. N. F i e l d , p p . 103-

104.
(26) The Modern Idolatry, by Jeffrey M a r k , p . 16. On p a g e s 340-
342 of Money and the Mechanism, of Exchan-ge, Professor Jevons
w r i t e s : " F r o m all the above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i t follows t h a t the only
m e t h o d of r e g u l a t i n g the a m o u n t of the c u r r e n c y is to leave i t perfect
freedom t o r e g u l a t e itself . . . . T h e a m o u n t of money itself c a n be no
m o r e r e g u l a t e d t h a n the a m o u n t s of c o r n , iron, cotton, o r o t h e r com
m o n commodities produced a n d consumed by a people . . . . The
m a n n e r of issuing this p a p e r c u r r e n c y should be strictly r e g u l a t e d in
one sense; the p a p e r c i r c u l a t i o n should be m a d e to increase a n d dim
inish with the a m o u n t o f gold d e p o s i t e d in exchange f o r it. A t the
same time, no t h o u g h t need be taken a b o u t the a m o u n t so issued. The
p u r p o s e of the s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n is n o t to govern the a m o u n t , b u t to
leave t h a t a m o u n t to v a r y according to the n a t u r a l laws of supply
a n d d e m a n d . I n my opinion, it is the issue of p a p e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
notes accepted in the place o f coin, which constitutes a n arbitrary-
interference with the n a t u r a l laws g o v e r n i n g the v a r i a t i o n s of a
p u r e l y metallic currency . . .
T h i s is a sample o f the teaching which h a s p e r m i t t e d the p e r p e t r a
tion o f terrible c r i m e s a g a i n s t society to go unhindered a n d unsus
pected.
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 441

W h e n prices rise d u r i n g t h e b o o m period, " public s p e a k e r s / '

w r i t e s M r . D . W . M a x w e l l , " b l e a t m o u r n f u l l y of t h e ' r i s e in t h e
c o s t . o f l i v i n g ' a n d of ' t a k i n g t h e p r i c e - l e v e l i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n /
as if a r i s e of p r i c e s w e r e l i k e an e a r t h q u a k e o r a t y p h o o n e x
t r e m e l y u n p l e a s a n t b u t n o b o d y ' s f a u l t . A rise of p r i c e s is n o t a n
, { 2 7 )
' a c t of G o d ' ; t h e b r a i n a n d h a n d of m a n a r e t h e g u i d i n g f o r c e s /

INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND THE

GOLD STANDARD.

F r o m w h a t h a s j u s t b e e n s a i d a b o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of n a t i o n a l
finance u n d e r t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d , i t c a n be e a s i l y s e e n t h a t t h e
s y s t e m will n o t w o r k s a t i s f a c t o r i l y in t h e r e a l m of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
t r a d e . I t i n e v i t a b l y l e a d s t o a s t a t e of affairs w h e r e e v e r y c o u n t r y
w a n t s t o e x p o r t g o o d s in o r d e r t o h a v e a f a v o u r a b l e b a l a n c e of
trade and w h e r e no c o u n t r y wishes to import. As, however, the
e x p o r t s of o n e n a t i o n a r e t h e i m p o r t s of a n o t h e r , t h i s l e a d s t o a
deadlock. Sir R e g i n a l d R o w e s e t s forth the r e a s o n for this a b s u r d
s i t u a t i o n briefly a n d c l e a r l y : " I f w e c o n s i d e r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
G o l d S t a n d a r d s y s t e m , w e s h a l l see t h a t it d i d n o t e n s u r e a n e x
c h a n g e of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s b e t w e e n n a t i o n s t o t h e i r m u t u a l
a d v a n t a g e but, on the contrary, ensured that nations should ex
p o r t t h e i r r e a l w e a l t h , t h a t is, g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s , a n d o b t a i n in
r e t u r n a n a d m i s s i o n of u n p a y a b l e d e b t ; t h e d e b t w a s s u p p o s e d t o
b e p a y a b l e i n g o l d a n d w a s c a l l e d a ' f a v o u r a b l e ' b a l a n c e , b u t if
gold w a s , in fact, paid, t h e loss caused internal disaster to the
c o u n t r y w h i c h p a i d it. H e r e i n lies t h e r e a s o n , o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
side, w h y n a t i o n s are so a n x i o u s to e x p o r t and n o t i m p o r t , a l t h o u g h
t h e r e is a n o t h e r i n t e r n a l r e a s o n c o n n e c t e d w i t h e m p l o y m e n t a n d
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r n a l p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r t h r o u g h w a g e s ; t h e
l a t t e r is a l s o a m o n e t a r y p r o b l e m . . . . T h i s c o u n t r y [ E n g l a n d ]
f o r n e a r l y 80 y e a r s h a d a n a n n u a l s o - c a l l e d a c t i v e ' f a v o u r a b l e '
b a l a n c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100,000,000. T h i s m e a n t t h a t a f t e r it
h a d p a i d all i t s bills t o t h e w o r l d for all t h e i m p o r t s a n d s e r v i c e s
i t r e q u i r e d , it still h a d 100,000,000's w o r t h of f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s
o w i n g t o it.
" L e t u s s u p p o s e , f o r t h e s a k e of s i m p l i c i t y , t h a t t h e A r g e n t i n e
o w e d E n g l a n d a n n u a l l y t h e w h o l e of t h i s a m o u n t . E n g l a n d w a s
t h e n in a p o s i t i o n t o s a y t o t h e A r g e n t i n e : ' W e h a v e b o u g h t a n d
p a i d f o r all t h e m e a t a n d w h e a t w e r e q u i r e d f r o m y o u d u r i n g t h e
l a s t a c c o u n t i n g p e r i o d , a n d a f t e r d o i n g so w e still h a v e
1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ^ w o r t h of p e s o s f o r w h i c h w e h a v e n o u s e . W e c a n ,
if w e l i k e , offer t h e m f o r s a l e o n t h e f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e . If w e d o ,
s o m e E n g l i s h e x c h a n g e b r o k e r will g i v e u s p o u n d s f o r t h e m , b u t
c l e a r l y a s t h e r e is n o i m m e d i a t e d e m a n d b y E n g l i s h m e n for t h e m ,

The Principal Cause of Unemployment, p. 33.

 442 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

n o E n g l i s h m a n w i l l g i v e u s t h e i r n o r m a l e x c h a n g e v a l u e . H e will
e x p e c t t o g e t m o r e of t h e m f o r h i s p o u n d s t h a n t h e p a r v a l u e .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , if w e o f f e r t h e s e p e s o s f o r s a l e it will k n o c k d o w n
y o u r e x c h a n g e r a t e . W h e n it falls t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e l o s s in
e x c h a n g e w o u l d be g r e a t e r t h a n the loss r e p r e s e n t e d b y h a v i n g
t o p a y f r e i g h t a n d i n s u r a n c e o n t h e t r a n s p o r t of p h y s i c a l g o l d ,
w e s h a l l c e a s e s e l l i n g p e s o s a n d g o t o t h e C e n t r a l B a n k of t h e
A r g e n t i n e a n d b u y b a r s of g o l d ; w e s h a l l s h i p t h e m p h y s i c a l l y t o
E n g l a n d a n d sell t h e m t o t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d a n d s o g e t o u r
p o u n d s t h a t w a y . W h e n , h o w e v e r , t h e C e n t r a l B a n k of t h e A r g e n
t i n e l o s e s g o l d t o u s , i t w i l l b e o b l i g e d t o t a k e o u t of c i r c u l a t i o n
p a p e r p e s o s t o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e . T h i s will m e a n t h a t t h e
c o m m e r c i a l b a n k s will find t h e m s e l v e s w i t h l e s s c a s h a n d , in o r d e r
t o m a i n t a i n t h e s a m e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e i r l o a n s to t h e i r c a s h , will
b e o b l i g e d t o call in l o a n s . T h i s will m e a n t h a t A r g e n t i n e p r o
d u c e r s , m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d m e r c h a n t s , will b e o b l i g e d t o t h r o w
t h e i r s t o c k s o n a n u n w i l l i n g m a r k e t in o r d e r t o r a i s e t h e m o n e y
t o r e p a y t h e i r b a n k l o a n s . T h e t h r o w i n g of t h e s e s t o c k s o n to
t h e m a r k e t will h a v e t h e effect of k n o c k i n g d o w n p r i c e s . I t will
t h e n be n e c e s s a r y for y o u to t r y to r e d u c e w a g e s as w i t h l o w e r
p r i c e s y o u will n o t b e a b l e t o a f f o r d t o p a y t h e s a m e r a t e of w a g e s
a s b e f o r e . T h i s will l e a d t o s t r i k e s a n d , in a n y c a s e , will d e s t r o y
t h e i n t e r n a l p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of t h e A r g e n t i n e m a r k e t /
" T h e A r g e n t i n e w o u l d r e p l y , ' B u t t h i s is t e r r i b l e / t o w h i c h
E n g l a n d w a s in a p o s i t i o n t o a n s w e r . ' Y e s . d e v a s t a t i n g , a n d t h e r e
is o n l y o n e w a y o u t of t h e difficulty a n d t h a t is t h a t y o u b o r r o w
t h e 100,000,000's w o r t h of p e s o s a t i n t e r e s t s o as t o t a k e t h e m
o u t of h a r m ' s w a y . T h e r e will o n l y t h e n be d u e f r o m y o u t h e
a n n u a l i n t e r e s t . N e x t y e a r , h o w e v e r , t h e r e will p r o b a b l y b e a n
o t h e r 100,000,000 w h i c h y o u will s i m i l a r l y h a v e t o b o r r o w , p l u s
t h e i n t e r e s t o n t h i s y e a r ' s 100,000,000/ ' i n 14J y e a r s a t 5 p e r
c e n t c o m p o u n d i n t e r e s t e a c h 100,000,000 w o u l d d o u b l e itself. I t
will t h u s be s e e n t h a t , u n d e r the s y s t e m , t h e A r g e n t i n e w a s given
t h e c h o i c e of g e t t i n g h o p e l e s s l y i n t o d e b t t o E n g l a n d o r of l o s i n g
(28
g o l d w i t h d e v a s t a t i n g i n t e r n a l efTects." >

(28) The Boot of .All Evil, by S i r R e g i n a l d Rowe, p p . 177-179. And

the loans made by E n g l a n d , to enable the A r g e n t i n e and the other coun
t r i e s to keep on, have resulted in g a i n s for the financiers, but in losses
for o r d i n a r y p e o p l e : " I n the last eighty y e a r s this country [ E n g l a n d ]
h a s lent something like 8,000,000,000.10 its colonies a n d other coun
tries. Of ^that enormous sum a very l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n has been totally
lost, or v i r t u a l l y lost in the form of ' foreign c r e d i t s / I t has been
estimated t h a t the total present value of these investments is less than
3,000.000,000; in other words, more t h a n half the money h a s been
lost. T h e loss has been d i v i d e d between countless British investors
. . . . The financier does not float a loan ' for k e e p s / H i s job is to
ipass it on to the public. H e gets o u t of the risky stuff as soon as he
7
profitably can, a n d floats a n o t h e r . ' Op. c i t p. 30. M
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 443

T h e k e r n e l of t h e difficulty of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e u n d e r t h e g o l d
s t a n d a r d s y s t e m is t h a t w h e n a c o u n t r y ' s i m p o r t s e x c e e d i t s e x
p o r t s , t h e b a n k s a r e l i a b l e t o b e a s k e d f o r g o l d t o c o v e r t h e deficit.
T h e r e a s o n is t h a t t h e e x c h a n g e will g o a g a i n s t t h e c o u n t r y w h o s e
e x p o r t s a r e d o w n . A t a c e r t a i n p o i n t it w i l l c o m e t o be m o r e
a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r t h o s e w h o h a v e t o p a y d e b t s in t h e o t h e r c o u n
t r y t o b u y g o l d , t h e p r i c e of w h i c h is fixed, a n d s h i p i t t o t h e o t h e r
c o u n t r y t o b u y t h e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m of t h a t c o u n t r y . T h e e x p o r t
of g o l d w i l l p r e v e n t t h e f u r t h e r fall of t h e e x c h a n g e . F o r e x a m p l e ,
a t o n e t i m e $4.86 b o u g h t o n e p o u n d in t h e f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e m a r
k e t , f o r e a c h w a s w o r t h t h e s a m e a m o u n t of g o l d . If E n g l i s h
exports to the U.S.A. c a m e to exceed greatly English imports
f r o m t h e s a m e c o u n t r y , t h e r e w o u l d be a g r e a t d e m a n d f o r p o u n d s
s t e r l i n g a n d t h e c o s t of t h e p o u n d in t e r m s of d o l l a r s w o u l d g r a d
ually rise. W h e n i t r e a c h e d $4.90, t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n $4.86
a n d $4.90 w o u l d c o v e r t h e c o s t of f r e i g h t , i n s u r a n c e a n d l o s s of
i n t e r e s t on gold. W h e n gold could thus be b o u g h t a n d shipped,
n o o n e w o u l d p a y m o r e t h a n $4.90 f o r a p o u n d a n d t h e e x c h a n g e
w o u l d r e m a i n stable. Gold w o u l d be shipped in the opposite d i r e c
29)
t i o n if t h e p o u n d fell t o a b o u t $4.849.<
B u t t h e " d r a i n of g o l d " a s i t is c a l l e d , w i l l h a v e a d i s a s t r o u s
effect o n t h e e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r y . " Since I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a n k e r s ,
like H o m e Bankers, arc lending promises-to-pay ten times the
q u a n t i t y of m o n e y w h i c h t h e y a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s , it is o b v i o u s t h a t
s t r i c t l i m i t s a r c s e t t o t h e e x p o r t of g o l d . . . . I n f a c t t h e I n t e r
n a t i o n a l B a n k e r s p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s by r e f u s i n g to lend and t r y i n g
t o call u p a s m a n y a s p o s s i b l e of t h e i r e x i s t i n g l o a n s j u s t a s , in
30
s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e H o m e B a n k e r s do."* * T h e r e s u l t s a r e
t h a t p r i c e s fall a n d t h e c o u n t r y t r i e s t o sell g o o d s a t a l o s s , w h i l e
t a k i n g steps to recapture export trade by cutting down wages and
dismissing workmen. L o w w a g e s m e a n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of b i g
e x p o r t s . T h i s m e a n s a l o w e r i n g of t h e s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g , e s p e c
i a l l y of t h e w a g e - e a r n e r s . " T h e p e o p l e w h o m I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i n
a n c e is p l a y i n g off a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r a r e n o t m e r e l y t h e m e r
c h a n t s a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s t s of t h e w o r l d . T h e w a g e - e a r n e r s in e v e r y
c o u n t r y a r e b e i n g p i t t e d a g a i n s t t h e w a g e - e a r n e r s in e v e r y o t h e r
c o u n t r y . T h e a t t a c k o n w a g e s is e v e r l a s t i n g a n d i t is c o n d u c t e d
b y m e a n s of t h e w a g e - e a r n e r s t h e m s e l v e s w h o h a v e n o t h i n g t o
h o p e f o r u n l e s s t h e y c a n p r o d u c e c h e a p l y , t h a t is t o s a y , u n l e s s
t h e y w i l l a c c e p t l o w e r w a g e s t h a n all t h e i r c o m p e t i t o r s . . . .
T h e men, naturally, blame their m a s t e r s ; the masters blame their
m e n . B o t h a r e h e l p l e s s in t h e h a n d s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a n k e r s
s i n c e i t is t h e y w h o c o n t r o l t h e q u a n t i t y of m o n e y i n t h e i r m a r
k e t s . . . . If w a g e s a r e n o t c u t , h a l f t h e b u s i n e s s e s will be b a n k
r u p t . A n d w h e n w a g e s h a v e b e e n cut the w h o l e hideous cycle
(29) Cf. An Outline of Money, by Geoffrey Crowbher, p. 317.
(30) Promise to Pay, by R. M c N a i r Wilson, p . 98.
 444 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

will b e g i n o n c e m o r e . I s it a n y w o n d e r t h a t , in s u c h c i r c u m
s t a n c e s , C o m m u n i s m a n d S o c i a l i s m , b o t h of t h e m w i l l - o ' - t h e - w i s p s ,
flourish? Is it a n y w o n d e r t h a t c l a s s is s e t a g a i n s t c l a s s ? M a s t e r
against m e n ? Nation against nation? Xobody suspects the true
3
enemy ,"< ')
T h e w h o l e t e n d e n c y of t h e s y s t e m , t h e n , is t o l o w e r t h e s t a n d a r d
of l i v i n g in a n y c o u n t r y t o t h a t of a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y w i t h a l o w e r
s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g , s i n c e a c o u n t r y w i t h a l o w e r s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g
o r l o w w a g e s will b e a b l e t o e x p o r t . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e g o l d
s t a n d a r d k e e p s t h e v a l u e of t h e m o n e y of a n y c o u n t r y s t a b l e in
t e r m s of f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s , b u t t h i s is o n l y a n o t h e r w a y of s a y i n g
t h a t it t e n d s t o p r e v e n t w a g e s in a n y c o u n t r y f r o m r e m a i n i n g
h i g h w h e n w a g e s a n y w h e r e else fall. T h e n e t r e s u l t is a d r e a d
ful s t r u g g l e for t h e n e c e s s a r i e s of life in t h e m i d s t of p o t e n t i a l
sufficiency, t h e s t r u g g l e b e i n g m a d e f a r m o r e t r a g i c b y g a m b l i n g
in t h e d i f f e r e n t c u r r e n c i e s a n d s p e c u l a t i o n o n t h e s t o c k - e x c h a n g e s
32
of t h e world.* *
A s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e of g a m b l i n g in c u r r e n c i e s is g i v e n b y M r .
A r t h u r K i t s o n in The Banker's Conspiracy. He w r i t e s : " Some
1
y e a r s a g o The Bankers' Magazine g a v e a s t a r t l i n g e x a m p l e of t h e
d e p r e c i a t i o n in t h e p r i c e s of 325 of o u r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n v e s t m e n t s
c a u s e d b y t h e w i t h d r a w a l of 11,000,000 in g o l d f r o m t h e B a n k of
E n g l a n d b y a g r o u p of A m e r i c a n financiers. T h e t r a n s f e r of t h i s
a m o u n t c a u s e d a fall of p r i c e s e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 1 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ! T h e
a b s o r p t i o n of t h e s a m e g o l d c a u s e d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a d v a n c e in
t h e p r i c e s of c e r t a i n A m e r i c a n s e c u r i t i e s . B y first s e l l i n g E n g l i s h
securities and buying American, they had merely to transfer so
m u c h gold and a f t e r w a r d s reverse the transactions by b u y i n g and
selling respectively, and the g a m e w a s w o n ! As a w e l l - k n o w n
financial writer stated at the t i m e : ' T h e s e speculators were
p l a y i n g u p o n t w o t a b l e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e o n e in L o n d o n a n d
t h e o t h e r in N e w Y o r k w i t h t h e c e r t a i n t v of w i n n i n g on
both.'
L e t us n o w e x a m i n e a l i t t l e m o r e p r o f o u n d l y t h e r e a s o n for
t h e u r g e t o e x p o r t g o o d s , w h i c h e v e r y c o u n t r y e x p e r i e n c e s , in
s p i t e of t h e fact t h a t m a n y u n d e r - n o u r i s h e d a n d ill-clad p e o p l e in

(3D Op. cit., p p . 101-103.

(32) I n several .places in his book, The Principal Ca.use of Unem
ployment, notably on p p . 34 a n d 79, M r . D. W. Maxwell t r e a t s of the
d i s a s t r o u s effects of speculation, d u e t o the possibility of the p r i v a t e
t

c r e a t i o n of money t h r o u g h loans or deposits. On p. 79, he w r i t e s : " W h e n

i t is no longer possible to p u t p r i v a t e l y created inoney i n t o circula
tion, most of the gambling which takes place in i n d u s t r i a l a n d other
shares, a n d even in the necessities of life (wheat, wool, cotton, etc.)
will cease. S p e c u l a t o r s will not then be able to raise prices foi' the
whole p o p u l a t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g the q u a n t i t y of money and reducing
the q u a n t i t y of goods in the m a r k e t . "
(33) Qp. cit., p. 80.
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 445

almost every country lack the very goods that are being exported
o r t h e g o o d s i n t o w h i c h t h e y c o u l d be c o n v e r t e d . " P l e n t y of
wool and no m a r k e t s , " a n n o u n c e d a Dublin daily p a p e r s o m e t i m e
ago. " P l e n t y of p o o r a n d n o b l a n k e t s , " w a s t h e v e r y a p p o s i t e
c o m m e n t of t h e h u m o r o u s j o u r n a l , Dublin Opinion.
O n e r e a s o n of t h e u r g e t o e x p o r t is to b e f o u n d in t h e fact
t h a t 98 p e r c e n t of all t h e m o n e y in e x i s t e n c e c o m e s i n t o b e i n g
w i t h a d e m a n d for i n t e r e s t a t 5 p e r c e n t a t t a c h e d to it. We
h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n t h a t in 1934 R a n k - c r e a t e d m o n e y in G r e a t
R r i t a i n w a s o v e r 98 p e r c e n t , w h i l e S t a t e - c r e a t e d m o n e y w a s l e s s
t h a n 2 per cent. N o w , " n o m o r e m o n e y can c o m e o u t of t h e
s y s t e m t h a n is p u t i n t o it. If a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n of b u s i n e s s e s
m a n a g e t o p a y b a c k b o t h p r i n c i p a l a n d i n t e r e s t of t h e i r l o a n s , t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o r a c t u a l i t y of b a n k r u p t c y is a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n t e n s i f i e d
( 3 4 )
f o r t h e w h o l e of t h e r e m a i n d e r . " T h e p a y m e n t of i n t e r e s t o n
m o n e y b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t e n c e a s a d e b t i n v o l v e s t h e p a y m e n t of
m o r e t h a n is i s s u e d . T h i s c a n n o t be d o n e w i t h o u t f u r t h e r b o r r o w
i n g , s o t h e p r o c e s s m e a n s s t e a d y p r o g r e s s i o n i n t o d e b t for t h e
s o c i e t y as a whole. I t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n s a l s o t h a t , in e v e r y
b u s i n e s s c y c l e , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of t h e g o o d s p r o d u c e d in t h a t
c y c l e r e m a i n s u n p u r c h a s e d . T h i s u n p u r c h a s e d s u r p l u s is i n c r e a s e d
b y t h e fact t h a t c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e s o c i e t y s a v e up a n d r e
invest their savings. T h u s , as industry develops thanks to m o r e
a n d m o r e l o a n s , t h e r e is a n e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g s u r p l u s r e m a i n i n g u n
p u r c h a s e d w i t h i n t h e a r e a of t h e s o c i e t y , a n d t h e r e is an e v e r -
i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d for foreign m a r k e t s . D e b t s , h o w e v e r , increase
m u c h f a s t e r t h a n p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s far m o r e
r a p i d l y t h a n d i s t r i b u t i o n s o t h e u r g e t o s e n d g o o d s a b r o a d is
a c c o m p a n i e d by a p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y i n c r e a s i n g i n a b i l i t y on t h e p a r t
of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e h o m e - c o u n t r y t o profit b y t h e d e v e l o p i n g
p r o d u c t i o n . " T h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t of a financial s y s t e m b a s e d o n
u s u r y / ' w r i t e s M r . J e f f r e y M a r k , " is t h e p r o g r e s s i v e a c c u m u l a
t i o n of d e b t a n d a c o m p l e m e n t a r y d e c r e a s e in t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n
consumption and production. B e t w e e n 1922 a n d 1929, for i n s t
a n c e , d e b t - c l a i m s in t h e L n i t e d S t a t e s i n c r e a s e d 76 p e r c e n t . ,
a g a i n s t a n i n c r e a s e in m a n u f a c t u r e d o u t p u t of o n l y 33 p e r c e n t . ,
( : i 5 )
a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o n s u m e r g o o d s , o n l y 4 p e r c e n t . " The
s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g w a s r a i s e d b u t n o t a t a r a t e c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h
t h e i n c r e a s e in p r o d u c t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n of f o r e i g n t r a d e u n d e r
the g o l d s t a n d a r d s y s t e m is t h a t e v e r y i n d u s t r i a l l y d e v e l o p e d

The Modem- Idolatry, by Jeffrey Mark, p. 94. With reference

to what is t r e a t e d of in these few p a r a g r a p h s , pages 94-164 of Mr.
M a r k ' s book are p a r t i c u l a r l y recommended.
The Modern idolatry, p. 110. On p a g e 52, he quotes the r e m a r k
of Mr. Bassett Jones, t h a t p r o d u c t i o n increases as the t h i r d (power of
time, a n d debt as the f o u r t h power of time.
446 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

n a t i o n m u s t s t r i v e to e x p o r t m o r e t h a n it i m p o r t s . " I f s o m e
1
n a t i o n s h a v e ' f a v o u r a b l e b a l a n c e s [of p a y m e n t s ] , o t h e r n a t i o n s
(
must have unfavourable ' ones. International trade has there
f o r e d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o financial w a r , i n s t e a d of b e i n g a n e x c h a n g e
of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s l o t h e m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e of b o t h p a r t i e s "
(.'1 Tioentjeth Century Economic St/si cm, p. 2 1 ) . Historically,
H o l l a n d in t h e 17th c e n t u r y , G r e a t B r i t a i n in t h e 1 8 t h a n d 19th
c e n t u r i e s a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d A m e r i c a in t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y s a w
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h o s e " m o n e y - l e n d i n g c y c l e s w h i c h a u t o m a t i c
a l l y c r e a t e d t h e necessity, a s o p p o s e d t o t h e d e s i r e for i n d u s t r i a l
expansion, the exploited industrially undeveloped countries being
also necessarily their victims. Once the money-lenders have
i n i t i a t e d t h e first c y c l e , t h e p r o c e s s m u s t g o o n . . . .
T h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e h a s b e e n
e s s e n t i a l l y a successful a t t e m p t to c r e a t e an i n c r e a s i n g ' f a v o u r
1
a b l e b a l a n c e of t r a d e a b r o a d s o a s t o f o r c e h e r p o s s e s s i o n s , p a r
t i c u l a r l y I n d i a , t o d i s g o r g e t h e i r g o l d in p a y m e n t . T h i s g o l d w a s ,
of c o u r s e , u s e d by t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m . . . . to e x p a n d t h e c u r
r e n c y b y t h e c r e a t i o n of d e b t , t h e r e b y e n g e n d e r i n g b i g g e r s u r
p l u s e s w h i c h w e r e u s e d t o force still l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s of g o l d o u t
of t h e E a s t . . . . W h e n it w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h i s d i r e c t a c q u i s i
t i o n of g o l d b y f o r e i g n ' t r a d e * w a s n o t p r o c e e d i n g f a s t e n o u g h
f o r t h e m o n e y m a c h i n e , t h e e r a of f o r e i g n ' i n v e s t m e n t * b e g a n .
This process . . . . is e s s e n t i a l l y c i t h e r , ( a ) t h e r e - i n v e s t m e n t
in t h e d e b t o r c o u n t r y of d e b t s ' d u e t o t h e c r e d i t o r c o u n t r y o w i n g
t o t h e ' f a v o u r a b l e ' b a l a n c e of t r a d e of t h e l a t t e r ; or ( b ) t h e e x p o r t
of g o o d s o n n e w c r e d i t s . . . . T h e t r u e p u r p o s e of a n e c o n o m i c
s y s t e m w h i c h s h o u l d b e t h e c o m p l e t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of h o m e p r o
d u c t i o n , p l u s t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d e q u a l e x c h a n g e of g o o d s w i t h
foreign countriesthus becomes entirely incidental to the financial
p r o c e s s , w h i c h u n d o u b t e d l y is t h e c r e a t i o n of i n t e r n a l d e b t , t h r o u g h
n e c e s s a r y c u r r e n c y e x p a n s i o n , a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of e x t e r n a l d e b t ,
4 ( 3 G J
t h r o u g h foreign ' trade ' and foreign investment.' " The whole
a i m of t h e financial s y s t e m s h o u l d be t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n
a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e g o o d s n e e d e d f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y of m e m b e r s of f a m i l i e s , b u t i n s t e a d of t h i s ,
p r o d u c t i o n a n d , in a p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y f a r l e s s d e g r e e , d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
a r e t o l e r a t e d o n l y in s o f a r as t h e y will f a c i l i t a t e p a y m e n t of i n
t e r e s t on a previously created debt. I n t e r e s t o n l o a n s is t h e
u l t i m a t e e n d of t h e financial s y s t e m , n o t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
hutnan personality.

T H E URGE TO WAR AND DESTRUCTION.

I t is u n n e c e s s a r y t o d w e l l a t l e n g t h on t h e w a y t h e s y s t e m
w e have described impels t o w a r d s war. As practically every
n a t i o n is s u f f e r i n g f r o m " o v e r - p r o d u c t i o n " a n d is t r y i n g t o g e t
(36) The Modem Idolatry, by Jeffrey M a r k , p p . 136-138.
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 447

r i d of a " s u r p l u s , " w h i c h i t s o w n i m p o v e r i s h e d t h o u s a n d s c a n n o t
p u r c h a s e , t h e s u c c e s s of o n e n a t i o n i n e x p o r t i n g m e a n s t h e i n t e n
s i f i c a t i o n of t h e difficulties of a n o t h e r . H i t h e r t o w h a t w a s t e r m e d
" i n d u s t r i a l p r o g r e s s / ' a l o n g t h e l i n e s i n d i c a t e d , could b e m a i n
t a i n e d b y t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of " b a c k w a r d " n a t i o n s . R u t n o w t h e
once " b a c k w a r d " n a t i o n s h a v e t h e m s e l v e s a " surplus " to e x p o r t .
A t e r r i b l e s t r u g g l e f o r c o n t r o l of t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t i a l l y d e v e l o p e d
c o u n t r i e s a n d a s t a t e of t e n s i o n , w h i c h t h e a r m a m e n t m a n u f a c
t u r e r s v i e w w i t h g r o w i n g g r a t i f i c a t i o n b e c a u s e of their p a r t i c u l a r
" s u r p l u s s t o c k s / ' a r e inevitable. T h e i m m e n s e profits m a d e by
a r m a m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g the G r e a t
W a r ( 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 ) a r e a s t r o n g t e m p t a t i o n for t h e m t o d e s i r e w a r ,
n o t p e a c e . F o r e x a m p l e , d u r i n g t h e f o u r y e a r s of p e a c e p r e c e d i n g
t h a t w a r , the U n i t e d S t a t e s Steel Corporation m a d e on an aver
a g e 105,000,000 d o l l a r s a n n u a l l y . D u r i n g t h e f o u r w a r y e a r s t h e
a n n u a l p r o f i t s of t h e s a m e c o r p o r a t i o n w e r e 239,000,000 d o l l a r s .
I n t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t is difficult t o c o n c e i v e of a n y o n e fin
a n c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in U n i t e d S t a t e s S t e e l a c t i n g v i g o r o u s l y in t h e
( 3 7 )
i n t e r e s t s of p e a c e .
I t is p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , f o r t h e r e is a n o t h e r s i d e t o t h e p i c t u r e ,
w h i c h is r e v e a l e d t o u s b y M r . V i n c e n t C. V i c k e r s in Economic
Tribulation. E v e n a m i g h t y a r m a m e n t firm like V i c k e r s - A r m -
s t r o n g m a y be o v e r w h e l m e d b y t h e b u r d e n of d e b t . " W i t h e v e r y
m a r k e t s h o r t of p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r , " w r i t e s M r . V i c k e r s , " t h e fin
a n c i a l s y s t e m s e t t h e w h o l e w o r l d g a m b l i n g o n its f u t u r e c a p a c i t y
t o p r o d u c e m o r e a n d sell m o r e a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e p a y off i t s
d e b t s ; a n d it is m a i n l y t h e a b n o r m a l e f f o r t s of a l m o s t e v e r y n a t i o n
t o p a y off o r e v e n t o p a y i n t e r e s t o n , i t s i m p o s s i b l e d e b t s , w h i c h
h a v e r e s u l t e d in t h e p r e s e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f u s i o n w h e r e e a c h
n a t i o n s e e k s t o e x c h a n g e i t s o w n p r o d u c e for t h e m o n e y of o t h e r
n a t i o n s , b u t n o t for t h e p r o d u c e . F o r m o n e y d e b t s c a n n o t be r e
paid b y produce unless and until t h a t produce has been exchanged
f o r m o n e y ; p r o d u c t i o n is of n o v a l u e t o finance e x c e p t in so f a r
as it m a y be c o n v e r t e d i n t o m o n e y ; a n d t h e m o n e y i n d u s t r y , u n d e r
t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m , a l m o s t w h o l l y d e p e n d s f o r its p r o s p e r i t y u p o n
t h e i n d e b t e d n e s s of o t h e r s . What finance has failed to perceive
is that there is a limit to the profitable increase of this indebtedness.
S i m i l a r l y , V i c k e r s , L i m i t e d , a n d , a s t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d k n o w s
o n l y t o o w e l l , A r m s t r o n g W h i t w o r t h a n d Co., a n d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
s h a r e h o l d e r s , w e r e h a l f r u i n e d b y t h e w a r of 1914-1918 a n d its
natural repercussions. Those w h o regard Vickers A r m s t r o n g as
w a r - p r o f i t e e r s e i t h e r possess superficial intellects or have no
k n o w l e d g e of t h e p r o v e n f a c t s ; a n d I, w h o w r i t e , h a v e s u f f e r e d ,
and I know/'W)
(37) T h e figures set d o w n in books, i n d i c a t i n g the profits m a d e by
firms d u r i n g the G r e a t W a r (1914-1918), v a r y .
(38) Op. cif., p p . 68, 69.
448 THK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

W a r m e a n s w h o l e s a l e , indiscriminate destruction, but peace,

too, under the present monetary system means wholesale, system
atic d e s t r u c t i o n . W h y is t h i s ? B e c a u s e t h u s t h e p r i c e s of t h e
r e m a i n i n g s t o c k s will b e r a i s e d , it is h o p e d , a n d t h e p r o d u c e r s
will b e e n a b l e d t o m e e t s o m e of t h e i n t e r e s t - c l a i m s o n t h e i r d e b t s .
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e a l w e a l t h a r e
t o l e r a t e d in s o f a r a s t h e y f a c i l i t a t e t h e p a y m e n t of i n t e r e s t o n
debts. P r o d u c t i o n and distribution which t h r e a t e n to interfere
w i t h such p a y m e n t c a n n o t be allowed. Tariffs and q u o t a s and the
f o r m a t i o n of B o a r d s f o r P l a n n e d E c o n o m y a n d O r d e r l y M a r k e t
i n g a r e e m p l o y e d , as well as s y s t e m a t i c d e s t r u c t i o n , to diminish
and check production. Distribution, a l r e a d y terribly ineffectual,
3 9 1
of c o u r s e , s u f f e r s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y . ' T h e tariffs,' q u o t a s a n d
B o a r d s a r c v e r y e f f e c t i v e in r e d u c i n g p r o d u c t i o n a n d h a m p e r i n g
d i s t r i b u t i o n , b u t d e s t r u c t i o n is m o r e s p e c t a c u l a r , s o it a t t r a c t s
m o r e a t t e n t i o n . " I n J u l y , 1933, a t L i v e r p o o l , t h o u s a n d s of c a s e s
of o r a n g e s w e r e d u m p e d i n t o t h e s e a , a s it w o u l d h a v e b e e n ' a
l o s s t o l a n d t h e m . ' U p t o A p r i l 30, 1932, 5,600,722 b a g s of coffee
h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d f o r d e s t r u c t i o n b y t h e N a t i o n a l Coffee C o u n c i l
of B r a z i l . S o m e e i g h t m o n t h s l a t e r , t h e N a t i o n a l Coffee C o u n c i l
a n n o u n c e d p l a n s . . . f o r t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of coffee p r i c e s , in
c l u d i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of 12,000,000 b a g s in t h e n e x t t w e l v e
m o n t h s a n d t h e p l a c i n g of a n a d d i t i o n a l t a x of five s h i l l i n g s a b a g
o n coffee e x p o r t s f r o m t h e c o u n t r y . T h e d e c i s i o n t o d e s t r o y t h e
r
12,000,000 b a g s w a s r e p o r t e d a s u n a n i m o u s b v t h e i\ r?o York Times
of D e c e m b e r 7, 1932. . . . I n t h e m i d d l e of J u l y , 1933, M r . W a l l a c e ,
t h e S e c r e t a r y f o r A g r i c u l t u r e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n n o u n c e d t h e
s u c c e s s of t h e s c h e m e f t o l a k e l a n d o u t of c u l t i v a t i o n ] b y t h e

(89) " i G r e a t B r i t a i n u n d e r the rules a n d r e g u l a t i o n s imposed v i a

n

t h e v a r i o u s M a r k e t i n g B o a r d s , p r o d u c e r s were heavily fined for p r o d u c

i n g t o o much. R i g h t u p fco the d e c l a r a t i o n of a s t a t e of w a r a g a i n s t Ger
m a n y in September, 1939, B r i t i s h p o t a t o - g r o w e r s , for e x a m p l e , were
b e i n g fined if t h e y grew potatoes t h a t were ' too big Some
f a r m e r s [in U . S . A . ] a r e b u r n i n g wheat in t h e i r fields in o r d e r to avoid
the expense of h a r v e s t i n g , a n d over t h o u s a n d s of s q u a r e miles no
a t t e m p t will be m a d e to p l a n t a c r o p for n e x t year, the l a n d being
allowed to lie idle . . . . They blame the low price on the policy of
the F e d e r a l F a r m B o a r d , winch b o u g h t more t h a n -200,000,000 bushels
a n d is still h o l d i n g them ' (Manchester ftuardiav, A u g u s t 7, 1931).
T h a t was one of the ways in which t h e . O r e a t S l u m p h i t the U.S.A.
f a r m e r s . I n both hemispheres, d u r i n g these years, wheat was burned,
fish t h r o w n back into the sea, cotton ploughed back, coffee ' d r o w n e d '
or b u r n e d , fruit allowed to rot on the jtrces, cattle s l a u g h t e r e d and
b u r n t , textile m a c h i n e r y broken up, p o t a t o <-rops ploughed hi again,
m i l k p o u r e d down the d r a i n s . . . . T h e r e was (if you please) ' o v e r
p r o d u c t i o n ' while millions of h u m a n beings were in a s t a t e of semi-
s t a r v a t i o n " (Professor Skinner alia* Montagu Norman* by John
H a r g r a v e , p p . 217, lfil).
 GOLD STANDARD AND ECONOMIC DECAY 449

s t a t e m e n t t h a t 10,000,000 a c r e s u n d e r c o t t o n h a d b e e n left t o
w a s t e , t h e p o t e n t i a l c r o p b e i n g t h e r e b y r e d u c e d by 3,500,000 b a l e s .
The b o n u s e s to f a r m e r s for this s t r a n g e attempt to relieve the
lot of a h a l f - s t a r v e d w o r l d i n v o l v e d a s u m of a p p r o x i m a t e l y
100,000,000 d o l l a r s .
" A t t h e s a m e t i m e , a l o n g d r o u g h t , h e a l a n d t h e r a v a g e s of
g r a s s h o p p e r s u n i t e d in c a u s i n g s e v e r e d a m a g e t o t h e A m e r i c a n
w h e a t c r o p , s o t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e L o n d o n Daily Mail for 2 8 t h
J u n e , 1933, n a t u r e is h e l p i n g P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t t o r e s t r i c t p r o
duction, t h e r e b y ' p a v i n g the w a y to world recovery,' T h e n e w s
of t h i s t r i p l e d i s a s t e r f r o m d r o u g h t , b l i g h t a n d g r a s s h o p p e r s w a s
received w i t h a c c l a m a t i o n by f a n n e r s , salesmen, p r e s s and public
in t h e C h i c a g o W h e a t P i t , a n d it is c l e a r t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l o b s e s s
ion w i t h r e g a r d t o m o n e y a n d d e b t h a s d r i v e n t h e w o r l d m a d ,
w h e n t h e r e is ' m o r e j o y o v e r o n e c r o p t h a t fails t h a n o v e r n i n e t y -
( 4 0 )
nine b o u n t e o u s harvests.' "
Similar information a b o u t the s a m e points was given in a n
a r t i c l e in t h e Catholic Herald* w h i c h s t a t e d t h a t " a regulur feature
of o u r c a p i t a l i s t - r i d d e n e c o n o m y w a s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e f r u i t s
of t h e e a r t h a s a l e g i t i m a t e m e t h o d of m a i n t a i n i n g p r i c e - l e v e l s a t
a p r o f i t a b l e h e i g h t . T h u s , f o r t h i s r e a s o n , in A u g u s t , 1933, b e
t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n , 1,500,000 o r a n g e s w e r e t h r o w n i n t o t h e
sea deliberately. Even m o r e disgraceful has been the p o u r i n g
i n t o t h e river C l y d e of g a l l o n s of r i c h m i l k o b t a i n e d f r o m I r i s h
cows imported and landed at Glasgow. A n d , of c o u r s e , t h e
b u r n i n g of coffee in ISrazil is q u i t e w e l l - k n o w n , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s
it is n o t g e n e r a l l y r e a l i z e d o n w h a t a g i g a n t i c s c a l e t h i s h a s b e e n
done, b e t w e e n '1931 a n d 1936 a b o u t 40,000,000 b a g s h a v e b e e n
d e s t r o y e d . . . . e n o u g h to supply t h e w h o l e w o r l d for n e a r l y a
y e a r a n d a half."
T h i s d e s t r u c t i o n is f o r c e d u p o n p r o d u c e r s in t h e e n d e a v o u r
to r a i s e t h e p r i c e of t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e i r s t o c k s , s o t h a t t h e y
m a y m a k e a n a t t e m p t t o p a y b a c k a p o r t i o n of t h e i r l o a n s w i t h
interest. I>ut t h e o p e r a t i o n of d e s t r u c t i o n is itself c o s t l y . The
G o v e r n m e n t m u s t e i t h e r p r o c u r e t h e s u m by t a x a t i o n o r b o r r o w i t
f r o m t h e b a n k s a n d t h e n p a y it b a c k w i t h i n t e r e s t f r o m t a x a
tion. In e i t h e r c a s e t h e b u r d e n u p o n t h e p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s
is i n c r e a s e d . " S o t h a t , e i t h e r w a y / ' w r i t e s M r . M a r k , " i n o r d e r
t o e x e r c i s e a c o m p u l s o r y p r i v i l e g e t o d e s t r o y g o o d s w h i c h it h a s
itself p r o d u c e d , w h i c h it d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d s , but w h i c h it c a n n o t
b u y b e c a u s e of a n e x i s t i n g i n t o l e r a b l e d e b t b u r d e n , t h e c o m m u n i t y
1 , ( n
must add to that d e b t . '

t* The Modern Idolatry, by Jeffrey M a r k , p p . 30-32.

(in The Modem Idolatry, p.32. W i t h vciav<l to the prevalence of
waul am/ insufficiency in the mhJsl of p o t e n t i a l plcnly in P.S.A. and
E n g l a n d , cf. op. c i t / p p . 19-40.
HH
450 TIIE MYSTICAL BODY OF C1IKIST

S i n c e t h e r e s e e m e d t o be n o i m m e d i a t e p o s s i b i l i t y of g e t t i n g
t h e f i n a n c i e r s in c o n t r o l t o r e c o n s i d e r t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e
.system w h i c h w a s d r i v i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e r i c h e s t c o u n t r y
in t h e w o r l d t o p a y p e o p l e n o t t o p r o d u c e , w h i l e m a n y w e r e
suffering from dire w a n t , one m a n at least drew the logical con
clusion. The r.S.A. Financial Chtonicle for A u g u s t 1 8 t h , 1934,
p u b l i s h e d t h e f o l l o w i n g l e t t e r to t h e K d i t o r :

" S i r , A f r i e n d of m i n e in N e w E n g l a n d has a neighbour who has

received a check for 1.000 dollars t h i s yea)' for n o t r a i s i n g hogs. So
niy friend n o w wauls to g o into I h e business himself, he not being very
prosperous just now. He s a y s , in face, (hat the idea of not r a i s i n g
hogs a p p e a l s to him very Wrongly. Oi course, he will need a h i r e d
m a n , and t h a t is where 1 come in
11
. . . . The friend who got the 1,000 d o l l a r s got i t for n o t r a i s i n g
500 hogs. Now -we figure we might easily not raise 7,500 or 2,000 hogs,
so you see t h e p o s s i b l e profits are only l i m i t e d by the n u m b e r of hogs
we d o not raise. The oihei fellow had been r a i s i n g hogs for f o r t y
y e a r s and never made more t h a n 4 0 0 d o l l a r s in a n y o u e ' y e a r . Kind
of p a t h e t i c , i s n ' t it, to t h i n k how he wasted his life r a i s i n g hogs when
he could have m a d e so much more by n o t r a i s i n g t h e m ?
((
T will t h a n k you for a n y advice you may offer.Yours v e r y t r u l y ,
Harold Trurman."<>

T h e w r i t e r of t h e a b o v e l e t t e r h a d e v i d e n t l y g r a s p e d t h e
a b s u r d i t y of a financial s y s t e m b y w h i c h it is m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s
t o p a y m e n a d o l e for d o i n g n o t h i n g t h a n t o p a y t h e m -wages to
p r o d u c e real w e a l t h .
T h o u g h it is a n o b v i o u s fact t h a t it is t h e d e f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g
of t h e financial s y s t e m w h i c h h a m p e r s t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d m u t u a l
e x c h a n g e of all t h e g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e , y e t a n u m b e r of
financial e x p e r t s , a s well as m a n y p o l i t i c i a n s a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s t s
s p e a k of over-production, w h i l e n e v e r m e n t i o n i n g under-con sump
4 : i )
tion, t h r o u g h l a c k of p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r . ' T h e p a r a d o x e s of
(42) Jtrofe.xssor Skinner (dins Montagu Sornuw, by J o h n H a r g r a v e ,
p p , 216, 217.
11
(43) Unfortunately, a finance-controlled Press t h r o u g h o u t the
world persists in m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g the facts, now as always, while the
official manifestoes issued by the h a n k i n g profession, either i g n o r e the
7
' p o s s i b i l i t y of a financial cause f o r the 'depression,' o r else f l a t l y deny
i t " <Tfir Modem Idolatry, by Mr. Jeffrey M a r k , p. 3 S ) .
" P e r h a p s some r e a d e r m a y here o b j e c t : 'How can this c o n s p i r a c y
of silence [in the Press] be t r u e , if the whole ease a g a i n s t the "present
system is as clear as y o u make out I . . . . ft is hard to believe t h a t
so m a n y people could be s o easily t a k e n i n ! T h e i n i t i a l q u e s t i o n sug
gests t h a t i t is impossible to fool not o n l y 'all the people a l l t h e t i m e /
b u t a m a j o r i t y for a considerable time. B u t is not this t e m p o r a r y
fooling g l a r i n g l y evident in the world to-day ? . . . I t is obviously
t r u e t h a t people's opinions are largely fashioned by the P r e s s ; and
t h e Press, like most of u s , is u n d e r p r e s e n t conditions, l a r g e l y ruled
by the money-power . . . . The money-power signifies those who a r e in
chief contra) of o u r present m o n e t a r y system, the financial leaders who
 GOLD STANDARD A N D ECONOMIC DECAY 451

over-production s u c h a s . h u n g e r in G r e a t B r i t a i n w h i l e many-
t h o u s a n d s of t o n s of w h e a t lie u n s o l d in t h e D o m i n i o n s a n d
Dominion f a r m e r s lack m a n y things, machinery, etc., which could
be s u p p l i e d b y t h e u n e m p l o y e d of G r e a t B r i t a i n , s h i p s l y i n g idle
m e a n t i m e f o r l a c k of f r e i g h t s , a r e a t t r i b u t e d b y t h e m t o d e f e c t i v e
a r r a n g e m e n t s o n t h e p a r t of f a r m e r s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a n d
other purely industrial causes. They certainly cannot attribute
t h o s e p a r a d o x e s t o l a c k of t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s , o r t o insufficient
d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e a r t s of a d v e r t i s i n g a n d s a l e s m a n s h i p . These
44)
a r e m o r e t h a n a m p l e f o r t h e w o r k of d i s t r i b u t i o n . < Yet ignoring
t h e q u e s t i o n of m o n e t a r y r e f o r m , t h e y a c c e p t t h e p r o p o s a l s of
t h e m o n e y e d i n t e r e s t s r e s t r i c t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n a n d r a t i o n a l i z a
t i o n of i n d u s t r y .
A b r i e f q u o t a t i o n f r o m G. K. C h e s t e r t o n will fittingly b r i n g t h i s
c h a p t e r lo a close. " T h o s e g a l l a n t m e n , " h e w r i t e s , " w h o s t o r m e d
t h e g a t e s of t h e s u n s e t t o s e t u p t h e g o l d e n b a n n e r s of S p a i n , w e r e
f o r t u n a t e l y u n a w a r e t h a t t h e y w e r e fixing o n a p e a k in D a r i e n
1 4 5
t h e e n i g m a t i c e n s i g n t h a t w e call t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d . " '

d i r e c t i t s m a j o r o p e r a t i o n s . . . . who c o n t r o l t h e m a c h i n e by d i r e c t i n g
the movements of c r e d i t ; a n d this gives them a n immense power over
7
the rest of u s ' (The Pool of All Evil, by S i r R e g i n a l d Bowe, p p .
101, 106).
44
< ) The over-development of a d v e r t i s i n g is d u e t o the d r i v i n g force
of d e b t a n d t h e insufficiency of purchasing-power in each economic
cycle.
< 5> Chaucer,
4
p. 244.
 CHAPTER XIX.

T H K E C O N O M I C P R I N C I P L E S OK S T . T H O M A S A Q U I N A S
A N D T H K F U N C T I O N I N G OK T H K G O L D S T A N D A R D .

W c h a v e s e e n t h e p r i n c i p l e s of S t . T h o m a s c o n c e r n i n g P o l i t i c s
and Kconomics. Let n s a p p l y t h e m t o t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e
Gold S t a n d a r d M o n e t a r y Sy.slem, b e g i n n i n g with his Kconomic
principles.
A, Usury or the Consideration of the Gold Standard from the
1
point of view of Efficient Causality.''
J n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of t h i s q u e s t i o n , w c m u s t k e e p w e l l b e f o r e
o u r m i n d s t h e t e x t of P o p e L e o X I J I in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r ,
Return Novarum ( 1 8 9 1 ) , w h e r e h e i n s i s t s u p o n t h e e x i s t e n c e of
U s u r y in o u r d a y , t h o u g h u n d e r a d i f f e r e n t g u i s e f r o m t h a t of
ancient times. A f t e r h a v i n g i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e
Guilds and the free rein given to u n b r i d l e d c o m p e t i t i o n h a d opened
t h e w a y l o t h e .subjection of t h e l a b o u r i n g p o o r t o a s m a l l n u m b e r
of w e a l t h y m e n , he a d d s : " T h e evil h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d by r a p a c i o u s
u s u r v , w h i c h , t h o u g h m o r e than o n c e c o n d e m n e d by the C h u r c h ,
is, n e v e r t h e l e s s , u n d e r a different guise, but w i t h like injustice,
1 1
still p r a c t i s e d by c o v e t o u s a n d g r a s p i n g m e n . " ' ' H e t h e n g o e s on
t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e evil in q u e s t i o n , n a m e l y , t h e g r o w t h of a
v a s t p r o p c r t y l c s s p r o l e t a r i a t in s u b j e c t i o n lo a f e w r i c h m e n , h a s
b e e n still f u r t h e r a u g m e n t e d b y t h e u p r i s e of p o w e r f u l m o n o p o l i e s
c o n t r o l l i n g e n t e r p r i s e s and r a w m a t e r i a l s . Usury, therefore,
a c c o r d i n g to P o p e L e o X I I I , not o n l y e x i s t s in o u r t i m e s , b u t it
h a s p l a v e d a n e n o r m o u s p a r t in d e p r i v i n g i h e m a s s e > of p r o p e r t y
f:Jl
a n d c o n c e n t r a t i n g it in t h e h a n d s of a f e w .
( n
This m a y ho termed the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of modern money from the
point of view of Eflieient, C a u s a l i t y , as it -deals with (he creation
of money or exe'iange medium.
(-> The Tope's own words a r c : " M a l u m a u x i ' if*ara r<tra;i\ quae
n,ou xttiul ftcvJa&itir. jndicio dantnafa, tiumm aW hominiliu^ avidis
et qiiaestuoais per aham upecicm eeereefar ttt*Iem"
en pope Pius XI in the kncyolieal Letter. (fandra\i< *imo Anno,
'does not u M * the \\ ord usury, hn 1 lie speaks > ( the t err i hie power of
those who control c r e d i t and a d d s in the next p a r a g r a p h that those
who survive in the economic s t r u g g l e a r e " ( h o s e only who a r e the
strongest, which often means those who fight most relentlessly, who
p a y the least heed to the dictates of conscience."
I t is worthy of note t h a t Canon 21551 of the Code of C a n o n Law
t r e a t s of c e r t a i n penalties to he inflicted on those guilty of such
crimes as homicide, ?/.v/////, .sale of h u m a n being* into slavery, etc.
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 453

Many writers hold with Father Lamarche, O.P., that "modern

lending is so constituted that always and everywhere it is accom
4)
panied by extrinsic titles justifying interest."< Accordingly, they
maintain that usury, except in the sense of exorbitant interest,
does not exist, because extrinsic titles justifying a certain rate
of interest are always present. For these writers, however,
money, as a fungible thing, has an existence independent of the
(5
lender and the borrower. > Other writers point out that four of
((i)
the extrinsic t i t l e s properly apply only where the lender of
money gives up already existing money created independently of
him, which by his industry he has succeeded in acquiring. Pro
fessor Soddy states this in his usual clear style: "*The evils of
genuine usury in the Middle Ages," he writes, " through the short
a g e of the precious metals and the insufficiency of the medium of
exchange, cried aloud to heaven for redress. Hut the genuine
usurer did at least give up what he lent and that for which he
received interest, whereas the banker does not It is
bad enough to be in the grip of the money-lender who does lend
his money, but it is a million times worse to be in the grip of the
pretended money-lender who does not lend his own money but
creates it to lend and destroys the means of repayment just as fast
,(7)
as the debtors succeed in repaying i t . ' Sir Reginald Rowe
implicitly makes the same assertion, namely, that exchange-medium
is created and cancelled in the manner best calculated to make
profit for the creators. " It is the large variations in the rate of
interest," he writes, " brought about in the past by the interna
tional scramble for gold, which seem to me largely responsible for
present-day evils, including a world continually at war. Inter
nally they are the machinery of alternate inflations and deflations,
an alternation which hits everybody except the dealers in money
who profit on balance either w//y. Thereby the trader, whether
merchant or manufacturer, is hurt on balance, and all w a g e -
f8J
earners, a vast majority of the community, suffer excessively."
Of course, Professor Soddy and Sir Reginald Rowe and all the
4
< > La justice cf lo prep a interet
?
(p. 17), by Pere A. Lamarche, O.P.
(Societe d Etudes Religieuses, 38, Qua; Mativa, Liege). The same
line of argument is followed by Father'Lewis Watt, S.J., on page 15
of a pamphlet published by the Catholic Social Guild (Oxford),
entitled The Ethics of Interest.
" A fungible thing is one which perishes in the act of serving its
natural purpose, one the natural use of which is to be used up. The
natural and normal use of a loaf of bread, for instance, is to be eaten
JJ
. . . . The loaf is a fungible thing (Father Wow is "Wati, S.J.. op.
c i t , p. 2).
<o> Lucrum cessans (gain given up), damnum emergens (resulting
loss), pcricalum sortis (risk) and poena conventionalis (liability to a
forfeit).
(?) The Role of Money, p. 77.
8 ) The Root
f
of All Evil, by Sir Reginald Rowe, p. 94. (Italics mine).
454 THK MYSTICAL RODY OF CHRIST

w r i t e r s on m o d e r n m o n e y admit that the h a n k s are allowed to

m a k e a s e r v i c e - c h a r g e for t h e c r e a t i o n of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m a n d
t h a t i n t h i s w a y t h e r e is a valid t i t l e t o a c e r t a i n p e r c e n t a g e
(9
for bank-loans. > A s t h e f u n c t i o n is a p u b l i c s e r v i c e it c a n be
c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e b a n k s h a v e a r i g h t to a r e a s o n a b l e r e m u n e r
ation, but we have already seen that the term interest c a n n o t pro
( 1 0 )
p e r l y be a p p l i e d to b a n k - c h a r g e s for t h e i s s u e of b a n k - m o n e y .
A c c o r d i n g l y , a m o d e r a t e s e r v i c e - c h a r g e is justified. T>ut a r e
the banks content with this? Sir R e g i n a l d Rovve e x p r e s s e s t h e
a t t i t u d e of m i n d of t h e g r o w i n g b o d y of s t u d e n t s of t h e b a n k i n g
s y s t e m on this point, w h e n he w r i t e s : " N e w economists a r e not
p r e p a r e d t o * a d m i t t h a t b a n k i n g c o u l d n o t be w o r k e d m u c h m o r e
c h e a p l y , b u t e v e n if b a n k i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o s t n o l e s s , t h e y t h i n k
i t f a t a l l y w r o n g t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of m o n e y s h o u l d
b e left t o p r i v a t e c o n c e r n s o w n e d b y s h a r e h o l d e r s . The banks
publish balance-sheets, but no profit-aud-loss accounts. Their
operations are largely kept secret, and their balance sheets leave
m u c h u n r c v e a l e d . T h e y c a n a l w a y s t h r o u g h t h e i r p o w e r in t h e
m a n u f a c t u r e of c r e d i t a r r a n g e t o p a y a 15 p e r c e n t , d i v i d e n d
( w h i c h s e e m s t o b e a b o u t t h e figure w h i c h t h e i r d i r e c t o r a t e s j u d g e
will n o t a l a r m t h e public), or a n y l a r g e dividend within r e a s o n
a b l e l i m i t s . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t S t a t e - c r e a t e d m o n e y ,
for example, silver and copper coins, circulates without interest
b e i n g p a i d o n it, w h i l e b a n k - c r e a t e d m o n e y e n a b l e s a d i v i d e n d of
15 p e r c e n t t o b e p a i d on i t s c i r c u l a t i o n . T h o u g h a m o d e r a t e r a t e
of i n t e r e s t o n t h e c r e a t i o n of m o n e y c a n b e justified a s a s e r v i c e -
c h a r g e , y e t all C a t h o l i c w r i t e r s a g r e e t h a t a n e x c e s s i v e r a t e of
i n t e r e s t is u s u r i o u s . T h i s , h o w e v e r , c a n h a r d l y be w h a t P o p e L e o
X I I I m e a n t w h e n he said that usury had come back under a n o t h e r
g u i s e , for it is a n old f o r m of u s u r y .
I t s e e m s t o t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r t h a t t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h u s u r y
h a s c o m e b a c k in m o d e r n t i m e s u n d e r a n o t h e r f o r m is b y t h e
a r b i t r a r y c h a n g e s m a d e in t h e v o l u m e of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m by
t h o s e w h o a r c in chief c o n t r o l of t h e m o n e t a r y s y s t e m . M y a r g u
m e n t m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d t o be e x c l u s i v e l y a g a i n s t " t h e financial

O) Lex Civ His or the title of civil law is usually spoken of as an

e x t r i n s i c t i t l e j u s t i f y i n g the lender in d e m a n d i n g interest on a loan.
11
i ) r . Cleary {The Church and U&vry, p . 193) p o i n t s out. t h a t i t is the
one exception to the general rule t h a t e x t r i n s i c titles are reducible to
t i t l e s of c o m p e n s a t i o n . " Theologians are 'divided as to the e x p l a n a t i o n
of the validity of this title. All t h e i r discussions, as has been already
r e m a r k e d , suppose the i n d e p e n d e n t existence of money or exchange-
medium.
do) The term interest, in the case of the modern banker's creation
a n d cancellation of exchange-medium, d e s i g n a t e s the service-charge
m a d e for this function. I t is an old word with a new m e a n i n g . Of.
Money, by Professor O'Rahilly, p p . 102, 272
OU The Boot of All Evil, p. 108.
 ECONOMICS O F AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 455

l e a d e r s w h o direct its m a j o r o p e r a t i o n s , " to use Sir Reginald

1 2
R o w e ' s w o r d s . * ' T h e deflation a f t e r the G r e a t W a r (1914-1918),
w h i c h told so hardly on Irish farmers, was certainly not the
w o r k i n g - o u t of a n i n e x o r a b l e l a w of n a t u r e l i k e a d r o u g h t in A u s
t r a l i a . M o n e y is m a n i p u l a t e d b y h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e s a n d wills, s o
t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e s a n d wills r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e
" s c a r c i t y of m u n e v " s p o k e n of by P o p e P i u s X I in t h e Kncvclical
L e t t e r , On The Troubles of Our Time."-"
I n h i s b o o k , Interest and Usury, p u b l i s h e d in 1943 by t h e
A m e r i c a n Council on P u b l i c Affairs ( W a s h i n g t o n , I X C ) , the R e v .
B e r n a r d W . D e m p s e y , S.J., s e e m s t o a g r e e t h a t d e f l a t i o n a s
d e s c r i b e d is u s u r i o u s . O n p a g e 208 h e w r i t e s : " D e f l a t i o n did n o t
p r e s e n t itself to t h e m [ t h e Scholastics) as an a c u t e p r o b l e m . . . .
If t h e l o a n s a n d c r e a t e d f u n d s u p o n w h i c h i h e y w e r e b a s e d w e r e
all in the hands of one man, t h e S c h o l a s t i c s w o u l d n o t a p p r o v e of
that one man c a l l i n g all t h e l o a n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i n d u c i n g d i s
t r e s s s e l l i n g a n d a n a v a l a n c h e of p s e u d o - c o s t s w i t h r e s u l t a n t
l o w e r v a l u e s , a n d t h e n b u y i n g in t h e a s s e t s . T h a t , t o o , w o u l d b e
gain from a l o a n ; and to m a k e one's o w n price by calling a loan
w o u l d be no less r e p r e h e n s i b l e t h a n c h a r g i n g a h i g h e r price for a
g o o d w h i c h the seller financed by a loan involving no e m e r g e n t
loss. T h o u g h the S c h o o l m e n w e r e not confronted with the p r o
b l e m , w e m a y well b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e c o n d e m n e d s u c h
a p r a c t i c e a s h e a r t i l y a s t h e y w o u l d c o n d e m n t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n of
m o n e y by s e n d i n g pseudo-income to m a r k e t . "
" I t is t h e b i g financiers., t h e d e a l e r s in b i g m o n e y , " w r i t e s S i r
R e g i n a l d R o w e , " w h o control the machine by directing the m o v e
m e n t s ' o f c r e d i t : and this gives t h e m immense p o w e r over the rest
of u s T h o s e i n chief c o n t r o l of m o n e y a r e c o m p a r a
t i v e l y f e w , b u t t h e a r m y t h e y c o m m a n d is l a r g e , s i n c e i t c o n t a i n s
all t h o s e w h o s e l i v e l i h o o d is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m o v e m e n t s of
m o n e y . I t h i n k t h a t m a n y of t h e l e a d e r s , if n o t all, u n d e r s t a n d
t h e p r o b l e m p e r f e c t l y w e l l , b u t k e e p it a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e f r o m t h e i r
o w n c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s w e l l a s f r o m t h a t of o t h e r s
Of t h e r a n k a n d file [of t h e m o n e t a r y a r m y J, p r o b a b l y n o t o n e in
a h u n d r e d u n d e r s t a n d s t h e p r o b l e m a t all. Hooks a r e w r i t t e n
a b o u t it, w h i c h t h e y d o n o t r e a d , a n d it is h a r d l y e v e r m e n t i o n e d
in t h e P r e s s I t h i n k m a n y of t h e m a r e b e g i n n i n g
t o d o u b t if i t [ t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m ) is s a t i s f a c t o r y .
T h e P r e s s is h u g e l y c a p i t a l i z e d , m u s t p a y i n t e r e s t o n i t s c a p i t a l ,
a n d h a s t o finance i t s e l f o n t h e l a r g e s c a l e w h i c h is s o d e a r t o t h e

W\ The Root of All Evil, p. 102. The inferior officials are to be

held responsible only in so f a r as they a r e a w a r e of the working of the
system as a whole a n d c a n react.
Encyclical L e t t e r , Caritate Christi Compvlsi ( M a y 3, 1932). T h e
L a t i n t e x t is pecuniae car Has which m a y be t r a n s l a t e d " scarcity (or
1
d e a r n e s s ) of money.'
 456 TIIK MYSTICAL 150DY O F CHRIST

h e a r t of t h e m o n e y p o w e r . In t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of p u b l i c i g n o r
ance no i m p o r t a n t n e w s p a p e r d a r e affront and challenge the
m o n e y - p o w e r f o r f e a r of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s . Our credit-makers,
t h e b a n k s , s e r v i n g in t h e i r t u r n ' b i g m o n e y / c o u l d e a s i l y b y a t w i s t
( 1 4 )
of t h e c r e d i t - s c r e w c h e c k a n y s u c h r e v o l t . "
A r b i t r a r y c h a n g e s in t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m
c a u s e p r i c e s t o r i s e o r fall. T h u s t h e p o w e r t o c h a n g e t h e v o l u m e
of t h e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m is t h e p o w e r t o c h a n g e t h e t e r m s of
e v e r y c o n t r a c t i n v o l v i n g future, m o n e y p a y m e n t s . T h e a m o u n t of
c u r r e n c y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m is i n c r e a s e d if t h e a g g r e g a t e of
l o a n s g r a n t e d is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a g g r e g a t e of l o a n s p a i d b a c k o r
c a l l e d in, a s h a p p e n s in p e r i o d s of c r e d i t e x p a n s i o n . T h e a m o u n t
of c u r r e n c y is d e c r e a s e d if t h e a g g r e g a t e of l o a n s g r a n t e d is l e s s
t h a n t h e a g g r e g a t e of l o a n s c a l l e d in o r p a i d b a c k , a s h a p p e n s in
p e r i o d s of c r e d i t c o n t r a c t i o n . O n e p a r t y t o t h e l o a n - c o n t r a c t , t h e
C e n t r a l B a n k in c o n t r o l of t h e i s s u e of c r e d i t - m o n e y , t h u s r e t a i n s
t h e p o w e r t o a l t e r t h e v a l u e of t h e c u r r e n c y a s a m e a s u r e of t h i n g s
s a l e a b l e . T h i s is t h e s a m e as if a m a n sells a h o r s e t o a n o t h e r ,
a n d at the s a m e time retains the p o w e r to c h a n g e the a n i m a l into
a m u l e o r a d o n k e y in a f o r t n i g h t o r w h e n e v e r it s u i t s h i m . T h e
y a r d m e a s u r e o r t h e p o u n d a v o i r d u p o i s is n o t a l t e r a b l e in t h i s w a y
a t t h e will of a b u y e r o r a s e l l e r . O n e of t h e c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s ,
the Central Bank, plays the accordion with the exchange-medium
a n d c a n t h u s d o u b l e t h e 5 p e r c e n t . T h e r e c a n be n o q u e s t i o n ot
e x t r i n s i c t i t l e s in t h i s c a s e . I t is p u r e l y a n d s i m p l y u s u r y u n d e r
a n o t h e r guise.
T h i s is t h e p o i n t m a d e b y M r . A r t h u r K i t s o n in t h e p a s s a g e in
A Fraudulent Standard, p u b l i s h e d in 1917, w h e r e h e s p e a k s of the
p l a n s of t h e g r e a t b a n k i n g a n d financial companies that had
i n v e s t e d l a r g e s u m s in W a r L o a n s , t o d o u b l e t h e w e i g h t of t h e
W a r D e b t , by a m e r e s t r o k e of t h e p e n . T h e y w e r e p l a n n i n g t o do
t h i s , h e s a i d , b y r e t u r n i n g to t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d a n d t h u s a l t e r i n g
t h e v a l u e of t h e p o u n d s in w h i c h t h e D e b t h a d b e e n c o n t r a c t e d .
" S i m i l a r l y / ' he a d d s , " a l t h o u g h t h e n o m i n a l r a t e of i n t e r e s t is
5 p e r c e n t . , by this m e t h o d of t a m p e r i n g w i t h t h e v a l u e of t h e
p o u n d , t h e s e i n v e s t o r s will a c t u a l l y r e c e i v e 10 p e r cent, o n t h e i r
o r i g i n a l i n v e s t m e n t . " T h e r e t u r n to t h e Gold S t a n d a r d t o o k p l a c e
i n 1925 a n d the t a x p a y e r s h a d to sell t w o slice]) i n s t e a d of o n e , in
o r d e r t o p a y the i n t e r e s t , t h o u g h t h e n o m i n a l figures of t h e D e b t
a n d of t h e i n t e r e s t w e r e n o t c h a n g e d . T h i s c e r t a i n l v s e e m s t o be
u s u r i o u s , a n d it a c c o m p a n i e s all t h e " b o o m s " a n d " s l u m p s " or
i n f l a t i o n s a n d d e f l a t i o n s t h a t a r c p a r t of t h e n o r m a l f u n c t i o n i n g
of t h e Gold S t a n d a r d . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of d e c l i n i n g p r i c e s a r c
business failures, unemployment and wholesale foreclosures with
i n e v i t a b l e i n c r e a s i n g financial c o n t r o l . " I n f l a t i o n , " a s M r . J e f f r e y

U4> The Root of All Evil, p p . 102, 103.

 ECONOMICS O F AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 457

M a r k e x p r e s s e s it, " is t h e w e b of t h e financial s p i d e r , a n d d e

0 5
flation t h e m a s t i c a t i o n of t h e h u m a n f l y . " '
It m a y be well t o a d d o t h e r t e s t i m o n i e s t o t h a t of A r t h u r
K i t s o n a b o u t t h e effect of t h e r e t u r n t o t h e Gold S t a n d a r d in 1 9 2 5 :
" T h e i n c r e a s e of t h e N a t i o n a l D e b t , d u e to t h e W a r (1914-1918),
s o m e 8,000 m i l l i o n s , " w r i t e s P r o f e s s o r S o d d y , " w a s f o r t h e m o s t
p a r t c o n t r a c t e d in t h i s d e b a s e d m o n e y t h e v a l u e of 1 in g o o d s
b e i n g l e s s t h a n half t h e p r e - W a r v a l u e a n d if t h e m o n e y h a d
b e e n c o r r e c t l y i s s u e d t h e d e b t w o u l d n o t h a v e a m o u n t e d to half
t h i s s u m . . . . T h i s w r o n g t h e Cunliffe C o m m i t t e e p r o p o s e d to
c o r r e c t b y a s e c o n d a n d w o r s e orie ( t h e r e t u r n to t h e Gold S t a n d
a r d ) i n v o l v i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l s w i n d l i n g of d e b t o r s for t h e benefit
of w a r - g o r g e d c r e d i t o r s , s i n c e d e b t s a n d the i n t e r e s t on t h e m a r e
n o t r e a l l y p a i d in p o u n d s b u t in g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s t h e p o u n d s will
buy. B u t all t h i s is n o w c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e a n d s o r d i d b e y o n d
t l 6 )
concealment."
M r . R e g i n a l d M c K e n n a is j u s t a s e m p h a t i c a s P r o f e s s o r S o d d y
o r A r t h u r K i t s o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i n j u s t i c e of t h e r e t u r n t o t h e
G o l d vStandard. In o n e of h i s a d d r e s s e s as C h a i r m a n of t h e M i d
l a n d B a n k , h e t o l d t h e E n g l i s h p e o p l e v e r y c l e a r l y w h a t it m e a n t :
" L e t u s l o o k a t t h e p o l i c y of m o n e t a r y d e f l a t i o n , " h e said, " . . . .
l e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t it w e r e p r a c t i c a b l e b y t h i s p r o c e s s to b r i n g
p r i c e s p e r m a n e n t l y d o w n t o t h e p r e - W a r level. W h a t sort of a
c h a r g e w o u l d o u r N a t i o n a l D e b t m e a n to u s ? It s t a n d s t o - d a y
a t 7,770,000,000, m o s t l y b o r r o w e d w h e n m o n e y w a s w o r t h v e r y
m u c h less than before the w a r . W i t h prices back to their former
level t h e b u r d e n of t h e d e b t w o u l d be m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d , in o t h e r
words, the creditor would receive a huge premium a t . t h e expense
of t h e d e b t o r . . . . S u c h a r e s u l t w o u l d be r e p u g n a n t t o e v e r y
1 1 7
p r i n c i p l e of e q u i t y a n d e c o n o m i c p r o p r i e t y . " '
(15) The Modem Idolatry, p . 287.
(16) The Hole of Money, by Professor Soddy, p p . 78, 80.
I n h i s fine work Alternative to Death (p. 36), the E a r l of Ports
m o u t h d i s t i n g u i s h e s between the system a n d the men who work it.
" Democracy to-day." he writes, " is v i r t u a l l y a fiction. The real
rulers are the small, often u n k n o w n , groups of men who control nearly
all the means of affecting political issues . . . . P r o b a b l v no c o u n t r y
in the world has such able or such u p r i g h t controllers of its hanking
system as we have. One of the very reasons why the devil has never
been sufficiently visible t o provoke revolt is the fact t h a t some of the
most honest of men have devoted their lives in all sincerity to the
e l a b o r a t i o n of this nevertheless dishonest system. Because thev have
r a r e l y been over-greedy, they have worked the system sufficiently well
to mask our decline to the servile *ta(e by inipercepi ihle slaves . . . .
But while they continue to work such a system. haed upon power
without responsibility a n d profit without product ion, misery and
d e g e n e r a t i o n have walked at the head of the procession of modern
progress."
f
J 7 > Q u o t e d bv A. N. F i e l d in The Truth MunU the Slumn, p. 109.
If r. F i e l d adds in the same place : " To see t h a t Mr. M c K e n n a was
458 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

A g a i n , in Economic Tribulation ( p . 5 6 ) , b y V i n c e n t C. V i c k e r s ,
a f o r m e r g o v e r n o r of t h e B a n k of K n g l a n d , w e find t h e i n j u s t i c e
of t h e d e f l a t i o n a r y p o l i c y p u r s u e d a f t e r t h e G r e a t W a r ( 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 )
a s s a i l e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : " I l a v e w e n o t i s s u e d w a r l o a n s ,
a n d i n f l a t e d t h e c u r r e n c y a n d t h e n d e f l a t e d it f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e
moneylenders?'* R e a d e r s will r e c a l l t h e d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t s of the
p o s t - W a r d e f l a t i o n o n I r i s h f a r m e r s . M a n y of t h e m , e n c o u r a g e d
b y t h e h i g h p r i c e s p r e v a i l i n g d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1914-1919, i n v e s t e d
in l a r g e r f a r m s w i t h t h e h e l p of o v e r d r a f t s f r o m t h e b a n k s . W h e n
t h e d e f l a t i o n t o o k p l a c e t h e y f o u n d t h e y h a d to p a y t h e s a m e
n o m i n a l a m o u n t of i n t e r e s t , w h i l e t h e p r i c e s of w h a t the}* h a d to
sell h a d b e e n p r a c t i c a l l y h a l v e d . T h u s the interest, t h o u g h re
m a i n i n g n o m i n a l l y a t t h e s a m e f i g u r e , h a d , t o all i n t e n t s a n d p u r
poses, been doubled. T h e y had. t o sell t w i c e a s m u c h c o r n as
b e f o r e in o r d e r t o p a y it. T h i s is p r e c i s e l y t h e e x a m p l e c h o s e n b y
M r . V. C. V i c k e r s in t h e e x t r a c t f r o m Finance in the Melting Pot
q u o t e d in t h e last, C h a p t e r . A f a r m e r , h e s a i d , w h o , in 1920, b o r
r o w e d f r o m h i s B a n k t h e m o n e y - e q u i v a l e n t of 100 s a c k s of w h e a t ,
w a s o b l i g e d t o sell 200 s a c k s of w h e a l a few y e a r s a f t e r w a r d s in
o r d e r to r e p a y that s a m e loan, b e c a u s e w e r e t u r n e d to the Gold
S t a n d a r d f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e C i t y of L o n d o n .
M r . A. N . F i e l d d e p i c t s a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n in X c w Z e a l a n d a n d
i l l u s t r a t e s it b y s o m e s i m p l e figures: " Both these processes
i n c r e a s e ( i n f l a t i o n ) a n d d e c r e a s e ( d e f l a t i o n ) of t h e c u r r e n c y a r e
g r e a t p u b l i c e v i l s . Of t h e t w o d e f l a t i o n is b y far t h e w o r s e . In
an ordinary inflationary period the active people w h o are pro
d u c i n g things benefit and the inactive and" unproductive people,
s u c h a s t h e d r a w e r s of i n t e r e s t , a r e i n j u r e d . In a p e r i o d of defla
t i o n , it is t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d , a n d t h e a c t i v e p r o d u c e r s suffer,
w h i l e t h e p e o p l e w h o live on i n t e r e s t r e c e i v e m o r e t h a n t h e i r
share.
" F o r i n s t a n c e , let u s s u p p o s e t h a t F a r m e r R o b i n s o n h a d b o u g h t
a f a r m five y e a r s a g o , a n d h a d figured it o u t t h a t of his g r o s s
i n c o m e o n e - t h i r d w o u l d p a y h i s m o r t g a g e i n t e r e s t bill, o n e - t h i r d
w o u l d k e e p him and his family, and the o t h e r third he would have

not mistaken, one h a s o n l y to refer to the file of the London Statist for
J u l y last. I n an article published d u r i n g t h a t month, the Statist
p o i n t e d o u t what the price, decline had m e a n t up to (hen in the dead
weight of the d e b t B r i t a i n owed America. T h a t debt was funded in
1923 at 945,205,000. Since then 35,755,000 had been p a i d off, leaving
909,452,000 o u t s t a n d i n g . The Statis-f price index number in 1923 was
133, i n J u l y last it was 98. T h u s the o u t s t a n d i n g American d e b t , ad
j u s t e d to the. value of money in 1923, would he 1,234,256,000, or
289,051,000 more t h a n the o r i g i n a l a m o u n t . T h e b u r d e n to-day is
considerably heavier t h a n it was in J u l y last, a n d the c o n t r o l l e r s of
gold can juggle the b u r d e n of the. world's debts about t o a n y extent
1
they p l e a s e / As Mr. F i e l d ' s book was published in 1931, by J u l y last,
he means, in all p r o b a b i l i t y , J u l y , 1930.
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 459

free t o p u t b a c k i n t o t h e f a r m . V e r y w e l l , w e will n e x t s u p p o s e
it d o e s n o t n e e d m u c h s u p p o s i n g t h a t F a r m e r R o b i n s o n ' s i n c o m e
f r o m h i s f a r m h a s fallen 50 p e r c e n t . , b y r e a s o n of t h e d e c l i n e in
t h e p r i c e s of h i s p r o d u c e [ d u e t o d e f l a t i o n ] . F o r e v e r y 100 t h a t
f o r m e r l y c a m e in o n l y 50 will n o w c o m e in. B u t h i s m o r t g a g e
i n t e r e s t bill will still r e m a i n a t t h e old figure a n d o u t of e v e r y 50
h e r e c e i v e s h e will h a v e t o s e t a s i d e 33 6s. 8d. for h i s m o r t g a g e
i n t e r e s t . T h i s will l e a v e h i m w i t h 16 13s. 4d. to c a r r y on w i t h
in p l a c e of t h e 66 13s. 4d. f r e e i n c o m e for k e e p i n g h i m s e l f a n d
i m p r o v i n g h i s f a r m t h a t h e h a d r e c k o n e d on five y e a r s b e f o r e . I n
o t h e r w o r d s , a n i n t e r e s t c h a r g e t h a t f o r m e r l y t o o k o n e - t h i r d of
t h e f a r m p r o d u c e t o s a t i s f y it n o w r e q u i r e s t w o - t h i r d s of t h e
s h r u n k e n i n c o m e . T a k e n b y a n d l a r g e t h a t is w h a t t h e f a r m e r s
, , ( l 8
of N e w Z e a l a n d a r e u p a g a i n s t t o - d a y . >
I n t h e F o r e w o r d t o t h e b o o k , Economic Tribulation, already
m e n t i o n e d , M r . V i c k e r s , w h o h a d b e e n a g o v e r n o r of t h e
B a n k of E n g l a n d f r o m 1910 t o 1919, w r i t e s : " E v e r s i n c e
that day in 1926, when, not in arrogance but with
h u m i l i t y , 1 felt it m y d u t y to explain to t h e Governor
of the Bank of England, Mr. Montagu Norman, that
' h e n c e f o r t h I w a s g o i n g to right him and the Gold S t a n d a r d
a n d t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d p o l i c y u n t i l I d i e d ' ( a n d w e l l 1 r e m e m
b e r t h e w o r d s of h i s r e p l y ! ) 1 h a v e b e e n a n a r d e n t m o n e y
r e f o r m e r . S o m e few y e a r s a f t e r w a r d s I resigned m y long director
s h i p of V i c k e r s , L i m i t e d ; s i n c e w h e n I h a v e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a n d
m o n e y i n a d v o c a t i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a r e f o r m of t h e m o n e t a r y
system. . . . I n fifteen y e a r s n o t h i n g w h a t e v e r h a s o c c u r r e d t o
m a k e m e a l t e r m y v i e w s . I still b e l i e v e t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m
is a c t i v e l y h a r m f u l t o t h e S t a t e , c r e a t e s p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y
m e n t , a n d is t h e r o o t c a u s e of w a r . "
T h u s w e see w h a t an i m p o r t a n t role has been played by an old-
t i m e evil in a n e w g u i s e , i n b r i n g i n g t h e m a s s of m e n i n t o s u b
jection to t h e few w h o m a n i p u l a t e m o n e y . In fact, e m p l o y e r s and
e m p l o y e d a r e all n o w m o r e o r l e s s a t t h e m e r c y of t h o s e w h o
u9
control finance. > Indeed, t h e whole Collectivist class-war move
ment, w h e t h e r Socialist or C o m m u n i s t , has been used by finance
simply as a m e a n s to c o n s o l i d a t e its rule o v e r e m p l o y e r s and
employed alike. P e r s o n a l l i b e r t y d e m a n d s t h e r e t u r n of t h e
s o l i d a r i t y of t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y b e t w e e n e m p l o y e r s a n d e m p l o y e d
w i t h t h e r e f o r m of t h e m o n e t a r y s y s t e m , w h i c h is t e n d i n g t o t h e
H8) The Truth about the Slump, p p . 12, 13.
(19) Cf. the e x t r a c t s from the R e p o r t of P u j o Commission which was
made p u b l i c in U . S . A . i n 1913, as q u o t e d i n The Mystical Body of
Christ in the Modern World, p . 306. According to t h i s R e p o r t , five
b a n k i n g houses controlled no less t h a n 112 banks a n d financial a n d
i n d u s t r i a l companies. A c c o r d i n g to M r . Jeffrey M a r k i n The Modern
Idolatry (1934), p. 123, the d i r e c t o r s of e i g h t New York b a n k s then held
2,000 i n d u s t r i a l d i r e c t o r s h i p s between them.
460 TllfC M Y S T I C A L IIODY O F CURLST

e n s l a v e m e n t of b o t h . S o c i a l i s t a n d C o m m u n i s t p r o j e c t s of m o n e
t a r y r e f o r m a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s l i m i t e d t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of a
S t a t e H a n k in e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l of c r e d i t . T h a t u l t i m a t e l y m e a n s
s l a v e r y u n d e r t h e d e s p o t i s m of t h e f i n a n c i e r s m a n o e u v r i n g the
2 0
Socialist and C o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t s a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g c r e d i t / *
B. Money as a Stable Measure of Things Saleable, or the Consideration
of the Gold Standard from the point of view of Formal Causality.
\Ve h a v e s e e n t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to S t . T h o m a s , m o n e y is m e a n t
t o b e a s t a b l e m e a s u r e of t h i n g s s a l e a b l e . M o n e y s h o u l d be
s t e a d i e r in v a l u e t h a n o t h e r t h i r i g s . A c c o r d i n g l y , s t a b i l i t y of t h e
p r i c e level s h o u l d b e t h e o b j e c t of t h e S t a t e ' s u n c e a s i n g v i g i l a n c e .
N o w , in v i e w of w h a t , w e h a v e s e e n , it is u n n e c e s s a r y t o s t r e s s
t h e fact t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d s y s t e m h a s n o t
m a d e f o r s t a b i l i t y of t h e p r i c e level. A t t h e o r d i n a r y m e e t i n g of
t h e s h a r e h o l d e r s of t h e M i d l a n d H a n k , h e l d o n J a n u a r y 2 9 t h , 1932,
M r . R e g i n a l d M c K e n n a said t h a t h e w a s " u n a b l e t o a t t a c h a n y
4
m e a n i n g to the p h r a s e sound m o n e y / except that a ' s o u n d *
u n i t of c u r r e n c y w o u l d a l w a y s b e of t h e s a m e v a l u e m e a s u r e d
in t h e a g g r e g a t e of t h e t h i n g s o n w h i c h o u r m o n e y is s p e n t
V i e w e d in t h i s l i g h t , c o u l d a n y s t a n d a r d h a v e failed m o r e s i g n a l l y
t h a n t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d in r e c e n t y e a r s ? " H e a d d e d t h a t " if t h e
Gold S t a n d a r d cannot w o r k , without d e p r e s s i n g and ruining trade,
t h e p r o p e r c o u r s e w o u l d b e to s e e k a n o t h e r a n d a b e t t e r o n e . . . .
b u t t h a t t h e financial a u t h o r i t i e s of i h e w o r l d , w i t h t h e i r d e e p -
r o o t e d t r a d i t i o n s a n d l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e , will n o t b e e a s i l y
m o v e d to consider the question on its m e r i t s . " A c c o r d i n g to
S i r R e g i n a l d R o w c , M r . M c K e n n a s e e m s to b e of o p i n i o n t h a t
" i f t h e b a n k s a i m p r i m a r i l y a t m a i n t a i n i n g a p r i c e level . . . .
( 2 1 )
n o t h i n g m o r e need be d o n e . "
R e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e s a l o n g w i t h t h e link w i t h g o l d w a s
maintained in G r e a t Hritain after 1931, but in s p i t e of
M r . M c K c n n a ' s opinion, things w e r e far from s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e r e
{ 2 2 )
w e r e miles of u n e m p l o y e d , whose numbers were not greatly
<*>) " L a b o u r members, with i m p o r t a n t exceptions, a l t h o u g h they
c l a m o u r f o r the n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of the hanks, s e e m mostly so b l i n d to
uhafc t h e banks a r e u p to that they a r c a s likely a s n o t , even if such
n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n were effected, to become u n w i t t i n g l y the slaves of the
s y s t e m " (The Hoof of MI AY/7, b y S i r Reginald Howe, p . 1 0 9 ) .
<2U Tin Root of Ml Neil, by Kir Ueginald H o w e (p. 108).
(22) " I f a l l t h e men. women, hoys a n d girls, a tidal o f 2 , 8 2 5 , 7 7 2 , w h o
w e r e registered a^ unemployed o n September 28, 1031, had stood o r s a t
in one line, shoulder to shoulder, t h a t line a t two persons per horizontal
y a r d , would have extended for 802 miles. They would then be s t a n d i n g
or s i t t i n g about a s closely a s people s i t in a third-class r a i l w a y - c a r r i a g e ,
where the breadth allowed p e r person i s generally a fraction u n d e r IS
inches.^ T o g e t a n idea of the, length of t h a t line, w e m a y note t h a t
. . . . from London a d i r e c t line 800 miles long a t sea-level would reach
>}
f a r t h e r than M a d r i d , Florence or Vienna, a n d f a r beyond Berlin (The
Principal Cawse of Unemployment, b y D. W. Maxwell, p. 1 3 ) .
 ECONOMICS O F AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 461

r e d u c e d in t h e s u c c e e d i n g y e a r s . Credits w e r e being given to

G e r m a n y w h i c h w e r e b e i n g used for r e - a r m a m e n t , a n d t h e r e w a s
" o v e r - p r o d u c t i o n " w i t h p e o p l e u n d e r f e d a n d insufficiently clad.
" C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t -we a r e in a n a g e of m o n e t a r y p o l i c y . . . .
w h e n t h e r e is n o t g i v e n a m o m e n t ' s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e m o s t
e l e m e n t a r y p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e t o t h e o w n e r s of m o n e y , w h o g i v e
u p for it v a l u a b l e g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s a n d h a v e a r i g h t t o r e c c h e
2
a g a i n v a l u e e q u i v a l e n t to t h a i w h i c h t h e y h a v e g i v e n up,"* -**
s o m e t h i n g m o r e s e e m s l o b e n e e d e d . A m o r e scientific s y s t e m of
r e g u l a t i n g t h e i s s u e of m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m , by w h i c h it-
will be w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e c o n t r o l of t h o s e w h o h a v e t h u s
a b u s e il t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s in t h e p a s t , is e v i d e n t l y r e q u i r e d . That
w e s h a l l t r e a t of l a t e r , b u t h e r e a f e w r e m a r k s m u s t b e m a d e
a b o u t t h e c o n t i n u a n c e of t h e u s e of g o l d as a m e a s u r e of t h i n g s
saleable.
C. Two Theories of MoneyThe Quantitative Theory and the Qualitative
or Commodity Theory, or the Consideration of the Gold Standard
from the point of view of Material Causality.
In Monri/ and Civilization ( p . V I I I ) , by A l e x a n d e r del M a r ,
t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e u s e of gold a s a
m e a s u r e of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s . *' F r o m the e v i d e n c e s of f a c t
w h i c h h i s t o r y p r e s e n t s , " w r i t e s del M a r , " a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n s
w h i c h r.eason affords, it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e v a l u e of c o i n s , s o l o n g
a s t h e y r e m a i n c o i n s , is in i n v e r s e r a t i o t o t h e w h o l e s u m of
m o n e y in u s e w h e n r e d u c e d t o l i k e d e n o m i n a t i o n s : w h i l e t h e v a l u e
of t h e m e t a l s of w h i c h t h e c o i n s m a y b e m a d e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e
stock on h a n d , supply and d e m a n d for the arts, m i n i n g discoveries,
c o n q u e s t s , s l a v e r y , t a x a t i o n , g e n e r a l p r o g r e s s in t h e m e c h a n i c a l
a r t s , t h e g r o w t h of c o m m e r c e , t h e u s e of p a p e r n o t e s , t h e e x t e n
s i o n of t h e c r e d i t s y s t e m , a n d u p o n f a s h i o n s , c a p r i c e a n d n u m e r o u s
o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . A s t h e r e a r e p r a c t i c a l l y n o m e a n s of p r e
v e n t i n g t h e o w n e r s of c o i n s f r o m r e d u c i n g t h e m t o m e t a l , a n d
as u n d e r e x i s t i n g l a w s this m e t a l m a y be re-coined a t p l e a s u r e , it
f o l l o w s t h a t t h e v a l u e of t h e c o i n s h a s b e e n r e g u l a t e d by t w o
d i f f e r e n t s e t s of c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , w h o l l y o p p o s e d t o o n e a n o t h e r ,
o n e r e l a t i n g to n u m b e r , a n d the o t h e r to m a t e r i a l . H e n c e the
r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n o n t h e s u b j e c t / '
In o t h e r w o r d s c o n f u s i o n h a s b e e n c r e a t e d b y t h e fact, t h a t t w o
d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s , s u b s t a n c e a n d q u a n t i t y , h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d in
r e a s o n i n g s a b o u t t h e u s e of g o l d a s a m e d i u m of e x c h a n g e , in
t h e e a r l y clays of t h e u s e of g o l d a s m o n e y , w h e n it w a s m e r e l y
a simplified f o r m of b a r t e r , t h e s u b s t a n c e o r c o m m o d i t y t h e o r v
w a s in v o g u e , b u l t h e u s e of p a p e r - m o n e y , w h e t h e r in t h e f o r m
of b a n k n o t e s o r c h e q u e s l e a d s t o m a n i f e s t a b s u r d i t i e s in t h a t
t h e o r y . A r t h u r K i t s o n s h o w s t h i s c o n c l u s i v e l y in The Bankers"
<23) The Role of Money, by Professor Soddy (p. 85).
462 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Conspiracy, pp. 59-61. " T h e t h e o r y , w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y held sway

amongst financiers practically the w o r l d over when Sir Robert
Feel i n t r o d u c e d his f a m o u s B a n k A c t , w a s k n o w n a s t h e qualita
tive o r eotnruodit'// money theory. It w a s h e l d t h a t t h e v a l u e or
p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of m o n e y w a s d u e t o t h e m e t a l c o m p o s i n g it
o r i n t o w h i c h it w a s l e g a l l y c o n v e r t i b l e . G o l d w a s t h e n s u p p o s e d
l o h a v e a Mixed v a l u e ' t h e w o r l d o v e r . . . . It will be s e e n t h a t
t h i s q u a l i t a t i v e o r c o m m o d i t y m o n e y t h e o r y o r i g i n a t e d w i t h and
p e r t a i n s e x c l u s i v e l y to b a r t e r , the e x c h a n g e of o n e c o m m o d i t y for
a n o t h e r of e q u a l v a l u e . . . . In his c e l e b r a t e d s p e e c h d e l i v e r e d on
M a y 6, 1844, in t h e H o u s e of C o m m o n s , on t h e r e n e w a l of /he
B a n k of K n g l a n d C h a r t e r . Sir R o b e r t F e e l defined t h e K n g l i s h
m o n e t a r y p o u n d as f o l l o w s : ' T h a t w h i c h is i m p l i e d in t h e w o r d
* p o u n d ' is a c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t y of g o l d w i t h a m a r k u p o n it
t o d e t e r m i n e its w e i g h t a n d f i n e n e s s , a n d t h a t t h e e n g a g e m e n t
to p a y a p o u n d m e a n s n o t h i n g a n d c a n m e a n n o t h i n g e l s e t h a n
the p r o m i s e to p a y the holder, w h e n he d e m a n d s , t h a t definite
q u a n t i t y of g o l d . T h i s d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t y is t h e m a s s of s t a n d a r d
g o l d l l / 1 2 t h s line c o n t a i n e d in o u r g o l d e n s o v e r e i g n , viz., 1 2 3 ' 7447
g r a i n s . T h a t is a t p r e s e n t the o n l y l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e p o u n d
e x t a n t , a n d c o n s t i t u t e s w h a t is called t h e B r i t i s h s t a n d a r d unit
2 1
m e a s u r e of v a l u e . ' t ' ' . . . . In e n d e a v o u r i n g to p r o v e t o the
H o u s e " t h e scientific c o r r e c t n e s s of h i s d e l m i t i o n of t h e p o u n d , Sir
R o b e r t Peel . . . . confounded t w o quite distinct and i n d e p e n d e n t
t r a n s a c t i o n s , v i z . , b a r t e r , a n d p u r c h a s e by m e a n s of c r e d i t . L e t us
p u t Sir R o b e r t ' s definition t o t h e t e s t . If t h e m o n e t a r y p o u n d m e a n s
n o t h i n g efse t h a n so m u c h g o l d w i t h t h e m a r k upon i t i n o t h e r
w o r d s , t h e g o l d e n s o v e r e i g n - t h e n t h e l e g a l i z a t i o n of m o n e t a r y
p a y m e n t s in a n y t h i n g else b u t g o l d e n s o v e r e i g n s , m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y
be c o n s i d e r e d a l e g a l i z e d r o b b e r y . A n d y e t in t h i s v e r y s a m e

11
<-- Onlv a short e x t r a c t from S i r Robert Peel's speech is q u o t e d in
The Hanker^ Cons/iiracy. The p o r t i o n quoted is taken from A r t h u r
K i t s o n ' s other book, A Fraudulent Standard (p. 52). As S i r Robert
Peel follows Locke, it is more accurate philosophically to speak of the
theory contained in the Bank Act of 1844 as the q u a l i t a t i v e theory
r a t h e r t h a n the substance or commodity-theory. Locke, as a n o m i n a l i s t
a n d semi-sensist, is, at best, hazy about the c a t e g o r y of substance. He
w r i t e s : " T h e complex ideas we have of substance are, as it has been
shown, c e r t a i n collections of simple ideas t h a t have been observed or
supposed c o n s t a n t l y to exist together . . . . Ideas of substance as collec
tions of their qualities are all i n a d e q u a t e . . . . Those who, neglecting
that itself** su/f positton of unknown real essences whereby they an*
distinguished, endeavour t o copy the substances that exist in the world,
by p u t t i n g together the ideas of those sensible q u a l i t i e s which are found
co-existing in them, etc When I am told t h a t something besides
the figure, size, a n d posture of the solid p a r t s of the body is its essence,
something called s u b s t a n t i a l form, of that 1 confess T have no idea at
all . . . (Locke's Esau if of Human JJ-ndt rstandinn. Ilook H, Chapters
X X n i and X X X I ) .
 LXONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 463

B a n k A c t , S i r R o b e r t a u t h o r i z e d t h e issue of 14,000,000 of H a n k
n o t e s b y t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d w i t h o u t a n y gold b a c k i n g w h a t
ever. If S i r R o b e r t P e e l r e a l l y b e l i e v e d in the g o l d s t a n d a r d
principle a s b e defined it, in f o i s t i n g 14,000,000 of p a p e r m o n e y
upon t h e B r i t i s h p u b l i c , h e w a s g u i l t y of e n a c t i n g o n e of t h e m o s t
i m p u d e n t a n d f r a u d u l e n t l e g i s l a t i v e m e a s u r e s e v e r inflicted u p o n
a long-suffering public !
" A g a i n , if t h e p o u n d ' m e a n s n o t h i n g a n d can m e a n n o t h i n g
else ' t h a n t h e l e g a l q u a n t i t y of g o l d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g o l d e n
s o v e r e i g n , viz., 113 g r a i n s , it" f o l l o w s t h a t . . . . 8,000,000,000
the a m o u n t of o u r W a r D e b t m u s t m e a n this n u m b e r of g o l d e n
s o v e r e i g n s o r 8,000,000,000 t i m e s 113 g r a i n s of g o l d , w h i c h is
r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t to 80,000 t o n s of gold. Now the estimated
q u a n t i t y of g o l d a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e w o r l d , is n o t m o r e
than o n e - t h i r d of the s u m r e p r e s e n t i n g o u r W a r D e b t . . . . M y
point is t h i s . Hy a p p l y i n g i*ir R o b e r t P e e l ' s definition of t h e p o u n d
to a n y l a r g e s u m s r e p r e s e n t i n g , s a y t h e W a r D e b t , o u r N a t i o n a l
w e a l t h o r a n y l a r g e a g g r e g a t i o n of c a p i t a l , the m o n e t a r y s u m s in
which t h e y arc expressed b e c o m e absurd and meaningless. . . .
Of c o u r s e , t h e o n l v r a t i o n a l m e a n i n g t h a t can be g i v e n t o s u c h
m o n e t a r y e x p r e s s i o n s a s 8.000,000,000 is 8,000,000,000 t i m e s t h e
p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of t h e p o u n d at t h e t i m e the d e b t o r e s t i m a t e
was m a d e . . . .
" W i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of c r e d i t , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
credit b a n k i n g , an e n t i r e l y n e w m o n e t a r y s y s t e m w a s e v o l v e d ,
based u p o n a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e . . . . T h e m o d e r n a n d
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e o r y of m o n e t a r y s c i e n c e is k n o w n a s t h e
q u a n t i t a t i v e t h e o r y , w h i c h a s s e r t s ' t h a t t h e v a l u e of t h e m o n e y
unit is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n u m b e r of u n i t s in c i r c u l a t i o n m u l t i p l i e d
by t h e i r v e l o c i t y of c i r c u l a t i o n . T h i s t h e o r y is in d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n
to t h e b a r t e r o r c o m m o d i t y - m o n e y t h e o r y . F o r it c l a i m s t h a t
quantity a n d n o t quality c o n t r o l s t h e v a l u e of m o n e y . H e n c e it
is a b s o l u t e l y i m m a t e r i a l s o f a r a s v a l u e is c o n c e r n e d , w h e t h e r a
n a t i o n e m p l o y s p a p e r money_/>r g o l d a n d s i l v e r c o i n s s o l o n g a s
the n u m b e r of u n i t s in c i r c u l a t i o n is t h e s a m e in b o t h c a s e s . U n d e r
the q u a l i t a t i v e o r c o m m o d i t y - m o n e y t h e o r y , gold f u n c t i o n s b y
w e i g h t , w h i l s t u n d e r t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e t h e o r y , gold c o i n s f u n c t i o n
solely by n u m b e r . A n d t h i s q u a n t i t y t h e o r y is s u p p o r t e d in p r a c
tice in w h a t e v e r d i r e c t i o n it m a y b e a p p l i e d . . . . It stands to
r e a s o n t h a t s i n c e m o n e y is m e r e l y a claim t o w e a l t h g o o d s o r '
s e r v i c e s i t s p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n u m b e r
of c l a i m s o f f e r e d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e w e a l t h a v a i l a b l e . A n d it c a n
not p o s s i b l y m a k e a n y d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r t h e s e c l a i m s a r e e n
g r a v e n o n p a r c h m e n t n o t e s , o n s i l v e r o r o n gold, s o l o n g a s all
, , ( 2 5 )
arc e q u a l l y valid c l a i m s in t h e e y e s of t h e l a w .
<25) St. Thomas expresses these ideas in p i t h y fashion : " All other
things have some u t i l i t y in themselves, hut not money, which is only
464 TIIK MYSTICAL 110DY OF CHRIST

A s a s t a b l e measure d e s t i n e d t o f a c i l i t a t e i h e e x c h a n g e of g o o d s
in v i e w of f a m i l y life, w h i c h is S t . T h o m a s ' s c o n c e p t , m o n e y be
( r,
l o n g s t o t h e c a t e g o r y of q u a n t i t y . - > Kxchangc-valucs are quan-
tilative and are expressed quantitatively. A c l e a r p r o o f of the
q u a n t i t y - t h e o r y of m o n e y w a s a v a i l a b l e in p r a c t i c e , w h e n t h e gold
standard was functioning. A g i v e n w e i g h t of g o l d , in d i f f e r e n t
c o u n t r i e s like K n g l a n d a n d the U n i t e d S t a t e s w h o s e currencies
w e r e b a s e d o n g o l d , h a d a d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e of p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r ;
y e t if t h e s u b s t a n c e " g o l d " w e r e t h e m e a s u r e of v a l u e , t h e p u r
c h a s i n g p o w e r s h o u l d b e t h e s a m e . A n o u n c e of g o l d in E n g l a n d
\ y a s e q u a l t o a n o u n c e of g o l d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t t h e q u a n
t i t i e s o r a m o u n t s of p a p e r c u r r e n c y a n d c r e d i t m o n e y in c i r c u l a t i o n
in t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d t h e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of gold
271
c u r r e n c y t h e s a m e a s t h e a d d i t i o n of g o l d c o i n s . * "The
a g g r e g a t e of all t h e m o n e y ( c o u n t e r s ) in a n a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to
all g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s o n s a l e f o r m o n e y * d e t e r m i n e s a v e r a g e p r i c e s .
T h e p r i c e level is a m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h e r a t i o a t w h i c h
2
m o n e y c a n b e e x c h a n g e d for goods."* *) It is t h u s p o s s i b l e to
c a l c u l a t e w h a t a p a r t i c u l a r u n i t of m o n e y in c i r c u l a t i o n in a c o u n
t r y , a p o u n d o r a d o l l a r , will p u r c h a s e of t h e o r d i n a r y t h i n g s
needed by h u m a n beings. T h e aim mtist be to keep t h a t purchas
i n g - p o w e r s t a b l e a t t h e d e s i r e d level, b y a d d i n g t o t h e a g g r e g a t e
w h e n t h e r e is a p r o p o r t i o n a l i n c r e a s e in t h e g o o d s o r s e r v i c e s
o f f e r e d for s a l e a n d s u b t r a c t i n g t h e r e f r o m , w h e n t h e r e h a s b e e n
a d e c r e a s e . " S i n c e n e w m o n e y c a n b e i m m e d i a t e l y e x c h a n g e d for
g o o d s o r s e r v i c e s , a r b i t r a r y i n c r e a s e s in t h e v o l u m e i n c r e a s e the
e f f e c t i v e d e m a n d for g o o d s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a l t e r a v e r a g e p r i c e s
u p w a r d . A d d i t i o n s t o t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y w i t h o u t a p r e v i o u s
p r o p o r t i o n a l i n c r e a s e in t h e s u p p l y of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s o n sale
f o r m o n e y d e c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s o b t a i n a b l e
for m o n e y . L e s s m o n e y d e c r e a s e s t h e effective d e m a n d for goods.
. . . T h u s it can be s e e n t h a t t h e p o w e r t o c a u s e a c h a n g e in the
v o l u m e of m o n e y is t h e p o w e r t o l a x a n d t o c h a n g e t h e t e r m s of

the measure of the u t i l i t y of o t h e r things. H e n c e the use of money does

n o t measure u t i l i t y through money itself, h u t t h r o u g h the t h i n g s which
a r e measured by money " ( I I I Sent., d. 37, q. 1, a. 6. T r a n s l a t i o n as in
Money, hy Prof. OTtahilly, p. 128).
2
<G) According to the p r i n c i p l e s of St. T h o m a s there is another
r e l a t i o n of measure, but obviously i t does not a p p l y t o money or
exchange-medium. " T h i s relation of measure, whieh is not according
to q u a n t i t y (the q u a n t i t a t i v e relation of measu T is one of e q u a l i t y and
i n e q u a l i t y ) , but according to being a n d t n t t h , is the relation of formal
e.ririnsie eausaUhf, This N twofold, inasmuch as the measure is either
an objert or a mothi; f a c u l t i e s ' h a b i t u s ' , and acts are measured by
their object, a work of art or a p r o d u c t of i n d u s t r y by the idea in the
a r t i s t ' s or c r a f t s m a n ' s m i n d " ( O r e d t , O . S . B . , Elemthta i'ln'fosopfn'ae,
Ed. 5a, n . 1f>-2).
J27) Cf. The llauhr* f'oasp/raey, hy A r t h u r Kitson (p. 66).
2f
' *> ftfwfi/f Maury l.fefuns, b\ Miss O. ~S\ Coogan. Lecture Four.t
 KCONOMICS OF AQUTNAS AND GOLD STANDARD 465

every contract involving future money payments. Arbitrary

c h a n g e s in m o n e y s e e - s a w a v e r a g e p r i c e s a n d t h u s c a u s e t h e e v e r
lasting and unnecessary struggle between debtors and creditors
( 2 9 J
and o w n e r s a n d l a b o u r e r s . "
O n e m o r e q u o t a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h i s i m p o r t a n t p o i n t will b e
g i v e n b e c a u s e of its c l e a r n e s s . Jt is f r o m t h e p e n of M r . R o b e r t
O w e n , w h o s e a u t h o r i t y in t h e m a t t e r n o o n e can q u e s t i o n . He
w r i t e s a s f o l l o w s : " P e o p l e h a v e a g e n e r a l illusion t h a t m o n e y is
s t a b l e a n d t h a t p r o p e r t y is u n s t a b l e b e c a u s e it r i s e s a n d falls in
p r i c e ; w h e r e a s i t is m o n e y w h i c h falls o r r i s e s in p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r
b e c a u s e of [ i t s ] s c a r c i t y o r a b u n d a n c e . . . . W h e n t h e c o m m o d i
ties in t h e w h o l e s a l e m a r k e t s in 1933 r e q u i r e d 40 p e r c e n t , l e s s
m o n e y to be b o u g h t t h a n in 1929, it w a s b e c a u s e t h e m o n e y s u p p l y
was contracted. Since m o n e y m e a s u r e s e v e r y t h i n g , the scarcity
of m o n e y c a u s e s t h e v a l u e of e v e r y t h i n g to fall. W h e n t h e m o n e y
s u p p l y is m o r e a b u n d a n t , o r d o u b l e s , a n d t h e v o l u m e of c o m m o d i
ties is u n c h a n g e d , t h e e x c h a n g e - v a l u e in m o n e y of all c o m m o d i
ties a n d p r o p e r t i e s d o u b l e s . W h i l e t h i s t r u t h is r e c o g n i z e d
by al! i n f o r m e d s t u d e n t s , n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e illusion p e r s i s t s w i t h a
g r e a t b o d y of p e o p l e t h a t it is n o t t h e m o n e y t h a t c h a n g e s in v a l u e
but the property. . . . It t a k e s t i m e t o o v e r c o m e s u c h a w o r l d
wide e r r o r
" P r i o r t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y it w a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y
of m o n e y h e l d b y o r t h o d o x p r o f e s s o r s of political e c o n o m y , t h a t
gold w a s m o n e y p r o v i d e d b y n a t u r e a n d t h a t n o t h i n g else w a s
money. This opinion w a s expressed very clearly by the g r e a t
financier, J . P . M o r g a n , in D e c e m b e r , 1912, in a n s w e r i n g a q u e s
t i o n of S a m u e l U n t e r m e y e r d u r i n g t h e P u j o I n v e s t i g a t i o n . Mr.
M o r g a n s a i d : ' G o l d is m o n e y a n d n o t h i n g else is.' . . . M o d e r n
s t u d e n t s of m o n e t a r y s c i e n c e n o w k n o w w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e
v a l u e of m o n e y d e p e n d s u p o n t h e s u p p l y of m o n e y in r e l a t i o n t o
t h e d e m a n d for m o n e y . G u s t a v e C a s s e l l , P r o f e s s o r of political
e c o n o m y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S t o c k h o l m , . . . s e t s f o r t h t h e s e
c o r r e c t p r i n c i p l e s . . . . O u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
h a s c o m p l e t e l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e t r u t h of t h e quantitative
t h e o r y , "uo)
W c s h a l l s e c l a t e r t h e r e f o r m s t h a t will be a d v i s a b l e , in a c c o r d
a n c e w i t h S t . T h o m a s ' s p r i n c i p l e s , in o r d e r to e n s u r e s t a b i l i t y of
n a t i o n a l p r i c e l e v e l s . G o l d s e e m s t o be a s o u r c e of c o n f u s i o n b y
i n t r o d u c i n g t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a c a t e g o r y o t h e r t h a n q u a n t i t y .
B e s i d e s , i t s u s e is d a n g e r o u s , a s it c a n be m o n o p o l i z e d a n d t h u s
a l l o w of a r b i t r a r y i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h e x c h a n g e - v a l u e s a n d w i t h the
social o r d e r .
Lawful Money Lectures, by Miss G. M. Coogan, Lecture F o u r .
(30) National Economy and the Ban-king System of the United States
(pp. 21-23) by Robert L. Owen, former C h a i r m a n of Senate Committee
on B a n k i n g a n d Currency.
II
 466 TIIK M Y S T I C A L BODY OF CHRIST

D. The Purpose of Money, or the Consideration of the Gold Standard

from the point of View of Final Causality.

T h e p u r p o s e o f m o n e y , a c c o r d i n g l o S i . T h o m a s , is t o f a c i l i t a t e
e x c h a n g e s in v i e w of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of
m e m b e r s o f C h r i s t . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e
G o l d S t a n d a r d h a s led n o t o n l y t o s o m e t h i n g o f a d e a d l o c k in i n t e r
n a t i o n a l t r a d e , hut t o i h c d e s t r u c t i o n of food a n d t h e l e s s e n i n g
, : i n
of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e a s o n for t h i s h a s b e e n s t a t e d
m o r e than once. f i lies in tlie p e r v e r s i o n of o r d e r i n v o l v e d in
t h e .system. I n s t e a d of t h e r i g h t o r d e r , a c c o r d i n g l o w h i c h the
m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y is i n t e n d e d l o f a c i l i t a t e p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i
b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e , in v i e w of s t r e n g t h e n i n g f a m i l y life, m e n
a r e n o w sacrificed for p r o d u c t i o n , w h i l e p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p
t i o n , in t h e i r t u r n , a r e .sacrificed for i n t e r e s t on d e b t . I n s t e a d of
b e i n g a n i n s t r u m e n t of F c o n o m i c s a n d P o l i t i c s , m o n e y is t h e end.
T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l d i s o r d e r , vi>'., t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f m o n e y , s h o w s -
i t s e l f in h u m a n life in a m u l t i t u d e o f evil effects. L e t u s c o n s i d e r
s o m e of t h e m , a t l e a s t in o u t l i n e .

(a) I-WKMIXO.

T h e p r o d u c t i o n of p r i m a r y g o o d s is sacrificed to t h e p r o d u c t i o n
of l u x u r y a r t i c l e s a n d g o o d s of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . W e h a v e
s e e n t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n of m o n e y w i t h a d e m a n d for i n t e r e s t l e a d s
t o g o o d s b e i n g u n s o l d in e v e r v t r a d e - c y c l e a n d t h a t t h e v o l u m e
u n s o l d i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e e x p a n s i o n of d e b t . Xow the r h y t h m
of p r o d u c t i o n of s e c o n d a r y a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s c a n be a c c e l e
r a t e d e n o r m o u s l y in t h e e n d c i v o u r to a c c o m p l i s h t h e i m p o s s i b l e
t a s k of g e t t i n g o u t of d e b t . Hut agriculture is dependent on the
seasons; its rhythm cannot, be. accelerated in the same proportion,
and the attempt to do something similar by the exploitation of
virgin soils is disastrous in Us effects on those soils.
T h i s l a s t p o i n t can be d i s p o s e d of first. F o r an a d e q u a t e t r e a t
m e n t of it t h e r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d t o t w o o u t s t a n d i n g b o o k s , The
Labouring Earth, by C. A l m a U a k e r , C. U.K., a n d The Hope of the
Earth, b y G. V. J a c k s a n d R. (). W h y t c . In t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n to
f;
*D Wherever Sir Otto Niemeyer. a member of the Board of the Bank
for I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sett lemon ts, has been t h r o u g h o u t the world, pro
moting the foundation of C e n t r a l Banks, jn the interests of " financial
reconstruction,'" he has left behind him suggestions for g r e a t e r economy
((
and general t i g h t e n i n g of belts.'" The reason for this is t h a t the
p a y m e n t of i n t e r e s t on loans must he f a c i l i t a t e d , no m a t t e r how the
unemployed may languish in the midst of p o t e n t i a l sufficiency. Irish
r e a d e r s will remember t h a t Professor T. K (iugenheim G r e g o r y , Sir
O t t o ' s companion in A u s t r a l i a and N>w Z e a l a n d in 1930, was -a' mem
ber of the^ Irish B a n k i n g Commission. l i e \va one of the signatories
of the M a j o r i t y "Report of which the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are reminiscent
of S i r Otto Niemeyer's " t r a i l of economy."
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 467

t h e f o r m e r b y t h e R t . H o n . L o r d A d d i s o n , w e r e a d : " T h e r e is
n o d o u b t a s t o t h e j u s t i c e of t h e a u t h o r ' s first m a i n c o n t e n t i o n
t h a t , in t h e d e s i r e t o m a k e m o n e y o u t of it q u i c k l y , m a n k i n d h a s
w a s t e d t h e precious e a r t h wholesale., turned fertile lands into
d e s e r t s a n d p r e s e n t e d u s w i t h w i d e l a n d s c a p e s of r u b b i s h in p l a c e
of c u l t i v a t e d fields. W e h a v e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t a k e n o r g a n i c m a t t e r
from t h e soil a n d n o t r e p l a c e d i t . " T h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e s from
p a g e s 25 a n d 2 8 of t h e s e c o n d b o o k a r c a s t r i k i n g c o n f i r m a t i o n
of M r . B a k e r ' s t h e s i s : " I n E u r o p e . . . . the countryside has
b e e n d e s e c r a t e d a n d s c a r r e d w i t h u g l i n e s s in m a n y p l a c e s , but t h e
o n e i n v i o l a b l e c o n d i t i o n on w h i c h m a n h o l d s t h e l e a s e of l a n d
f r o m N a t u r e t h a t soil f e r t i l i t y be p r e s e r v e d h a s in t h e m a i n
been respected. . . . In t h e N e w W o r l d . . . w i t h f e w e x c e p
t i o n s , p r o f i t a n d w e a l t h h a v e b e e n m o s t easily w o n b y e x p l o i t i n g
and e x h a u s i n g the virgin soils. In p a r t i c u l a r g r a s s l a n d soils
r e q u i r e d m e r e l y a superficial c u l t i v a t i o n to c o n v e r t t h e m i m m e d i
a t e l y i n t o a l m o s t ideal a r a b l e s o i l s , r i c h in p l a n t food, p e r f e c t in
tilth, a n d a p p a r e n t l y i n c a p a b l e of f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t . O r t h e y
a f f o r d e d r i c h a n d e x t e n s i v e p a s t u r e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o be t o u c h e d
at all. . . . T h e i n s a t i a b l e d e m a n d s of t h e Old W o r l d a n d t h e
p r o g r e s s of a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e a n d m a c h i n e r y o f f e r e d i m m e n s e
profits a n d f u r t h e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n t o t h e m a n w h o
c a s h e d h i s soil f e r t i l i t y f o r l a b o u r - s a v i n g a n d y i e l d - i n c r e a s i n g d e
vices. . . . N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y e c o n o m y , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n t h e
B r i t i s h E m p i r e , w a s b a s e d o n t h e m u t u a l e x c h a n g e of a g r i c u l t u r a l
and industrial produce. T h a t the N e w World w a s being robbed
of i t s soil a n d w a s b e i n g p a i d i n c o i n t h a t b r o u g h t n o r e c o m p e n s e
t o t h e l a n d n e v e r e n t e r e d t h e h e a d s of e i t h e r p a r t n e r t o a b a r g a i n
which s e e m e d . . . . n a t u r a l , sensible, and highly satisfactory to
all c o n c e r n e d . "
I t did s e e m q u i t e n a t u r a l t o all c o n c e r n e d , for it w a s all p a r t
of t h e s y s t e m of p r o c u r i n g c h e a p food, in o r d e r t o k e e p t h e w a g e s
of E n g l i s h w o r k e r s l o w a n d e n a b l e E n g l i s h i n d u s t r y t o p a y i n t e r
est on t h e l o a n s c o n t r a c t e d f r o m t h e b a n k s . T h e d o m i n a t i o n of
finance c a u s e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of i n d u s t r y in E n g l a n d , a t t h e
e x p e n s e of a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h i t s s l o w e r r h y t h m i c m o v e m e n t . T h e n
c a m e t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of c h e a p f o o d f r o m t h e v i r g i n soils of
A m e r i c a , w h i c h r e s u l t e d in t h e r u i n o u s e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e l a t t e r
and b r o u g h t English a g r i c u l t u r e into stagnation and * decay.
" E n g l i s h f a r m i n g , " w r i t e s C o m m a n d e r H e r b e r t S h o v e , D.S.O.,
" h e l d i t s o w n , in a r a p i d l y g r o w i n g m a r k e t , for a g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r
t h e r e p e a l of t h e C o r n L a w s , b u t fell a g a i n in t h e e i g h t i e s , w h e n
the e x p l o i t a t i o n of v i r g i n l a n d b r o u g h t it up a g a i n s t a s y s t e m of
l i v i n g o n c a p i t a l in its o w n d o m a i n , w h o s e " p r o d u c t s w e r e b r o u g h t
into c o m p e t i t i o n with the h o m e - g r o w n ones t h r o u g h the usurious
aid of c o a l , b o t h in t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e m a n d c h e a p e n i n g t h e g o o d s
e x p o r t e d t o p a y for t h e m . T h e b u i l d i n g of t h e A m e r i c a n t r a n s -
468 T H E M Y S T I C A L IJODY O F CHRIST

c o n t i n e n t a l t r u n k r a i l w a y s m a r k e d t h e final c o n q u e s t o f t h e
: 2 )
E n g l i s h p l o u g h b y the s t e a m engine."< *
T h e s a m e writer points out another revolution which had been
g o i n g o n b e f o r e t f y t t i n K n g l i s h f a r m i n g , u n d e r t h e r u l e o f fin
a n c e . I t w a s t h e p r o c e s s o f i n c r e a s i n g rent b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f
tillage land t osheep-walks and cattle ranches. " Itw a s the inter
e s t o f t h e m e r c a n t i l e , m o n e y - m i n d e d l a n d l o r d i> r e d u c e t h e n u m
b e r o f p e a s a n t s relative u>the total p o p u l a t i o n i n g r e a t e r p r o p o r
t i o n t h a n t h e t o t a l p r o d u c e of t h e l a n d i s t h u s r e d u c e d . T h e o r d i n
a r y m e t h o d of d o i n g t h i s w a s t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t i l l a g e t o g r a s s
l a n d on e n c l o s u r e . T h e r i c h e r c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , i n t h e m a i n t h e
' h e a v i e r ' w h e a t a n d bean l a u d s , w e r e thus t h r o w n out o f t i l l a g e ;
s u c h l a n d s b e i n g c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g , s a \ \>'S o f t h e m o n e y -
value o f food (not. o f course, t h enutrient value) in return f o r
1/6 o f the labour, w h e n in grass a s compared with arable. T h e
i m m e d i a t e e f f e c t o f t h i s w a s t o d o u b l e t h e m a r g i n o f rent."'*'
T h e s a m e process w a sg o i n g o n i n Ireland under t h e s a m e
i n f l u e n c e s f r o m 1 8 3 0 t o 1 8 8 0 , w i t h a n a d d e d s o u r c e of b i t t e r n e s s
in t h efact that t h elandlords w e r e aliens i n religion and nation
3 4
ality, a n d t h e t e n a n t s t h e d i s p o s s e s s e d o w n e r s o f t h e soil.* *
G r a z i n g paid better, s oh u m a n beings g a v e place l o cattle. With
t h e r e l e n t l e s s g r i n d i n g o f t h e m o n e y - m a c h i n e , there c a m e a t i m e
w h e n i t d i d not " p a y to k e e p u p t h e b i g h o u s e s . I t w a s i n e v i t
able.
I n h i s s p l e n d i d b o o k . Look lo the LantL Lord Xorth-
bournc repeatedly refers t o t h e results o f t h edisorder stressed
by m e in this honk, b y w h i c h m e na r e sacrificed t ot h e
production o f goods a n dt h e production o f goods t o money.
Of all the writers 1 have read h ebest brings out the fact that, i n
the realm o f production, farming is sacrificed t oindustry with sad
lk
consequences f o r both h u m a n beings a n dfarming. Industry,"
he writes, "is a superstructure o n farming. This is a n obvious
truism, f o r w e could live w i t h o u t t h eo n e , b u tn o t w i t h o u t t h e
other. Hut w e behave a sif farming were a n appendagea neces-
Tin Tany It'ii'j of t'ntnim rrt ( p a g e 51).
Thf Fan if /'/ay f*f t'tit/nt/t tn ( p . r.O). In Appendix I of the
s a m e w o r k , t h e a u t h o r q u o l e s F r o m Thr Fine and Frogrr.SH of Poverty
in Fnylatifi. h y "W. (J. W i l k i n s , a s t a t e m e n t of a c c o u n t * o f a p a r i s h
ik
i n ]7i, b e f o r e e n c l o s u r e , a n d in IVHti, a f t e r e n c l o s u r e .
l
T i m s / ' com
m c n i * M r . " \ Y i l k i n s . * d i e l a n d l o r d o b t a i n e d ,J(i(M m o r e n n l , w h i c h w a s
(

h i g h l y s a t i s f a c t o r y . F o u r f a r m e r s a t l e a s t d o u b l e d i f not t r e b l e d t h e i r
i n c o m e s , a n d i f s e v e n t > - e i g h t h o u s e h o l d s w e r e d r i v e n off i n t o p e n u r y out
o f I b i s o n e p a r i s h , it w a s n o b o d y ' s b u s i n e s s a n d i i o h o d \ c a r e d / '
m) F o r e x a m p l e - , i n IK t o - t h r e e f a m i l i e s o f lle O ' D w y e r s o f K i l n a -
m a n a g h . whose anceslors*had W e n the c h i e f t a i n s o f the c o u n i r y s i d e since
t h e 7th c e n t u r y , w e r e e v i c t e d f r o m I h e i r f a r m s n e a r D u u d r u m ( C o .
T i p p e r n r y ) . i n the clearances carried on I b v t h eihen Lord l l a w a r d e n .
a d e s c e n d a n t o f a ( V o m w e l H a n officer. C F . The tV thryrra of Kilaa-
innnaytK b y S i r M i c h a e l O M H v y e y ( p p . :)\ 317).
t
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 469
s a r y o n e of c o u r s e t o i n d u s t r y . . . . I n d u s t r y w a s m a d e for m a n ;
y e t m e n a r e n o w l o o k e d o n a s b e i n g c r e a t u r e s useful t o i n d u s t r y
e i t h e r a s m a c h i n e - m i n d e r s , s a l e s m e n , o r as b u y e r s of t h e p r o
d u c t s of i n d u s t r y . . . . In, t h e p o r t e n t o u s j a r g o n of t o - d a y .
f a r m i n g i s . ' t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r y / . . . F a n n i n g is an i n d u s
t r y , b u t it is o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y an i n d u s t r y . T h e m o r e its i n d u s t r i a l
a s p e c t p r e d o m i n a t e s o v e r its m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s t h e f a r t h e r
it g e t s f r o m real f a r m i n g , a n d t h e less effectively it s e r v e s the r e a l
n e e d s of m a n . T h e i n d u s t r i a l a s p e c t p r e d o m i n a t e s t o - d a y , and the
c o m m o n n e e d s of m a n a n d t h e l a n d a r e i n a d e q u a t e l y s e r v e d . T h e
i n d u s t r i a l a s p e c t is t h e cost a c c o u n t a n c y a s p e c t , w h i c h t a k e s
a c c o u n t of s a l e a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n t r u e q u a l i t y . . . . T h e r a t e of
e r o s i o n is n o t s t e a d y ; it is i n c r e a s i n g v e r y r a p i d l y a l m o s t all o v e r
t h e w o r l d . P r o b a b l y m o r e soil h a s b e e n l o s t s i n c e 1914 t h a n in t h e
w h o l e p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y of t h e w o r l d . . . K r o s i o n is n e a r l y ail
man's work. S o m e of it c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o m e r e f o o l i s h n e s s .
Hut m o s t of it is d u e to g r e e d c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of g e t t i n g rich q u i c k b y e x h a u s t i n g the l a n d a n d u n d e r
selling c o m p e t i t o r s . Hut t h e a c t u a l t i l l e r s of the soil w h o h a v e
g o t r i c h a r e few. . . . W h a t h a s b e e n t h e s t i m u l u s t o t h e r a p i d
e x t e n s i o n of e x h a u s t i v e f a r m i n g all o v e r the w o r l d ? T h e s t i m u
lus h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e said p o s s i b i l i t i e s of g e t t i n g
r i c h q u i c k l y , a d e v e l o p m e n t p a r t l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e e v o l u t i o n of
n e w a n d p o w e r f u l m a c h i n e s , a n d p a r t l y on a r o u g h l y s i m u l t a n e o u s
w o r l d - w i d e e x t e n s i o n of a p e c u l i a r e c o n o m i c s y s t e m , w h i c h h a s
led to' a v a s t a c c u m u l a t i o n of financial d e b t . . . . I n t e r n a t i o n a l
d e b t a n d soil e r o s i o n a r e t w i n b r o t h e r a n d s i s t e r , i n s e p a r
ables
" R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i m p l i e s in t h e e n d m a i n l y a n i n c r e a s e of s p e e d .
I t s o b j e c t is t h a t t h e s a m e n u m b e r of m e n s h o u l d p r o d u c e m o r e in
a g i v e n t i m e . In a p p l y i n g it w e f o r g e t t h a t life is a r h y t h m i c a l
p r o c e s s . . . . T h e h a r m o n i o u s r h y t h m s of life a r e t h r o w n i n t o
d i s c o r d b y the, i n e x o r a b l e u r g e t o s p e e d a n d e v e r m o r e s p e e d
w h i c h is t h e i n e v i t a b l e a c c o m p a n i m e n t of a w a y of life d o m i n a t e d
b y t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l fiction w h i c h w e k n o w as m o n e y . . . . T h e r e
is a n o t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n . I t is t h e fact t h a t o u r e c o n o m i c a n d fin
a n c i a l s y s t e m h a s a n i n h e r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y . F o r h u n d r e d s of y e a r s
f a r m p r i c e s h a v e f l u c t u a t e d w i l d l y . S h o r t b o o m s h a v e b e e n fol
l o w e d b y l o n g s l u m p s . T h e m e c h a n i s m of t h i s i n s t a b i l i t y is t h e
m u t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n of p r i c e s a n d t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of b a n k c r e d i t .
T h a t is t o s a y , of t h e r a t e a n d v o l u m e of b o r r o w i n g . . . . T h e
c a s h r e s e r v e of t h e b a n k s , w h i c h l i m i t s t h e v o l u m e of b o r r o w i n g ,
h a s h i t h e r t o b e e n r e l a t e d t o t h e a m o u n t of g o l d h e l d b y t h e b a n k s .
T h i s a m o u n t b e a r s no r e l a t i o n t o t h e v o l u m e of w o r l d p r o d u c t i o n ,
a n d e s p e c i a l l y of w o r l d h a r v e s t s , w h i c h v a r y s e a s o n a l l y . . . .
U n d e r p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t p a y s is q u i c k profit-
m a k i n g w h i l e t h e g o i n g is g o o d . P>y i g n o r a n t o r u n s c r u p u l o u s
 470 THK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d e x h a u s t i o n of f e r t i l i t y v a s t p r o f i t s h a v e b e e n
m a d e ( b y f i n a n c i e r s r a t h e r t h a n b y f a r m e r s ) in t h e n a m e of c h e a p
food. T h e p a c e is f o r c e d for t h e s o u n d f a r m e r w h e r e v e r h e lives.
. . . As is u s u a l n o w a d a y s , it will be left to f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t o
p a y for o u r m i s t a k e s . , b u t t h e y m a y n o t h a v e t h e w h e r e w i t h a l .
M o n e y a l o n e is n o t o r i o u s l y u s e l e s s in a d e s e r t . . . . M a n ' s s t r i f e
a g a i n s t m a n is m e r e l y an i n c i d e n t a l p a r t of a w o r l d - e m b r a c i n g
d i s h a r m o n y . . . . W e h a v e g o t to r e c o n s i d e r all o u r i d e a s a b o u t
t h e p l a c e of t h e land in o u r lives, a n d t h e r e f o r e of all o u r a c t i v i t i e s
w h i c h affect t h e l a n d in a n y w a y , of w h i c h f a r m i n g is t h e chief.
It is n o t a c a s e of e n a b l i n g t h e f a r m e r s to s e r v e t h e p u b l i c b e t t e r .
I t is a c a s e of t h e p u b l i c , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e u r b a n p u b l i c , s e r v i n g
t h e l a n d b e t t e r . O n l y so c a n t h e l a n d s e r v e t h e m . "
P e r h a p s w h a t h a s b e e n w r i t t e n in t h i s s e c t i o n m a } ' h e l p p e o p l e
t o u n d e r s t a n d in s o m e d e g r e e w h y f a r m e r s , the p r o d u c e r s of p r i
m a r y necessities, arc e v e r y w h e r e complaining, and w h y reafforest
a t i o n in I r e l a n d is n o t p o p u l a r financially. The slower rhythm of
agriculture and of forestry, so favour able to normal human life,
is not beloved of those whose chief 'preoccupation is interest on
debt. It is to be h o p e d t h a t h a v i n g d i s c o v e r e d w h y , p e o p l e will
s t r i v e to d o all t h e y c a n t o r e m e d y t h i s s t a t e of affairs, i n s t e a d of
t r e a t i n g t h e c o m p l a i n t s of t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y a s a m a t t e r for
jesting.

(b) RUIN OF SMALL O W N E R S AND MANUFACTURERS.

" S c e p t i c i s m a s t o t h e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of a n e x u s of s m a l l h o l d
i n g s is w i d e s p r e a d , a n d L o r d X o r t h b o i t r n e in Look to the Land
m a k e s t h e t r u e p o i n t t h a t t h e y a r e ip fact i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r e i g n f o o d s a s p a r t of a s y s t e m b a s e d on p r o f i t ,
i n t e r e s t , cut prices, cheap quality and the wholly d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e
v a l u e g i v e n t o m o n e y . T h e y [ t h e w r i t e r s of t h i s b o o k ] k n o w a s
w e l l a s t h e b i g v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s t h a t t o c u l t i v a t e o u r o w n soil w i t h
the m i n u t e devotion that the small farm d e m a n d s and usually
r e c e i v e s , to c o n s e r v e i t s f e r t i l i t y a n d p r e v e n t its r e v e r s i o n [ t o
b a r r e n n e s s ] m e a n a l l e w o r i e n t a t i o n of s o c i e t y f a r m o r e d e e p -
s e a t e d t h a n the S t a t e Socialism t h a t n o w r e i g n s side by side w i t h
the older money-power. It m e a n s n o t h i n g less t h a n t h e r e t u r n
t o s m a l l e r u n i t s of s o c i a l - e c o n o m i c life a n d t o t h e s p l i t t i n g - u p of
the swollen top-heavy communties squeezed into huge towns. . . .
T h e a d v a n t a g e s of s m a l l - s c a l e g e n e r a l i z e d f a r m i n g u p o n o u r o w n
soil a r e s o o v e r w h e l m i n g t h a t t h e e n i g m a i s w h y h a s t w e n t i e t h -
c e n t u r y science, e c o n o m i c s , b i g b u s i n e s s a n d m a s s - o p i n i o n b e e n so
u n s p a r i n g t o w a r d s i t ? W h y is t h e l i t t l e h o m e - f a r m r e g a r d e d a s
a failure? B e c a u s e t h e h i s t o r y of t h e p a s t h u n d r e d y e a r s h a s
l e a n e d all its w e i g h t u p o n it in o r d e r t o d e s t r o y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of
i t s s u c c e s s . W h o l e s a l e n e g l e c t of t h e l a n d , its d e s e r t i o n b y its
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 471

h u s b a n d m e n a n d i n v a s i o n of S u b u r b i a , t h e blind a t t e m p t t o c o n
v e r t f a r m i n g i n t o t h e j o i n t - s t o c k c o m p a n y in w h i c h b u s i n e s s t a k e s
t h e l e a d of c u l t i v a t i o n , t h e e q u a l l y f a t a l e x p e r i m e n t of r e p l a c i n g
m e n b y m a c h i n e s , r h y t h m b y s p e e d , soil k n o w l e d g e b v a c c o u n t
ancy, c o n t e n t by acquisition, self-support by parasitism, w h a t
c h a n c e h a s a u t h e n t i c f a r m i n g h a d a g a i n s t such a c o m b i n a t i o n of
3 6
forces t h a t hoist [ m o n e y or t o k e n ] w e a l t h above l i f e ? ^ ' '
M r . J e f f r e y M a r k p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of i n d u s t r y
a n d t h e P i g s M a r k e t i n g S c h e m e , e t c . , e t c . , a r c s i m p l y a b a t t l e in
m a s s f o r m a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e b a n k s . ' A s l a r g e r u n i t s of p r o d u c t i o n
mean easier b o o k - k e e p i n g n o t to mention other pecuniary advant
a g e s t h e i n c r e a s i n g d o m i n a t i o n of finance o v e r p r o d u c t i o n l e a d s t o
w h o l e s a l e a m a l g a m a t i o n s a n d r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n . All s c h e m e s of t h i s
k i n d , h o w e v e r , d o n o t p r e v e n t t h e financial s u b j e c t i o n a n d t h e
p r o l e t a r i z a t i o n of t h e m a n y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , c h a i n - s h o p s d e s t r o y
the independent shopkeeper. As chain-shops result from the g r o w
i n g p o w e r of t h e b a n k s , t h e diffusion of o w n e r s h i p s e e m s t o be
i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a c o m p l e t e r e v e r s a l of t h e a i m of finance. B e a r
in m i n d a l s o t h e effect of t h o s e s c h e m e s of P l a n n e d K c o n o m y a n d
3 7
Orderly M a r k e t i n g on the small producers/ * T h e n read the
'85> England and the F.armr.r ( p p . 5, 7, 8).
1
" T h e seasonal ' simple i n t e r e s t r e t u r n from l a n d must, as the
speeding u p process continues, lag ever f u r t h e r behind the cyclic ' c o m
p o u n d i n t e r e s t ' r e t u r n from t r a d e or m a n u f a c t u r e . . . The m a t e r i a l s
of i n d u s t r i e s become progressively less a n d less crop p r o d u c t s depend
e n t on the r i g i d seasonal t i m e factor, as the i n d u s t r i e s themselves
p r o d u c e less a n d less essential t h i n g s . They are, therefore, more a n d
more susceptible of the s p e e d i n g u p which goes with the e x p l o i t a t i o n
a n d waste of exhaustible n a t u r a l resources, minerals a n d so forth,
instead of the c o n s t a n t l y b u t seasonally renewed fertility of p r o p e r l y
worked l a n d . T h u s these i n d u s t r i e s so soon as a d e m a n d for their
p r o d u c t s c a n be created, t e n d to p a y better t h a n the older staple pro*
ducts. B u t they will v e r y soon g l u t t h e i r m a r k e t unless there is . . . .
( 1
an ever-progressave change of fashion new season's models are the
f e a t u r e of every motor show, etc.,and the cheap p r o d u c t i o n of articles
designed to wear o u t q u i c k l y so as t o keep u p a c o n s t a n t d e m a n d for
renewal . . . . T h e whole policy is one of waste in o r d e r to ' keep
t h i n g s g o i n g ' by an ever-increasing q u a n t i t y p r o d u c t i o n at the expense
of q u a l i t y " {Flee to the Fields. The Faith and Works of the Catholic
Land Movement, p p . 37, 45, 46).
(36) The Modern Idolatry ( p p . 40 a n d 120-122).
(37) F o r e x a m p l e , from 1935 t o 1938, i n I r e l a n d , there was a reduction
of 89,029 in the number of p i g s b o u g h t for c u r i n g and e x p o r t i n g alive.
I n the same p e r i o d , there was a r e d u c t i o n of 128,874 in the total n u m b e r
of p i g s in the country. T h e P i g s M a r k e t i n g B o a r d a n d the Bacon
M a r k e t i n g B o a r d were o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g these years. There m u s t be
o r d e r in p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a r k e t i n g , b u t i t m u s t not be a n o r d e r d i c t a t e d
by the p r e s e n t reversal of o r d e r . T h e result of the s u b o r d i n a t i o n of
h u m a n beings t o pi'oduction a n d of p r o d u c t i o n to finance, is the
g r a d u a l dec-ay of p r o d u c t i o n a n d , worse still, the decay of h u m a n per
s o n a l i t y . Cf. The Servile State a n d The Restoration of Property, both
by H . Belloc.
472 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

f o l l o w i n g e x t r a c t s f r o m t h e E n c y c l i c a l , Quadrac/esimo Anno: "The

u p l i f t i n g of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t is t h e a i m w h i c h O u r P r e d e c e s s o r u r g e d
a s t h e n e c e s s a r y o b j e c t of o u r e f f o r t s . T h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e w o r k -
i n g m a n h a s i n d e e d b e e n i m p r o v e d a n d r e n d e r e d m o r e e q u i t a b l e in
m a n y r e s p e c t s [ s i n c e t h e d a y s of P o p e L e o X 1 1 I | . . . . H u t a f t e r
m o d e r n m a c h i n e r y and m o d e r n industry had . . . taken possession
of m a n y n e w l y c o l o n i z e d c o u n t r i e s n o l e s s t h a n of t h e a n c i e n t
c i v i l i z a t i o n s of t h e F a r E a s t , t h e n u m b e r of t h e d i s p o s s e s s e d
l a b o u r i n g m a s s e s . . . i n c r e a s e d b e y o n d all m e a s u r e . Moreover,
t h e r e is t h e i m m e n s e a r m y of h i r e d r u r a l l a b o u r e r s , w h o s e c o n
d i t i o n is d e p r e s s e d in t h e e x t r e m e . . . . T h e i m m e n s e n u m b e r of
p r o p e r t y l c s s w a g e - e a r n e r s on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e s u p e r a b u n d
a n t r i c h e s of t h e f o r t u n a t e f e w o n t h e o t h e r , is a n u n a n s w e r a b l e
a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e e a r t h l y g o o d s , s o a b u n d a n t l y p r o d u c e d in t h i s
a g e of i n d u s t r i a l i s m , a r e f a r f r o m r i g h t l y d i s t r i b u t e d a n d e q u i t a b l y
s h a r e d a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s e s of m e n . . . T h i s p r o g r a m m e
c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , be realized unless the p r o p e r t y l e s s w a g e - e a r n e r
b e p l a c e d in s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t b y skill a n d t h r i f t he can
acquire a certain moderate cnunership, as h a s been a l r e a d y d e c l a r e d
( 3 8 )
b y l i s , f o l l o w i n g t h e f o o t s t e p s of O u r P r e d e c e s s o r . "

(c) BREAD.

W e s h a l l b e g i n b y q u o t i n g a f e w e x t r a c t s f r o m Bread in Peace
and War, a s p l e n d i d p a m p h l e t p u b l i s h e d in O c t o b e r , 1940, b y t h e
F o o d E d u c a t i o n S o c i e t y of E n g l a n d . I n t h i s e x c e l l e n t w o r k , s o m e
of t h e f a c t s of t h e c a s e a r e o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o w s : " T h e s w i t c h - o v e r
t o r o l l e r - m i l l e d Hour [ f r o m s t o n e - m i l l e d ] in t h e e i g h t i e s m a d e a b i g
d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e n u t r i t i v e v a l u e of t h e p o o r m a n ' s d i e t . . . . W h e n
t h e w h o l e w h e a t is g r o u n d on s t o n e s , g i v i n g s t o n e - g r o u n d w h o l e
m e a l , t h e w h o l e of t h e w h e a t g r a i n , i n c l u d i n g t h e g e r m , is p r e s e n t
i n t h e r e s u l t i n g Hour, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of, p e r h a p s , a b o u t 2 p e r
c e n t , of t h e l a r g e s t a n d r o u g h e s t h u s k . . . . It is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d
t h a t i n n o r m a l t i m e s t h e d i e t of t h e p o o r e r c l a s s e s is d e f i c i e n t in
c a l c i u m a n d v i t a m i n U, a n d t h a t in t i m e of s t r e s s t h i s d e f i c i e n c y
m a y b e c o m e serious. . . . T h e Medical R e s e a r c h Council r e c o m -

(38) Jn his evidence, before the M a c M i l l a n Committee, Mr. M o n t a g u

N o r m a n s a i d : " B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , I believe t h a t the s a l v a t i o n of in
d u s t r y i n the c o u n t r y lies first of all in the process of r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n ,
a n d t h a t i t is to be achieved hy the u n i t y or unification o r . m a r r i a g e of
finance a n d i n d u s t r y . . . . I hope sooner or l a t e r . . . . to establish
a n o t h e r c o m p a n y which will u n i t e the l a i t y as a whole . . . . to assist
i n d u s t r y t o w a r d s the goal of r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n . " R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n means,
i n p r a c t i c e , as Mr. H a r g r a v e p i t h i l y expresses it, the compulsory
s q u e e z i n g o u t a n d closing d o w n of small factories a n d mills, so t h a t
11
t h e l a r g e r , heavi ly d e b t - b u r d e n e d concerns m a y he helped " hy the
B a n k of E n g l a n d v i a t h e new i n d u s t r i a l financing c o m p a n y . Cf.
Professor Skinner alias Montagu Nonnan ( p p . 154, 155).
 ECONOMICS O F AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 473

m e n d s t h a t flour for t h e b r e a d of t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d c o n t a i n t h e
g e r m of t h e w h e a t g r a i n , a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e of the a l e u r o n e l a y e r
a n d t h e finer p o r t i o n s of t h e b r a n . I n s t e a d of t h e flour c o n s i s t i n g
of a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t , of t h e w h e a t g r a i n , a s it docs at p r e s e n t , t h e
p e r c e n t a g e e x t r a c t e d s h o u l d be at l e a s t 80 t o 85 p e r c e n t . I>y this
m e a n s t h e c o n t e n t of c e r t a i n v i t a m i n s , of all m i n e r a l s , a n d of fat,
w o u l d b e i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e n u t r i t i v e v a l u e of the p r o t e i n w o u l d
be i m p r o v e d . . . . T h e M e d i c a l R e s e a r c h Council f u r t h e r r e c o m
m e n d s t h a t t h e 1)1 c a c h i n g o r i m p r o v i n g of flour b y t h e u s e of
o x i d i s i n g a g e n t s s u c h a s n i t r o g e n p e r o x i d e , o r by a n y o t h e r p r o c e s s
w h i c h d a m a g e s t h e n u t r i t i v e v a l u e of t h e flour s h o u l d be p r o
h i b i t e d . T h e t o t a l m i n e r a l c o n t e n t w o u l d be a b o u t d o u b l e d . . . .
T h e w h o l e d a i l y r e q u i r e m e n t of i r o n w o u l d be r e a l i s e d in t h e b r e a d
p o r t i o n of t h e d i e t a l o n e . A n a e m i a f r o m i r o n deficiency is a c o m
m o n c a u s e of l o w e r e d v i t a l i t y a m o n g p o o r e r w o m e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y
( 3 9 )
in p r e g n a n c y , a n d a m o n g i n f a n t s . "
A f e w p a s s a g e s f r o m a n o t h e r e x c e l l e n t p a m p h l e t , Our Daily
Bread, b y P r o f e s s o r J o s e p h R e i l l y of U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , C o r k ,
m a y be q u o t e d in c o n f i r m a t i o n of w h a t w e h a v e j u s t r e a d . "The
t r e n d of d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e t r e a t m e n t of c e r e a l s for h u m a n u s e is
n o t in l i n e w i t h p r o g r e s s in t h e s c i e n c e of n u t r i t i o n , b u t r a t h e r in
the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . T h i s applies especially to w h e a t as used by
m a n in t h e f o r m of t h e w h i t e loaf. T h e a i m for a l o n g t i m e w a s
t o p r o v i d e a p r o d u c t pleasant" in a p p e a r a n c e , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e loss
of t h e finer n u t r i t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t s . T h e a c t u a l n a t u r e of t h e loaf
h a s s e r i o u s l y c h a n g e d w i t h i n t h e l a s t t h r e e or f o u r d e c a d e s . T h e
b r e a d u s e d b y t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of o u r p e o p l e t o - d a y is f a r less
n u t r i t i o u s f r o m m a n y a s p e c t s t h a n t h e c e r e a l p r o d u c t s of f o r m e r
times. S o m e i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s s a y t h a t this does n o t m a t t e r .
W i t h t h e g r e a t s e l e c t i o n of o t h e r f o o d s t u f f s n o w a v a i l a b l e , t h e s e
d e f e c t s c a n r e a d i l y b e a m e n d e d . Y e t it m u s t be r e a l i s e d t h a t b r e a d
is t h e p r i n c i p a l food of t h e w o r k i n g p e o p l e . . . .
" N o w h e a t e n Hour m a y n o w be m i l l e d . . . . w h i c h is u n d e r
95 p e r c e n t , e x t r a c t i o n . T h i s will p r o d u c e a b r o w n i s h c o l o u r e d
b r e a d . I t will b e m u c h m o r e n u t r i t i o u s t h a n t h e p r e - W a r w h i t e
b r e a d of 70 p e r c e n t , e x t r a c t flour. . . . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
w h o l e m e a l flour a n d b r o w n flour s h o u l d be n o t e d . T h e f o r m e r
c o n t a i n s all t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e g r a i n . T h e l a t t e r is a m i x t u r e
of w h i t e flour w i t h v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e b r a n a n d o t h e r l a y
e r s of t h e w h e a t g r a i n . I t d o e s n o t c o n t a i n all t h e s e p a r a t e d f r a c
t i o n s f r o m t h e flour a n d is e s p e c i a l l y l o w in w h e a t g e r m . . . . T h e
r e p l a c e m e n t of w h o l e m e a l b y t h e w h i t e flour of t h e m o d e r n r o l l e r
mills is, a c c o r d i n g t o t h a t g r e a t a u t h o r i t y o n d i e t e t i c s S i r R o b e r t
M c C a r r i s o n ' t h e g r e a t e s t s i n g l e f a c t o r in m a l n u t r i t i o n / . . . It
is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h i s k n o w l e d g e s h o u l d be d i s s e m i n a t e d , if o n l y

(39) Bread in Peace and War ( p p . 48, 33, 35, 30, 31),
 474 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t o d i s s i p a t e t h e p r e j u d i c e w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d in the
p u b l i c m i n d a g a i n s t t h e u s e of w h o l e m e a l H o u r b y m a n y d e c a d e s
of f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h w h i t e b r e a d . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y s o a t t h e p r e
s e n t t i m e , but I w o u l d l i k e t o e m p h a s i s e t h i s fact t h a t t h e p u b l i c
s h o u l d n o t c o n f u s e t h e p r e s e n t h i g h e x t r a c t i o n flour ( e v e n 95 p e r
cent, e x t r a c t i o n ) w i t h w h o l e m e a l (lour. W h a t I m e a n by w h o l e
m e a l flour is w h o l e g r a i n , s t o n e - m i l l e d flour c o n t a i n i n g t h e g e r m
of t h e w h e a t a s well a s all t h e o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e w h e a t
b e r r y . . . . E v e n t h e r o l l e r - m i l l e d flour is o f t e n b l e a c h e d still
w h i t e r by i r r i t a n t s o r o x i d i z e d b y s o - c a l l e d c h e m i c a l i m p r o v e r s .
C h e m i c a l s such as n i t r o s y l e h l o r i d e , chlorine, nitric acid, benzoyl
p e r o x i d e or certain p c r s u l p h a t e s are also used. . . . N i t r o g e n
t r i c h l o r i d e h a s l a r g e l y d i s p l a c e d o t h e r c h e m i c a l s in t h e b l e a c h i n g
of flour. A b o u t 90 p e r c e n t , of t h e flour m i l l s in N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d
85 p e r c e n t , of t h e H o u r mills in K n g l a n d e m p l o y t h i s r e a g e n t . . . . .
. . . A n e x t r e m e l y w h i t e p r o d u c t r e s u l t s . It is c l a i m e d t h a t this
7
t r e a t m e n t , e v e n t h o u g h it i n c r e a s e s c o s t , a l t e r s t h e g l u t e n a n d
g i v e s t h e b a k e r a m o r e s t a b l e a n d s t i l l e r d o u g h s o t h a t on t r e a t
m e n t w i t h y e a s t a ' b e t t e r ' loaf r e s u l t s w h i c h will a b s o r b m o r e
1 4 0
w a t e r h e n c e m o r e l o a v e s p e r s a c k of f l o u r . " '
I n s p i t e of t h e s e u n d e n i a b l e f a c t s , t h e s t r u g g l e to s e c u r e g o o d
b r e a d for t h e p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y for t h e p o o r , will be e x c e e d i n g l y
difficult. T h e b i g m i l l s w i t h t h e i r l a r g e o u t p u t " p a y " b e t t e r t h a n
t h e o l d e r t y p e w h i c h t u r n e d o u t b e t t e r flour. The pamphlet.
Bread in Peace and War, c o n t i n u e s : " T o - d a y | i n r e g a r d to this
s t r u g g l e ] w e h a v e to c o n t e n d w i t h an even m o r e p o w e r f u l oppo
s i t i o n [ t h a n in 1917] b e c a u s e t h e f l o u r - m i l l i n g i n d u s t r y is in t h e
h a n d s of s o f e w firms. T h i s is a g r e a t d a n g e r . Jn 1930, w h e n M r .
H u r s t w r o t e his b r o c h u r e o n The Bread of Britain, the Co-opera
t i v e W h o l e s a l e S o c i e t y m i l l e d 22 p e r c e n t , of t h e H o u r , R a n k s 20
p e r c e n t . , S p i l l e r s 20 p e r c e n t . , a n d i n d e p e n d e n t f i r m s 32 p e r c e n t .

(*o) Op. cit., p p . 30, 29, 10, 33. T h e last r e m a r k goes t o prove t h a t
b a k e r s as well as millers will he financially interested i n m a i n t a i n i n g
the d e m a n d for white flour.
" Tn the m a r c h of civilization as we go f a r t h e r we fare worse.
K n o w l e d g e of w h a t is wrong is ignored o r e x p l o i t e d , in e i t h e r case for
commercial g a i n . F o r i n s t a n c e , the steel-roller mill was i n t r o d u c e d
h e r e in 1872. By i t the coloured p a r t s of the w h e a t , the e m b r y o o r germ
a n d b r a n , were t o t a l l y removed. T h e flour w a s d e a d white. I n 1912,
t h e discoveries of H o p k i n s a n d of the Pole, D r . F u n k , were announced
from which grew the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the c o l o u r e d p a r t c o n t a i n e d the
nerve food . . . . The m i s t a k e of 1872, then, was discovered forty years
l a t e r ; yet, so f a r from r e c t i f y i n g it, the m i l l i n g i n d u s t r y is on the eve
of g r e a t l y a m p l i f y i n g the d e s p o i l i n g a p p a r a t u s . T h u s is knowledge
ignored " (Dr. L. J. P i c t o n in England and the Farmer, p p . 128,129).
""Well-baked, p r o p e r l y milled, wholemeal b r e a d need only be con
sumed in a h o u t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s the q u a n t i t y of white bread in order
t o satisfy h u n g e r a n d r e g a i n health " ( V i s c o u n t L y m i n g t o n in England
and the Farmer, p. 19).
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 475

H u r s t s a i d it w o u l d n o t b e l o n g b e f o r e 80 p e r c e n t , w a s c o n t r o l l e d .
N o w 9 0 p e r c e n t , is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e t h r e e . P o w e r f u l i n t e r e s t s
s u c h a s t h e s e a r e n e v e r g o i n g t o r e l e a s e t h e i r hold s o l o n g a s t h e y
c a n p e r s u a d e t h e p u b l i c t h a t w h i t e flour is t h e r i g h t stuff. .
W h a t a r e t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h explain the r e s i s t a n c e to the
p r o v i s i o n of a w h o l e m e a l b r e a d ? M a y t h e y n o t b e f o u n d in t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e e n t i r e i n d u s t r y of flour-milling in t h i s c o u n t r y is n o w
for p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s c o n c e n t r a t e d in o n e g i g a n t i c c o m b i n a t i o n
w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e s t o t h e p o s i t i o n of a s i n g l e t r u s t , i n a s m u c h a s
two p r i v a t e a n d interrelated firms, with the Co-operative Whole
s a l e S o c i e t y a s t h e i r s o l e r i v a l , c o n t r o l t h e w h o l e p r o d u c t i o n of
flour? A n y d e p a r t u r e from existing practice must m e a n a serious
d i s t u r b a n c e of i n v e s t e d c a p i t a l a m o u n t i n g a t t h i s t i m e p r o b a b l y t o
s o m e t h i n g like t w e n t y million sterling, and the loss to the com
p a n i e s c o n c e r n e d of t h e h i g h l y p r o f i t a b l e b y - p r o d u c t s of m i l l i n g
w h i t e flour. . . . M r . J o h n B u r n s , P r e s i d e n t , L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t
B o a r d , a n n o u n c e d t h a t a Bill w a s in p r e p a r a t i o n t o s e c u r e t h e
p u r i t y of flour a n d t o r e n d e r i l l e g a l t h e use of p h o s p h a t e s a n d
b l e a c h i n g , J u l y 2 3 , 1912. T h e s a m e M i n i s t e r s t a t e d t h a t a Bill
d e a l i n g w i t h t h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n of t h e p u r i t y of food, i n c l u d i n g
flour, w a s in p r e p a r a t i o n , M a r c h 26, 1913. ( N e i t h e r m e a s u r e , h o w
ever, s a w the light). . . .
" Tt h a s b e e n w e l l - k n o w n f o r y e a r s t h a t civilized d i e t is defici
e n t in b o t h v i t a m i n s a n d m i n e r a l s a l t s . F o r c e n t u r i e s t w o of t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o o d s of t h e w o r l d h a v e b e e n w h e a t a n d rice.
B e f o r e 1850 t h e s e g r a i n s w e r e p o u n d e d by h a n d o r c o a r s e l y s t o n e -
g r o u n d , a n d l i t t l e of t h e b r a n w a s l o s t , w h i l e t h e v a l u a b l e v i t a m i n
B w a s r e t a i n e d . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s t e e l rolls for m i l l i n g e n a b l e d
t h e m i l l e r t o p r o d u c e finer flour w h i l e t h e b r a n a n d s o o n w e r e
s i e v e d off. T h e s e s i e v i n g s c o n t a i n t h e g e r m of t h e w h e a t ( o r
rice) a n d incidentally the v i t a m i n B and the mineral salts. T h e
flour f r o m t h e m o d e r n t r e a t m e n t is w h i t e r , a n d t h e p u b l i c , m i s
takenly thinking that whiteness means purity and goodness, de
m a n d s t h e w h i t e s t p o s s i b l e flour. T o o b t a i n t h i s t h e m o d e r n m i l l e r
b l e a c h e s h i s flour w i t h c h e m i c a l s . T h e r e s u l t of t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s
is t o p r o d u c e a d e v i t a l i s e d w h i t e p o w d e r w h i c h w e m a k e i n t o
b r e a d , b u t i t is n o l o n g e r t h e ' staff of life.' T h e s i e v i n g s , w h i c h
c o n t a i n t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e p a r t of t h e w h e a t , a r e m a d e i n t o food.-
stuffs f o r p o u l t r y o r o t h e r l i v e s t o c k . . . . V e r y p o w e r f u l c o m
m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s , i n c l u d i n g a w h o l e g r o u p of a d v e r t i s e d c e r e a l
g o o d s , d r u g s , p r e p a r a t i o n s , e t c . , h a v e b e e n built u p u p o n t h e cir
c u m s t a n c e s t h a t the milling t r a d e has been ready and able to supply
t h e r a w m a t e r i a l of t h e s e t r a d e r s in t h e f o r m of t h e s o - c a l l e d
* o f f a l ' of flour, w h i c h offal w a s , p r e v i o u s t o 1880 ( i n t r o d u c t i o n of
r o l l e r - m i l l i n g ) i n c l u d e d in t h e d a i l y f o o d of t h e p e o p l e a n d is n o w
e x t r a c t e d f r o m it. . . . T h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e M i n i s t e r of F o o d is
called t o a l e g a l a n o m a l y , n o w m u c h d i s c u s s e d , a n d l i k e l y t o e x c i t e
 476 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

p u b l i c f e e l i n g w h e n it is m o r e g e n e r a l l y a p p r e c i a t e d , viz., the
d a i r y m a n or milk supplier w h o e x t r a c t s c r e a m from his m i l k (be
y o n d a c e r t a i n p e r c e n t a g e ) is v i s i t e d w i t h t h e m o s t s e v e r e p e n a l
t i e s ; t h e m i l l e r w h o e x t r a c t s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of c r e a m f r o m his
4 , )
Hour goes scot f r e e . " -
" In a d e m o c r a c y , " w r i t e s Mr. K e n n y Williamson, " free speech
is p e r m i t t e d . Y o u c a n say w h a t y o u t h i n k w i t h i n l i m i t s t h e
l i m i t s i m p o s e d by t h e M o n e y T o w e r . I have done a little broad
c a s t i n g ; but could 1 say w h a t 1 t h o u g h t , w h a t 1 b e l i e v e d ? Of
course n a i !
" I n 1938, I w r o t e in a s c r i p t t h a t e x p e r i m e n t s a t C a m b r i d g e ,
u p o n r a t s fed e x c l u s i v e l y o n w h i t e b r e a d , h a d r e s u l t e d in t h e r a t s
d y i n g of v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s (all clue t o m a l - n u t r i t i o n ) w i t h i n t h r e e
m o n t h s . 1 w a s not allowed to say this, however. N o r w a s I per
m i t t e d t o e x t o l t h e v i r t u e s of w h e a t m c a l b r e a d . 1 w a s n o t a l l o w e d
t o e x p l o d e t h e old lie t h a t B r i t i s h w h e a t w a s unfit f o r m a k i n g i n t o
w h o l e m e a l flour. T h e M o n e y P o w e r h a d mills a t t h e p o r t s a n d
i t s m a c h i n e r y w a s d e s i g n e d for s k i n n i n g t h e n u t r i t i o u s g o l d e n skin
of t h e h a r d e r f o r e i g n w h e a t - b e r r y , in o r d e r t o p r o d u c e s n o w - w h i t e
' H o u r , a n d a l s o t o s u p p l y t h e f e e d i n g - s t u f f s t r a d e w i t h ' o f f a l s ' as
t h e s k i n s o r r i n d s a r e called. If e v e r y o n e , h e a r i n g m y t a l k , m a d e
s u d d e n d e m a n d for w h e a t m e a l b r e a d , m i l l i o n s of p o u n d s w o r t h of
m a c h i n e r y w o u l d h a v e t o be s c r a p p e d . Sixteen million people
m i g h t be p e r m a n e n t l y u n d e r n o u r i s h e d , b u t s i x t e e n m i l l i o n p o u n d s
m u s t n o t be l o s t ! . . . N o t h i n g l i k e l y t o i n j u r e t h e M o n e y P o w e r
w a s p e r m i t t e d . . . . Be a g o o d b o y a n d p r o p h e s y u n t o t h e m
s m o o t h t h i n g s , o r else y o u w o n ' t b e a b l e t o g i v e a n y m o r e t a l k s
o v e r t h e a i r of t h e B.B.C. S i x t e e n m i l l i o n s p e r m a n e n t l y u n d e r
n o u r i s h e d ? W e a r e a f r a i d it h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h u s . P r i v a t e l y ,
of c o u r s e , w e a g r e e w i t h y o u , b u t o r d e r s a r e o r d e r s .
f
' It w a s t h e s a m e in n e w s p a p e r a r t i c l e s : n o t h i n g m u s t be
p r i n t e d w h i c h m i g h t c a u s e a falling-off of a d v e r t i s i n g r e v e n u e . I n
o n e g r o u p of n e w s p a p e r s t h e J o l l y M i l l e r s s p e n t o v e r f o r t y t h o u s
a n d p o u n d s in a d v e r t i s i n g , s o n o t h i n g d e p r e c i a t i n g w h i t e b r e a d
m u s t a p p e a r in t h e p a p e r . W o n ' t y o u w r i t e a n o t h e r a r t i c l e a b o u t
t h e o t t e r i n s t e a d ? S a y j u s t w h a t y o u l i k e . T h e y live in w a t e r ,
d o n ' t t h e y , in r i v e r s a n d s w a m p s ? . . . T h e M o n e y P o w e r c a r e s
n o t h i n g for h u m a n life, n o t h i n g for t h e soil t h a t is t h e m o t h e r
of h u m a n life. H o w l o n g will m e n c o n t i n u e t o r e s p e c t t h e old
s y s t e m w h i c h is b a s e d o n t h e M o n e y P o w e r ? For the system
n o t o n l y r u i n s t h e soil a n d d e s p o i l s h u m a n life, b u t p e r i o d i c a l l y it
b e c o m e s l o c k e d in a d e a d l y s t r u g g l e w i t h its r i v a l s . . . / ' ( 4 2 i '

(41) Bread in Peace and War, p p . 23, 71, 42, 47.

(42i Quoted in the Monthly Bulletin of the Economic R e f o r m Club,
J u l y , 1941.
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 477

W e find t h e s a m e s t o r y of t h e d o m i n a t i o n of t h e m o n e y i n t e r *
T
e s t s in t h e L .S.A. " If y o u will r e f e r t o t h e R o c k e f e l l e r a n d o t h e r
e x p e r i m e n t s , " w r i t e s W i l l i a m H o w a r d H a y , M . D , , " y o u will n o t e
t h a t t h o s e l i t t l e a n i m a l s t h a t w e r e fed o n t h e w h i t e flour p r e p a r a
t i o n s d i e d s o o n e r t h a n d i d t h o s e f e d o n n o t h i n g a t all. . . . I t w a s
k n o w n t h a t t h e a n i m a l s f e d o n t h e w h i t e flour p r e p a r a t i o n s d i e d
of a c i d o s i s . . . . A n d it is n o t h a r d t o s e c t h a t t h e a c i d - f o r m i n g
t e n d e n c y of t h e w h i t e flour, a d d e d t o t h e t o t a l deficiency of a l k a l i e s
c a r r i e d b y t h i s f o r m of s o - c a l l e d food, w o u l d be sufficient t o p o i s o n
t h e a n i m a l a s i t s o w n w a s t e w o u l d n o t do t o t h e s a m e e x t e n t , a n d
d e a t h r e s u l t e d f r o m a c i d o s i s . . . . If t h e g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d o n l y
i n t e r e s t i t s e l f in t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s i n g of f o o d s , t h e r e
w o u l d b e m u c h a c c o m p l i s h e d t o w a r d a l e s s e n i n g of t h e deficiency
evil i n o u r l a n d . T h e g o v e r n m e n t is fully c o g n i z a n t of t h e f a c t s
of n u t r i t i o n , a s m a n y f e e d i n g e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d in t h e
S e c t i o n of F o o d s , D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e ; e v e n t h e f e e d i n g
e x p e r i m e n t s b e f o r e r e f e r r e d t o a s o c c u r r i n g in t h e R o c k e f e l l e r I n
s t i t u t e w e r e duplicated in this section, w i t h c o m p a r a b l e results.
S o U n c l e S a m is a p a r t y t o t h e d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n of o u r n a t i o n a l
f o o d s b y n o t f o r b i d d i n g it. P a r t of v e r y b i g b u s i n e s s , t h e m i l l e r s
a n d t h e b a n k e r s , is i n t e r e s t e d in t h e d e n a t u r i n g of f o o d s , a n d U n c l e
d o c s n o t l i k e t o offend b i g b u s i n e s s , for h e h a s f o u n d t h a t it
d o e s n o t p a y . H e w a t c h e s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e f e e d for c a l v e s
a n d c h i c k e n s , a n d is v e r y s e v e r e o n a n y o n e w h o sells c o r n c o b m e a l
f o r t h e s e i n n o c e n t s , b u t h e d o e s n o t i n t e r e s t h i m s e l f in t h e f e e d i n g
of t h e f u t u r e c i t i z e n s i n t h e s l i g h t e s t . T h i s is n o t a s it s h o u l d b e .
of c o u r s e , b u t w h a t c a n w c d o a b o u t i t ? Ih'g b u s i n e s s n e e d s t h e
m o n e y s o w e will h a v e t o c o n t i n u e t o e a t of t h e e m a s c u l a t e d food
p r o d u c t s w h i c h t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o sell u s , a n d w h i c h U n c l e S a m
helps them to advertise u n d e r very misleading statements. . . .
. T h e r e s e e m s t o b e b u t o n e t h i n g t h a t w c c a n d o a b o u t it, a n d t h a t
is p e r s o n a l l y t o r e f u s e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is in a n y w a y p r o c e s s e d o r
r e f i n e d , a n d w h e n e n o u g h a r e d o i n g t h i s t h e r e will be f o r c e d a
( 4 3 )
c h a n g e in t h e w h o l e s y s t e m of p r e p a r i n g a n d m a r k e t i n g f o o d s . "
" V i t a m i n 13now k n o w n a s a n e u r i n o r t h i a m i n i s n e c e s s a r v
f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l efficiency of t h e n e r v o u s system";
c o n s e q u e n t l y i t s a d e q u a t e s u p p l y is e s s e n t i a l to all n e n r o - m u s c u l a r
a c t i v i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e of t h e h e a r t , t h e s t o m a c h a n d t h e b o w e l s .
T h e s t r u c t u r a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l efficiency of t h e a d r e n a l g l a n d d e
p e n d s l a r g e l y u p o n it I t s insufficient c o n s u m p t i o n o r u t i l i z a
t i o n m a y g i v e r i s e t o a n o r e x i a , p o o r g r o w t h , lack of v i g o u r , f r e t -
fulness o r n e r v o u s n e s s , c a r d i a c a n d bowel irregularities and neuri
t i s . . . . T h e chief c a u s e of i t s insufficiency in t h e d i e t s of o u r
p e o p l e is t h e a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l u s e of w h i t e flour, from w h i c h it is
l a c k i n g , in p r e f e r e n c e t o w h o l e m e a l flour, in w h i c h it is a b u n d -

U3> Health via Food, pp; 24V, 2S3, 281

478 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a n t l y p r e s e n t , a n d t h e e x c e s s i v e c o n s u m p t i o n of v i t a m i n l e s s
4 4
sugar."' )
T h e t e s t i m o n y of L o r d N o r l h b o u r n e in t h i s c o n n e x i o n is too
a p p o s i t e t o be o m i t t e d . In Look to t/ir Land h e w r i t e s : " T h e
h e a l t h of m a n a n d t h e h e a l t h of h i s l a n d a r e n o t t w o d i s t i n c t m a t
t e r s w h i c h c a n p r o p e r l y be c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y a n d a p a r t . . . .
S o if f a r m i n g w e r e u n s o u n d it w o u l d be s t r a n g e if m a n ' s p h y s i c a l
life r e m a i n e d p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d . . . . It is t r u e t h a t m a n c a n n o t
live by b r e a d a l o n e , b u t it is a l s o t r u e t h a t he c a n n o t live w i t h o u t
b r e a d : a n d if his b r e a d is d e f e c t i v e h e c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o live
w e l l . . . . T h e t y p i c a l food of m o s t of u s t o - d a y is w h i t e b r e a d .
Jt is i n t e r e s t i n g to c o n s i d e r a loaf of w h i t e b r e a d in t h e l i g h t of
w h a t h a s b e e n said a b o u t food in g e n e r a l . T h e c h a n c e s a r e t h a t
the w h e a t has been g r o w n abroad, most probably u n d e r a system
of c o n t i n u o u s w h e a t g r o w i n g , v e r y l i k e l y on land t h e f e r t i l i t y of
w h i c h is in s o m e d e g r e e e x h a u s t e d . A f t e r a p e r i o d of s t o r a g e , ,
d u r i n g w h i c h it m a y be c h e m i c a l l y t r e a t e d a g a i n s t i n s e c t s , it is
p u t t h r o u g h a m o d e r n r o l l e r mill. . . . S o t h a t , e v e n if w h e a t is
h e a l t h i l y g r o w n , m o s t of t h e l i f e - g i v i n g a n d p r o t e c t i v e c o n s t i t u
e n t s a r e r e m o v e d . . . . W h i t e b r e a d is m e r e filling, it is p r o b
a b l y n o e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t it g e n e r a l l y d o e s n o t n o u r i s h a t
all. . . . S i r R o b e r t M c C a r r i s o n u s e d r a t s for h i s e x p e r i m e n t s
[ w i t h r e g a r d t o f o o d ] . S o m e w e r e fed on t h e diet of t h e H u n z a
p e o p l e a n d of c e r t a i n o t h e r t r i b e s w h o s e h e a l t h w a s r e m a r k a b l e .
These rats prospered exceedingly. Disease was almost unknown.
. . . A n o t h e r s e t of r a t s w e r e l e d o n t h e d i e t of t h e p o o r e r classes
in E n g l a n d ( w h i t e b r e a d , m a r g a r i n e , s w e e t tea, b o i l e d v e g e t a b l e s ,
tinned m e a t s , and j a m s ) . T h e y g r e w badly. T h e y got neuras
t h e n i a a n d bit t h e i r a t t e n d a n t ^ . After only sixteen days they
b e g a n to e a t e a c h o t h e r . T h e y a l s o g o t m a n y d i s e a s e s , a n d in
a d d i t i o n l a s s i t u d e , loss of h a i r , b o i l s , b a d t e e t h , a n d c r o o k e d s p i n e s .
T h e y b e c a m e t e r r i b l y like u s . "

(d) REGIMENTATION OF MEDICAL DOCTORS.

A v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g p a m p h l e t e n t i t l e d Barrier to Health, by Dr.

( 4 5
D o u g l a s B o y d , ' d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e on
d o c t o r s to accept c o n t r a c t p r a c t i c e and points o u t t h a t t h e p o w e r s
c o n t r o l l i n g m o n e y a r e m o v i n g in t h a t d i r e c t i o n . H e w r i t e s : " T h e
g r o w i n g n u m b e r of d o c t o r s a c c e p t i n g c o n t r a c t p r a c t i c e is clearly
a m a t t e r f o r a l a r m . It is o b v i o u s t h a t m a n y p r e f e r t o a c c e p t r e
s t r i c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n suffer p r i v a t i o n s . . . . I t is v e r y c l e a r t h a t
(44} Bread in Peace and War, p p . 47, 48.
" W h i t e b r e a d as we eat i t now is a scandal and a curse to civiliza
t i o n . . . . W h i t e bread, like -white s u g a r , is a shoddy cheap food that
results in 5,000,000 a year b e i n g s p e n t in a d v e r t i s e m e n t s for patent
m e d i c i n e s " (Viscount L y m i n g t o n in England, and, the Farmer, p. 19).
(45) The Abbey Press, Bangor, Co, D o w n , I r e l a n d .
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 479

the w i d e - s p r e a d c u r t a i l m e n t of p r i v a t e c o n s u l t a t i o n is t h e r e s u l t
of g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c d i s t r e s s . Is it n o t s t r a n g e t h a t s t e a d i l y
d e e p e n i n g e c o n o m i c p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be a c c o m p a n i e d by n u m e r o u s
o p p o r t u n i t i e s for c o n t r a c t s e r v i c e ? K n o w i n g t h a t c r e d i t is u n d e r
highly centralised c o n t r o l , o n e m a y then justifiably suspect that
t h o s e d i r e c t i n g financial p o l i c y a r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the r e g i
m e n t a t i o n of t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a n d p a t i e n t s t h a n w i t h t h e
g e n e r a l w e l f a r e ? . . . T o t h e i m p a r t i a l o b s e r v e r , c o g n i z a n t of t h e
f a c t s , it is c l e a r t h a t t h e w h o l e M e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n is b e i n g r u t h
lessly t a k e n in t h e g r i p of s o m e f o r m of S o c i a l i s m , F a s c i s m ,
R u s s i a n C o m m u n i s m , o r w h a t e v e r n a m e o n e c a r e s t o i^ive t o
regimentation a n d t h e e n f o r c e m e n t of o b j e c t i v e s c o n t r a r y to t h e
w i s h e s of t h e m a j o r i t y . . . . T h e f a c t s a r e q u i t e c l e a r . Almost
every practitioner n o w m u s t purchase a practice. This ' compul
sion ' f o l l o w s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e p a n e l s y s t e m . A p a r t f r o m
a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of t h e s u c c e s s o r o t h e r w i s e of this s y s t e m , t h e
fact r e m a i n s t h a t it c r e a t e d a v a s t e x t e n s i o n of b a n k c r e d i t . A t
the s a m e t i m e it b e c a m e a n o b l i g a t i o n o n a l m o s t e v e r y d o c t o r t o
t a k e o u t life i n s u r a n c e s , in m o s t i n s t a n c e s b e i n g p e r s u a d e d i n t o
the E n d o w m e n t C l a s s , w h i c h s k i l l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n will s h o w to
p r o d u c e m o s t profit t o t h e I n s u r a n c e c o m p a n i e s . It w o u l d be a
c r e d u l o u s p e r s o n w h o b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s m a l l g r o u p in c o n t r o l of
B a n k c r e d i t a n d t h e m a j o r i n s u r a n c e g r o u p s had no h a n d in the
f o r m a t i o n of s u c h an e n t e r p r i s e . . . . W h o , t h e n , d i r e c t s t h e policy
of t h e B a n k of K n g l a n d ? N o m a t t e r w h e r e w e t u r n w c find c e n
t r a l i z a t i o n u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n of t h e financier. In e v e r y d i r e c
t i o n w e s e e t h e r e s u l t of a n i n h u m a n p o l i c y . W e , " i n t h e M e d i c a l
p r o f e s s i o n , h a v e h a d t h e d o u b t f u l h o n o u r p a i d to u s of " b e i n g
a m o n g s t t h e first of t h e p r o f e s s i o n s t o b e p l a c e d u n d e r a s y s t e m
of r e g i m e n t a t i o n , for t h e e a s e of c o n t r o l a n d t h e d i r e c t g a i n of
( 4 G )
t h o s e w h o d i r e c t t h e p o l i c y of financial i n s t i t u t i o n s . "

(e) A D V E R T I S E M E N T S OF P A T E N T MEDICINES.
W e h a v e s e e n , t h e n , t h a t t h e p e r v e r s i o n of o r d e r d u e t o t h e
d o m i n a t i o n of finance h a s p r o v e d d e l e t e r i o u s for a g r i c u l t u r e , l e a d
i n g t o t h e e x h a u s t i o n of t h e soil a n d t h e n e g l e c t of t h e p r o d u c t i o n of
p r i m a r y goods., r u i n o u s a l s o f o r m a n ' s food, t h a t is, n o t o n l y for
the p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o o d b u t for t h e food itself, a n d
i n j u r i o u s t o t h e m e d i c a l c a r e of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n . L e t us n o w
go a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d s e e s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e sad effects of t h i s
d o m i n a t i o n n o t o n l y on m a n ' s b o d y but on m a n ' s soul.
|4G) Op. cit., p p . 11, 12, 13, 14, 39.
" Medical science is largely occupied in a d a p t i n g our bodies to an
u n n a t u r a l way of living, j u s t as a g r i c u l t u r a l science is largely occupied
in a d a p t i n g our l a n d to an u n n a t u r a l way of farming. The results
,?
are hy no means e n c o u r a g i n g either way C. Henry W a r r e n in
England and the Farmer, p. 66).
480 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

It is t r u e t h a t in connexion w i t h a d v e r t i s e m e n t s for Secret

Remedies w e a r c chiefly c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of h u m a n
s e l f i s h n e s s u s i n g the m o d e r n f a c i l i t y of a d v e r t i z i n g . B u t t h e driv
i n g f o r c e of d e b t for h e a v y a d v e r t i s i n g a n d g e n e r a l e x p e n s e s in
c r e a s e s t h e u r g e l o m a k e f a l s e a n d e x a g g e r a t e d c l a i m s a n d im
p r o p e r a p p e a l s . T h e m a d c o m p e t i t i o n for i n a d e q u a t e p u r c h a s i n g
p o w e r i m p e l s 10 i n d e c e n t a d v e r t i s e m e n t s w h i c h h a v e a d e s u p e r -
n a t u r a l i z i n g a n d d e g r a d i n g effect u p o n s o c i e t y . T h e n a g a i n , fear
of l o s i n g r e v e n u e a n d so b e i n g u n a b l e to p a y b a n k o v e r d r a f t s forces
n e w s p a p e r s to r e f r a i n f r o m p u b l i s h i n g t h e t r u t h a b o u t s e c r e t
r e m e d i e s and thus w a r n i n g the public.
W c h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l c a p a c i t y of t h e w o r l d t o supply
i t s i n h a b i t a n t s w i t h all t h e y n e e d is n o t a v a i l e d of o r , if it is availed
of to s o m e e x t e n t , t h e p r o d u c t s a r c n o t d i s t r i b u t e d b u t d e s t r o y e d .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e n o r m o u s s u m s a r e s p e n t on a d v e r t i z i n g the
p r o d u c t s t h a i a r e n o t d e s t r o y e d , t h a t is, in m a k i n g t h e m k n o w n
t o p e o p l e s u f f e r i n g f r o m l a c k of p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r t o b u y w h a t
t h e y n e e d . K n o r m o u s s u m s a r e a l s o s p e n t in a d v e r t i z i n g m e d i c a
m e n t s a n d r e m e d i e s r e n d e r e d n e c e s s a r y b y t h e d e v i t a l i z a t i o n of
f o o d a s w e l l a s by its insufficiency. " M o r e and m o r e , " w e read
in t h e p a m p h l e t published by the F o o d E d u c a t i o n Society, " t h e
E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g d e m o c r a c i e s a r e r e l y i n g on d e v i t a l i z e d foodstuffs
a n d corrective drugs to m a i n t a i n their health. T h i s c u s t o m spreads
from t h e cities to ihc c o u n t r y d i s t r i c t s . T h i s i n c r e a s i n g c o n s u m p
t i o n of t i n n e d , c o n c e n t r a t e d a n d s y n t h e t i c d i e t is n o t o n l y s e r i o u s l y
e m b a r r a s s i n g t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l r e v i v a l . . . b u t is d i s s e m i n a t i n g
17)
d e v a s t a t i n g diseases."<
" B o t h t o w n a n d c o u n t r y p e o p l e , " w r i t e s L o r d X o r t h b o u r n c in
Look to the Land, " n e e d t h e r i g h t food. A t p r e s e n t n o t o n e in a
h u n d r e d -of c i t h e r c a n g e t it for l o v e o r m o n e y . It is n o t t h e r e .
T h e c o m m e r c i a l h a n d l e r ( w h o h o l d s t h e c a r d s ) w a n t s t h a t which
is s t a n d a r d i z e d a n d e a s i l y s t o r e d o r p r e s e r v e d , in q u a n t i t y a n d at
a l o w p r i c e . H e ' e d u c a t e s ' t h e p u b l i c a n d t h e f a r m e r m u s t con
f o r m to t h e r e s u l t a n t d e m a n d , o r g o out of b u s i n e s s . C h e a p food
h a s b e e n t h e p l a u s i b l e e x c u s e for all t h i s . . . . T h e l o w e r i n g of
f i n a n c i a l c o s t is o u r i d e a l . . . . S o l o n g a s p e o p l e g o o n b e i n g
f o o l e d b y a d v e r t i s e m e n t ( b l a t a n t o r c o n c e a l e d ) of p r o c e s s e d foods,
s o l o n g will t h e y a n d t h e f a r m e r s b e at t h e m e r c y of v a s t d i s t r i
b u t i n g c o n c e r n s , w h o s e e v e r y i n t e r e s t s e e m s t o be o p p o s e d t o the
p e o p l e ' s r e a l n u t r i t i o n a l n e c e s s i t i e s . . . M i l k m u s t be p a s t e u r i z e d
in o r d e r t h a t it m a y b e m o r e s a f e l y b u l k e d for h a n d l i n g b y vast
d i s t r i b u t i n g c o n c e r n s . . . . I ' u r i t y is t h e a d v e r t i s e r ' s w a t c h w o r d .
B u t in p r a c t i c e il h a s c o m e t o be a l m o s t s y n o n y m o u s w i t h s t e r i l
ization. Sterilization m e a n s killing. . . . P a s t e u r i z i n g admittedly
a l t e r s o n e of t h e p h o s p h a t i c c o n s t i t u e n t s of m i l k . T h a t c o n s t i t u -

(47) Bread in Peace and War, p. 23.

 KCO.VORUCS O F A Q U I N A S A N D G O L D S T A N D A R D 48!

e n t is c l o s e l y c o n c e r n e d i n t h e c a l c i u m m e t a b o l i s m of i h e b o d y ,
w h i c h includes the f o r m a t i o n of b o n e s a n d teeth. , . . O n e sec
t i o n a t l e a s t of t h e b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y k n o w s t h a t w e a r e u n l i t ,
a n d t h a t is t h e s e c t i o n w h i c h r e l i e s o n a d v e r t i s i n g for i t s liveli
hood. C o n s i d e r , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of a d v e r t i s i n g s p a c e
a l l o t t e d t o p a t e n t m e d i c i n e s a n d c u r e s of all k i n d s , p r o c e s s e d f o o d s
r e c o m m e n d e d o n g r o u n d s of h e a l t h , i l a v o u r i n g s , s t i m u l a n t s , a n d
n a r c o t i c s , n o t e x c l u d i n g s t i m u l a n t s a n d n a r c o t i c s for t h e m i n d .
T o t h i s list m a y be a d d e d c o s m e t i c s , t h e m a i n p u r p o s e of w h i c h is
t o p r o d u c e a s p u r i o u s i m i t a t i o n of t h e b l o o m of h e a l t h \
s t a t e of l o w v i t a l i t y i n o u r p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s is n o l e s s d i s c e r n
ible. . . . L i a b i l i t y t o d i s e a s e s h o w s itself i n c r e a s i n g l y a m o n g
c l a s s e s of l i v e s t o c k b r e d a n d fed for h i g h p r o d u c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y
poultry and dairy c o w s / '
T h e R e p o r t from the Select C o m m i t t e e on P a t e n t Medicines
o r d e r e d t o b e p r i n t e d b y t h e H o u s e of C o m m o n s o n 4 t h A u g u s t ,
1914, a n d r e p r i n t e d in 1936, c o n t a i n s a m i n e of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
Secret Remedies. W c r e a d t h e r e i n . : " W e a r e g e t t i n g a lot of
q u a c k r e m e d i e s w h i c h w e r e f o r m e r l y confined t o t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s . . . . W h i l e t h e t r a d e i n c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of s e c r e t r e m e d i e s
is c a r r i e d o n . . . w i t h t r i f l i n g c a p i t a l , in o t h e r c a s e s t h e a m o u n t
of c a p i t a l i n v e s t e d in m a n u f a c t u r i n g is v e r y l a r g e . T h e a n n u a l
t u r n o v e r of t h e p r o p r i e t o r s of I ' e e c h a m ' s Pills, s e l l i n g o v e r a
m i l l i o n pills a d a y , S u n d a y s i n c l u d e d , is a b o u t 360,000 a y e a r .
T h e p r o p r i e t o r s of S c i g e l ' s S y r u p , w h o h a v e sold 100 m i l l i o n b o t
( 4 8 )
t l e s in 4 0 y e a r s , p a y u p w a r d s of 40,000 a y e a r in w a g e s a l o n e .
I n m o s t c a s e s t h e p r i n c i p a l e x p e n d i t u r e in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s e c r e t
r e m e d i e s is in a d v e r t i s i n g . T h e p r o p r i e t o r s of ' W i n c a r n i s / for
e x a m p l e , s p e n d t h u s 50,000 a y e a r , e m p l o y i n g b e t w e e n 30 a n d 4 0
p e r s o n s in t h e i r a d v e r t i s i n g b u r e a u . . . .
" A s s o l a r g e a s u m a s 2,000,000 o r m o r e is s p e n t a n n u a l l y in
a d v e r t i s e m e n t s of t h e s e r e m e d i e s in o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r of a d v e r
t i s i n g , t h e t r a d e is n a t u r a l l y of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e l o n e w s p a p e r p r o
prietors. I n t h e c a s e of m o s t n e w s p a p e r s t h e s e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s
c o n s t i t u t e o n e of t h e m o s t c o n s i d e r a b l e s o u r c e s of i n c o m e , w h i l e
a n u m b e r of s m a l l p r o v i n c i a l n e w s p a p e r s c o u l d p r o b a b l y h a r d l y
e x i s t a t all w i t h o u t s e c r e t r e m e d y a d v e r t i s e m e n t s . . . . A s r e g a r d s
t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s of s w i n d l e r s l i k e M a c a u r a , t h e ' e y e q u a c k s /
the ' deaf q u a c k s / the c a n c e r - c u r e r s , the consumption-curers, the
e l e c t r i c b e l t m a k e r s , t h e c u r e r s of r u p t u r e w i t h o u t o p e r a t i o n , o r
' f a k i r s ' g e n e r a l l y , m o s t n e w s p a p e r p r o p r i e t o r s do n o t r e g a r d it
a s i n c u m b e n t u p o n t h e m t o t e s t t h e g o o d f a i t h of s e c r e t r c m e d y

(**) Elsewhere the R e p o r t s a y s : " F o r m a n y years, t h i s p r e p a r a t i o n

bore t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t ' a n old w o m a n . Mother Seigel, etc.' Y o u r
committee a r r i v e d at the conclusion t h a t every d e t a i l of this s t a t e m e n t
was an i n v e n t i o n . There never was a M o t h e r Seigel, or this wonderful
herb.''
KK
482 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a d v e r t i s e r s , a n y m o r e t h a n of a d v e r t i s e r s of o t h e r g o o d s . . . .
W e m u s t p o i n t o u t f u r t h e r , in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h a t t h e l a r g e s u m s
r e c e i v e d f o r t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t of s e c r e t r e m e d i e s l e a d n e w s p a p e r s ,
e i t h e r from discretion or u n d e r c o m p u l s i o n , to e x c l u d e from t h e i r
c o l u m n s c r i t i c i s m o r d i s c u s s i o n of .secret r e m e d i e s . W h e n the
B r i t i s h Medical Association, for e x a m p l e , issued t h e i r v o l u m e en
t i t l e d Srcrrt Remedies c o n t a i n i n g a n a l y s e s , c o s t s , e t c . , of a l a r g e
n u m b e r of p r o p r i e t a r y m e d i c i n e s , n o t o n l y w a s t h e v o l u m e n o t
n o t i c e d e d i t o r i a l l y by m o s t p a p e r s , b u t e v e n a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t of
i t w a s d e c l i n e d by m a n y j o u r n a l s , s o m e of t h e m of t h e h i g h e s t
c l a s s . A trial in E d i n b u r g h in t h e c o u r s e of w h i c h t h e j u d g e d e
s c r i b e d t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e p r o p r i e t o r s of as based
o n u n b l u s h i n g f a l s e h o o d f o r t h e p u r p o s e of d e f r a u d i n g t h e p u b l i c , '
w a s , w c were i n f o r m e d , vciih f e w e x c e p t i o n s not r e p o r t e d in t h e
P r e s s , a n d t h e r e m e d y still h a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e s a l e . . . .
Fraudulent Remedies:
" T h i s is a l a r g e c l a s s , h a v i n g an e x t e n s i v e s a l e , o f t e n a t h i g h
p r i c e s , c o n s i s t i n g of a b o r l i f a c i e n t s , of a l l e g e d c u r e s for c a n c e r ,
c o n s u m p t i o n , d i a b e t e s , p a r a l y s i s , l o c o m o t o r a t a x y , 11 r i g h t ' s d i s
e a s e , l u p u s , fits, e p i l e p s y , r u p t u r e ( w i t h o u t o p e r a t i o n o r a p p l i a n c e ) ,
d e a f n e s s , d i s e a s e s of t h e e v e , s y p h i l i s , e t c . . t o g e t h e r w i t h e l e c t r i c
b e l l s , a p p a r a t u s for s u p p l y i n g o x y g e n t o t h e s y s t e m , ' i o n i s e d '
w a t e r s a n d t h e like. . . . T h e y a r e a n d a r e k n o w n b y t h e i r
m a k e r s , t o be c r u e l f r a u d s ; a n d t h e s a l e a n d a d v e r t i s e m e n t of t h e m
s h o u l d be p r o h i b i t e d u n d e r d r a s t i c p e n a l t i e s . . . .
Remedies making grossly exaggerated claims;
" A s a n e x a m p l e of t h e p r o f i t s m a d e b y t h e s a l e of t h i s c l a s s
of r e m e d i e s , G e o r g e T a y l o r F u l f o r d , t h e p r o p r i e t o r of ' D r .
Williams' Pink Pills f o r Pale P e o p l e . ' left a fortune of
1,111,000. . . .
Medicated Wines:
" T h e r e c a n be n o d o u b t t h a t m a n y p e r s o n s a c q u i r e t h e ' d r i n k
h a b i t ' by taking these wines and preparations (
. . ., e t c ) e i t h e r k n o w i n g t h a t t h e y a r e a l c o h o l i c . . . . o r in
ignorance that they are highly intoxicating liquors. The further
c h a r g e is m a d e t h a t t h e i r d r u g c o n t e n t m a v l e a d t o t h e ' d r u g
habit.' . . . .
" T h e t r a d e in a b o r t i f a c i e n t s p r e s e n t s o n e of t h e m o s t d e p l o r
a b l e a s p e c t s of t h e s e c r e t r e m e d y t r a d e . Innumerable remedies
for ' f e m a l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ' a r e a d v e r t i s e d . A f e w of t h e s e a r e
p o i s o n o u s a n d h a v e c a u s e d d e a t h , w h i l s t m o s t of t h e m a r e w h o l l y
i n a c t i v e for t h e p u r p o s e for w h i c h t h e y a r e sold. . . . M a n y
d e a t h s f r o m the u s e of t h i s s u b s t a n c e
for this p u r p o s e w e r e r e p o r t e d to us. I t c a n , of
c o u r s e , o n l y p r o d u c e a b o r t i o n by p r o d u c i n g l e a d p o i s o n i n g , f r o m
which insanity, blindness, paralysis and death have resulted. . . .
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 483

T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e t o t a l p r o h i b i t i o n of its sale s h o u l d be c o n
sidered by the competent authorities. . . .
4
" S o m e p a p e r s of t h e s o - c a l l e d r e l i g i o u s p r e s s / w e a r e told,
s h o w a w i d e r h o s p i t a l i t y to secret r e m e d y a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , and
m a n y of a n o b j e c t i o n a b l e c h a r a c t e r h a v e b e e n found in i t s c o l u m n s .
I t is a l s o l a m e n t a b l y t r u e t h a t t h e c h e a p so-called ' h o m e ' w e e k
lies, i n t e n d e d f o r t h e r e a d i n g of g i r l s a n d y o u n g w o m e n , c o n t a i n
a d v e r t i s e m e n t s of a g r o s s l y i m p r o p e r n a t u r e . M a n y i m p r o p e r a d
v e r t i s e m e n t s from weeklies, s p o r t i n g prints, ' religious ' and 'home'
p a p e r s , w e r e e x h i b i t e d t o u s i n c l u d i n g 19 a d v e r t i s e m e n t s of d r u g s ,
o b v i o u s l y i n t e n d e d t o be u s e d a s a b o r t i f a c i e n t s , in o n e p r o v i n c i a l
Sunday paper. . . .
" I t will p r o b a b l y n o w be l e a r n e d w i t h o u t s u r p r i s e t h a t
w i t n e s s e s of u n q u e s t i o n a b l e a u t h o r i t y h a v e a s s u r e d u s t h a t g r a v e
evils, u r g e n t l y r e q u i r i n g r e m e d y , a r i s e from t h e p r e s e n t sale a n d
a d v e r t i s e m e n t of s e c r e t r e m e d i e s . W e m a y q u o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g a s
examples. As r e g a r d s diseases a r i s i n g from sexual intercourse,
Dr. Reginald E d w a r d Cross, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.: ' A very grave
a n d w i d e - s p r e a d evil, u r g e n t l y d e m a n d i n g l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n . ' A s
regards aural diseases, Mr. P. M a c L e o d Yearsley, F.R.C.S.: ' A
w i d e s p r e a d a n d g r a v e evil, w h i c h I m o s t d e c i d e d l y b e l i e v e r e q u i r e s
l e g i s l a t i v e t r e a t m e n t . ' A s r e g a r d s d i s e a s e s of t h e s k i n , D r . A r t h u r
Whitfield, M . D . , F . R . C R , P h y s i c i a n to the Skin D e p a r t m e n t , and
P r o f e s s o r of D e r m a t o l o g y in K i n g ' s C o l l e g e H o s p i t a l : ' T h e h a r m
d o n e is a p p a l l i n g . . . . T h e r e is u r g e n t d e m a n d for l e g i s l a t i o n . '
A n d o n t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n , M r . G. S i d n e y P a t e r n o s t e r ,
A s s i s t a n t E d i t o r of Truth: ' T h e r e is a b s o l u t e l y no q u e s t i o n a b o u t
it, t h e p u b l i c is d e f r a u d e d of m i l l i o n s i n t h e c o u r s e of a y e a r , a n d
( 4 9 )
purely by false s t a t e m e n t s . ' "
T h e E a r l of P o r t s m o u t h s u m s u p t h e s i t u a t i o n a s f o l l o w s : " I n
a h e a l t h i e r a g e w i t h a less i r r a t i o n a l s y s t e m , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n
impossible for such appalling m e n t a l a n d physical d r u g s as w e n o w
suffer f r o m t o h a v e t a k e n first p l a c e in o u r lives. S c a r c i t y b o t h in
food a n d w o r k h a s m e a n t s u b n o r m a l h e a l t h a n d t h a t in itself
c r e a t e d a c o l o s s a l v e s t e d i n t e r e s t in p a t e n t m e d i c i n e s . T h e dull
n e s s of o u r r a t i o n a l i z e d a n d r e g i m e n t e d lives h a s c r e a t e d a d e m a n d
for m a s s - p r o d u c e d a m u s e m e n t s , ' t h e d o g s / a n d t h e f o o t b a l l p o o l s ,
a n d o t h e r s u c h e n t e r t a i n m e n t . B i g p r o f i t s lie in m o n e y l e n d i n g t o
c r e a t e n e w issues p r o m o t i n g l u x u r y business. So, too, w i t h the
v a s t g r o w t h of t h e t o b a c c o i n d u s t r y , a n d t h e u n r e a l s e n s a t i o n a l i s m
of t h e P r e s s . T h o s e w h o s a y t h a t t h e y could n o t in 1939 afford
sufficient food t o p u t i n t o t h e i r s t o m a c h s . . . w e r e d r i v e n w i t h
e v e r y e x c u s e t o e x p e n d m o n e y in s h e e r b o r e d o m o n c i g a r e t t e s ,
n e w s p a p e r s , c i n e m a s , f o o t b a l l p o o l s , a n d h i r e p u r c h a s e of r a d i o s ,

M9) Report on Patent Medicines, p p . x, xi, xiii, xiv, xv," xx,

x x i i i , xxiv (published by H . M. S t a t i o n e r y Office).
484 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

w h i c h a h e a l t h i e r w o r l d . . . w o u l d h a v e f o u n d l e s s n e c e s s a r y to
i t s e x i s t e n c e . M o s t of t h i s d e g e n e r a t i o n c a n be laid finally a t t h e
d o o r of finance, j u s t a s t o t h e s a m e d o o r w e c a n lay t h e t w e n t y to
t h i r t y m i l l i o n u n e m p l o y e d w h o h a u n t e d t h e s t r e e t s of E u r o p e a n d
A m e r i c a . All t h i s h a p p e n s in a w o r l d w h e r e f i n a n c e h a s all the
p o w e r , a n d w i e l d s il w i t h o u t a u t h o r i t y o r a n y social d e s i g n "
(Alternative to Dentin p. 3 6 ) .

(f) FAMILY LIFE.

W e have seen that the n e w s of a d r o u g h t and of the conse

q u e n t l o s s of a w h e a t c r o p in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s r e c e i v e d w i t h
a c c l a m a t i o n in t h e C h i c a g o W h e a t i'it. Such, a n a l t i t u d e is in c o m
p l e t e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d in t h e p r a y e r s H o l y
C h u r c h o r d e r s u s lo r e c i t e in t h e L i t a n y of t h e S a i n t s . T h e L i t a n y
of t h e S a i n t s is said o r s u n g on R o g a t i o n D a y s , p r e c i s e l y in o r d e r
t o i n v o k e G o d ' s b l e s s i n g a n d p r o t e c t i o n on c r o p s . T h e C o l l e c t of
t h e M a s s f o r .Rain w a s e v i d e n t l y n o t d r a w n u p by s p e c u l a t o r s in
w h e a t , f o r in it w e r e a d : " O G o d . in W h o m w c live, m o v e a n d
h a v e o u r b e i n g , g r a n t us r a i n in d u e s e a s o n , t h a t w h e n o u r t e m
p o r a l n e e d s a r e sufficiently s u p p l i e d , w e m a y s e e k w i t h m o r e c o n
fidence after things eternal. T h r o u g h O u r Lord Jesus Christ."
I n O u r L o r d ' s a c c o u n t of t h e s i g n s t h a t s h a l l p r e c e d e t h e e n d of
t h e world. He m e n t i o n s famines. If t h e p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d
a l l o w the financiers to c o n t i n u e to insult God b y their a t t i t u d e to
H i s g i f t s , t h e y will h a v e t h e m s e l v e s t o b l a m e for t h e f a m i n e s .
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , s o m e t h i n g still w o r s e . O n e U n i t e d S t a t e s
S e n a t o r , in 1933, in t h e p r e s e n c e of the i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of p r o
p o s a l s t o r e s t r i c t the o u t p u t of so m u c h of w h a t is r e q u i r e d for
t h e n o r m a l e x i s t e n c e of h u m a n b e i n g s , d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e f i n i s h i n g
t o u c h t o t h e p i c t u r e w o u l d be g i v e n by a Bill t o r e s t r i c t t h e p r o -
c r e a l i o n of c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i o n . In all p r o b a b i l i t y , h e
w a s u n a w a r e t h a t in E n g l a n d l e t t e r s h a d a l r e a d y b e e n s e n t to
The Times s u g g e s t i n g t h i s v e r y t h i n g . T h e f o l l o w i n g p h r a s e s a r e
t a k e n f r o m o n e of t h e m : " T h e p o o r e r s e c t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n
h a v e o u t r u n the d e m a n d for m a n u a l l a b o u r . . . t h e y m u s t learn
to r e g u l a t e t h e e x p a n s i o n of t h e i r f a m i l i e s a s t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r
1 3 0
classes have long been d o i n g . " ' T h i s is a v e r y d i f f e r e n t ideal
of m a r r i e d life f r o m t h a t s e t b e f o r e u s in t h e b e a u t i f u l p r a y e r s
p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e C h u r c h to be s a i d o v e r t h e n e w l y - w e d d e d p a i r
at N u p t i a l M a s s . T h e r e i n t h e p r i e s t b e g s G o d t h a t t h e w i f e m a y
b e a m o t h e r fruitful in o f f s p r i n g a n d t h a t t h e y m a y b o t h s e e t h e i r
children's children u n t o the third and fourth g e n e r a t i o n .
T h e e x i s t e n c e of " s u r p l u s e s " of p r o d u c t i o n o v e r c o n s u m p t i o n
d o e s n o t b r i n g h o m e t o p e o p l e w h o a r e s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h e finance-
m e n t a l i t y t h a t t h e r e m e d y is t o be s o u g h t b y g o i n g a g a i n s t the
* Quoted hy Mr. Jeffrey Mark in Tin Modern Idolatry, p. 35.
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 485

tide a n d s e e k i n g to increase c o n s u m p t i o n . No, the r e m e d y they

s u g g e s t is t o b r i n g a b o u t a d i m i n u t i o n in t h e n u m b e r of p r o
d u c e r s . T h e f e r t i l i t y of m o n e y m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d , e v e n if it l e a d s
t o t h e s t e r i l i t y of t h e h u m a n r a c e . T h e C e n t r a l B a n k e r s will
doubtless be r e a d y to oblige b y lending m o n e y to the S t a t e to
e r e c t B i r t h - p r e v e n t i o n clinics a l o n g s i d e t h e B a n k s in e v e r y i m
p o r t a n t s t r e e t . A s t h e E n g l i s h t a x p a y e r s a r c still p a y i n g i n t e r e s t
o n t h e m o n e y b o r r o w e d b y t h e E n g l i s h G o v e r n m e n t to finance the
w a r t h a t e n d e d w i t h t h e B a t t l e of W a t e r l o o in 1815, t h e g r a d u a l l y
d i m i n i s h i n g p o p u l a t i o n will in all p r o b a b i l i t y still b e l o o k i n g f o r
m o n e y to p a y the interest on this o t h e r loan, w h e n t h e Archangel
Gabriel will s u m m o n t h e last of t h e m , a l o n g with the financiers, to
51
l i s t e n t o t h e full t r u t h a b o u t t h e o r d e r of t h e world.* *
" T h e r e is v e r y l i t t l e t o e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e t o t a k e t h e l o n g v i e w
a n d y e t , f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e S t a t e , it is g e n e r a l l y t h e
l o n g v i e w t h a t m a t t e r s . A c t u a l l y , t h e r e is e v e r y i n d u c e m e n t f o r
t a k i n g t h e s h o r t v i e w . M o n e y is t h e e n d a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y s o u g h t ,
w h a t e v e r t h e m e a n s of a c q u i s i t i o n . C o m p a n y law has been so
f r a m e d t h a t i t is p o s s i b l e f o r m e n t o m a k e w h a t t h e y c a n w h i l e
t h e g o i n g is g o o d a n d e s c a p e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a l t o g e t h e r f o r t h e i r
a c t i o n s b y t h e s i m p l e m e a n s of s e l l i n g o u t a t t h e r i g h t t i m e a n d
l e a v i n g o t h e r s t o deal w i t h the c o n s e q u e n c e s .
" A p a r t i c u l a r l y g l a r i n g e x a m p l e of t h e e m p h a s i s of t h e s h o r t
v i e w is t o b e f o u n d in t h e c a r e e r o f t h e b u i l d i n g c o m p a n i e s of t h e
n i n e t e e n - t w e n t i e s a n d t h i r t i e s . A d m i t t e d l y , t h e r e w a s a n e e d for
h o u s e s , b u t n o t f o r h o u s e s t o be t h r o w n u p w i t h l i t t l e o r n o r e g a r d
for q u a l i t y in g r e a t u n s i g h t l y m a s s e s a r o u n d o u r b i g c i t i e s a n d
provincial t o w n s . As soon as a n e s t a t e had been developed and
t h e p r o f i t r e a p e d , t h e c o m p a n y w a s w o u n d u p , a n d w h e n it w a s
found l a t e r t h a t t h e houses w e r e unlit for habitation, t h e people
t o w h o m t h e y h a d b e e n s o l d o n m o r t g a g e w e r e left h i g h a n d d r y
w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e to a n y o n e . T h a t is o n e e x a m p l e f r o m o n e in
d u s t r y . M a n y o t h e r s m a y b e q u o t e d b u t t h e y all h a v e t h e s a m e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h a t a m a n o r g r o u p of i n d i v i d u a l s m a y b l e e d a
b u s i n e s s w h i t e a n d e s c a p e e n t i r e l y t h e f u t u r e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e i r
p o l i c y b y w i n d i n g - u p o r s e l l i n g o u t b e f o r e t h e l o n g t e r m r e s u l t s of
t h e i r a c t i o n s h a v e m a d e t h e m s e l v e s felt.
" S o c i e t y h a s a l s o a v e r y d e f i n i l e i n t e r e s t in s e e i n g t h a t i t s
p h y s i c a l r e s o u r c e s a r e n o t s q u a n d e r e d . In a g r i c u l t u r e , it h;is l o n g
been recognised that, w h a t e v e r t e m p o r a r y a d v a n t a g e s may be
g a i n e d b y o v e r - c r o p p i n g , in t h e l o n g r u n n o m o r e c a n b e g o t o u t

(51) Of course, the City h a d money invested on the other .side too.
" On t h i s occasion he [ N a p o l e o n ] h a d no option b u t to raise a loan
for t h e defence of F r a n c e . T h e C i t y of London accommodated him
with 5,000,000. W i t h this sum he e q u i p p e d tha a r m y which "Wellington
defeated a t W a t e r l o o " (Monarchy or Moneij-V(>wer by II. ATcNair t

Wilson, p . 107),
 486 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

of t h e l a n d t h a n is p u t b a c k i n t o it. I n d u s t r y is r e a l l y v e r y m u c h
5 2
the same."* '
W e C a t h o l i c s m a y n o t c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s w i t h e x t o l l i n g the
s u b l i m e d i g n i t y of t h e S a c r a m e n t of M a t r i m o n y a n d p r e a c h i n g the
m o r a l l a w . W e m u s t d o t h a t , b u t in a d d i t i o n w e m u s t d o all w e
c a n t o e n a b l e y o u n g p e o p l e t o g e t m a r r i e d a t a n o r m a l a g e a n d to
fulfil t h e s a c r e d o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e m a r r i e d s t a t e . W e m u s t t a k e
t o h e a r t t h e w o r d s of t h e l a t e H o l y F a t h e r in t h e E n c y c l i c a l on
Christian Marriage: " S i n c e it is no r a r e t h i n g t o find t h a t the
p e r f e c t o b s e r v a n c e of G o d ' s c o m m a n d s a n d c o n j u g a l i n t e g r i t y en
c o u n t e r difficulties b y r e a s o n of t h e f a c t t h a t h u s b a n d a n d wife
a r e in s t r a i t e n e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e i r n e c e s s i t i e s m u s t be r e l i e v e d
a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . A n d s o . in t h e first p l a c e , e v e r y e f f o r t m u s t be
m a d e t o b r i n g a b o u t t h a t . . . . in t h e S t a t e s u c h e c o n o m i c a n d
social m e t h o d s shall be a d o p t e d a s will e n a b l e e v e r y h e a d of a
f a m i l y t o e a r n a s m u c h a s is n e c e s s a r y a c c o r d i n g t o his s t a t i o n in
1
life, for h i m s e l f , his w i f e , a n d t h e r e a r i n g of his c h i l d r e n , f o r the
l a b o u r e r is w o r t h y of h i s h i r e ' ( S t . L u k e , V , 7 ) . " U n d e r t h e e x i s t
i n g m o n e t a r y s y s t e m , p e o p l e w e r e d y i n g of u n d e r - n o u r i s h m e n t ,
w h i l e food w a s b e i n g d e s t r o y e d , b e c a u s e it c o u l d n o t b e s o l d a t a
p r o f i t , a n d m a n y of t h e s u r v i v o r s w e r e e x p o s e d t o c r u e l t e m p t a
t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e m o r a l l a w . Ts it n o t r i g h t to s u b j e c t t h a t s y s t e m
t o e x a m i n a t i o n , s e e i n g t h a t m o n e y is d e s t i n e d b y i t s v e r y n a t u r e
t o f a c i l i t a t e m e m b e r s of f a m i l i e s in p r o c u r i n g t h a t sufficiency of
m a t e r i a l g o o d s t h e y n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e for a v i r t u o u s life?
W e m a v fittingly c o n c l u d e t h i s c h a p t e r b v a q u o t a t i o n f r o m
P o p e P i u s X I P s Allocution of Christ mas, 1 9 4 2 :
" M o v e d a l w a y s b y r e l i g i o u s m o t i v e s , t h e C h u r c h h a s con
d e m n e d t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s of M a r x i s t S o c i a l i s m , a n d s h e c o n d e m n s
t h e m t o - d a y , b e c a u s e it is h e r p e r m a n e n t r i g h t a n d d u t y t o s a f e
g u a r d m e n f r o m c u r r e n t s of t h o u g h t a n d i n l l u e n c c s t h a t j e o p a r d i z e
their eternal salvation. Put the Church cannot ignore or overlook

(52) The Future of Auditing, by A G r o u p of A c c o u n t a n t s (Gee &

Company, Potters Bar).
W i t h r e g a r d to the s t a t e m e n t m a d e by this g r o u p of w r i t e r s t h a t
t h e r e has been little to e n c o u r a g e people to take the long view, i t will
be well to quote a few lines from the R e p o r t of the B r i t i s h Forestry
<(
Commission (1&43). Afforestation e m p h a t i c a l l y d e m a n d s the long
view, which has not been encouraged. U p to the b e g i n n i n g of the last
wa,r," we read, " the U n i t e d K i n g d o m ( i n c l u d i n g I r e l a n d ) had no
F o r e s t Policy . . . The F o r e s t r y Commission was established in 1919
as the forest a u t h o r i t y . Owing to the lack of stability of finance the
F o r e s t r y Commission's o p e r a t i o n s were subjected to a n u m b e r of checks
. . . The progress with p r i v a t e woodlands h a s been d i s a p p o i n t i n g . . .
T h e post-war position will d e m a n d speedy and largo-scale action. The
requisites for success are available. B r i t i s h c o n d i t i o n s are suitable
for the r a p i d growth of good timber. T h e r e is sufficient l a n d available
in the e x i s t i n g woodlands and u n c u l t i v a t e d rough g r a z i n g . " Are not
I r i s h c o n d i t i o n s suitable also?
 ECONOMICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 487

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o r k e r , in h i s e f f o r t s t o b e t t e r his l o t , is o p p o s e d
b y a s y s t e m w h i c h is n o t o n l y n o t in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h n a t u r e b u t
is a t v a r i a n c e w i t h G o d ' s p l a n a n d w i t h t h e p u r p o s e H e h a d in
c r e a t i n g t h e g o o d s of t h e e a r t h . . . . If t h e i s s u e w a s o n c e
t h e l i b e r a t i o n of a l a n d h a l l o w e d b y t h e life of t h e I n c a r n a t e
W o r d of G o d , t h e call t o - d a y i s , if W e m a y s o e x p r e s s
O u r s e l v e s , t o t r a v e r s e t h e s e a of e r r o r s of o u r d a y , a n d t o
m a r c h o n t o f r e e t h e h o l y l a n d of t h e s p i r i t w h i c h is d e s t i n e d t o
s u s t a i n in its f o u n d a t i o n s t h e u n c h a n g e a b l e n o r m s a n d l a w s on
w h i c h w o u l d a r i s e a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of s o u n d i n t e r n a l h a r m o n y .
W i t h t h i s l o f t y p u r p o s e b e f o r e U s , W e t u r n f r o m t h e C r i b of t h e
P r i n c e of P e a c e , c o n f i d e n t t h a t H i s G r a c e is diffused in all h e a r t s ,
to you, beloved children w h o recognise and adore H i m , Christ y o u r
S a v i o u r , W e t u r n t o all t h o s e w h o a r c u n i t e d w i t h U s a t l e a s t b y
t h e b o n d of f a i t h in G o d . "
 CHAPTER XX.

T H E POLITICAL P R I N C I P L E S O F ST. T H O M A S AQUINAS

AND T H E FUNCTIONING OF T H E GOLD STANDARD.

MONEY-MANIPULATORS AND GOVERNMENTS.

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t f o r S t . T h o m a s m o n e y is m e a n t t o b e t h e
s e r v a n t of P o l i t i c s a n d E c o n o m i c s . T h e a r t of m a n i p u l a t i n g m o n e y
m u s t n o t b e a l l o w e d t o fall u n c o n t r o l l e d i n t o t h e h a n d s of p r i v a t e
i n d i v i d u a l s , a s t h e y w i l l b e t e m p t e d t o w o r k for i n s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e -
l e v e l s in v i e w of t h e i r o w n g a i n . A fortiori, t h e r u l e r s of t h e S t a t e
m u s t s e e t o it t h a t t h e m a n i p u l a t o r s of m o n e y d o n o t g e t c o n t r o l
of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . N o w t h e s e t w o e v i l s i n s t a b i l i t y of n a t i o n a l
p r i c e - l e v e l s a n d c o n t r o l of g o v e r n m e n t s b y f i n a n c i e r s s e e m t o
h a v e been allowed to g r o w apace u n d e r the gold s t a n d a r d m o n e
t a r y s y s t e m . T h e r e is n o n e e d t o d w e l l f u r t h e r o n t h e f o r m e r
evil, as it has been sufficiently s t r e s s e d . T h e l a t t e r n e e d s a little
elaboration.
L e t u s first t a k e t h e t e s t i m o n i e s of t h e r u l e r s of S u i t e s t h e m
s e l v e s . W h e n t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e H a n k , c r e a t e d in 1913 b y M r .
P a u l W a r b u r g , a G e r m a n J e w b e l o n g i n g t o t h e b a n k i n g firm of
K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y , h a d b e e n a f e w y e a r s in e x i s t e n c e , in
1916 t o be p r e c i s e , P r e s i d e n t W o o d r o w W i l s o n t h u s s u m m e d u p
t h e s i t u a t i o n in U . S . A . : " A g r e a t i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n is c o n t r o l l e d
b y i t s s y s t e m of c r e d i t . O u r s y s t e m of c r e d i t is c o n c e n t r a t e d .
T h e g r o w t h of t h e n a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , a n d all o u r a c t i v i t i e s a r e i n
t h e h a n d s of a few m e n . . . . W e h a v e c o m e to be o n e of t h e
w o r s t r u l e d , o n e of t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r o l l e d a n d d o m i n a t e d
G o v e r n m e n t s in t h e civilised w o r l d n o l o n g e r a G o v e r n m e n t b y
c o n v i c t i o n a n d t h e f r e e v o t e of t h e m a j o r i t y , b u t a G o v e r n m e n t b y
t h e o p i n i o n a n d d u r e s s of s m a l l g r o u p s of d o m i n a n t m e n . "
Jf w c p a s s t o K n g l a n d , w e shall find a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e in p r o o f
o f w h a t P r o f e s s o r S o d d y w r o t e a b o u t t h e Panic of E n g l a n d s o m e
y e a r s a g o : " F r o m b e i n g w h a t is k n o w n a s a b a n k e r s ' b a n k , it h a s
{ n
b e c o m e now almost the Government's g o v e r n m e n t . " Mr. Glad
s t o n e s a i d : " F r o m t h e t i m e I t o o k office a s C h a n c e l l o r of t h e
E x c h e q u e r ( 1 S 5 2 ) , I b e g a n t o l e a r n t h a t t h e S t a t e h e l d , in t h e face
of t h e l>ank a n d t h e C i t y , a n e s s e n t i a l l y f a l s e p o s i t i o n a s t o finance.
. . . T h e h i n g e of t h e w h o l e s i t u a t i o n w a s t h i s : t h e G o v e r n m e n t

U) The Bole of Money, p. 50.

 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 489

itself w a s n o t t o b e a s u b s t a n t i v e p o w e r in m a t t e r s of finance, b u t
was to leave the M o n e y P o w e r s u p r e m e and unquestioned. In the
c o n d i t i o n s of t h a t s i t u a t i o n 1 w a s r e l u c t a n t t o a c q u i e s c e , a n d 1
b e g a n t o fight a g a i n s t it b y financial s e l f - a s s e r t i o n f r o m t h e first
. . . 1 w a s tenaciously opposed by the Governor and Deputy-
G o v e r n o r of t h e B a n k , w h o h a d s e a t s in P a r l i a m e n t , a n d 1 h a d t h e
12
City for an a n t a g o n i s t on a l m o s t e v e r y occasion." * Mr. John
H a r g r a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y a d d s : " I t w o u l d a s t o u n d t h e G r a n d Old
M a n t o s e e t h e s t r i d e s t h a t t h e M o n e y P o w e r h a s m a d e in b u i l d
i n g u p a n d e n t r e n c h i n g its p o s i t i o n since his day."
O n p a g e 2 1 5 of t h e s a m e w o r k , M r . H a r g r a v e q u o t e s M r . M o n
t a g u N o r m a n as s a y i n g t h a t t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e T r e a s u r y
a n d t h e B a n k is " t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n T w e e d l e d u m a n d T w e e d l e -
dee." T o confirm his affirmation t h a t the G o v e r n m e n t i . e . , t h e
T r e a s u r y h a s t o g o , c a p - i n - h a n d , t o t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d in
o r d e r to g e t n e c e s s a r y g o v e r n m e n t a d v a n c e s , Mr. H a r g r a v e cites
w h a t Sir T h o m a s L. H e a t h , P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y to t h e T r e a s u r y
( 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 1 9 ) , w r i t e s a b o u t i t in h i s b o o k , The Treasury (p. 7 8 ) :
" . . . A n A c t of 59 G e o . J I I , c. 76, r e q u i r e s t h a t w h e n e v e r it is
d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y for t h e p u b l i c s e r v i c e t o m a k e a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e
B a n k o f E n g l a n d f o r a n y a d v a n c e a u t h o r i s e d b y P a r l i a m e n t , such
a p p l i c a t i o n m u s t be m a d e i n w r i t i n g b y t h e F i r s t L o r d of t h e
T r e a s u r y o r t h e C h a n c e l l o r of t h e E x c h e q u e r for t h e t i m e b e i n g
t o t h e G o v e r n o r a n d D e p u t y - G o v e r n o r of t h e B a n k . . . . T h e
p r a c t i c a l effect is t h a t t h e C h a n c e l l o r h a s t o w r i t e t o t h e G o v e r n o r
a n d D e p u t y - G o v e r n o r f o u r t i m e s a y e a r ( t o w a r d s t h e end of
M a r c h , J u n e , S e p t e m b e r and D e c e m b e r ) to ask them to move the
C o u r t of D i r e c t o r s t o c o n s e n t . . . Mr. H a r g r a v e a l s o q u o t e s
M r . V i n c e n t V i c k e r s , B a n k of E n g l a n d d i r e c t o r 1910-1919, a s
f o l l o w s : " J t w a s n o t M r . W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l , a s C h a n c e l l o r of t h e
E x c h e q u e r , w h o i n i t i a t e d o r w a s t o b l a m e for o u r r e t u r n t o t h e
g o l d s t a n d a r d in 1 9 2 5 ; i t w a s n o t M r . B a l d w i n w h o d e c i d e d t h e
t e r m s of t h e B a n k N o t e s a n d C u r r e n c y A c t . . . . 1928; nor
l a t e r w a s it L o r d S n o w d e n w h o p e r s o n a l l y p i g e o n - h o l e d t h a t r e
q u e s t f o r a R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n m o n e t a r y policy a n d w h o s u b
stituted so soon a f t e r w a r d s the MacMillan C o m m i t ! c e which
s e e m e d t o s o m e s o r e d o l e n t of T h r e a d n c e d l e S t r e e t . S i n c e 1919 t h e
m o n e t a r y p o l i c y of t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s b e e n t h e p o l i c y of t h e
B a n k of E n g l a n d , a n d t h e p o l i c y of M r . M o n t a g u N o r m a n . " Tf
w e link w i t h this the declaration already quoted from M r . Regin
ald M c K e n n a , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b a n k e r a n d f o r m e r C h a n c e l l o r of t h e
41
E x c h e q u e r , t o t h e effect t h a t t h e y w h o c o n t r o l t h e c r e d i t of a
n a t i o n d i r e c t t h e p o l i c y of G o v e r n m e n t s , " w e h a v e r e l i a b l e t e s t i
m o n y a s t o t h e r e a l r u l e r of E n g l a n d . I n c o n c l u s i o n w e m a y a d d

(2) M o r l e y ' s Life of Gladstone. Quoted by J o h n H a r g r a v e in his

book, Professor Skinner, alias Montwgu Norman.
 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t o t h i s t h a t t h e R a n k of E n g l a n d w a s e m p o w e r e d b y t h e I n c o m e
T a x A c t of 1918, S e c t i o n 6 8 , t o a s s e s s a n d t a x itself w i t h n o b o d y
3
in control.* *
In p o i n t of fact, w i t h t h e g r o w i n g i n f l u e n c e of A m e r i c a n finan
cial i n t e r e s t s , p o w e r o v e r t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t s e e m s t o have
p a s s e d t o t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e A t l a n t i c . M r . T h o m a s J o h n s t o n ,
M . P . , w h o in 1931 w a s L o r d P r i v y S e a l in t h e L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t ,
w r o t e : ' ' T h e C i t y , t h e f i n a n c i e r s a n d t h e m o n e y l e n d e r s in N e w
Y o r k a n d P a r i s , r e f u s e d t o p u t u p c r e d i t s in s u p p o r t of a b a l a n c e d
b u d g e t . T h e y d e m a n d e d a c u t in u n e m p l o y m e n t b e n e f i t . They
w a n t e d h u m a n i t y crucified o n a c r o s s of g o l d . W e d e c l i n e d a b s o
l u t e l y a n d r e s i g n e d . . . . T w e n t y m e n a n d o n e w o m a n a British
C a b i n e t w a i t e d o n e b l a c k S u n d a y a f t e r n o o n in a D o w n i n g S t r e e t
g a r d e n for a final d e c i s i o n f r o m t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B a n k of N e w
York."">
Resides Mr. T h o m a s J o h n s t o n ' s spectacular t e s t i m o n y about
t h e d e p e n d e n c e of t h e B r i t i s h C a b i n e t o n t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e
B o a r d , t h e r e a r c o t h e r s t o t h e s a m e effect. S o m e of t h e m are
q u o t e d b y A. N . F i e l d in The Truth, about the Stump. F o r example,
S i r J o s i a h S t a m p , in a n i n t e r v i e w in t h e Sew York live) ting Post,
r e p r i n t e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l C i t y B a n k in its m o n t h l y c i r c u l a r for
F e b r u a r y , 1926, s p o k e of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d
a s f o l l o w s : " N e v e r in t h e h i s t o r y of. t h e w o r l d h a s s o m u c h p o w e r
b e e n v e s t e d in a s m a l l b o d y of m e n a s in t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e
B o a r d . T h e s e m e n h a v e t h e w e l f a r e of t h e w o r l d in t h e i r h a n d s ,
a n d t h e y c o u l d u p s e t t h e r e s t of u s e i t h e r d e l i b e r a t e l y o r b y s o m e
u n c o n s c i o u s a c t i o n . M i n d y o u , \ a m n o t c r i t i c i s i n g t h e m , b u t it is
p r e c a r i o u s t o h a v e s u c h c o n c e n t r a t e d p o w e r v e s t e d in s u c h a
l 5 )
body." A g a i n , in h i s b o o k America Conquers Britain, M r . Lud-
well D e n n y s a y s : " M a n y n a t i o n s m a y l a u g h at our S t a t e Depart
m e n t , b u t all m u s t t r e m b l e b e f o r e o u r F e d e r a l R e s e r v e Board.
P l i g h m o n e y r a t e s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e a r l y in 1929, f o r i n s t a n c e ,
f o r c e d a n i n c r e a s e in t h e official d i s c o u n t r a t e s a l m o s t a t o n c e in
E n g l a n d , in t e n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , in t w o L a t i n - A m e r i c a n coun-
(3) Tax-Bonds or Bondage, p. 23. T h e B a n k of I r e l a n d was
accorded the same privilege by the ( B r i t i s h ) Act of 1918 r e f e r r e d to in
the text.
((
_ According to The Sunday Dispatch^ Sept. 21, 1941, in 1934
H i t l e r ' s second year of powerthe B a n k of E n g l a n d g r a n t e d the
Reichsbank a c r e d i t of 750,000 . . . . G e r m a n y needed lots of raw
m a t e r i a l s a t the time . . . When the G e r m a n s overran Czecho-Slovakia
in 1939, Mr. Montagu N o r m a n handed over the JC6,O0O.O0O of gold
belonging to C z e c h o s l o v a k i a which the B. L S. had deposited with the
B a n k of E n g l a n d . . . . S i r J o h n Simon a d m i t t e d t h a t the Bank of
E n g l a n d h a d n o t consulted the B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t about the m a t t e r . "
<4) Quoted by Mr. J o h n Mitchell in Tax-Bonds or Bondage, p. 12.
(> S i r J o s i a h S t a m p was on the Board of Directors of the Bank of
E n g l a n d in 1932. Cf. The Old had,/ Unveiled, by J. It. J a r v i e (Webster
& Co., 1933).
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 491

t r i e s , a n d t w o in t h e F a r E a s t . A n d in a l m o s t e v e r y c a s e t h a t
a c t i o n r e s t r i c t e d b u s i n e s s a n d b r o u g h t s u f f e r i n g t o m i l l i o n s of
f o r e i g n w o r k e r s . T h a t b l o w h i t B r i t a i n h a r d e s t of all. I t c h e c k e d
4
h e r t r a d e revival. . . . A s one British critic said: It proves o u r
B a n k [ t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d ] is h a r n e s s e d t o W a l l S t r e e t / Berlin
b a n k e r s , a s r e p o r t e d in t h e New York Times, F e b r u a r y 8, 1929,
' d e c l a r e t h a t it signifies d e f e a t of E n g l a n d ' s p u r p o s e of r e s t o r i n g
L o n d o n t o p r i m a c y a s t h e w o r l d m o n e y c e n t r e . T h i s w i s h is c o n
s i d e r e d t o h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e a l t o g e t h e r t o o
l o n g r e t e n t i o n of t h e A\ p e r c e n t b a n k r a t e . ' N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e
B a n k of E n g l a n d , in t h e face of t h e m o s t b i t t e r c r i t i c i s m , w a s
f o r c e d t o r a i s e t h e m o n e y r a t e t o t h e h i g h e s t level since t h e
a u t u m n of 1921 t o p r e v e n t its g o l d r e s e r v e f r o m d i s a p p e a r i n g
chiefly b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s a s p e c u l a t i o n o r g y in W a l l S t r e e t . As
a r e s u l t , t h e B r i t i s h B o a r d of T r a d e i n d e x s o o n s h o w e d a d e c l i n e
in c o m m o d i t y p r i c e s , w h i c h t h e B r i t i s h c o r r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d ' t o
t h e r i s e in E u r o p e a n m o n e y - r a t e s o w i n g t o t h e n e c e s s i t y w h i c h
d e v o l v e s u p o n c e n t r a l b a n k s to w i t h s t a n d t h e pull of h i g h call-
m o n e y r a t e s in A m e r i c a ' (Manchester Guardian Commercial, May
30, 1 9 2 9 ) . The London Herald, o r g a n of t h e L a b o u r P a r t y , h a d
c o r r e c t l y f o r e c a s t t h a t ' m o r e u n e m p l o y m e n t , a s l u m p in t r a d e a n d
d e a r e r l i v i n g will f o l l o w i n e v i t a b l y t h e i n c r e a s e in t h e B a n k of
(
E n g l a n d d i s c o u n t r a t e f r o m 4 } to 5l p e r c e n t . ' . . . T h e w e l l -
2

b e i n g of all of u s , n o t o n l y i n E n g l a n d , b u t in all civilised c o u n

t r i e s , is a f f e c t e d b y t h e g o o d o r b a d m a n a g e m e n t of t h e F e d e r a l
R e s e r v e system,' s a y s t h e H o n . R. H . B r a n d , D i r e c t o r of L l o y d ' s
B a n k , L o n d o n . . . . L o n d o n is t h u s h a r n e s s e d t o W a l l S t r e e t ,
i n s t e a d of h a v i n g W a l l S t r e e t a n d t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d d r a g g i n g
, , G )
a t h e r h e e l s a s in p r e - W a r d a y s . '
A g a i n , h e r e is w h a t M r . R e g i n a l d M c K e n n a h a d t o s a y o n t h i s
s u b j e c t a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g of t h e s h a r e h o l d e r s of t h e M i d l a n d
B a n k o n J a n u a r y 28, 1 9 2 8 : " T o - d a y , a s b e f o r e the w a r , t h e p r i c e
of g o l d in A m e r i c a is fixed, a n d w e a r e a p t t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e
v a l u e of g o l d c o n t i n u e s t o g o v e r n t h e v a l u e of t h e d o l l a r . But
s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n is n o l o n g e r correct. W h i l e a n o u n c e of
g o l d c a n a l w a y s be e x c h a n g e d for a definite n u m b e r of d o l l a r s ,
t h e v a l u e of t h e o u n c e will d e p e n d o n w h a t t h o s e d o l l a r s will b u y ,
a n d t h i s , in t u r n , will d e p e n d u p o n t h e A m e r i c a n p r i c e - l e v e l . If
t h e p r i c e - l e v e l in A m e r i c a fluctuated a c c o r d i n g to t h e m o v e m e n t s
of g o l d , t h e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of t h e d o l l a r w o u l d still d e p e n d , a s
it did f o r m e r l y , u p o n t h e v a l u e of g o l d . B u t w e k n o w t h a t t h i s
is n o t so. A s I h a v e j u s t s h o w n , t h e A m e r i c a n p r i c e - l e v e l is n o t
a f f e c t e d b y g o l d m o v e m e n t s , b u t is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e p o l i c y of
<&> America Conquers Britain, p p . 169-171 (published by Alfred
Knopf, New York). A good d e a l of w h a t is quoted in the text from
Mr. D e n n y ' s book is n o t in Mr. F i e l d ' s work. In the original, the
section is entitled by Mr. D e n n y " T h e Federal "Reserve rules L o n d o n / '
492 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

t h e R e s e r v e B a n k s in e x p a n d i n g o r c o n t r a c t i n g c r e d i t . I t f o l l o w s ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i t is n o t t h e v a l u e of g o l d i n A m e r i c a w h i c h d e t e r
m i n e s t h e v a l u e of t h e d o l l a r , b u t t h e v a l u e of t h e d o l l a r w h i c h
d e t e r m i n e s t h e v a l u e of g o l d . T h e m e c h a n i s m b y w h i c h t h e d o l l a r
g o v e r n s t h e e x t e r n a l v a l u e of g o l d is o b v i o u s . If t h e p r i c e - l e v e l
o u t s i d e A m e r i c a s h o u l d r i s e in c o n s e q u e n c e of a n i n c r e a s e in t h e
s u p p l y of g o l d , A m e r i c a w o u l d a b s o r b t h e s u r p l u s g o l d ; if, o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , t h e e x t e r n a l level s h o u l d fall in c o n s e q u e n c e of a
s h o r t a g e of g o l d , A m e r i c a w o u l d s u p p l y t h e d e f i c i e n c y . T h e m o v e
m e n t w o u l d continue until t h e price-levels inside a n d outside
A m e r i c a w e r e b r o u g h t o n c e m o r e i n t o equilibrium. A l t h o u g h gold
is still t h e n o m i n a l b a s i s of m o s t c o u n t r i e s t h e r e a l d e t e r m i n a n t
of m o v e m e n t s in t h e g e n e r a l w o r l d l e v e l of p r i c e s is t h u s t h e p u r
c h a s i n g p o w e r of t h e d o l l a r . T h e c o n c l u s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , is f o r c e d
u p o n u s t h a t in a v e r y r e a l s e n s e t h e w o r l d is o n a d o l l a r s t a n d a r d .
. . . I c o n c l u d e t h a t a s l o n g a s c o n d i t i o n s r e m a i n a t all s i m i l a r t o
t h o s e w e k n o w t o - d a y A m e r i c a will b e a b l e t o m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e w o r l d level of p r i c e s . "
Innumerable other opinions, Mr. Field continues, m i g h t be
q u o t e d i n p r o o f of t h e fact t h a t t h e w o r l d ' s m o n e y a n d p r i c e s a r e
chained to t h e policies p u r s u e d b y the financiers w h o control
America. B u t it will be sufficient t o c o n c l u d e w i t h t h e b a l a n c e d
j u d g e m e n t of P r o f e s s o r G u s t a v C a s s e l of S w e d e n in h i s b o o k ,
PostAVar Monetary Stabilisation: " T h e m o n e t a r y p o l i c y of t h e
Ignited S t a l e s d e t e r m i n e s t h e v a l u e of t h e c u r r e n c y of e v e r y o t h e r
gold standard country. The Federal Reserve Authorities there
f o r e c o n t r o l n o t o n l y t h e g e n e r a l level of p r i c e s in t h e U n i t e d
S t a l e s , b u t a l s o t h e p r i c e - l e v e l of all o t h e r g o l d s t a n d a r d c o u n t r i e s
in t h e w o r l d . . . . W h e n t h e c e n t r a l b a n k s y s t e m p o s s e s s e s a gold
c o v e r of o v e r 70 t o 80 p e r c e n t , f o r n o t e s a n d d e p o s i t s , w h i l e a
r a t i o of 35 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t , is r e q u i r e d b y l a w , it d o e s n o t in t h e
l e a s t m a t t e r w h e t h e r t h i s g o l d c o v e r is i n c r e a s e d o r r e d u c e d b y
a few per cent. H e n c e t h e l e a d e r s of t h e l ' n i t e d S t a t e s b a n k
policy a r e not obliged to p a y any consideration w h a t e v e r to minor
f l u c t u a t i o n s in t h e g o l d c o v e r . This means that the Federal
R e s e r v e s y s t e m is in a p o s i t i o n , of c o u r s e , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s ,
t o r e g u l a t e t h e s u p p l y of t h e m e a n s of p a y m e n t i n t h e c o u n t r y
w i t h o u t a n y r e g a r d t o t h e m o v e m e n t s of g o l d . T h u s t h e F e d e r a l
R e s e r v e e x e r c i s e s a n i n d e p e n d e n t i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e l e v e l of
prices. O t h e r gold s t a n d a r d c o u n t r i e s a r c compelled to follow suit
a n d t o a d j u s t t h e i r p r i c e - l e v e l s i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h a t of t h e
U n i t e d States. Otherwise they expose themselves to a depiction
of t h e i r n o n e t o o a b u n d a n t s t o c k s of g o l d o r else t o a n influx of
gold w h i c h they could n o t afford t o leave unutilised. T h e increase
o r d e c r e a s e in t h e s t o c k of g o l d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i c h w o u l d
b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h s u c h m o v e m e n t s of g o l d , w o u l d h a v e n o m a t e r i a l
b e a r i n g o n t h e m o n e t a r y s i t u a t i o n of t h a t c o u n t r y , w h i c h , in s p i t e
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 493

of t h e fluctuations of i t s m o n e t a r y s t o c k s of gold, w o u l d h e q u i t e
a b l e t o k e e p i t s g e n e r a l level of p r i c e s c o n s t a n t . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e
p r i c e - l e v e l of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s a d e t e r m i n i n g influence on
t h e w o r l d p r i c e - l e v e l , w h i c h is a c t u a l l y r e g u l a t e d b y t h e l e a d e r s
171
of U n i t e d S t a t e s b a n k p o l i c y . "

THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM.

" Jn c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e n , of t h e h u g e a c c u m m u l a t i o n of g o l d in
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " w r i t e s A . N . F i e l d , " t h e policy p u r s u e d Ivy t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s F e d e r a l R e s e r v e P>oard n o w d e t e r m i n e s t h e g e n e r a l
p r i c e - l e v e l of c o m m o d i t i e s . " T h u s t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d by
i t s c o n t r o l of g o l d p r a c t i c a l l y c o n t r o l s t h e t r a d e of t h e w o r l d . W e
have seen President W o o d r o w Wilson's opinion about the United
S t a t e s ' G o v e r n m e n t in 1916, w h e n t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e H o a r d h a d
b e e n a f e w y e a r s in e x i s t e n c e . " A g r e a t i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n is c o n
t r o l l e d b y i t s s y s t e m of c r e d i t . . . . W e h a v e c o m e t o b e o n e of
t h e w o r s t r u l e d , o n e of t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r o l l e d a n d d o m i n
a t e d G o v e r n m e n t s in t h e civilised w o r l d . . . . T h e g r o w t h of t h e
n a t i o n a n d all o u r a c t i v i t i e s a r e in t h e h a n d s of a f e w m e n . " N o w
w e m u s t a s k w h a t is t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e
B o a r d a n d t h e few m e n , w h o , a c c o r d i n g to P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n ,
c o n t r o l t h e n a t i o n b y c o n t r o l l i n g i t s s y s t e m of c r e d i t ?
F i r s t of all, in t h e s a m e w o r k f r o m w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n
q u o t i n g , n a m e l y , The Truth about the Slump, M r . A. N . F i e l d
m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e w a s a n a l l - p o w e r f u l M o n e y T r u s t in t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s . H e d o e s t h i s b y q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e R e p o r t of t h e
Pujo Commission, set up by Congress soon after W o o d r o w Wilson
h a d b e c o m e P r e s i d e n t in 1912. I t is u n n e c e s s a r y t o c i t e h e r e all
t h e e x t r a c t s w h i c h a r e t o be f o u n d o n p p . 78-80 of M r . F i e l d ' s
w o r k a n d o n p p . 3 0 6 - 3 0 8 of The Mystical Body of Christ in the
Modern World, but a few lines m u s t b e quoted again. T h e P u j o
C o m m i s s i o n r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e w a s a M o n e y T r u s t in e x i s t e n c e
in M a r c h , 1913, a n d it n a m e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n s a s c o n s t i t u t
ing the inner and directing force:
J. P. M o r g a n and Company.
T h e N a t i o n a l C i t y B a n k of N e w Y o r k .
L e e , H i g g i n s o n a n d C o m p a n y of B o s t o n a n d N e w Y o r k .
Kidder, Peabody and Company.
Kuhn, Loeb and Company.
'* T h e first g r o u p , w h i c h for c o n v e n i e n c e w c will call t h e i n n e r
g r o u p , c o n s i s t s of M e s s r s . J . P . M o r g a n a n d C o m p a n y , t h e r e c o g
nised leaders, and Mr. G e o r g e F. B a k e r and Mr. J a m e s Stillman,
in i n d i v i d u a l c a p a c i t i e s a n d in j o i n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e F i r s t
N a t i o n a l B a n k , &c. . . . T h e s e c o n d g r o u p , closely allied to t h i s
i n n e r a n d p r i m a r y g r o u p , is c o m p o s e d of t h e p o w e r f u l i n t e r n a -

(7) The Truth about the Slump (1931), c h a p . iv % p p . 28-32.

494 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t i o n a l b a n k i n g h o u s e of L e e , H i g g i n s o n a n d C o m p a n y , K i d d e r ,
F e a b o d y a n d C o m p a n y , w i t h t h r e e affiliated b a n k s in B o s t o n .
" T h e t h i r d g r o u p c o n s i s t s of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l h o u s e of K u h n ,
L o c h a n d C o m p a n y . T h i s f i r m is o n l y q u a l i f i e d l y a l l i e d to t h e i n n e r
g r o u p , y e t t h r o u g h its r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l C i t y B a n k , &c.
. . . it h a s m a n } - i n t e r e s t s in c o m m o n . . . . T o g e t h e r t h e y h a v e
w i t h f e w e x c e p t i o n s p r e - e m p t e d t h e b a n k i n g b u s i n e s s of t h e im
p o r t a n t r a i l w a y s of t h e c o u n t r y . . . . T h e p o w e r f u l g r i p of t h e s e
g e n t l e m e n is o n t h e t h r o t t l e , t h e c o n t r o l s , t h e w h e e l s of c r e d i t , a n d
o n t h e i r s i g n a l t h o s e w h e e l s will t u r n o r s t o p . . . . T h e g e n t l e m e n
7
c o n s t i t u t i n g t h i s i n n e r c i r c l e , h o w e v e r , v i o l a t e d n o law in w h a t
t h e y h a v e d o n e , so far a s w e can d i s c o v e r , b u t t h a t is r a t h e r b e
cause . . . the law has not y e t properly safeguarded the com
m u n i t y a g a i n s t this f o r m of c o n t r o l . "
T h e C o m m i s s i o n r e p o r t e d t h a t b y a s y s t e m of i n t e r l o c k i n g
d i r e c t o r a t e s , s t o c k - h o l d i n g c o m p a n i e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s of d o m i n a
t i o n , t h e a b o v e live b a n k i n g h o u s e s c o n t r o l l e d n o l e s s t h a n 122
b a n k s a n d financial a n d i n d u s t r i a l c o m p a n i e s w i t h r e s o u r c e s in
c a p i t a l a n d r e s e r v e t o t a l l i n g t h e p r o d i g i o u s s u m of 4,449,000,000.
A full list of t h e c o n c e r n s t h u s c o n t r o l l e d w a s p u b l i s h e d . T h e fol
l o w i n g is a s u m m a r y :

Class of Undertaking:, Resources in dollars.

34 banks and trust companies 2,679,000,000
10 insurance companies 2,293,000,000
32 transportation companies (rail
roads, express and steamship
companies) ' 11,784,000,000
24 p r o d u c i n g and t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s 3,339,000,000
12 public utility companies ( p o w e r ,
light, t e l e g r a p h , &e.) 2,150,000,000

112 c o m p a n i e s . 22,245,000,000

I n t h e 32 t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o m p a n i e s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e M o n e y
T r u s t w e r e i n c l u d e d t h e l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n r a i l w a y s y s t e m s , and
a m o n g t h e 12 p u b l i c u t i l i t y c o r p o r a t i o n s w a s t h e G r e a t W e s t e r n
T
L n i o n T e l e g r a p h C o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d by K u h n , L o c b a n d Com
p a n y . A m o n g t h e p r o d u c i n g a n d t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s c o n t r o l l e d by
the Money Trust w e r e : A m a l g a m a t e d Copper, American Smelting
a n d R e f i n i n g C o m p a n y , T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N i c k e l C o m p a n y , Gen
eral Klcctric C o m p a n y and U n i t e d S t a t e s Steel Corporation.
T h e r e w a s in e x i s t e n c e , t h e n , in 1913, a n a l l - p o w e r f u l M o n e y
T r u s t d o m i n a t i n g a n d c o n t r o l l i n g e c o n o m i c life in t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s . Y e t President Wilson, w h o had denounced the Money
T r u s t , h a n d e d o v e r c o n t r o l of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o t h o s e financiers
b y t h e C a r t e r G l a s s Bill e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e Board.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 495

T h e Bill w a s p a s s e d o n D e c . 20, 1913. " T h i r t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n of The. Intimate Papers of Colonel House (1926)
s h o w e d t h a t t h e Bill h a d b e e n f r a m e d b y t h e v e r y m e n officially
denounced a few m o n t h s previously as controlling the M o n e y
T r u s t ! T h e s e m e n w e r e t h e p e o p l e t o w h o m Colonel H o u s e , a s
a d v i s e r - i n - c h i e f t o P r e s i d e n t W o o d r o w W i l s o n , r a n for a d v i c e a s
to h o w t o f r a m e a m e a s u r e t o c u r b t h e M o n e y T r u s t Ml t h e
time t h e g o o d C o l o n e l w a s firmly of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e M o n e y
R i n g s h o u l d be b r o u g h t t o b o o k . U n d e r d a t e of J u l y 26, 1911, he
wrote as follows to S e n a t o r C u l b e r s o n : ' I think W o o d r o w Wil
son's r e m a r k t h a t t h e M o n e y T r u s t is t h e m o s t p e r n i c i o u s of all
t r u s t s is e m i n e n t l y c o r r e c t . A f e w i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e i r s a t e l l i t e s
control t h e l e a d i n g c o r p o r a t i o n s . ' Y e t w h e n the C o l o n e l , w h o ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e E d i t o r of The Intimate Papers, D r . C h a r l e s S e v -
m o u r of Y a l e , w a s t h e u n s e e n g u a r d i a n a n g e l of the Hill a n d w a s
i n d e f a t i g a b l e in p r o v i d i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t w i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t
he s o u g h t , w a s f r a m i n g t h e Bill, h e laid chief s t r e s s on his fre
( 8 )
quent c o n f e r e n c e s w i t h b a n k e r s . "
A f t e r a l o n g t a l k w i t h M a j o r L . H i g g i n s o n of L e c , H i g g i n s o n
and C o m p a n y of B o s t o n a n d N e w Y o r k , o n e of t h e c o n c e r n s in
the i n n e r r i n g of t h e M o n e y T r u s t , C o l o n e l H o u s e w r o t e : " E v e r y
h a n k e r like W a r b u r g w h o k n o w s t h e s u b j e c t t h o r o u g h l y h a s b e e n
called u p o n in t h e m a k i n g of t h e Bill. M a j o r l l i g g i n s o n s e e m e d
t h o r o u g h l y s a t i s lied w i t h t h e e n d e a v o u r s t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a d
made t o c o n s t r u c t a g o o d a n d b e n e f i c e n t m e a s u r e . " N o w o n d e r
Mr. J a c o b SchilT, a f t e r t h e p a s s a g e of t h e Bill, w a s able to w r i t e
to Colonel H o u s e o n D e c e m b e r 2 3 , 1 9 1 3 : " T h e bill is a g o o d o n e
in m a n y r e s p e c t s , a n y h o w g o o d e n o u g h t o s t a r t w i t h a n d to let
e x p e r i e n c e t e a c h us in w h a t d i r e c t i o n it n e e d s p e r f e c t i o n , w h i c h
in d u e t i m e w e shall t h e n g e t . "
" T h e foregoing e x t r a c t s show clearly enough that President
W o o d r o w W i l s o n a n d his n a i v e friend a n d adviser, Colonel H o u s e ,
were m e r e p u t t y in t h e h a n d s of t h e s e a s t u t e financiers.'- T h i n k i n g
they w e r e f r e e i n g A m e r i c a f r o m a n o c t o p u s t h e y m e r e l y f a s t e n e d
its t e n t a c l e s m o r e firmly t h a n e v e r o n t h e p e o p l e of t h e U n i t e d
States."<9>
I n v i e w of w h a t h a s b e e n w r i t t e n in P a r t 1 of t h i s b o o k a b o u t
the f u n c t i o n of m o n e y a c c o r d i n g t o S t . T h o m a s , a n o t h e r r e m a r k
m u s t be m a d e a b o u t t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d . O n e s i g n i f i c a n t
(8) The Truth about the Slump, p p . 85, 86.
<9) The Truth about the Slump p. 87. One of the hankers con
sulted by Colonel htouse was Mr. F r a n k A. Vanderlip, then P r e s i d e n t
of the N a t i o n a l City B a n k . F r o m Mr. V a n d e r l i p ' s memoirs, it a p p e a r s
that he and H e n r y Davidson (of J. P. M o r g a n and Company) a n d P a u l
Warburg (of K u h n , Loeb a n d C o m p a n y ) held a secret conference on
Jekyll Island near S a v a n n a h , Georgia, a n d there a r r a n g e d the bill, of
which the framework was s u p p l i e d by W a r b u r g . Cf. The Peir/n of ihe
Elders, p p . 59. 60.
496 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a l t e r a t i o n w a s q u i e t l y m a d e i n t h e Bill d u r i n g i t s p a s s a g e t h r o u g h
t h e H o u s e of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . " A s passed, "the A c t s a y s t h e d i s
c o u n t r a t e shall h e m a d e w i t h a v i e w t o a c c o m m o d a t i n g c o m m e r c e
a n d b u s i n e s s . A s introduced, there was a further instruction that
t h e r a t e s h o u l d b e m a d e s o a s t o p r o m o t e s t a b i l i t y of t h e p r i c e -
l e v e l . T h i s c l a u s e had v a n i s h e d b e f o r e t h e Hill r e a c h e d t h e S e n a t e
a n d e f f o r t s s i n c e m a d e t o a m e n d it in t h a t d i r e c t i o n h a v e b e e n
n o
t o t a l l y u n s u c c e s s f u l . " ' O n e of t h e e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s of m o n e y
h a s t h u s b e e n e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e a i m s of t h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t y
of U . S . A . T h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t y of U . S . A . c a n d i s r e g a r d s t a b i l i t y
of t h e n a t i o n a l p r i c e - l e \ e l . O n p a g e 3 5 6 of h i s b o o k , An Outline
of Monet/, p u b l i s h e d in 1940, M r . G e o f f r e y C r o w t h c r r e m a r k s : " I n
G r e a t Mrilain t h e r e w a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y of o p i n i o n , l e d by
e c o n o m i s t s b u t b a c k e d b y i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , w h i c h d e m a n d e d a policy
r
of p r i c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n . In t h e L n i t e d S t a t e s t h e s a m e d e m a n d in
s p i r e d C o n g r e s s , a n d m o r e t h a n o n e Mill w a s i n t r o d u c e d t o p u t
u p o n t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e H a n k s t h e s t a t u t o r y d u t y of m a i n t a i n i n g
s t a b l e p r i c e s . T h o u g h n o n e of t h e s e Bills r e a c h e d t h e s t a t u t e b o o k ,
t h e r e w a s n o d o u b t of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t o s e e k for
s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e s , r a t h e r t h a n of t h e e x c h a n g e s , w a s t h e p r i m a r y
d u t y of t h e m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s . B u t i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e
c l e a r t h a t t h e p u r s u i t of p r i c e s t a b i l i t y is n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
1 1
m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d . " ' *
I n C h a p t e r V of The Trvth about the Slump, M r . A. X. Field
s h o w s t h a t t h e c r e a t o r of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d w a s the
J e w i s h b a n k e r , P a u l W a r b u r g , w h o w a s b o r n in G e r m a n y on
A u g u s t 10, 1868, a n d c a m e t o A m e r i c a in 1902, b e c o m i n g a p a r t n e r
in K u h n , L o e b a n d Co., a n d a c q u i r i n g A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s h i p , a few
y e a r s b e f o r e t h e G r e a t W a r of 1914-1918. P a u l W a r b u r g m a r r i e d
M i s s L o e b , d a u g h t e r of M r . S o l o m o n L o e b of t h e firm of K u h n ,
L o e b a n d C o m p a n y , in 1894, t h u s b e c o m i n g a b r o t h e r - i n - l a w of
t h e l a t e J a c o b 11. Schiff, w h o h a d a l s o m a r r i e d a M i s s L o e b a n d w h o
h a d s u c c e e d e d a s h e a d of t h e firm. In a w o r k in t w o v o l u m e s ,
The Federal lleserve System: its Origin and Growth, published
i n 1930, P a u l W a r b u r g h i m s e l f p r o v e s t h a t h e w a s t h e r e a l o r i g i n
a t o r of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e H o a r d . T h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e L a w w a s
d u l y p a s s e d b y C o n g r e s s . 11 differed v e r y s l i g h t l y f r o m w h a t

(to) The Truth about the Slump, p. 83.

(u> R e a d e r s a r c recommended to refer to Mr. A. K. F i e l d ' s book
( p p . 89-92) for a n i n t e r e s t i n g account of the efforts m a d e by Mr. James
G. S t r o n g , a K a n s a s member of the B o u s e of Representatives, to get
h i s Bills accepted. These Rills embodied (he o b l i g a t i o n for the Federal
Reserve B o a r d to use its powers and a u t h o r i t y to p r o m o t e " a more
stable p u r c h a s i n g power of the d o l l a r so f a r as such p u r p o s e s may be
accomplished by m o n e t a r y a m i c r e d i t p o l i c y . " Mr. F i e l d r e m a r k s :
" A f e a t u r e of the h e a r i n g s on the second bill was t h e epidemic of
i n v a l i d i s m which afflicted tho members of the F e d e r a l Reserve Board
when the time t o give evidence approached.*'
 4
POLITICS OF AQUfNAS AND GOLD STANDARD &
w a s d e s i r e d b y M r . W a r b u r g , a n d t h a t g e n t l e m a n is r e p o r t e d t o
h a v e s a i d t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e c o u l d b e *' c o r r e c t e d by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p r o c e s s e s . " T h e s u c c e s s of P a u l W a r b u r g ' s c a m p a i g n for b a n k i n g
r e f o r m o n t h e l i n e s of w h a t h i s b r o t h e r , M a x W a r b u r g of H a m
b u r g , a n d o t h e r J e w i s h b a n k e r s , h a d s e t u p in G e r m a n y , w a s
g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e g r e a t N e w Y o r k financial p a n i c of 1907.
It w a s t h e f a i l u r e of t h e K n i c k e r b o c k e r R e a l E s t a t e T r u s t C o m
p a n y w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e d t h a t p a n i c . A m o n g the m e m b e r s of t h e
K n i c k e r b o c k e r T r u s t w a s S o l o m o n L o e b of K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m
p a n y . N o w it w a s w i d e l y a s s e r t e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s
and e l s e w h e r e t h a t t h e panic w a s d e l i b e r a t e l y created by financiers
for t h e i r o w n p u r p o s e s . A t a n y r a t e it w a s u s e d t o f a v o u r P a u l
Warburg's scheme.
A f t e r h a v i n g m e n t i o n e d t h a t M r . J a c o b Schiff of K u h n , L o e b
and C o m p a n y , a l o n g with E. H / H a r r i m a n , played an active p a r t
in f o r m i n g t h e h u g e a m a l g a m a t i o n s of r a i l w a y a n d o t h e r c a p i t a l
k n o w n a s t r u s t s , M r . F i e l d g o e s o n t o q u o t e f r o m t h e Nev)
Encyclopaedia of Social Reform as f o l l o w s : " O u r r a i l w a y s foster
monopoly directly and indirectly. By consolidation and c o m b i n
a t i o n t h e y a r e b u i l d i n g u p n u m e r o u s m o n o p o l i e s in t h e r a i l r o a d
field, a n d b y t h e c o n c e s s i o n s t o f a v o u r e d t r u s t s a n d c o m b i n e s l i k e
t h e S t a n d a r d Oil, t h e Beef T r u s t , t h e S u g a r T r u s t , & c , t h e y h e l p
to b u i l d u p v a s t m o n o p o l i e s in m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d c o m m e r c e . T h e
S t a n d a r d Oil m o n o p o l y w a s d i r e c t l y c r e a t e d b y a r a i l w a y r e b a t e .
T h e Beef T r u s t is a n o t h e r e x c e l l e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n of a g i a n t m o n
o p o l y t h a t o w e s its c r e a t i o n t o t h e f o s t e r i n g c a r e of r a i l r o a d d i s
c r i m i n a t i o n . . . . T h e f o r m a t i o n of v a s t i n d u s t r i a l t r u s t s b e g a n
in 1872. . . . T o - d a y t h e r e a r e 450 t o 500 t r u s t s , w i t h an a g g r e g a t e
capitalisation, including the railroad and other franchise trusts,
of s o m e t h i n g l i k e 20,000 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . A n d still m o r e t r u s t s
are forming. . . . T h e y are r e a c h i n g out after the land. . . .
T h e y a r e e s t a b l i s h i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l relationships a i m i n g to m o n
o p o l i s e t h e g l o b e in t h e i r l i n e s of b u s i n e s s . A n d t h e y a r e j o i n i n g
hands w i t h e a c h o t h e r . . . . On t h e w h o l e the situation s e e m s to
be t h i s : T h e r a i l w a y s a n d o t h e r b i g f r a n c h i s e m o n o p o l i e s a r e c o
ordinating with the great commercial combines into a gigantic
m a c h i n e c o n t r o l l e d b y a f e w financiers a n d c r e a t e d t o m a n u f a c t u r e
o r c a p t u r e p r o f i t for t h e m . E v e n t s a r e m o v i n g t o w a r d s a c o n s o l i d
a t i o n of i n t e r e s t s t h a t will g i v e a h a n d f u l of c a p i t a l i s t s p r a c t i c a l l y
i m p e r i a l p o w e r t h r o u g h t h e v a s t n e s s of t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l d o m i n i o n s .
. . . A n d the r a i l w a y s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as f o r m i n g the basis
of t h e s t r u c t u r e , o r a l a r g e p a r t of it. . . . T h u s t h e g i g a n t i c r a i l
r o a d , i n d u s t r i a l , a n d p u b l i c u t i l i t y c o r p o r a t i o n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
a r e all m a n a g e d f r o m w h a t is k n o w n a s ' t h e W a l l S t r e e t e n d /
. . . T h e b o a r d s of d i r e c t o r s a r e u s u a l l y c h o s e n b y t h e b a n k i n g
i n t e r e s t s , a n d of c o u r s e all m a t t e r s of p o l i c y a r e e i t h e r a p p r o v e d
of o r d e v i s e d b y t h e s e s a m e b a n k i n g i n t e r e s t s . "

LL
498 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

M r . Field concludes C h a p t e r V w i t h a q u o t a t i o n from the book

e n t i t l e d Other People's Money, w r i t t e n by M r . Louis D. Brandeis,
t h e i i r s t J e w t o be a p p o i n t e d a j u d g e of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e
Court. In t h i s b o o k , w h i c h w a s p u b l i s h e d in 1914, M r . B r a n d e i s
s a y s : " T h e d o m i n a n t e l e m e n t in o u r financial o l i g a r c h y is t h e
investment banker. A s s o c i a t e d b a n k s , t r u s t c o m p a n i e s , a n d life
i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n i e s a r e his tools. C o n t r o l l e d railroads, public
s e r v i c e and industrial c o r p o r a t i o n s a r c his subjects. T h o u g h p r o
perly but middlemen, these b a n k e r s bestride as m a s t e r s America's
b u s i n e s s w o r l d , so t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y n o l a r g e e n t e r p r i s e c a n be
u n d e r t a k e n without their participation and approval."
A g r e a t n u m b e r of p e o p l e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d
a t l a s t g o t an h o n e s t , p o w e r f u l m o n e y s y s t e m , w h e n P a u l W a r
,
b u r g ' s Hill w a s p a s s e d . " - T h e y h o p e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d be p r o
t e c t e d f r o m p a n i c s a n d d e p r e s s i o n s in t h e f u t u r e . M r . C h a r l e s A.
L i n d b e r g h , m e m b e r for M i n n e s o t a , w a s u n d e r n o s u c h illusion,
l i e said in t h e c o u r s e of t h e d e b a t e : "I p r o p o s e to s h o w t h a t it [ t h e
Bill | will p e r p e t u a t e t h e s y s t e m w h i c h a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e p r o v e s to
h a v e b e e n t h e c a u s e of c e n t r a l i s i n g w e a l t h , so t h a t a few h a v e
r o b b e d t h e p e o p l e g e n e r a l l y . It is p e r p e t u a t i n g a s y s t e m t h e v e r y
p u r p o s e of w h i c h is t o e n a b l e t h e m o n e y b u r n e r s , r e n t c o l l e c t o r s ,
d i v i d e n d b e n e f i c i a r i e s , a n d s p e c u l a t o r s g e n e r a l l v , to t a k e a d v a n t a g e
of t h e a c t u a l p r o d u c e r s s o a s t o c o n t r o l p r o d u c t i o n a n d fix p r i c e s . "
W e shall see that M r . L i n d b e r g h w a s a t r u e p r o p h e t w h e n w c
s t u d y Wall Street under Oath, t h e a c c o u n t g i v e n b y M r . P e c o r a
of h i s p e r i o d of s e v e n t e e n m o n t h s ( J a n u a r y , 1933, t o J u l y , 1934)
as counsel for the U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e C o m m i t t e e on B a n k i n g
a n d C u r r e n c y in its i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s t o c k - e x c h a n g e , b a n k i n g , a n d
13)
security m a r k e t s practices.<
B e f o r e t h i s C o m m i t t e e , M r . P e c o r a i n f o r m s u s , c a m e in i m p o s
i n g s u c c e s s i o n t h e d e m i g o d s of W a l l S t r e e t : J . P . M o r g a n , T h o m a s
W . L a m o n t a n d o t h e r p a r t n e r s of J. ]\ M o r g a n a n d C o m p a n y ;
O t t o FT. K a h n a n d his p a r t n e r s of K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y ;
C h a r l e s E. M i t c h e l l a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s of t h e N a t i o n a l C i t y B a n k ;
G e o r g e W h i t n e y , M o r g a n p a r t n e r , a n d h i s b r o t h e r , R i c h a r d E.
W h i t n e y , P r e s i d e n t of t h e N e w Y o r k S t o c k E x c h a n g e ; f o r m e r
v i c e - p r e s i d e n t C h a r l e s G. D a w e s ; O w e n D . Y o u n g ; E d s e l B. F o r d
( s o n of H e n r y F o r d ) , & c , &c.
B e f o r e w e s t a t e t h e r e s u l t s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n l e t u s s e e h o w
K u h n , Loeb and Company c o m p a r e with the m o r e familiarly k n o w n
J . P . M o r g a n a n d C o m p a n y , in t h e e s t i m a t i o n of M r . P e c o r a .
" T h e y | K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y ] c o u l d n o t , in g e n e r a l , " he
w r i t e s , " b e g i n t o m a t c h t h e M o r g a n s in s i z e , r a m i f i c a t i o n s , or
(12) Among them was M r W i l l i a m J e n n i n g s B r y a n , who should
c e r t a i n l y have known hettcr. Cf. A. X. Field, op. c i t . p. 83.
't3) Wall Street wider Oath was published hy The Cresset Press,
L o n d o n , in September, 1939.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 499
p o w e r . A s a g a i n s t t h e h a l f billion d o l l a r s of M o r g a n d e p o s i t s ,
K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y , a t t h e e n d of 1929, h a d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
$89,000,000. T h e i r c a p i t a l , in 1929, did n o t rise a b o v e $25,000,000,
as a g a i n s t t h e M o r g a n s ' $118,000,000. A n d t h e i r v a r i o u s p a r t n e r s
h e l d s i x t y - f i v e d i r e c t o r s h i p s in f o r t y - e i g h t c o r p o r a t i o n s , a s a g a i n s t
a l m o s t d o u b l e t h a t n u m b e r h e l d b y m e m b e r s of t h e b l o u s e of M o r
g a n . , I n t h e field of i n v e s t m e n t b a n k i n g , h o w e v e r t h e o r i g i n a t i o n
a n d flotation of n e w i s s u e s of b o n d s a n d s t o c k s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y
b e t w e e n t h e s c a l e of o p e r a t i o n s of t h e t w o firms w a s m u c h l e s s
marked. E v e n m o r e t h a n J. P. M o r g a n and Company, the eleven
p a r t n e r s of K u h n . L o e b a n d C o m p a n y w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y w h a t M r .
M o r g a n h a d c a l l e d ' m e r c h a n t s of s e c u r i t i e s . ' B e t w e e n 1927 a n d
1931, t h i s firm o r i g i n a t e d o v e r $1,600,000,000 of b o n d s , a s t u p e n d
o u s t o t a l for a s i n g l e h o u s e in half a d e c a d e .
" T h e [ l o w e r of K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y , m o r e o v e r , w a s m u c h
m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e s e b l a n k e t figures r e v e a l , b e c a u s e of t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e firm's a c t i v i t i e s w e r e l a r g e l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in a s i n g l e
a r e a . T h e y s p e c i a l i s e d in r a i l r o a d financing, and h e r e e s p e c i a l l y
they w e r e a v e r y formidable factor. Once upon a time, t h e y had,
in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h H a r r i m a n , b e e n p o w e r f u l e n o u g h a n d bold
e n o u g h t o c h a l l e n g e J . P . M o r g a n , t h e e l d e r , in a b a t t l e for r a i l
r o a d s u p r e m a c y , w i t h t h e f a m o u s N o r t h e r n S e c u r i t y p a n i c of 190/
as t h e r e s u l t ; a n d e v e n a f t e r t h r e e d e c a d e s of g r o w i n g M o r g a n
p o w e r , t h e y h e l d t h e i r o w n in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i n c e . Indeed,
f r o m 1927 t o 1931, K u h n , L o e b & C o m p a n y a c t u a l l y o r i g i n a t e d n o
less t h a n fifty-four i s s u e s of r a i l r o a d b o n d s , t o t a l l i n g $1,137,000,000
-far m o r e t h a n J . P . M o r g a n a n d C o m p a n y d u r i n g t h e s a m e
p e r i o d , a n d a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of t h e e n t i r e t w e l v e billions a d d e d t o
t h e d e b t of all t h e r a i l r o a d s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s i n c e t h e W o r l d
W a r . N o t o n l y in t h e q u a n t i t y of r a i l r o a d s e c u r i t i e s h a n d l e d , b u t
in t h e b r o a d e r field of i n f l u e n c e a n d c o n t r o l in t h e r a i l r o a d w o r l d ,
as w e l l , t h e y w e r e r i v a l s , o n p r a c t i c a l l y e v e n t e r m s , of t h e M o r
gans."
M r . P e c o r a t h e n s p e a k s of t h e h o l d i n g C o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e
A l l e g h a n y C o r p o r a t i o n f o r m e d b y t h e M o r g a n s , t o offset w h i c h in
the railroad world, K u h n , Loeb and C o m p a n y formed the P e n n r o a d
Corporation. B u t w h e n J. P, M o r g a n and C o m p a n y w e r e pri
v a t e l y o f f e r i n g s t o c k in o n e o r o t h e r of t h e C o r p o r a t i o n s t h e y t h u s
f o r m e d , t o " p r e f e r r e d l i s t s " of i n d i v i d u a l s , t h a t is, m a k i n g gifts
of s u b s t a n t i a l d i m e n s i o n s , f o r t h e y w e l l k n e w t h e s t o c k s w e r e
b o u n d t o r i s e , t h e y did n o t f o r g e t K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y .
K u h n , L o e b a n d C o m p a n y w e r e a m o n g s t t h e f a v o u r e d few, so
w e r e B e r n a r d M . B a r u c h , M y r o n C. T a y l o r of U n i t e d S t a t e s S t e e l ,
O w e n D . Y o u n g of G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c C o m p a n y , E x - P r e s i d e n t Cool-
idge, G e n e r a l P e r s h i n g , W i l l i a m W o o d i n , S e c r e t a r y to the T r e a
( u
sury, & c , &c. >
'Jt) Wall Street Hurler Oath. p p . 3, 4, 27, 28, 30, 54, 55, 56.
500. THK MYSTrCAL BODY O F CHRIST

M r . P e c o r a s a y s t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w h i c h c a m e t o a n end
in J u n e , 1 9 3 4 , " b r o u g h t t o l i g h t a s h o c k i n g c o r r u p t i o n in o u r
banking system, a widespread repudiation of old-fashioned
s t a n d a r d s of h o n e s t y a n d fair d e a l i n g in t h e c r e a t i o n a n d s a l e of
s e c u r i t i e s , a n d a m e r c i l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e v i c i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of i n t r i c a t e c o r p o r a t e c h i c a n e r ) ' . T h e public had been deeply
a r o u . s e d b y t h e s p e c t a c l e of c y n i c a l d i s r e g a r d of f i d u c i a r y d u t y on
t h e p a r t of m a n y of i t s m o s t r e s p e c t e d l e a d e r s . . . of g r e a t
b a n k s , w h i c h c o m b i n e d t h e f u n c t i o n s of a b a n k w i t h t h o s e of a
s l o c k j o b b e r . . . . M a n y a s p e c t s of t h e X e w D e a l , of c o u r s e , b o r e
n o d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of t h e S e n a t e C o m m i t t e e ' s
i n q u i r y . P u t f o u r s t a t u t e s irj p a r t i c u l a r g r e w o u t of t h e effort to
c o p e w i t h t h e a b u s e s it h a d r e v e a l e d . T h e s e m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g
I r , ;
of a n e w e r a in t h e h i s t o r y of A m e r i c a n f i n a n c e . " '
T h a t t h e s e s t a t u t e s h a v e h a d s o m e g o o d e f f e c t s i< f a i r l y c e r
t a i n , b u t t h e y and t h e o t h e r s d o n o t s e e m t o h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t
a n e s s e n t i a l r e f o r m of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of A m e r i c a n f i n a n c e . F i r s t
of a l l . it h a s b e e n f r e e l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e S e n a t e H a n k i n g a n d C u r
r e n c y C o m m i t t e e i n q u i r y c a m e to a n e n d w h e n it b a d s u c c e s s f u l l y
a t t a c k e d o p p o n e n t s of ( h e N e w D e a l a n d w h e n it s h o u l d h a v e l o g i c
a l l y g o n e o n t o e x a m i n e t h e m a n o e u v r e s of X e w D e a l f r i e n d s .
A g a i n , c o n c e r n i n g t h e H o l d Mill of 1934, w c r e a d in Money Creators:
" A l l e f f o r t s o n t h e p a r t of m e m b e r s of b o t h t h e H o u s e a n d t h e
S e n a t e t o d e l a y t h e Mill l o n g e n o u g h t o l e a r n i t s c o n t e n t s w e r e
t h w a r t e d . T h e Hill w a s n o t e v e n p r i n t e d a n d c i r c u l a t e d in C o n
g r e s s a s r e q u i r e d by all C o n g r e s s i o n a l p r e c e d e n t . . . . T h e s t r a n g e
t h i n g a b o u t t h e C o l d Hill of 1 9 3 4 is t h a t n o o n e will c l a i m a u t h o r
s h i p . A f t e r s i g n i n g it, P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t p u b l i c l y a d m i t t e d t h a t
h e h a d n e v e r r e a d t h e Mill a n d y e t h e w a s u n w i l l i n g t o tell s i n c e r e
C o n g r e s s m e n w h o t h e a u t h o r s w e r e . . . . T h e Chief K x c c u t i v e
w a s v e r y c a r e f u l , w h e n s i g n i n g t h i s Mill, t o m a k e it c l e a r t o t h o s e
s t a n d i n g around, including the n e w s p a p e r reporter*, that he had
n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h w r i t i n g it, a n d h a d n o t r e a d it b e f o r e s i g n i n g ;
t h a t h e w a s t a k i n g it o n official faith f r o m t h e S e c r e t a r y of t h e
Treasury. T h e S e c r e t a r y of t h e T r e a s u r y , in t u r n , a l s o s t a t e d
t h a i h e h a d n o t r e a d it b u t t h a t il w a s w h a t t h e * e x p e r t s ' w a n t e d .
W e l l m a y w e w o n d e r w h y t h e Chief K x c c u t i v e a n d t h e S e c r e t a r y
of t h e T r e a s u r y h a v e n o t b e e n w i l l i n g t o tell w h o w r o t e t h i s Mill.
. . . If it w e r e a n n o u n c e d t o t h e p a t i e n t a n d t r u s t i n g A m e r i c a n
p e o p l e t h a i t h e d o l d Hill of 1 0 3 4 w a s w r i t t e n b y a m o n e y - c h a n g e r
a n d t h a t t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of it t o o k p l a c e :ii t h i s m a n ' s office in
W a l l S t r e e t , it is r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e p a t i e n t A m e r i c a n
p e o p l e w o u l d begin to get an insight into the m o n e y c r e a t o r s '
trickery. . . . It is s t r a n g e t h a t t h e T r e a s u r y D e p a r t m e n t w a s
n e v e r i n t e r e s t e d in l e a r n i n g t h e n a m e s of i h n * e w h o b r o u g h t gold

>'' Op. ciL. pp. 2SJi, 281.

 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 501

b a c k t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e few w e e k s f o l l o w i n g
t h e p a s s a g e of t h e Gold Bill in 1934. T h e s e p e o p l e r e c e i v e d 35
d o l l a r s p e r o u n c e , w h i l e t h e A m e r i c a n w h o h a d 100 d o l l a r s in g o l d ,
a n d t h e p o o r p e o p l e w h o h a d a f e w g o l d coin>, w e r e t h r e a t e n e d
b y t h e P r e s i d e n t if t h e y did n o t b r i n g b a c k t h e i r g o l d a n d g e t 2 0
d o l l a r s 67 c e n t s p e r o u n c e . It c e r t a i n l y p a y s to be a n i n t e r n a
1 1
tionalist. "i"
P>y t h e Bill of 1913 t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e H o a r d h a d t h e e x c l u s i v e
p o w e r of n o t e i s s u e t o t h e r e s e r v e b a n k s a s w e l l a s t h e p o w e r t o
fix t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g p o w e r t o i n c r e a s e o r
d e c r e a s e t h e c i r c u l a t i n g m e d i u m of t h e c o u n t r y a t will. T h e H a n k
A c t of 1935 d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e p u t a n y c h e c k o n t h e s e p o w e r s .
I n J u l y . 1938, M i s s C o o g a n w r o t e : " T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s u f f e r e d a
t r e m e n d o u s c o l l a p s e , a n d o n l y in t h e l a s t m o n t h h a v e t h e r e b e e n
s i g n s of i m p r o v e m e n t . T h i s c o l l a p s e w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h
a d e l i b e r a t e c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e m o n e } ' s y s t e m t o set t h e s t a g e for
t h e p a s s a g e of m o r e l e g i s l a t i o n i n t e n d e d t o d e s t r o y all p e r s o n a l
r i g h t s a n d e n s l a v e t h e w o r k i n g a n d m i d d l e c l a s s e s of t h e c o u n t r y .
J n M a r c h , 1937, t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d i n c r e a s e d t h e r e q u i r e d
r e s e r v e s of t h e m e m b e r b a n k s o n t h e b o o k s of t h e C e n t r a l B a n k s .
A g a i n in M a y of 1937 a n o t h e r i n c r e a s e t o o k p l a c e . In t h e s u m m e r
of 1937, \! b i l l i o n s of f u n d s c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e p a y e n v e l o p e s of
2

t h e w o r k e r s u n d e r t h e g u i s e of S o c i a l S e c u r i t y w a s u s e d t o l a k e
o u t of e x i s t e n c e U billions of e x i s t i n g b a n k c r e d i t . T h o s e f o r c e s
s e t in m o t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h a d e l i b e r a t e d r i v e o n t h e s e c u r i t y
e x c h a n g e s , b r o u g h t a b o u t a t e r r i f i c c o l l a p s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in S e p - -
t e m b e r a n d O c t o b e r of 1937, a n d M a r c h of 1938." T h e p l a n o u t
l i n e d in The U.S.A. Bankers' Magazine. ( 2 6 t h A u g u s t , 1934) U
b e i n g p u r s u e d : " B o n d s a n d m o r t g a g e s m u s t be foreclosed as
rapidly as possible. W h e n t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s of t h e l a w t h e
c o m m o n p e o p l e l o s e t h e i r h o m e s t h e y will b e c o m e m o r e d o c i l e a n d
m o r e e a s i l y g o v e r n e d t h r o u g h t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s t r o n g a r m of
g o v e r n m e n t a p p l i e d b y a c e n t r a l p o w e r of w e a l t h u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l
o f l e a d i n g f i n a n c i e r s . T h i s t r u t h is w e l l k n o w n a m o n g o u r p r i n
c i p a l m e n n o w e n g a g e d i n f o r m i n g a n i m p e r i a l i s m of c a p i t a l to
govern the world. By d i v i d i n g v o t e r s by the political p a r t y
T
S 3 s t e m , w e c a n g e t t h e m t o e x p e n d t h e i r e n e r g i e s in f i g h t i n g o v e r
q u e s t i o n s of n o i m p o r t a n c e . T h u s b y d i s c r e e t a c t i o n w e can
17
s e c u r e for o u r s e l v e s w h a t h a s b e e n s o well planned."* *
T h e p r o c e s s of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l of e x c h a n g e -
m e d i u m in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e g u n in 1913 s e e m ? lo h a v e boon con
t i n u e d b y t h e G o l d Bill of 1934 a n d t h e B a n k Act of 1935. T h e
B o a r d of G o v e r n o r s a p p o i n t e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d c o n f i r m e d b y
t h e S e n a t e only, a c c o r d i n g to t h e l a s t - n a m e d Act, c o n t i n u e s ihe
06) Money Cffator-^ Ivy Miss G. M. C n o a r n n , n n 05, 104, 105. 105.
' ) Quoted in The Weekly Review, Oct 5, 1944.
 502 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

p r o c e s s b y w h i c h S e c t i o n S of A r t i c l e I of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n of the
U n i t e d S l a t e s h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d n u g a t o r y . T h a t S e c t i o n of the
C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e s t h a t " C o n g r e s s shall h a v e p o w e r t o coin
m o n e y , r e g u l a t e t h e v a l u e t h e r e o f a n d of f o r e i g n c o i n . " Now
C o n g r e s s c o n s i s t s of t w o h o u s e s . T h e 1 l o u s e of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c i t i z e n s . T h e o t h e r
p a r t of C o n g r e s s is t h e S e n a t e , w h i c h d o e s n o t d i r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t
t h e c i t i z e n s . T h e I l o u s e of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s h a s n o t h i n g t o s a y in
t h e e x e r c i s e of t h e S o v e r e i g n P o w e r of i s s u i n g e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m .

NATURALISTIC F O R C E S W O R K I N G FOR
CENTRALIZATION.
T h e a c c o u n t s g i v e n of t h e f o r c e s a t w o r k in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
in s u c h b o o k s as All These Things^ by A. N . F i e l d , and
Fools Gold, by F r e d R. M a r v i n . a< w e l l a s in t h e i s s u e s of t h e
Revue Internationale ties Soeieles Secretes of 1st F e b r u a r y , 1938,
a n d 15th J a n u a r y , 1939, a r c o m i n o u s for t h e f u t u r e . T h e Revue
Internationale ties Soeieles Secretes of 15th J a n u a r y , 1939, i n s i s t s
e m p h a t i c a l l y t h a t " t h e r e is in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a I'rains
T r u s t of J e w s a n d S c o t t i s h R i t e M a s o n s . . . . It m u s t
b e b o r n e in m i n d t h a t for n u m e r o u s r e a s o n s t h e A m e r i c a n
Supreme Councils of the Scottish Rite wield a pre
p o n d e r a n t i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e S c o t t i s h R i t e M a s o n r y of t h e e n t i r e
m l>is
world. * F i r s t of all, b e c a u s e t h e h i g h e r d e g r e e s w e r e i n a u g u r
a t e d a n d t h e n r e m o d e l l e d by t h e A m e r i c a n J e w i s h M a s o n s , S. M o r i n
a n d D a l c h o , w i t h t h e h e l p of s o m e o t h e r J e w s . Secondly, the
E u r o p e a n S u p r e m e C o u n c i l s h a v e t a k e n t h e i r o r i g i n f r o m t h o s e of
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i r d l y , t h e r e is a c l o s e a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e
S u p r e m e C o u n c i l s of t h e S c o t t i s h R i t e a n d t h e J e w i s h M a s o n r y
of t h e F / n a i I J ' r i l h . F i n a l l y , t h e S u p r e m e C o u n c i l s of t h e S c o t t i s h
R i t e d i r e c t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e l o d g e s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h u s ,
t h a n k s t o t h e g r e a t n u m b e r of M a s o n s in t h e S t a t e s , a b o u t
3,300,000, t h e y e x e r c i s e a n e n o r m o u s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e g o v e r n m e n t . "
M r . F . R. M a r v i n , " t h e S e n a t o r f r o m A l a s k a , " i n s i s t s u p o n t h e
s o c i a l i z i n g t e n d e n c y of t h e N e w D e a l , in his a b l e a n d e n l i g h t e n i n g
b o o k , Fools Gold. " T h e p h i l o s o p h y u p o n w h i c h t h e N e w D e a l is
founded," he writes, " i s destructive. It h a s a p p e a r e d d u r i n g t h e
a g e s u n d e r m a n y n a m e s a n d h a s b e e n p r o p a g a t e d b y m a n y differ
e n t g r o u p s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s . It is b e s t k n o w n t o - d a y a s social
ism and communism. T h i s p h i l o s o p h y is u n - C h r i s t i a n b e c a u s e it
is b a s e d w h o l l y u p o n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n , w o u l d s u b o r d i n a t e
a n d , in t h e e n d , e l i m i n a t e t h e s p i r i t u a l s i d e of l i f e ; all of w h i c h
l e a d s t o t h e d e i f i c a t i o n of m a n . T h i s b o o k is offered t o p r e s e n t
b r i e f l y a n d o n l y b r i e f l y t h e n a t u r e of t h a t p h i l o s o p h y ; h o w it
(17 bis) ] ? o r the list of the S u p r e m e Councils of the A n c i e n t and
Accepted Scottish Rite, of F r e e m a s o n r y t h r o u g h o u t the world, see Th*,
Kingship of Christ mid Organized Naturalism, p. 143.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 503

gathered force on the Continent m a n y years a g o ; how, when, and

b y w h o m i t w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; h o w it h a s
b e e n k n o w i n g l y a n d i n t e n t i o n a l l y a d v a n c e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e of
v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d m o v e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g in a n u m b e r of
i t s l e a d i n g e x p o n e n t s b e i n g i n s t a l l e d in k e y p o s i t i o n s in t h e F e d e r a l
g o v e r n m e n t ; h o w it h a s s h a p e d m u c h of t h e r e s t r i c t i v e , r e g u l a t o r y
and confiscatory legislation n o w on the statute b o o k s ; and how,
if c a r r i e d t o i t s final c o n c l u s i o n , it will r e s u l t in t h e c o m p l e t e
s o c i a l i z a t i o n of t h i s c o u n t r y a n d t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of
p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , t h e f o u n d a t i o n u p o n w h i c h r e s t s all of o u r i n s t i
t u t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e h o m e a n d r e l i g i o n . . . . T h i s b o o k is n o t
p r e s e n t e d as a direct a t t a c k upon e i t h e r the N e w Deal o r the pre
sent administration at W a s h i n g t o n . It is e m p h a t i c a l l y n o n - p a r
t i s a n . . . . T h e t r u t h is, t h a t f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s b o t h t h e
Republican a n d D e m o c r a t i c p a r t i e s h a v e imposed several socialistic
n o s t r u m s u p o n t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e c h a n n e l s of l e g i s
lation. B o t h p a r t i e s a n d t h e o n e is n o m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e t h a n
the o t h e r h a v e established b o a r d s , b u r e a u s and commissions to
p u t t h e s e s o c i a l i s t i c p r o p o s a l s i n t o effect. T h e s e b o a r d s , b u r e a u s
and commissions always s t a r t e d modestly and with comparatively
small appropriations. Each succeeding year, however, they en
larged their personnel, expanded their functions and secured larger
a p p r o p r i a t i o n s . A s a N a t i o n w e h a v e b e e n d r i f t i n g . Slowly hut
stirely, organized agencies have manoeuvred us into the swift and
destructive current of socialistic thought, . . .
" T h o s e w h o p i c k u p t h e t r a i l of t h e s o c i a l i s t i c f o r c e s s u p p o r t
i n g t h e l a t e S e n a t o r L a F o l l e t t e i n 1924, a n d follow t h a t t r a i l d o w n
t o t h e n o m i n a t i o n of F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e v e l t b y t h e D e m o c r a t i c
C o n v e n t i o n i n 1932, will find t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e forces
a n d t h e d e l e g a t e s p l e d g e d in t h e p r i m a r i e s t o i n s i s t u p o n t h e
n o m i n a t i o n of M r . R o o s e v e l t . S p a c e p e r m i t s h i t t i n g o n l y a f e w
h i g h s p o t s . . , . L e t u s t u r n t o t h o s e w h o , b e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e
of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , h a v e b e e n l a b e l l e d b r a i n t r u s t e r s . T h e u n q u e s
t i o n e d h e a d of t h i s g r o u p w a s a n d p r o b a b l y still i s P r o f e s s o r
F e l i x F r a n k f u r t e r of h a r v a r d . T h e Unofficial O b s e r v e r , w r i t i n g
in t h e Washington Post of M a r c h 11, 1934, h a d t h i s t o s a y : ' P r o f .
Felix F r a n k f u r t e r ' s intimacy w i t h President Roosevelt dates back
to the W i l s o n Administration. . . . President Roosevelt would
h a v e w e l c o m e d h i m in a l m o s t a n y position up to, a n d p r o b a b l y
i n c l u d i n g , t h e T r e a s u r y p o r t f o l i o o r t h e G o v e r n o r s h i p of t h e
Federal R e s e r v e Board. . . . T h e m o s t he ( F r a n k f u r t e r ) would
d o w a s t o a c c e d e t o R o o s e v e l t ' s r e q u e s t t h a t he s u p p l y t h e A d m i n
i s t r a t i o n w i t h a h a n d - p i c k e d g r o u p of l i b e r a l l a w y e r s ' . . . G e n e r a l
H u g h S. J o h n s o n . . . in t h e Saturday Evening Post of O c t o b e r
(
26, 1935, s a y s : S h o r t l y a f t e r e l e c t i o n t h e r e b e g a n t o o c c u r o n e
of t h e c l e v e r e s t i n f i l t r a t i o n s i n t h e h i s t o r y of o u r G o v e r n m e n t . . . .
T h e P r o f e s s o r ( F r a n k f u r t e r ) h i m s e l f h a s r e f u s e d e v e r y official
 504 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

c o n n e c t i o n . Mis c o m i n g s a n d g o i n g s a r c a l m o s t s u r r e p t i t i o u s . Y e t
h e is tltt* mast infl nctitial single individual in the United States.
I lis ' h o y s ' h a v e b e e n i n s i n u a t e d i n t o o b s c u r e b u t k e y p o s i t i o n s in
e v e r y vital d e p a r t m e n t . ' " ' ^ '
In h i s p a i n s t a k i n g a n d w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d w o r k . All These
Things, M r . A. X. Field s h o w s t h a t t h e s a m e s o c i a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s
a r e to be f o u n d in t h e F.K.I*. ( P o l i t i c a l a n d K c o n o m i c P l a n n i n g )
a n d t h e X e w Deal p o l i c i e s in Circat Mritain a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e p u b l i c is b e i n g s t a m p e d e d a n d b r u t a l l y c o e r c e d
b y t h e X e w Deal, w h e r e a s t h e K n g l i s h m u s t be d e a l t w i t h s l o w l y
1 9 1
a n d a s k e d to f o r e g o f r e e d o m in t h e n a m e of p a t r i o t i s m / With
r e g a r d to t h e p e r s o n a g e s e n g a g e d in t h e w o r k of s o c i a l i s t i c
p l a n n i n g in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Air. A. X. Field q u o t e s from a r a d i o
a d d r e s s by M r . L o u i s T . M c F a d d e n , d e l i v e r e d o n M a y 2, 1934. M r .
M c F a d d e n w a s a b a n k e r a n d a n e x - P r e s i d e n t of t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a
B a n k e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n . l i e w a s in C o n g r e s s f r o m 1915 t o 1934 a n d
for o v e r s e v e n t e e n y e a r s w a s a m e m b e r of t h e M o u s e B a n k i n g
a n d C u r r e n c y C o m m i t t e e a n d for t w e l v e y e a r s its c h a i r m a n , fie
w a s d e f e a t e d for C o n g r e s s in t h e a u t u m n f o l l o w i n g t h e r a d i o a d
d r e s s from which w e a r e a b o u t to q u o t e , and, a c c o r d i n g to one
t e s t i m o n y c i t e d by M r . Field, " b y a flood of J e w i s h m o n e y in his
district." In t h e r a d i o a d d r e s s a b o v e m e n t i o n e d M r . M c F a d d e n
s a i d : " T h e o r i g i n a l ' B r a i n T r u s t ' w a s c o m p o s e d of P r o f e s s o r
R a y m o n d Moley, P r o f e s s o r Rexford T u g w e l l , and J u s t i c e Bran-
d c i s ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n A . A. Merle, J r . , a n d M c r n a r d M . M a r u e h ' s c o n
t r i b u t i o n G e n e r a l 11 u g h S. J o h n s o n . T o t h e s e m u s t be a d d e d
P r o f e s s o r G e o r g e K. W a r r e n a n d P r o f e s s o r J a m e s H a r v e y R o g e r s ,
t h e g o l d s p e c i a l i s t t w i n s , a n d a n o t h e r M r . J u s t i c e L o u i s D. B r a n
d e i s c o n f r e r e P r o f e s s o r F e l i x F r a n k f u r t e r , a s well a s J a m e s M .
L a n d i s , J e r o m e F r a n k , and a n o t h e r B e r n a r d M. .Baruch contribu
t i o n D o n a l d R i c h b c r g , a s well a s F r e d e r i c k C. H o w e , H a r r y L.
JTopkins, Clarence D a r r o w , Mordecai Kzekiel, Harold Ickes. One
m u s t n o t o m i t t h e S e c r e t a r y of A g r i c u l t u r e , I l e n r y A. W a l l a c e ,
n o r H e n r y M o r g e n t h a u , Sr., w h o is a s o r t of s u p e r - a d v i s e r of his
illustrious son."
PYom v a r i o u s s o u r c e s , M r . F i e l d g i v e s s k e t c h e s of m a n y of
these advisers, s h o w i n g their Socialist and C o m m u n i s t tendencies
a n d c o n n e x i o n s . S p a c e d o e s n o t a l l o w of m o r e t h a n a f e w w o r d s
a b o u t t h e chief p e r s o n n a g e s . J u s t i c e L o u i s ( L u b i t z ) D, B r a n d e i s ,
B e r n a r d M . B a r u c h a n d P r o f e s s o r Felix F r a n k f u r t e r .
M r . J u s t i c e B r a n d e i s , t h e first J e w t o be a p p o i n t e d to t h e U n i t e d
S l a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t B e n c h , is a p r o m i n e n t Z i o n i s t l e a d e r . T h e
(18) Fooh Gold, p p . 3 , 4, 98, 100 (published by Madison & Marshall,
I n c . , Now York, in 1936).
<19> Mr. A. N. Fifdd refers Lo and quotes Waters flowinr/ Eastward,
by L. F r y . Cf. The Rulers of Russia ( p p . 58, 59). On page 59 is quoted
the sentence from the P.TC.P. j o u r n a l : " O n l y in war, or u n d e r threat
1
of war, will a British G o v e r n m e n t enihark on large, scale p l a n n i n g . '
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD -505

Chicago Daily Tribune of J u l y 22, 1922, s a i d : " A J e w , J u s t i c e

L u b i t z B r a n d e i s , r u l e d t h e W h i t e M o u s e by secret t e l e p h o n e . " T h e
J e w i s h - o w n e d Sew York Times of 2 8 t h J a n u a r y , 1934, is q u o t e d a s
s a y i n g : " T h e u n d e r l y i n g p h i l o s o p h y of t h e N e w Deal is t h e phil
o s o p h y of J u s t i c e B r a n d e i s . "
T h e J e w i s h f i n a n c i e r , B e r n a r d M . B a r u c h , t h e " a d v i s e r to P r e
sidents Wilson, H a r d i n g , Coolidge and Hoover," who has now been
m a d e M i n i s t e r by R o o s e v e l t , s p e c i a l i z e d in o r g a n i z i n g v a r i o u s
c o n c e r n s p r o d u c i n g o r d e a l i n g in t o b a c c o , c o p p e r , t u n g s t e n , r u b b e r
a n d s t e e l . H e w a s a p p o i n t e d b y P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n a m e m b e r of
t h e W a r I n d u s t r i e s B o a r d , i n t h e c o u r s e of an e x a m i n a t i o n i n t o
t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h i s B o a r d by a C o n g r e s s i o n a l C o m m i t t e e , the
following passage o c c u r s :
14
Mr. Jefferis; In o t h e r w o r d s y o u d e t e r m i n e d w h a t a n y b o d y
could h a v e ?
"Mr. Barnch: K x a c t l y : t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h a i . I
a s s u m e d t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , sir, a n d t h e final d e t e r m i n a t i o n r e s t e d
with me.
"Mr. Jefferis: What?
"Mr. liaruch: T h a t final d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a s t h e P r e s i d e n t said,
r e s t e d w i t h m e ; t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e A r m y o r N a v y
w o u l d h a v e it r e s t e d w i t h m e ; t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e
r a i l r o a d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o u l d h a v e it, o r the Allies, o r w h e t h e r
G e n e r a l A l l e n b y should h a v e l o c o m o t i v e s , or w h e t h e r they should
b e u s e d i n R u s s i a , o r u s e d in F r a n c e
" M r . Jefferis: A n d all t h o s e d i f f e r e n t l i n e s , r e a l l y , u l t i m a t e l y ,
c e n t r e d in y o u , s o f a r a s p o w e r w a s c o n c e r n e d ?
" Mr. Barnch: Y e s , sir, it did. I p r o b a b l y h a d m o r e p o w e r t h a n
p e r h a p s a n y o t h e r m a n d i d in t h e w a r ; d o u b t l e s s t h a t is t r u e / '
Mr. Field then a d d s : " I f the foregoing statemenis correctly-
r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s i t i o n , it w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t d u r i n g t h e p o r t i o n of
t h e W a r ( 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 ) in w h i c h t h e Allies w e r e l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t
u p o n s u p p l i e s f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e Allied C o m m a n d e r s - i n -
Chief in t h e field, a n d t h e A l l i e d G o v e r n m e n t s b e h i n d t h e m , had t o
c o n f o r m in t h e i r p l a n s of c a m p a i g n to w h a t it s u i t e d M r . B e r n a r d
M . B a r u c h , J e w i s h w a r d i c t a t o r of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t o p e r m i t
t h e m t o h a v e in t h e w a y of w a r s u p p l i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o s t a t e m e n t s
m a d e i n v a r i o u s q u a r t e r s , M r . B a r u c h t o - d a y (1936) h a s e n o r m o u s
control over the companies and corporations comprising the muni
t i o n s i n d u s t r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . " '
P r o f e s s o r F e l i x F r a n k f u r t e r , w h o is a l l e g e d l o h a v e s u p p l i e d
t h e l e g a l b r a i n s f o r t h e F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e v e l t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , is
a n A u s t r i a n J e w , b o r n in V i e n n a in 1882. l i e w a s a d m i t t e d to t h e
A m e r i c a n B a r in 1905, a n d is h e a d of t h e l a w d e p a r t m e n t of H a r
vard University. I n 1917, P r o f e s s o r F r a n k f u r t e r e n d e a v o u r e d t o
e n l i s t t h e s y m p a t h y of e x - P r e s i d e n t T h e o d o r e R o o s e v e l t on behalf
of a m a n w h o h a d t h r o w n a b o m b i n t o a p r o c e s s i o n in C a l i f o r n i a ,
 506 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRTST

k i l l i n g t e n p e r s o n s a n d i n j u r i n g fifty. In a l e t t e r of D e c e m b e r 19,
1917, t h e e x - P r e s i d e n t r e p l i e d : " T h a n k y o u for y o u r f r a n k l e t t e r .
1 a m a n s w e r i n g it a t l e n g t h b e c a u s e y o u h a v e t a k e n a n d a r e t a k i n g
a n a t t i t u d e w h i c h s e e m s t o m e t o be f u n d a m e n t a l l y t h a t
of T r o t s k y a n d t h e o t h e r B o l s h e v i k l e a d e r s in R u s s i a , a n a t t i t u d e
w h i c h m a y be f r a u g h t w i t h m i s c h i e f t o t h i s c o u n t r y . . . . 1 have
j u s t received y o u r report on the Bisbee d e p o r t a t i o n . . , . Your
r e p o r t is a s t h o r o u g h l y m i s l e a d i n g a d o c u m e n t as c o u l d be w r i t t e n
o n t h e s u b j e c t . No official, w r i t i n g o n b e h a l f of t h e P r e s i d e n t , is
t o b e e x c u s e d for f a i l u r e t o kjiow a n d c l e a r l y set f o r t h t h a t the
1.W.YV. is a c r i m i n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . . H e r e a g a i n y o u a r e
e n g a g e d in e x c u s i n g m e n p r e c i s e l y like t h e B o l s h e v i k s in R u s s i a ,
w h o a r e m u r d e r e r s a n d e n c o u r a g e r s of m u r d e r , w h o a r e t r a i t o r s
t o t h e i r a l l i e s , t o d e m o c r a c y a n d t o c i v i l i z a t i o n , a s well a s t o the
U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d w h o s e a c t s a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s a p o l o g i z e d for on
g r o u n d s , m y d e a r M r . F r a n k f u r t e r , s u b s t a n t i a l l y like t h o s e w h i c h
you allege."
In his l e t t e r of 7 t h J a n u a r y , 1940, t o P r e s i d e n t F r a n k l i n I).
R o o s e v e l t , P o p e P i u s X I I s a i d : " W h e n t h a t d a y d a w n s -and W c
w o u l d l i k e t o h o p e t h a t i t is n o t t o o f a r d i s t a n t - o n w h i c h t h e r o a r
of b a t t l e will l a p s e i n t o s i l e n c e a n d t h e r e will a r i s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
1
of e s t a b l i s h i n g a t r u e a n d s o u n d p e a c e d i c t a t e d b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s of
j u s t i c e a n d e q u i t y , o n l y h e will be a b l e t o d i s c e r n t h e p a t h t h a t
s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d w h o u n i t e s w i t h h i g h p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a c l e a r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e v o i c e of h u m a n i t y a l o n g w i t h a s i n c e r e r e v e r
e n c e f o r t h e d i v i n e p r e c e p t s of life a s f o u n d in t h e G o s p e l of
C h r i s t . O n l y m e n of s u c h m o r a l s t a t u r e will be a b l e t o c r e a t e t h e
p e a c e t h a t will c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e i n c a l c u l a b l e s a c r i f i c e s of this
w a r a n d c l e a r t h e w a y f o r a c o m i t y of n a t i o n s , fair t o all, efficaci
o u s a n d s u s t a i n e d b y m u t u a l c o n f i d e n c e . W e a r c fully a w a r e of
h o w s t u b b o r n t h e o b s t a c l e s a r e t h a t s t a n d in t h e w a y of a t t a i n i n g
( 2 0 )
t h i s g o a l , a n d h o w t h e y b e c o m e m o r e difficult t o s u r m o u n t . "
I f w e t a k e full a c c o u n t of t h e v i g o r o u s N a t u r a l i s m of F r e e m a s o n r y
a n d t h e still m o r e v i g o r o u s N a t u r a l i s m of t h e l e a d e r s of t h e J e w i s h
N a t i o n d o w n t h e a g e s , it is to be f e a r e d that M r . R o o s e v e l t will
h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e difficulty in m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t s i n c e r e r e v e r e n c e
f o r m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t i n c u l c a t e d in t h e G o s p e l , w h i c h t h e Holy
F a t h e r s a y s is i n d i s p e n s a b l e for t h e c r e a t i o n of a j u s t p e a c e .
A n o t h e r p o i n t m u s t b e briefly t o u c h e d u p o n in t h i s c o n n e x i o n .
S o m e C a t h o l i c s s t r e s s t h e fact t h a t t h e r e a r e in the U n i t e d S l a t e s ,
for e x a m p l e , m a n y nominal Christians w h o a r e w e a l t h i e r than any
individual J e w . T h a t is t r u e , b u t it d o e s n o t p r o v e a n y t h i n g
a g a i n s t t h e p o i n t h e r e s t r e s s e d , n a m e l y , t h e s u p e r i o r d r i v i n g force
of t h e J e w s , a s an o r g a n i z e d b o d y , in t h e s t r u g g l e S a t a n is w a g i n g
f o r N a t u r a l i s m . T h e J e w i s h i n t e r n a t i o n a l financiers a r e m e m b e r s
m )
T e x t as given in The Pope. Speaks, by Charles R a n k i n , p. 179.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 507

of a n a t i o n t h a t r e f u s e s t o a c c e p t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l M e s s i a s a n d
looks f o r w a r d to its o w n n a t u r a l i s t i c domination. T h e M o r g a t i
c o m b i n a t i o n is d o u b t l e s s p o w e r f u l . Mr. Pecora informs us that
" a l l t h e M o r g a n p a r t n e r s w e r e l i k e w i s e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e firms
of M o r g a n , G r e n f e l l a n d C o m p a n y , of L o n d o n , a n d M o r g a n e t Cie,
of P a r i s . E a c h of t h e s e E u r o p e a n affiliates h a d d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e s i
d e n t m e m b e r s s u c h a s M r . E . C\ G r e n f e l l , M e m b e r of P a r l i a m e n t ,
a n d D i r e c t o r of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d , a n d M r . V i v i a n I L S m i t h ,
h e a d of t h e G r e a t R o y a l E x c h a n g e A s s u r a n c e C o r p o r a t i o n ; m e n
h i g h in t h e financial c i r c l e s of L o n d o n a n d P a r i s , m e m b e r s of
n u m e r o u s d i r e c t o r a t e s , a n d w e l l - e q u i p p e d t o t a k e c a r e of a n y in
t e r e s t s M o r g a n a n d C o m p a n y m i g h t m a i n t a i n in E u r o p e a n t e r r i
1
t o r y . " ^ * Y e t t h a t u n i t y of financial i n t e r e s t s , g r e a t a s i t i s , in
s p i t e of d i v e r g e n c i e s of n a t i o n a l i t } - , h a s n o t t h e s a m e c o h e s i o n as
t h a t , f o r e x a m p l e , b e t w e e n t h e W a r b u r g s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
a n d M a x W a r b u r g a n d C o m p a n y of H a m b u r g , of w h i c h firm a
p a r t n e r , Dr. Carl Melchoir, w a s the only n o n - P a r l i a m e n t a r y m e m
(22)
b e r of t h e m a i n G e r m a n P e a c e D e l e g a t i o n a t V e r s a i l l e s in 1 9 1 9 .
M r . L o u i s T . M c F a d d e n g i v e s u s s o m e idea of t h e s e r a c i a l l i n k s ,
in h i s s p e e c h in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s o n J a n u a r y 24, 1 9 3 4 :
" M r . C h a i r m a n , " he said, " u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t H e n r y M o r g e n -
t h a u is r e l a t e d b y m a r r i a g e t o H e r b e r t L e h m a n n , J e w i s h G o v e r
n o r of t h e S t a t e of N e w Y o r k , a n d is r e l a t e d b y m a r r i a g e o r o t h e r
w i s e t o t h e S e l i g m a n s , of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l J e w i s h firm of J . a n d
W . Seligman, w h o w e r e publicly s h o w n before a Senate Commit
t e e of i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o h a v e o f f e r e d a b r i b e t o a f o r e i g n g o v e r n
m e n t : a n d t o t h e L e w i s s o h n s , a firm of J e w i s h i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a n k
ers ; and to the W a r b u r g s , w h o s e operations through Kuhn, Loeb
a n d Co., t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c c e p t a n c e B a n k , a n d t h e B a n k of M a n
h a t t a n Co., a n d o t h e r foreign a n d d o m e s t i c institutions u n d e r their
c o n t r o l , h a v e d r a i n e d b i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s o u t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
T r e a s u r y a n d t h e b a n k d e p o s i t s b e l o n g i n g t o U n i t e d S t a t e s citi
z e n s ; a n d t o t h e S t r a u s e s , p r o p r i e t o r s of R. H . M a c y & Co., of
New York . . . . a n d t h a t M r . M o r g e n t h a u is l i k e w i s e r e l a t e d
o r o t h e r w i s e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e J e w i s h b a n k i n g c o m m u n i t y of
N e w Y o r k and London, A m s t e r d a m , and o t h e r foreign financial
c e n t r e s . . . . it s e e m s t o m e t h a t H e n r y M o r g e n t h a u ' s p r e s e n c e
in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s T r e a s u r y . . . . is a s t r i k i n g c o n f i r m a t i o n of
23
t h e s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y m e o n M a y 29, 1933."< >

All t h e s e w e a l t h y J e w s a r e in a g r e e m e n t in t h e i r a n t i - s u p e r
natural outlook.. The w e a l t h y nominal Christians, on the other
(21) Wall Street tmddr Oath, p . 10.
(22) Of. The Truth about the Slump, by A. N. F i e l d (p. 57). Dr.
Melchoir took a l e a d i n g p a r t i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n of the B a n k for I n t e r
n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s a n d became C h a i r m a n of the F i n a n c i a l Committee
of the L e a g u e of N a t i o n s .
<23) Q u o t e d by A. N. F i e l d i n All These Things, p ; 155.
508 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

h a n d , n o t o n l y d o n o t p u t t h e m s e l v e s a t t h e p o i n t of v i e w of
m e m b e r s h i p of C h r i s t , h u t d o n o t s e e a n y t h i n g u n - C h r i s l i a n o r
u n n a t u r a l in t h e r e v e r s a l of o r d e r p r e v a l e n t in t h e b u s i n e s s \v>rld.
T h i s r e v e r s a l of o r d e r c o n s i s t s in a n o r g a n i z a t i o n s u c h t h a t m e m
b e r s of C h r i s t ( a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l ) a r c h e l d t o e x i s t f o r t h e p r o
d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l g o o d s a m i t h e p r o d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l g o o d s is
c o n s i d e r e d s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o n e y . W e need
n o t w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t t h e J e w s , in s p i t e of d i v i s i o n s a n d r i v a l r i e s
a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s , h a v e p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e d t h e idea of m e m
b e r s h i p of C h r i s t f r o m b u s i n e s s . In t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n p o w e r
f u l l y a i d e d b y t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c i n f l u e n c e of F r e e m a s o n r y o n s o
m a n y of t h e n o m i n a l C h r i s t i a n s . 11 w o u l d be i n t e r e s t i n g , f o r
e x a m p l e , t o find o u t e x a c t l y , if it w e r e p o s s i b l e , all t h a t l a y b e h i n d
t h e f a i r l y r e c e n t a c t i o n of t h e W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t in
r e g a r d t o H u n g a r y . T h e Xetn York World, O c t . 2 1 . 1928, p u b l i s h e d
a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h a * s p o k e s m a n * of l i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t s t o t h e effect
t h a t the H u n g a r i a n m o n a r c h y would not be restored as announced
b y P r e m i e r l ' c t h l c n b e c a u s e " C o u n t I l e t h l e n k n o w s t h e b u l k of
the m o n e y put up b y the financiers w a s p a s s e d conditionally upon
t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e | l l o r t h y | r e g e n c y , a n d t h a t a n y v i o l a t i o n
of t h e a g r e e m e n t w o u l d n o t only halt a n y future i n v e s t m e n t s o r
l o a n s , b u t c a u s e t h e r e c a l l of t h e b u l k of t h a t a l r e a d y i n t h e c o u n
t r y , e s t i m a t e d at u p w a r d s of 200 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . " T h e World s t o r y
c o n t i n u e s : " T h a i t h e r e will n o t b e a n y c h a n g e in t h e H u n g a r i a n
G o v e r n m e n t is a l s o t h e v i e w of R a l p h H e a v e r S t r a s s b u r g c r , finan
c i e r , n u m b e r 6 0 H r o a d w a y , w h o is a m e m b e r of t h e A m e r i c a n
g r o u p of H u n g a r i a n i n v e s t o r s . H e is in c l o s e t o u c h w i t h I l u d a p e s l
1 24
and goes there every year.' * '

THK G E R M A N - J E W I S H INSPIRATION' OF T H E
FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM.

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t M r . P a u l W a r b u r g , t h e c r e a t o r of t h e F e d
e r a l R e s e r v e lank, c a m e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m G e r m a n y in
1902. F r o m t h e m e m o i r s of P r i n c e M a x of IJadcn, w e l e a r n t h a t
h i s b r o t h e r , M a x W a r b u r g , o c c u p i e d a m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l p o s i t i o n in
G e r m a n b a n k i n g c i r c l e s . T h e c o n t r o l of G e r m a n b a n k i n g o \ e r t h e
l i v e s of t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e is o u t l i n e d f o r u s in C h a p t e r V ! of
The Truth about the Slump. L e t u s e x a m i n e it briefly s o t h a t w e
m a y h a v e s o m e idea of t h e s y s t e m P a u l W a r b u r g a i m e d a i i m p o s
i n g on the United S l a t e s and through the United S t a t e s on the
w o r l d . M r . F i e l d first g i v e s u s t h e o p i n i o n of S i r O s w a l d Stoll,
14
w h o s a y s : T h e financial r i n g w h i c h g i r d l e s t h e e a r t h is g a t h e r e d
f r o m all n a t i o n s . P o w e r f u l e l e m e n t s in it a r e e s s e n t i a l l y A m e r i c a n .

(W) This is s u m m a r i z e d from Ludwell Denny's book, America

GoHffttt /'ft liritnin, p.
 POLITICS OP AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 509
2 5
b u t t h e d o m i n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e is T e u t o n i c . " ' * M r . F i e l d t h e n c o n
t i n u e s : " Of t h e G e r m a n b a n k i n g s y s t e m in p a r t i c u l a r S i r O s w a l d
1
s a i d : S i x g r e a t G e r m a n b a n k s c o n t r o l s c o r e s of t h o u s a n d s of
m i l l i o n s of c a p i t a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , t h r o u g h d i r e c t a n d in
direct associations and silent partnerships. See D o c u m e n t No.
593 of t h e L m i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e i s s u e d a t W a s h i n g t o n b y t h e
National Monetary Commission/ This American Government
d o c u m e n t is a t m l k y v o l u m e of 1,042 p a g e s It shows how
t h e financial r i n g h o l d s G e r m a n i n d u s t r v in t h e h o l l o w of i t s
hand."'*"
M r . F i e l d q u o t e s D r . E. J . D i l l o n o n t h e close a l l i a n c e in G e r m a n
t r a d e b e t w e e n t h e b a n k s a n d t h e k a r t e l s . " A k a r t e l is a ' t r u s t '
o r " s y n d i c a t e * of t r a d e s o r i n d u s t r i e s . T h e s e t r u s t s m a k e b i n d i n g
a g r e e m e n t s as to o u t p u t , m a r k e t s , profits, and prices. F a c h kartel
ha.- a m o n o p o l y of a g i v e n d i s t r i c t . . . . U n d e r t h e k a r t e l s t h e
G e r m a n r e t a i l d e a l e r b e c o m e s a m e r e a g e n t . H e m a y b u y a n d sell
o n l y f r o m bis local k a r t e l . PIc m a y b u y a n d sell o n l y s u c h g o o d s
as the kartel allows : and the b u y i n g and selling price and the quan
t i t y h e m a y sell a r c fixed b y t h e k a r t e l . T h e k a r t e l s in t h e i r t u r n
are controlled by the banks, which virtually own them. Most Bri
tish p e o p l e h a v e h e a r d of t h e g r e a t G e r m a n d y e t r u s t . . . . T h e
k a r t e l s of G e r m a n y w e r e l a r g e l y b u i l t u p by J e w i s h b a n k e r s of
t h a t c o u n t r y , a n d l a t e r G e r m a n - J e w i s h b a n k e r s in t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t p a r t in b u i l d i n g u p t h e g r e a t t r u s t s t h e r e
b y m e a n s of w h i c h t h e y b r o u g h t A m e r i c a n i n d u s t r y u n d e r t h e i r
own control. . . . If t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a r c t o g a i n a c l e a r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s y s t e m of financial c o n t r o l w h i c h is a b o u t
t o i>e i m p o s e d u p o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m e r c e t h r o u g h c r e d i t o p e r a
t i o n s , a n d w h i c h h a s b e e n g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p i n g in t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s s i n c e t h e p a s s a g e of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e A c t , t h e best w a y
27
is t o o b s e r v e t h e s y s t e m a s it e x i s t s in G e r m a n y . * * I t s h o m e is
in tha.t c o u n t r y w h e r e it h a s b e e n m o u l d e d i n t o a p e r f e c t m a c h i n e
b y a s m a l l g r o u p of m e n p r a c t i c a l l y all J e w s .
, l
It is n o t a q u e s t i o n of t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e w a g e w h i c h t h e
s y s t e m a l l o w s f o r s e r v i c e a s o p p o s e d to w h a t s e r v i c e w o u l d b r i n g
in a f r e e a n d o p e n l a b o u r m a r k e t , b u t it is q u e s t i o n of t h e p o s s i
b i l i t i e s of e x p l o i t i n g e v e r y b o d y . . . . S h o u l d e v e n t h e m o s t p o w e r
ful fail t o b e c o m e a c o g in t h e s y s t e m , h e is e c o n o m i c a l l y b r o k e n ,
a n d b e is a l u c k y m a n if h e c a n g a i n a livelihood f o r h i m s e l f a n d
his family thereafter. A s will b e s h o w n , t h i s s y s t e m of p u n i s h
m e n t h a s been i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e U n i t e d S l a t e s . . . . T h e hey to
t h e s i t u a t i o n . . . . lies in t h e G e r m a n l a w w h i c h p e r m i t s b a n k s
to b>ld s h a r e s in o t h e r b a n k s a n d in i n d u s t r i a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . U n t i l
(25) Freedom in Finance (published by Fisher U n w i n in 1019).
The Truth about the Slump, p . 45.
{27
> The rest of what is q u o t e d from M r . F i e l d is taken by him from
an a r t i c l e by Mr. A r t h u r K i t s o n , which a p p e a r e d in March, 1925.
510 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

t h e p a s s a g e of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e A c t s u c h p r i v i l e g e s w e r e n o t
a c c o r d e d b a n k s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r f e a r t h a t t h e r e m i g h t
d e v e l o p a s y s t e m of o v e r l o r d s h i p w h i c h h a s r e a c h e d s u c h p e r f e c t i o n
in G e r m a n y . E v e n t u a l c o n t r o l of i n d u s t r y a n d t h e b a n k i n g facili
t i e s of t h e c o u n t r y w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y drift i n t o t h e h a n d s of a few.
B u t t h e J e w i s h s y s t e m of G e r m a n y h a s led a n d d i r e c t e d s u c h a
m o v e m e n t for c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d a p p a r e n t l y w i t h a c o n s c i o u s o b
j e c t i v e . T h e r e s u l t is t h a t t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g d i r e c t o r a t e s of the
g r e a t e s t G e r m a n b a n k s , a b o u t six in n u m b e r , d o m i n a t e t h e c o u n
try. T h e list w o u l d i n c l u d e : T h e R e i c h s b a n k of i s s u e for the
G o v e r n m e n t b a n k e r s ' c e n t r a l b a n k , t h e d i r e c t o r s of w h i c h a r e
r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n of t h e G e r m a n m a r k a n d the
s u f f e r i n g w h i c h it e n t a i l e d ; t h e D i s c o n t o G c s e l l s c h a f t ; M a x W a r
b u r g & Co. of H a m b u r g , t o w h i c h w a s a l l o c a t e d t h e s h i p p i n g of
G e r m a n y , and which controlled the North German-Lloyd and H a m
b u r g - A m e r i c a n l i n e s ; t h e D e u t s c h e B a n k , m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e m e t a l i n d u s t r i e s ; a n d t h e H a n k fiir H a n d e l
und Industrie ( D a r m s t a d t e r Bank). It is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t o c o n
tend that others should be included. . . . In a n y e v e n t w i t h t h e
R e i c h s b a n k a s a k e y b a n k t h e list is s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o r r e c t . The
o u t s t a n d i n g fact is t h a t b y a s y s t e m of i n t e r o w n i u g s t o c k s , i n t e r
l o c k i n g d i r e c t o r a t e s , a s s i g n m e n t of s h a r e s of i n t e r e s t , a n d by a
m u t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t of i n t e r e s t s , t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m is o n e
whole . . . .
" T h e c o n t r o l lies, p e r h a p s , in t h e h a n d s of a h u n d r e d m e n w h o
c l u s t e r in t h e d i r e c t o r a t e s of t h e l a r g e s t c o r p o r a t i o n s , a n d of w h o m
9 5 p e r c e n t a r c J e w s . A s is u s u a l in a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h i s c h a r a c t e r ,
t h e r e a r c a f e w w h o l e a d . W h i l e t h e f i g u r e of M a x W a r b u r g , , of
H a m b u r g , m a y n o t l o o m l a r g e t h r e e t h o u s a n d miles a w a y as the
d o m i n a t i n g figure of t h i s a g g r e g a t i o n , s i n c e t h e d e a t h of W a l t e r
R a l h e n a u , the W a r b u r g influence has b e e n the d i r e c t i n g force, h a s
f u r n i s h e d t h e financial finrssr w h i c h h a s e n a b l e d his g r o u p g r e a t l y
t o i n c r e a s e i t s p o w e r , a n d this h a s b e e n m a i n l y a c c o m p l i s h e d
t h r o u g h t h e f a i t h f u l c o - o p e r a t i o n of h i s t w o b r o t h e r s , P a u l a n d
F e l i x , in N e w Y o r k . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t h e s e b a n k e r s a b s o l u t e l y
c o n t r o l a n d e x p l o i t f o r t h e i r o w n g a i n f o u r - f i f t h s of t h e i n t e r n a l
c o m m e r c e of G e r m a n y , w h e t h e r i n d u s t r i a l , a g r a r i a n , o r w h a t n o t .
T h e r e s i d u a l oilc-fifth r e p r e s e n t s s m a l l t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n i n d i
v i d u a l s in s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h t h e p r o f i t is n o m i n a l .
li
T h e i n q u i r i n g i n d i v i d u a l will w o n d e r h o w it is p o s s i b l e to
include within the above designation the word ' a g r a r i a n . ' How
a r e f a r m p r o d u c t s c o n t r o l l e d ? T h e h i s t o r y of this p h a s e of t h e i r
u n d e r t a k i n g is a n i n t e r e s t i n g o n e , a n d i t s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t fur
n i s h e d a m o s t difficult t a s k . B u t it w a s e v e n t u a l l y a c h i e v e d . T h e
c o n t r o l of t h e m a r k e t s , a n d t h e m e t h o d s of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n of l a n d b a n k s f o r t h e p u r p o s e of g i v i n g c r e d i t , t h e s e
b a n k s b e i n g l i n k e d in w i t h t h e g e n e r a l s y s t e m , all c o m p r i s e d t h e
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD Sll

machinery w h i c h enslaved the farmer. T h e working-man w a s cap

t u r e d a n d h e l d t h r o u g h t h e i m p o s i t i o n of social i n s u r a n c e l a w s ,
c o m p u l s o r y h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a s w a s fully d e s c r i b e d
by B i s m a r c k , w h o s a i d t h a t t h e s e l a w s w e r e p a s s e d t o t h r o w ' a
t28
gold c h a i n a r o u n d t h e n e c k s of w o r k e r s . * " >
T h u s w e h a v e s e e n t h e s a m e b a n k e r s i n t e r e s t e d in t h e i n s t a l l
a t i o n of B o l s h e v i s m i n R u s s i a a n d in t h e e r e c t i o n of a financial
s y s t e m in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r t h e G e r m a n m o d e l . T h e X a t i o n a i -
S o c i a l i s t r u l e r s of G e r m a n y h a v e t a k e n o v e r the s y s t e m e l a b o r a t e d
by t h e J e w i s h b a n k e r s . T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r , i n t r o d u c e d o n e i m
p o r t a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n , i n a s m u c h a s t h e i s s u i n g of t h e n a t i o n a l
e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m h a s b e e n m a d e c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of g o l d .
It is a d a p t e d t o t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e
country. But the ejehange-tnedium is loaned into existence and
the Government controls all lending and borrowing. This last
point m e a n s slavery. T h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e
M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t b y t h e d e i f i c a t i o n a n d e x a l t a t i o n of t h e
G e r m a n r a c e a n d b l o o d r e i n f o r c e s t h i s evil, for it m e a n s in p r a c
tice t h e a b r o g a t i o n of t h e o b j e c t i v e m o r a l l a w , as w e h a v e s e e n .
All* t h e s e s y s t e m s t h u s t e n d in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n , n a m e l y , t o
t h e t r e a t m e n t of h u m a n b e i n g s n o t a s persons but as m e r e
individuals. It is t h e S e r v i l e S t a t e , t h e r e t u r n of s l a v e r y in a w o r s e
f o r m t h a n b e f o r e t h e c o m i n g of O u r L o r d . " O u r Lord Jesus
C h r i s t / ' w r i t e s P o p e L e o X I I I , " i s t h e o r i g i n a n d s o u r c e of all
g o o d , a n d j u s t a s m a n k i n d c o u l d n o t b e f r e e d from s l a v e r y b i n b y
the s a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t , s o n e i t h e r c a n it be p r e s e r v e d b u t by His
p o w e r . . . . W h a t t h e life of m a n is f r o m w h i c h J e s u s h a s b e e n
expelled . . . . w h a t is i t s m o r a l i t y a n d i t s end, m a y b e l e a r n e d
f r o m t h e e x a m p l e of n a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e n o t t h e l i g h t of C h r i s t
ianity. . . . T h o s e w h o f o r s a k e H i m . . . . seek by that very
act t h e i r p e r s o n a l d e s t r u c t i o n , a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e a s far a s

(28) The Truth about the Slump ( p p . 53-55).. The p e r i o d referred

to above a p p e a r s t o be a b o u t 1924 or 1925.
" Mosti r e a l i s t s who have given the m a t t e r a n y consideration see t h a t
big business makes the profit o u t oi C o m p u l s o r y H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e . The
' sweet r e f r e s h i n g f r u i t s ' of C o m p u l s o r y H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e go neither
to the d o c t o r n o r to the p a t i e n t . . . . F r o m the v i e w p o i n t of big
business the more so-called free services the lower the s t a n d a r d o t
wages can be m a d e relative to the cosl of living " (Dr. Douglas Boyd
in M. 1). Private Bulletin, S e p t e m b e r , 3942). I n M. I). Private Bulletin
of November, 1943, Dr. Boyd p o i n t s out t h a t " Sir W i l l i a m Beveridge
is a well-known F a b i a n a n d associate of the Political a n d P l a n n i n g
Groups. I t wiH he remembered t h a t he was a co-worker with Mr. David
Lloyd George i n 1911 a t the i n t r o d u c t i o n of N a t i o n a l H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e
based on the o r i g i n a l ( i o r m a n scheme. He was also largely responsible
in b r i n g i n g forward N a t i o n a l U n e m p l o y m e n t I n s u r a n c e , which also
o r i g i n a t e d in Germany, a n d now seeks to introduce a comprehensive
system of S t a t e I n s u r a n c e backed with proposals for compulsory
labour."
 512 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRTST

t h e y c a n , m a k e s o c i e t y in g e n e r a l fall h a c k i n t o t h e v e r y a b y s s
o f e v i l s a n d d i s a s t e r s f r o m w h i c h t h e R e d e e m e r o u t of H i s l o v e
M ( 2 9
had delivered m a n k i n d . '

Till* FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD AND THE STRUGGLE

FOR WORLD FINANCIAL SUPREMACY.
S o m e a c c o u n t of t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d
a n d t h e A m e r i c a n M o n e y T r u s t in t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e for
c o n l t o l of raw* m a t e r i a l . ^ , c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r v , is to b e f o u n d
T
i n ' M r . A. N . F i e l d ' s book. The Truth alutut the Slu/n/j, a n d i n M r .
m
L u d u e l l D e n n y ' s w o r k , Anurieu Conquers llritnin. > Mr. Field
s a y s t h a t M r . Ludvve/1 Denny's hook is " w o r t h t h e c l o s e s t s t u d y
of all w h o d e s i r e to s e c c i v i l i z a t i o n f r e e d from its p r e s e n t d o m i n a
t i o n . " T h i s p r a i s e for a r e m a r k a b l e b o o k t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r is
h a p p y to e n d o r s e . It is a p i t ) , h o w e v e r , ;i> M r . Field r e m a r k s , t h a t
" a l t h o u g h K u h n , L o e b a n d Company* a - r m e n t i o n e d in t h e t e x t ,
n o e n t r y a p p e a r s in t h e i n d e x a n d t h e s a m e is t r u e of t h e i m p o r t
a n t I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c c e p t a n c e B a n k , " f o u n d e d by W a r b u r g in 1921.
H o w e v e r , t h e o m i s s i o n is n o t a s e r i o u s h a n d i c a p for t h e r e a d e r
w h o k n o w s t h a t " t h e f r e q u e n t reference to t h e ' l l a r r i m a n i n t e r
e s t s ' is m e r e l y t o t h e W a r b u r g i n t e r e s t s u n d e r a n o t h e r a n d less
s u g g e s t i v e n a m e , a n d t h e I'ujo C o m m i s s i o n r e p o r t s h o w s t h a t t h e
a c t i v i t i e s of X a t i o n a l C i t y [Sank, of w h i c h M r . D e n n y ' s b o o k is
( : n )
full, h a v e b e e n c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e W a r b u r g g r o u p . "
" I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , " w r i t e s M r . L u d w e l l D e n n y , " t h e r e is a
t h r e e - c o r n e r e d s t r u g g l e a m o n g the British, the A m e r i c a n , and the
E u r o p e a n t r u s t s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t e f f o r t s of e a c h t o p e n e t r a t e in
d u s t r i e s a n d m a r k e t s of t h e o t h e r s . I.G. ( I n t e r e s s e n (Jc/neinsehafl
Farhenhulnslrie). the G e r m a n Dye T r u s t , h a s tried r e p e a t e d l y to
f o r m a w o r l d c a r t e l . It h a s a c h i e v e d l i m i t e d a g r e e m e n t s . B u t in
t h e g e n e r a l field I.G. h a s failed t o d r a w B r i t a i n i n t o its F*uropean
cartel. . . . Several time* when Lord Melchclt has been on the
p o i n t of m a k i n g a g r e e m e n t s for I m p e r i a l C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r i e s w i t h
t h e I.G. G e r m a n - F r e n c h c a r t e l , t h e L o n d o n G o v e r n m e n t f o r d e 7

f e n c e r e a s o n s h a s i n t e r v e n e d to p r e v e n t s u c h an a l l i a n c e f r o m b e
c o m i n g more than a partial gentlemen's a g r e e m e n t . T h e tendency
is t o w a r d s t w o g r e a t w o r l d t r u s t s . G e r m a n I.G. v e r s u s B r i t i s h
L C I . , w i t h A m e r i c a n c a p i t a l t r y i n g to i n c r e a s e its i n f l u e n c e o v e r
b o t h f o r e i g n r i v a l s . T h i s h a s b r o u g h t - a b o u t a d i v i s i o n in A m e r i c a n
capital, with the M o r g a n - C h a s e - G e n e r a l M o t o r s group s u p p o r t i n g
B r i t i s h I.C.I, a n d t h e R o c k e f e l l e r g r o u p s u p p o r t i n g G e r m a n I.G.
B r i t i s h I.C.I, h a s a c q u i r e d s u b s t a n t i a l m i n o r i t y h o l d i n g s in G e n e r a l
M o t o r s , Allied C h e m i c a l a n d D y e . a n d d u P o n t . C h a s e S e c u r i t i e s

(29) E n c v d i c a l Letter, TameteL On Christ Our Redeemer,

f
ao> Published bv A. A. Knonf, New York, in 1930.
Tht Truth tihmii tht- Slump, bv A. X. F i e l d , p . 119.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 513

C o r p o r a t i o n of N e w Y o r k in c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h B r i t i s h L C I . f o r m e d
in A p r i l , 1928, e a c h h o l d i n g e q u a l s t o c k , t h e F i n a n c e C o m p a n y of
Great Britain and America. T h a t joint company announced that
its b u s i n e s s w o u l d b e t h a t of b a n k e r s , c o n c e s s i o n a i r e s , m e r c h a n t s ,
p r o m o t e r s , p r o s p e c t o r s , m i n e r s , s h i p - o w n e r s , o p e r a t i n g in c h e m i c a l
a n d o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s in E u r o p e , t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e , a n d t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s . O n i t s C o m m i t t e e , i n a d d i t i o n t o officers of B r i t i s h I , C I .
a n d C h a s e N a t i o n a l B a n k , a r e officials of G e n e r a l M o t o r s , A m e r i c a n
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Corporation, A m e r i c a n Car and F o u n d r y , American
Locomotive, International Paper, American Railway Express,
M e t r o p o l i t a n L i f e I n s u r a n c e , a n d B e t h l e h e m S t e e l . S o m e of t h e
British Board M e m b e r s are L o r d Reading, Lord Melchett, Lord
Colwyn, and Sir H a r r y M c G o w a n . . . ,
" C o u n t e r i n g t h a t partial alliance b e t w e e n British L C I . and one
g r o u p of A m e r i c a n c a p i t a l , is a p a r t i a l a l l i a n c e of t h e R o c k e f e l l e r -
F o r d i n t e r e s t s w i t h G e r m a n L G . T h i s l a t t e r a l l i a n c e is r e p r e s e n t e d
by the n e w l y - f o r m e d A m e r i c a n LG. Chemical Corporation. . . .
LG. a g r e e m e n t s with A m e r i c a n p r o d u c e r s or affecting A m e r i c a n
p r o d u c e r s , in a d d i t i o n to t h o s e m e n t i o n e d above, a r e s u m m a r i s e d
by the C o m m e r c e D e p a r t m e n t . . . . in 1928: T h e G e r m a n D y e
T r u s t ' s i n t e r e s t s in t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l i n d u s t r y i n c l u d e a d y e -
stuffs p r o d u c t i o n p a c t w i t h a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y effected in 1924
. , . joint production with A m e r i c a n rayon producers controlled
32
b y t h e B r i t i s h C o u r t a u l d s , & c , &c."< >
A m o n g t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e A m e r i c a n LG. C o r p o r a t i o n a r e :
" M r . E d s e l F o r d , p r e s i d e n t of t h e F o r d M o t o r C o m p a n y ; M r .
W a l t e r T e a g l e , p r e s i d e n t of t h e S t a n d a r d Oil C o m p a n y ; M r . C h a r
les M i t c h e l l , c h a i r m a n of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A c c e p t a n c e B a n k .
T h e s e A m e r i c a n s r e p r e s e n t a n a g g r e g a t i o n of c a p i t a l e v e n g r e a t e r
t h a n t h a t of G e r m a n L G . , a n d , w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e l a t t e r ,
c r e a t e a p o t e n t i a l financial c o n c e n t r a t i o n of u n p r e c e d e n t e d p r o
portions. . . .
" A s a r e s u l t of t h e s e m a n i f o l d d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e i n t e r n a
t i o n a l c h e m i c a l i n d u s t r y g r o w i n g o u t of t h e conflict b e t w e e n t h e
B r i t i s h L C I . a n d t h e G e r m a n L G . , t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n Oil r i v a l r y ,
(32) O p . cit. ( p p . 331-333). " We have been viewing with increasing
d i s q u i e t the sale to 'America of C o u r t a u l d s ' very valuable subsidiary*
A m e r i c a n Viscose . . . . Our curiosity is even further aroused by the
actual i d e n t i t y of the p a r t i e s to the contract. We would p o i n t o u t
t h a t S i r E d w a r d Peacock is B a r i n g Bros, and the B a n k of E n g l a n d .
He is also a d i r e c t o r of the B a n k e r s ' I n d u s t r i a l Development Com
pany, a concern t h a t is run by the Bank of E n g l a n d in conjunction
with the leading London F i n a n c e houses. The P u r c h a s i n g Commiitee
is headed by M o r g a n Stanley & Co.. a n d comprises such firms as K u h n ,
Loeb & Co., the Mellon Securities C o r p o r a t i o n , Dillon Head & Co.,
H a r r i m a n , Riley iV. Co.. and others . . . . There does seem to be a
prima facie case for i n q u i r i n g whether the actions of i n t e r n a t i o n a l
finance have not in this instance been flatly c o n t r a r y to the n a t i o n a l
i n t e r e s t ' ' (The Catholic Herald, L o n d o n , A p r i l 4, 1941).
MM
514 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a n d the world s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n F o r d and General M o t o r s (du

P o n t ) t h e r e are thus beginning to form t w o great opposing inter-
nalional capital groups, American - British and American-
German."<33)
I n c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e a b o v e , M r . A . X. F i e l d r e m a r k s t h a t " i n
t h e l i g h t of t h e P u j o R e p o r t ' s r e v e l a t i o n s a s t o t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of
t h e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s in b o t h g r o u p s in t h e M o n e y R i n g u n d e r
t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e S y s t e m , it is difficult t o b e l i e v e in t h e i d e a of
fierce c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , in 1928, w h e n t h e
National City Hank organized United Aircraft and T r a n s p o r t ,
S t a n d a r d Oil, F o r d , a n d t h e i r a l l e g e d d e a d l y e n e m y , G e n e r a l
7 , ( W )
M o t o r s , w e r e all r e p r e s e n t e d o n t h e s a m e b o a r d . It s e e m s far
m o r e l i k e l y t h a t t h e d i r e c t i n g p o w e r s in t h e A m e r i c a n M o n e y R i n g
a r e a i m i n g at their o w n s u p r e m a c y o v e r Kurope and the world.
W e m a y s e e i n d i c a t i o n s of t h i s in s o m e of M r . D e n n y ' s r e v e l a t i o n s .
L e t u s g l a n c e first at t h e g r o w i n g A m e r i c a n c o n t r o l of G r e a t
Britain.
A t t h e e n d of t h e C h a p t e r e n i i l l e d America Invades the Domin
ions, M r . D e n n y m a i n t a i n s t h a t G r e a t B r i t a i n is " u n a b l e t o s t a n d
alone, cither as a nation or as an Kmpire. against the g r o w i n g
K u r o p e a n e c o n o m i c a l l i a n c e p r e s s i n g u p o n h e r from o n e s i d e a n d
the l a r g e r A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i c unit c h a l l e n g i n g her from t h e o t h e r
s i d e . B r i t a i n is a p p r o a c h i n g i h c t i m e w h e n >hc m u s t d e c i d e o n a
w o r k i n g a g r e e m e n t with the Kuropean cartel o r with the United
( 3 3
S l a t e s . " * B r i t a i n ' s financial a l l i a n c e w i t h MIHIC w o u l d s a y fin
a n c i a l d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e L'nited S t a t e s , vyhich w a s w e l l u n d e r
w a y b e f o r e t h e p r e s e n t w a r , will i n e v i t a b l y a d v a n c e si ill f u r t h e r
d u r i n g t h e w a r . " By M a r c h . 1 9 2 / * w r i t e s M r . Field, " A m e r i c a n
G e n e r a l K l c c l r i c h a d b o u g h t 0 0 , p e r c e n i . of t h e s t o c k of B r i t i s h
G e n e r a l K l c c l r i c . P a r l y in 1 9 2 9 t h e l e a d i n g e l e c t r i c a l m a n u f a c t u r
i n g c o n c e r n s in B r i t a i n : B r i t i s h T h o m p s o n H o u s t o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n
V i c k e r s , K d i s o n S w a n a n d F e r g u s o n P a i l i n w e r e f u s e d i n t o the
A s s o c i a t e d K l c o t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s in w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p a l s h a r e h o l d e r
w a s A m e r i c a n G e n e r a l K l e c t r i c . . . . In 1929 t h e U t i l i t i e s P o w e r
a n d L i g h t C o r p o r a t i o n , an A m e r i c a n c o n c e r n , b o u g h t u p t h e e n t i r e
c o m m o n s t o c k of the G r e a t e r L o n d o n C o u n t i e s T r u s t , c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e s e v e n ' c h i e f p o w e r c o m p a n i e s of B r i t a i n , s u p p l y i n g p o w e r o n a
m o n o p o l y b a s i s t o 95 c i t i e s in K n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d . It a l s o con
t r o l s the K d m u n d s o n Klcctrical C o r p o r a t i o n o w n i n g t w e l v e electric
s u p p l y c o m p a n i e s in B r i t a i n . A B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t i n q u i r y was
m a d e i n t o t h i s A m e r i c a n o w n e r s h i p of t h e m o t i v e p o w e r of Brit
ish i n d u s t r y . T h e M i n i s t e r of T r a n s p o r t , C o l o n e l A s h l e y , t o l d the
H o u s e of C o m m o n s , o n F e b . 18, 1929, t h a t efficient o p e r a t i o n was

: w
Op. fit., pp.
34) The Truth about the Slump, p. 124.
3
'S * Op. cit., p. 123.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 515

of m o r e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a n ' w h e t h e r t h e c a p i t a l h a p p e n s t o b e
30
British or American.'* *
" T h e late L o r d B i r k e n h e a d obliged the American o w n e r s by
b e c o m i n g t h e o r n a m e n t a l B r i t i s h c h a i r m a n of t h e [ l a s t - m e n t i o n e d ]
concern. . . . Under the heading * Grabbing R a w Materials,' Mr.
D e n n y t e l l s of t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n in 1928 of t h e B r i t i s h M o n d N i c k e l
C o . a n d t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N i c k e l Co. of N e w J e r s e y , w i t h c o n t r o l in
A m e r i c a a c c o r d i n g t o t h e New York Times (and Manchester
Guardian Commercial). T h e M o n d C o m p a n y is, a s is w e l l -
(37
known, a J e w i s h concern. . . . > Although Britain has smelting
c o n t r o l of 70 p e r c e n t , o r s o of t h e w o r l d ' s tin o u t p u t , y e t i n J u n e ,
1929, t h e B r i t i s h - A m e r i c a n T i n C o r p o r a t i o n w a s o r g a n i z e d a n d w a s
s a i d t o r e p r e s e n t m o r e t h a n 8 0 p e r c e n t , of t h e B r i t i s h c o n t r o l l e d
3 8 )
tin production."<
T h e following British P r e s s c o m m u n i q u e appeared on F e b r u a r y
19, 1941 : " M r . A v e r a l l H a r r i m a n will c o m e t o L o n d o n w i t h i n a
fortnight. P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t i n d i c a t e d t h a t M r . H a r r i m a n will
h a n d l e such q u e s t i o n s as the British Defence E s t i m a t e s , P r i o r i t i e s ,
a n d C o n t r a c t s . " O n t h i s c o m m u n i q u e , The Social Crediter of
M a r c h . 1 , 1941, m a k e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t : " M e s s r s . H a r r i m a n ,
t h e N e w Y o r k f i n a n c i e r s , a r e m o r e o r l e s s ' G e n t i l e f r o n t ' for
Messrs. Kuhn, Loeb and Company. They were granted enormous
c o n c e s s i o n s , a m o u n t i n g t o t h o u s a n d s of millions of d o l l a r s , by
L e n i n a n d T r o t s k y , f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n of R u s s i a . T h e s e w e r e
c a r r i e d o u t in t h e S o c i a l i s t p a r a d i s e p r a c t i c a l l y by s l a v e l a b o u r ,
d i r e c t e d by A m e r i c a n technicians, thus providing the A m e r i c a n
1
P r o s p e r i t y ' boom. K v i d e n l l y , it is n o t l o o e a r l y t o p r e p a r e for
t h e ' r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ' of K u r o p e in g e n e r a l , a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n in

(3<>) Quoted by
Mr. Ludwell Denny from Washington lulitorial
llrsrarvh HeporU, April t. 19-29. p. 263.

(37) Nickel is cine of the six m e t a l and non-metal i n d u s t r i a l minerals

a n t i m o n y , chromite, nickel, t i n , n i t r a t e s , potashin which the U n i t e d
States d e p e n d s almost e n t i r e l y on (uncontrolled)-foreign sources as com
p a r e d with fourmercury, p o t a s h , s u l p h u r , talc and soapstonein t h e
case of B r i t a i n . Since ..Germany has retaken Alsace, she has a very
large p o r t i o n of the world's s u p p l y of potash, which is essential for
commercial fertilisers and largely u^ed in the m a n u f a c t u r e of glass,
soap, a n d explosives, etc. At the^ b e g i n n i n g of the war. G r e a t .Britain
and U.S.A. h a d , if not monopolies, at least extremely large holdings
of the w o r l d ' s supplies of nickel ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Nickel Company a n d
Mond C o m p a n y merger c o n t r o l l i n g 90 per c e n t ) ; t i n (British-American
Tin_ C o r p o r a t i o n ) ; copper, oil, rubber, a n d large holdings of zinc.
, : J 8 )
Tlu Truth about thr Shunp, by A. X . Field, p p . 120-123.
" The basic i n d u s t r y is steel in peace a n d war. To t h a t older basic
i n d u s t r y this age has added the electrical, automotive and chemical in
d u s t r i e s . . . . Hence the i m p o r t a n c e of such m a t e r i a l s as coal, iron,
manganese, chromite, nickel, t u n g s t e n , a n t i m o n y , v a n a d i u m , copper,
1
lead, zinc, t i n , aluminium,, n k r a t e s potash and r u b b e r ' ' (America
Conquers Britain, p. 189, by Ludwell Dennv).
516 T H E MYSTICAL feODY OF CHRIST

particular, t h r o u g h the s a m e channels and similar ' S o c i a l i s t '

methods/'
L e t u s n o w t a k e s o m e p r o o f s of A m e r i c a n financial i n t e r e s t in
G e r m a n y . " A m e r i c a n G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c is s a i d t o h a v e l a r g e h o l d
i n g s in I t a l i a n S u p e r - P o w e r w h i c h is m a k i n g t h a t c o u n t r y i n d e
p e n d e n t of B r i t i s h c o a l . . . . ] n 1929 i t i n c r e a s e d i t s h o l d i n g i n t h e
G e r m a n electrical ' m a n u f a c t u r i n g trust, t h e A.E.G., to one-third,
a n d m a d e a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h it f o r c o - o p e r a t i o n in e v e r y c o u n t r y
i n E u r o p e . . . . I n t h e w i n t e r of 1928-29, s l a c k n e s s in s h i p b u i l d i n g
a c c o u n t e d f o r 3 2 p e r c e n t , of B r i t a i n ' s u n e m p l o y e d . Germany's
m e r c a n t i l e m a r i n e h a s b e e n b r o u g h t u p t o 8 0 p e r c e n t , of i t s p r e -
W a r s t r e n g t h b y t h e b u i l d i n g of n e w t o n n a g e . T h i s b u i l d i n g h a s
b e e n financed mainly by the * H a r r i m a n i n t e r e s t s ' which, as w e
h a v e seen, s e e m s to be j u s t a n o t h e r n a m e for t h e W a r b u r g g r o u p .
A m e r i c a , w e a r e t o l d , h a s n o w on a c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e a t h r e e -
q u a r t e r i n t e r e s t i n t h e N o r t h G e r m a n L l o y d line, a n d a n o t h e r b i g
( 3 9 )
first m o r t g a g e o n t h e H a m b u r g - A m e r i c a l i n e . " "Germany's
n e w s h i p s , " w r i t e s M r . D e n n y , " i n c l u d i n g t h e v i c t o r i o u s S.S.
B r e m e n , r e p r e s e n t Y a n k e e m o n e y . . . . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is t h u s
r e b u i l d i n g a n e w G e r m a n c o m m e r c i a l fleet. T h i s is a c o m b i n a t i o n
of A m e r i c a n c a p i t a l a n d G e r m a n s k i l l s i m i l a r t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
in t h e chemical, a u t o m o b i l e , a v i a t i o n , electrical, and o t h e r indus
t r i e s t o c o m p e t e w i t h t h e B r i t i s h . T h e effect is t h r e e f o l d . F i r s t ,
it m a k e s B r i t a i n ' s t a s k of m a i n t a i n i n g a p r o f i t a b l e m e r c h a n t m a r i n e
n a v a l r e s e r v e m o r e difficult. S e c o n d , it e n a b l e s American
c a p i t a l t o p r o f i t in t h e t r a n s - A t l a n t i c t r a d e w i t h v e s s e l s of l o w e r
o p e r a t i n g costs and stronger competitive p o w e r than American-
flag s h i p s . T h i r d , it r e t a i n s t h e m o s t l u c r a t i v e , c o a s t w i s e , a n d
Atlantic-Panama-Canal-Pacific trade for A m e r i c a n - f l a g ships,
w h i c h , u n d e r the p r o t e c t i v e policy e x c l u d i n g foreign ships, enables
( 4 0 )
this c o u n t r y to build u p a m e r c h a n t naval r e s e r v e . "
I t is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t , in 1914, b o t h t h e G e r m a n E m p e r o r a n d
t h e b a n k i n g b o u s e of K u h n , L o e b a n d Co., w e r e l a r g e s h a r e h o l d e r s
i n t h e H a m b u r g - A m e r i c a line. So m u c h w e l e a r n f r o m t h e
m e m o i r s of S i r Cecil S p r i n g - R i c e , B r i t i s h A m b a s s a d o r a t W a s h
A]y
i n g t o n f r o m 1913 to t h e e n d of \9\7S A g a i n , t h e G o v e r n o r of
t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d , M r . M o n t a g u N o r m a n , s p e n t p a r t of his
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p in N e w Y o r k , w i t h t h e b a n k i n g firm of B r o w n
(4 2)
B r o t h e r s & Co.. n o w B r o w n B r o t h e r s . H a r r i m a n & C o . '
In C h a p t e r X V I I , w e s a w t h a t t h e c e n t r e of J e w i s h financial
a c t i v i t v w a s m o v e d f r o m S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l t o A m s t e r d a m and
a g a i n f r o m A m s t e r d a m t o L o n d o n at t h e t i m e of t h e " G l o r i o u s

(39> The Truth about the Slump, p p . 120, 125

(40) America* f'ovquers Britain, p . .'506.
'in The Truth about the Slump, p . 91.
(42) Professor Skinner alias Montagu Norman, bv J o h n Hargrave,
p . 20.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 517'

Revolution." Our epoch seems to have witnessed the transference

of t h e c e n t r e f r o m L o n d o n t o N e w Y o r k , t h e G r e a t W a r (1914-
1918) b e i n g u t i l i z e d for t h e p u r p o s e . T h o u g h m a n y , i n c l u d i n g t h e
p r e s e n t w r i t e r , d o n o t a g r e e w i t h M a j o r D o u g l a s ' s social c r e d i t
s c h e m e of r e f o r m of t h e m o n e t a r y s y s t e m , n o b o d y q u e s t i o n s his
k n o w l e d g e of t h e financial w o r l d . A c c o r d i n g t o M a j o r D o u g l a s ,
t h e r e a l o b j e c t i v e s of t h e G r e a t W a r (1914-1918) w e r e th'e B o l
s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n in R u s s i a , t h e L e a g u e of N a t i o n s , a n d t h e fin
a n c i a l s u b j u g a t i o n of G r e a t B r i t a i n . T h u s w e s e e t h a t h e a g r e e s
w i t h w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d a b o v e a b o u t t h e r e m o v a l of t h e J e w i s h
financial c e n t r e f r o m L o n d o n t o N e w Y o r k . T h e n a b o u t 1930, h e
p o i n t e d o u t the p r o x i m a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s for the n e x t w a r . We
r e a d i n The New English Weekly of J a n . 8, 1940, f r o m t h e p e n of
E r i c S. d e M a r e , t h a t , a b o u t t e n y e a r s b e f o r e , M a j o r D o u g l a s h a d
w r i t t e n " If t h e r e is a s p a r k of n o b i l i t y left in t h i s c o u n t r y ( E n g
l a n d ] t h e d a y t h e n e x t w a r b r e a k s o u t , t h e local (i.e., n a t i o n a l )
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of F i n a n c e will f a c e a firing p a r t y in t h e L o n g
G a l l e r y of t h e T o w e r . " M a j o r D o u g l a s w a s e v i d e n t l y a w a r e of
t h e t r u t h w h i c h w a s e m p h a s i z e d b y The Weekly Review of M a y
30, 1940, in t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : " T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e
things w e h a v e said a n d r e p e a t e d a n d repeated w i t h insistence
is t h e t r u t h t h a t t h e G e r m a n a r m y w h i c h n o w p r o p o s e s t o d e s t r o y
t h i s c o u n t r y . . . w a s r e v i v e d b y t h e b a n k e r s of L o n d o n a n d N e w
Y o r k , l e d b y t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d . T h a t is t h e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l
e v e n t of o u r t i m e , a n d o n l y h e r e in The Weekly Review was any
43
w o r d b r e a t h e d of it."< >
M a j o r D o u g l a s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n q u i t e w e l l a w a r e of t h e
r e a s o n f o r t h e w e a k e n i n g of F r a n c e a f t e r t h e G r e a t W a r . A n o t h e r
w a r w a s b e i n g p r e p a r e d , in o r d e r t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e p o s i t i o n a l
r e a d y a t t a i n e d a n d p r o c e e d f u r t h e r w i t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s for t h e
c o m i n g of t h e n a t u r a l M e s s i a s . A c c o r d i n g to M a j o r D o u g l a s the
o b j e c t i v e s of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l financiers in t h e p r e s e n t conflict
a r e as f o l l o w s :
" ( 1 ) T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i c e S t a t e o n
t h e R u s s i a n m o d e l , b e g i n n i n g w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n . ' C a n w e finally
r i d E u r o p e of b a r r i e r s of c a s t e a n d c r e e d a n d p r e j u d i c e ? . . .
O u r n e w civilization m u s t be built t h r o u g h a world at w a r . But
o u r n e w civilization will be built j u s t the s a m e ' ( M r . A n t h o n y
E d e n , B r o a d c a s t t o A m e r i c a , S e p t e m b e r 1 1 , 1939).
" T h i s c o n t e m p l a t e s t h e c o m p l e t e a b o l i t i o n of civil r i g h t s .
" ( 2 ) T h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d a n d t h e D e b t S y s
tem.
43
< > T h i s e x t r a c t is t a k e n from the l e a d i n g article. I n another
a r t i c l e i n the same issue, signed by Mr. H . Belloc, we r e a d : " T h e
G e r m a n revival could not h a v e succeeded, of course, h a d i t not heen
s u p p o r t e d by the i n t e r n a t i o n a l money power and p a r t i c u l a r l y by the
B a n k of E n g l a n d . " Cf. the s t a t e m e n t s by H a n s H e y m a n n i n Plan for
Permanent Peace, p. 53.
518 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

" ( 3 ) T h e e l i m i n a t i o n of G r e a t B r i t a i n in t h e c u l t u r a l s e n s e , a n d
t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of J e w i s h [ M a s o n i c ] i d e a l s .
11
( 4 ) T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e Z i o n i s t S t a t e in P a l e s t i n e a s a
g e o g r a p h i c a l c e n t r e of W o r l d C o n t r o l , w i t h N e w Y o r k a s t h e
( 4 4 )
c e n t r e of W o r l d F i n a n c i a l C o n t r o l . "
T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s of w a r a i m s r e q u i r e t o be a m p l i f i e d s o m e
w h a t , in o r d e r t o t a k e full a c c o u n t o f t h e c o m b a t u n d e r S a t a n
a g a i n s t t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life o f C h r i s t in t h e w o r l d . B e h i n d t h e
financial conflict t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e s t r u g g l e o f S a t a n a g a i n s t O u r
L o r d . R e a d e r s will r e m e m b e r P a l m e r s t o n ' s a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l p l a n
t r e a t e d of in C h a p t e r X V . T o a p e r s o n c o g n i z a n t of t h a t p l a n , it
is c l e a r t h a t t h e b r e a k - u p of A u s t r i a w a s o n e of t h e a i m s of t h e
last war. Austria was broken up at the Peace Conference and
G e r m a n y w a s left a l m o s t i n t a c t , n u r s i n g a g r i e v a n c e . A n o t h e r w a r
was therefore inevitable. Since then, Vienna has been b r o u g h t
completely u n d e r the d o m i n a t i o n o f Berlin. In s p i t e of t h e
N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e J e w i s h Saturn, Soviet
R u s s i a f r e e d P r u s s i a , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n e w w a r , f r o m t h e
f e a r of h a v i n g t o fight on t w o f r o n t s , a n d t h u s e n a b l e d t h e l o n g -
p r e p a r e d s u b j u g a t i o n of F r a n c e t o be q u i c k l y a c c o m p l i s h e d . The
a n t i - C a t h o l i c v i g o u r d i s p l a y e d by t h e N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t G o v e r n m e n t
p r o m i s e d t o be s u c h a m i g h t y a s s e t in t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e
S u p e r n a t u r a l L i f e of E u r o p e t h a t its a n t i - J e w i s h n c s s w a s o f f s e t
f o r t h e m o m e n t at l e a s t . D o e s t h e p r e s e n t w a r of G e r m a n y a g a i n s t
Russia prove that Prussia has definitely t u r n e d against the forces
t h a t h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o r a i s e h e r u p ? Is t h e r e a bid by G e r m a n
finance t o s h a k e itself free of I u d a e o - A m e r i c a n t r a m m e l s a n d p u t
i t s e l f at t h e s e r v i c e of t h e G e r m a n r a c e t o d o m i n a t e I E u r o p e a n d
t h e w o r l d ? T h e r e m a y b e , but w e m u s t n o t f o r g e t t h a t t h e finan
c i e r s w h o e n a b l e d G e r m a n y to r e a r m k n e w t h a t t h e w a r w a s b o u n d
t o c o m e a n d k n e w all a b o u t t h e a n t i - J e w i s h a t t i t u d e of t h e
National-Socialist Party. All t h a t h a d b e e n t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
O n e t h i n g a t l e a s t is c e r t a i n . S a t a n w a n t s to l u r e on his d u p e s
in b o t h w a r r i n g c a m p s t o s t r i v e for a n a t u r a l i s t i c u n i o n of S t a t e s ,
t h a t is, for s o m e f o r m of o r g a n i z a t i o n f r o m w h i c h t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f t h e V i c a r of C h r i s t will b e e x c l u d e d . T h i s will m a k e for in
c r e a s e d r e g i m e n t a t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g s a n d m o r e c o m p l e t e e l i m i n
a t i o n of r e s p e c t for h u m a n pcrsonaiii//. U n l e s s t h e r e is a r e t u r n
t o t h e f u l l a c k n o A v l c d g m e n t o f G o d ' s R i g h t s , m e n will b e t r e a t e d
m o r e a n d m o r e a s m e r e individuals, t h a t is, as a n i m a l s w i t h o u t
personal rights.
A t t h e C o n g r e s s of t h e T h i r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l of C o m m u n i s t P a r
t i e s held in 1935, a r e s o l u t i o n w a s p a s s e d u r g i n g t h e Unity of all
peoples against Fascism. By t h e t e r m F a s c i s m w a s m e a n t , of

(44) M a j o r D o u g l a s ' s statements c o n c e r n i n g W a r A i m s a r e taken

from Tax-Bonds or Bondage, hy J o h n Mitchell, p p . 9, 12.
 POLITICS OF AQUINAS AND GOLD STANDARD 519

c o u r s e , e v e r y f o r m of o p p o s i t i o n t o C o m m u n i s m i n c l u d i n g , n e e d
less t o s a y , e v e r y a t t e m p t t o e l i m i n a t e t h e c l a s s - w a r a n d t o r e t u r n
t o t h e c o r p o r a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e S t a t e i n s i s t e d u p o n by P o p e
P i u s X J in t h e F n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Quadragesima Anno. Accord
ingly, C o m m u n i s t w r i t e r s and papers have been continuallv
a l l u d i n g t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t s of S p a i n a n d P o r t u g a l a s F a s c i s t . I t
is o m i n o u s t o see all t h o s e p e r s i s t e n t a t t a c k s o n e v e r y a t t e m p t on
t h e p a r t of a n y S t a t e t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r .
B e h i n d t h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o e v e r y v e s t i g e of F a s c i s m , it is c l e a r t h a t
t h e r e is t h e s a t a n i c h a t r e d of t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l Life of G r a c e .
T h i s b o o k h a d b e e n w r i t t e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , when German//' s
Master Plan, b y J o s e p h B o r k i n a n d C h a r l e s A. W e l s h , a p p e a r e d .
I n t h i s w o r k , p u b l i s h e d by J o h n L o n g , a n a c c o u n t is g i v e n of t h e
s t e p s t h a t h a d to be t a k e n by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t in
c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e c a r t e l a c t i v i t i e s of A m e r i c a n f i r m s a n d finan
ciers. A cartel means a combination or a g r e e m e n t , national or
i n t e r n a t i o n a l in s c o p e , in w h i c h t h e m e m b e r s s e e k t o c o n t r o l o n e
o r m o r e p h a s e s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n , p r i c i n g a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of a
commodity.
 CHAPTER XXI.

THE P R I N C I P L E S O F ST. T H O M A S A Q U I N A S AND

MONETARY REFORM.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

I n C h a p t e r s 1, I I , a n d ITT, w e s a w t h e P o l i t i c a l a n d E c o n o m i c
p r i n c i p l e s i n v o l v e d in t h e full a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of t h e K i n g s h i p of
Christ. Those principles w e r e d r a w n from the Encyclical L e t t e r s
of t h e S o v e r e i g n P o n t i f f s a n d f r o m t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e A n g e l i c
D o c t o r w h o , t o q u o t e a g a i n t h e w o r d s of P o p e P i u s X I , " i s o u r
s o u r c e for e c o n o m i c a n d political s c i e n c e . I n the modern
w o r l d , t h e w e l f a r e of m e n , w h o a r e C h r i s t ' s m e m b e r s , a c t u a l or
p o t e n t i a l , is s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l g o o d s a n d
t h e p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e of m a t e r i a l g o o d s a r e
m a d e s u b s e r v i e n t t o financial m a n i p u l a t i o n . This fundamental
d i s o r d e r is b a s e d u p o n t h e d e n i a l of h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . Accord
i n g l y , t o r e c t i f y it, t h e f a c t of m a n ' s p e r s o n a l i t y a n d of h i s p e r
s o n a l r e l a t i o n t o G o d m u s t be i n s i s t e d u p o n .
T h e t e a c h i n g of S t . T h o m a s c o n c e r n i n g m a n a s a n individual
a n d a s a person, e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t of C h a p t e r I, h a s
b e e n s t r i k i n g l y s e t f o r t h b y P o p e P i u s X I in t h e E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r ,
Divini Redemptoris, on A t h e i s t i c C o m m u n i s m . T h e illustrious
P o n t i f f b e g i n s w i t h m a n ' s p e r s o n a l i t y a n d g i v e s a s u m m a r y of t h e
p e r s o n a l d u t i e s i n c u m b e n t o n m a n in c o n s e q u e n c e of G o d ' s R i g h t s
t o his l o v e a n d s e r v i c e . M a n ' s d u t i e s t o G o d a r e t h e f o u n d a t i o n
of his p e r s o n a l r i g h t s . " M a n h a s a spiritual and i m m o r t a l soul,"
w r i t e s t h e P o p e , " he is a p e r s o n , m a r v e l l o u s l y e n d o w e d b y his
1
C r e a t o r w i t h g i f t s of b o d y a n d m i n d . H e is a m i c r o c o s m / as
t h e a n c i e n t s s a i d , a w o r l d in m i n i a t u r e , w i t h a v a l u e f a r sur
p a s s i n g t h a t of t h e v a s t i n a n i m a t e c o s m o s . G o d a l o n e i s h i s last
e n d , in t h i s life a n d in t h e n e x t . B y S a n c t i f y i n g G r a c e h e is r a i s e d
t o t h e d i g n i t y of a s o n of G o d , a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e K i n g d o m
of G o d in t h e M y s t i c a l B o d y of C h r i s t . I n c o n s e q u e n c e h e has
b e e n e n d o w e d b y G o d w i t h m a n y a n d v a r i e d p r e r o g a t i v e s : the
r i g h t t o life, t o b o d i l y i n t e g r i t y , t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y m e a n s of
e x i s t e n c e ; t h e r i g h t t o t e n d t o w a r d s h i s u l t i m a t e g o a l in t h e p a t h
m a r k e d o u t f o r h i m b y G o d ; t h e r i g h t of a s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e r i g h t
t o p o s s e s s a n d u s e p r o p e r t y . J u s t a s m a t r i m o n y a n d t h e r i g h t to

(l) Encyclical L e t t e r , Studio-rum Ducem.

 MONETARY REFORM 521

i t s n a t u r a l u s e a r e of d i v i n e o r i g i n , s o l i k e w i s e a r e t h e c o n s t i t u
t i o n a l a n d f u n d a m e n t a l p r e r o g a t i v e s of t h e f a m i l y fixed a n d
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e C r e a t o r . Jn the Encyclical on Christian M a r
r i a g e , Casti Connuhii ( 1 9 3 0 ) , a n d in O u r o t h e r E n c y c l i c a l o n
E d u c a t i o n , Divini illius Magistri (1929), W e have treated these
topics at considerable length."
B u t m a n is a l s o a n individual a n d a s a n individual h e is a p a r t
of s o c i e t y . S o c i e t y , h o w e v e r , is m e a n t t o s e r v e h i m in s o f a r a s
h e is a person, a n d all s o c i a l r e g u l a t i o n s h a v e f o r o b j e c t t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . " G o d h a s l i k e w i s e d e s t i n e d
m a n f o r civil s o c i e t y , " t h e P o p e c o n t i n u e s , " a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c
t a t e s of h i s v e r y n a t u r e . I n t h e p l a n of t h e C r e a t o r , s o c i e t y is a
n a t u r a l m e a n s w h i c h m a n can a n d m u s t use to reach his destined
e n d . S o c i e t y is for m a n , n o t m a n f o r s o c i e t y . T h i s m u s t n o t b e
u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e s e n s e of l i b e r a l i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m , w h i c h s u b
o r d i n a t e s s o c i e t y t o t h e selfish u s e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; b u t o n l y in
t h e s e n s e t h a t b y m e a n s of a n o r g a n i c u n i o n w i t h society and b y
m u t u a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n t h e a t t a i n m e n t of e a r t h l y w e l f a r e is p l a c e d
w i t h i n t h e r e a c h of all. F u r t h e r , it is s o c i e t y w h i c h affords t h e
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of all t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i a l
gifts b e s t o w e d on h u m a n n a t u r e . T h e s e n a t u r a l gifts h a v e a value
s u r p a s s i n g t h e i m m e d i a t e i n t e r e s t s of t h e m o m e n t , f o r in s o c i e t y
t h e y reflect the divine perfection, w h i c h would not be true w e r e
m e n t o l i v e a l o n e . B u t o n f i n a l a n a l y s i s , e v e n in t h i s l a t t e r f u n c
t i o n , s o c i e t y is m a d e for m a n , t h a t h e m a y r e c o g n i s e t h i s reflec
t i o n o f G o d ' s p e r f e c t i o n , a n d r e f e r it in p r a i s e a n d a d o r a t i o n t o
t h e C r e a t o r . O n l y m a n a n d n o t s o c i e t y in a n y f o r m is e n d o w e d
w i t h r e a s o n and a free will subject to the moral law.
" On the one hand, m a n c a n n o t be e x e m p t e d from his divinely-
i m p o s e d o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d civil s o c i e t y , a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of
a u t h o r i t y have the r i g h t to coerce him w h e n he refuses without
r e a s o n to d o his d u t y . S o c i e t y , o n the o t h e r hand, c a n n o t defraud
m a n of h i s G o d - g r a n t e d r i g h t s , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of w h i c h W e
h a v e i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , o r m a k e t h e i r u s e i m p o s s i b l e . I t is t h e r e
f o r e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c t a t e s of r e a s o n t h a t all e a r t h l y t h i n g s
s h o u l d b e f o r t h e u s e a n d b e n e f i t of m a n , a n d s o , t h r o u g h h i m ,
b e r e f e r r e d t o t h e C r e a t o r . T h i s a c c o r d s w i t h t h e w o r d s of t h e
A p o s t l e of t h e G e n t i l e s , w h o w r i t e s t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s o n
Christian salvation: ' A l l things are yours, and you are Christ's,
a n d C h r i s t is G o d ' s ' (I C o r . , I l l , 2 3 ) . While Communism im
p o v e r i s h e s h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y b y i n v e r t i n g t h e t e r m s of t h e r e l a
t i o n of m e n t o s o c i e t y , t o w h a t l o f t y h e i g h t s is m a n n o t e l e v a t e d
b y r e a s o n a n d R e v e l a t i o n ! " T h e t e n d e n c y t o t h e p e r v e r s i o n of
o r d e r , c o m m o n t o all s o c i a l i s t s c h e m e s a n d m o d e r n s c h e m e s of
p l a n n e d e c o n o m y , m u s t b e b o r n e in m i n d in all d i s c u s s i o n s o n
monetary reform.
M o n e y , a c c o r d i n g t o S t . T h o m a s , w a s i n v e n t e d b y t h e a r t of
 522 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

m a n f o r t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of e x c h a n g e b y s e r v i n g a s a c o m m o n
2
m e a s u r e of t h i n g s saleable.* * A s a c o m m o n m e a s u r e , it o u g h t t o
b e s t a b l e . " A s a m e a s u r e u s e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e v a l u e of o t h e r
t h i n g s / ' w r i t e s St. T h o m a s , " m o n e y m u s t k e e p the s a m e value,
s i n c e t h e v a l u e of all t h i n g s m u s t b e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of m o n e y .
T h u s e x c h a n g e s can r e a d i l y t a k e p l a c e a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e ,
3
communications between men are faciliated."' ' The Saint had
p r e v i o u s l y r e m a r k e d , in t h e s a m e c h a p t e r of t h e C o m m e n t a r y o n
t h e B l h i c s of A r i s t o t l e , t h a i " it is t h e s a m e w i t h m o n e y a s w i t h
o t h e r things, namely, that one does not always get what one w a n t s
f o r it, b e c a u s e it is n o t a l w a y s e n d o w e d w i t h t h e s a m e p u r c h a s i n g -
p o w e r . . . . B u t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i n g s s h o u l d be so a r r a n g e d t h a t
it s h o u l d b e s t e a d i e r in v a l u e t h a n o l h c r t h i n g s / ' Il m a y n o t
a l w a y s be possible, the Angelic D o c t o r insists, to get the s a m e
a m o u n t of g o o d s for m o n e y . T h i s c a n h a p p e n w i t h o u t i n j u s t i c e
w h e r e s u p p l i e s of g o o d s b e c o m e s c a r c e for s o m e c a u s e o u t s i d e o u r
control, but e v e r y precaution m u s t be taken not to h a v e the
difficulty a r i s e t h r o u g h m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m
itself. W e h a v e s e e n t h a t p l a n n e d d e f l a t i o n s a r e a g a i n s t j u s t i c e .
T h u s m o n e y is essentially an exchange-medium. It is a c l a i m
f o r g o o d s o r s e r v i c e s a d m i t t e d a s a c c e p t a b l e b y t h e a u t h o r i t y of
t h e s o c i e t y in w h i c h it c i r c u l a t e s . S t a b i l i t y in v a l u e is a p r o p e r t y
o r n e c e s s a r y a t t r i b u t e f o l l o w i n g f r o m t h e e s s e n c e of a n e x c h a n g e -
m e d i u m o r a c c e p t e d claim for g o o d s o r services. An exchange-
m e d i u m , w h i c h r e n d e r s p r i c e - s t a b i l i t y i m p o s s i b l e , is o p p o s e d to
j u s t i c e . M o n e y a s a s t a b l e e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m is m e a n t t o facili
t a t e f a m i l i e s in p r o c u r i n g b y e x c h a n g e t h e sufficiency of m a t e r i a l
g o o d s r e q u i r e d for t h e v i r t u o u s life of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t i e s
c o m p o s i n g t h e m . T h e v i r t u o u s life of h u m a n p e r s o n s is s i m p l y
t h e i r o r d e r e d d e v e l o p m e n t a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t .
N o w w e have seen t w o g r e a t evils g r o w i n g apace u n d e r the
g o l d s t a n d a r d regime. T h e first of t h e s e e v i l s h a s b e e n t h e g e n e r a l
i n s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e - l e v e l s in all c o u n t r i e s . This h a s led to the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of w e a l t h a n d p o w e r in t h e h a n d s of t h e r e l a t i v e l y
4
f e w a n d t o h a r a s s i n g i n s e c u r i t y in t h e l i v e s of t h e m a n y / ' The
s e c o n d of t h e s e evils h a s b e e n t h e g r a d u a l g r o w t h of c o n t r o l o v e r
g o v e r n m e n t s by t h e m a n i p u l a t o r s of c r e d i t m o n e y . A s e x a m p l e s
o f t h i s s e c o n d evil, w e h a v e s e e n t h a t P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n of t h e
(2) l a I l a e , Q . 2 , a. 1, c.
Coaunent. in Ethic,, L i b . V , L e t t . I X .
<4> Wc have a l r e a d y quoted Mr. Geoffrey Orowther to the effect t h a t
" the p u r s u i t of p r i c e - s t a b i l i t y is not c o m p a t i b l e with the m a i n t e n a n c e
of the t i o k l Nfaittlard " (An Outline of J/our.;/, p. :*5G). We have seen
besides t h a t th<; urge to get interest on d e b t , which is behind the alter
n a t e booms a n d slumps, h a s led n o t o n l y to u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d s t a r v a
t i o n in every c o u n t r y but to s o m e t h i n g of a deadlock i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
t r a d e , coupled with the d e s t r u c t i o n of food, the lessening of p r o d u c t i o n
a n d the u r g e t o war.
 MONETARY REFORM 523

U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n f e s s e d t h a t s o v e r e i g n p o w e r w a s n o t in h i s
h a n d s ; a n d t h a t M r . T h o m a s J o h n s t o n . M . P . , L o r d P r i v y Seal in
t h e E n g l i s h L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t in 1031, a n d t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s
of t h e B r i t i s h C a b i n e t w e r e c o m p e l l e d t o w a i t h u m b l y for a final
d e c i s i o n f r o m t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B a n k of N'cw Y o r k in r e g a r d
to u n e m p l o y m e n t benefit. It m u s t b e b o r n e in m i n d a l s o t h a t t h e
financial forces which control the Central Banks represented at
t h e B a n k f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s t w e n t y - s i x of t h e m w e r e
f o u n d e d a f t e r t h e 1914-1918 w a r m e a n t o r e t a i n t h e i r p o w e r a f t e r
the present w a r (1939-?). M r . P a u l E i n z i g , in his b o o k
Montagu Norman, a Study in Financial Statesmanship, published
in 1932, i n f o r m s us t h a t " a c o n d i t i o n o n w h i c h M r . N o r m a n a n d
his c o l l a b o r a t o r s insisted w a s thai the Central Banks should be
i n d e p e n d e n t of" t h e i r G o v e r n m e n t s / * H e even adds that " t h e y
i n s i s t e d r a t h e r d o g m a t i c a l l y " o n t h i s . F r o m a q u e s t i o n a s k e d in
t h e B r i t i s h M o u s e of C o m m o n s , w e l e a r n t h a t in t h e R e p o r t of t h e
B a n k f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s , d a t e d 2 7 t h M a y , 1940, t h e
n a m e s of M r . M o n t a g u N o r m a n , G o v e r n o r of t h e B a n k of K n g
l a n d , a n d D r . F u n k , G e r m a n E c o n o m i c M i n i s t e r , f i g u r e o n t h e list
of d i r e c t o r s . E v i d e n t l y t h e B a n k for I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s is
m e a n t t o s u r v i v e t h e p r e s e n t conflict. T h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e Bank-
is f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d w e k n o w t h e p o w e r t h a t is in t h e
h a n d s of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e H o a r d , o w i n g t o t h e e n o r m o u s
q u a n t i t y of g o l d b u r i e d in K e n t u c k y . A t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n
f e r e n c e h e l d in G e n o a in 1922 it w a s r e s o l v e d t h a t " . B a n k s a n d
e s p e c i a l l y b a n k s of i s s u e ( c e n t r a l b a n k s ) s h o u l d be f r e e f r o m
p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e , a n d s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d s o l e l y o n l i n e s of p r u d - .
ent finance." A g a i n , a t t h e W o r l d E c o n o m i c C o n f e r e n c e h e l d in
L o n d o n in 1934, it w a s r e s o l v e d t h a t it w a s e s s e n t i a l , in o r d e r t o
provide an international gold standard with the necessary mechan
ism for satisfactory w o r k i n g , t h a t independent central banks w i t h
the requisite powers and freedom to carry out an appropriate cur
r e n c y a n d c r e d i t p o l i c y s h o u l d b e c r e a t e d in s u c h d e v e l o p e d c o u n
t r i e s a s h a d n o t a t p r e s e n t an a d e q u a t e c e n t r a l b a n k i n g i n s t i t u
5
tion/ '

NATIONAL MONETARY REFORM,

(a) ABANDONMENT OF T H E DOMESTIC GOLD STANDARD.
F r o m w h a t w e h a v e s e e n of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e D o m e s t i c
G o l d S t a n d a r d , it will b e e v i d e n t t h a t it is o p p o s e d t o t h e C o m m o n
G o o d to h a v e t h e v o l u m e of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m in a c o u n t r y p r o
p o r t i o n e d , n o t to t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e c o u n t r y ' s p o t e n t i a l p r o
d u c t i v i t y , b u t l o t h e a m o u n t of g o l d t h a t m a y h a p p e n t o be in I h e
country. " T h e a u r a of s e c u r i t y t h a t still h a n g s a b o u t g o l d / '

(5) Cf. Minority Report No. Ill of the Irish Banking Commission,
by M r . P . J . C L o g h l e n , p . 26.
 .524 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

writes Mr. Geoffrey Crowther, " is, in fact, the only remaining
sound or semi-sound argument left for the Domestic Gold Stand
ard. In France and America there would probably be anxious dis
trust in the national currencies, if they were not known to be
* backed by gold/ Jn England, we already have a more rational
approach. As has already been pointed out, the gold backing of
the Bank of England's notes has been reduced virtually to
nothing, and the whole gold reserve has been concentrated in the
Exchange Equalization Account, where it is available for export
but not a s currency backing. The ordinary man is probably not
yet aware that this has happened, but after a few years it will be
accepted by the public that money does not need either to be gold
or to be backed by gold in order to be good money. When that
time comes, the Domestic Gold Standard will have died a natural
,,(r,)
death without its demise having done anybody harm. About
this first point of reform there will be no difficulty.
(b) ISSUING OF LAWFUL EXCHANGE-MEDIUM BY STATE.

Great evils have resulted from the functioning of the gold

standard and the control of the exchange-medium of countries by
private individuals. To remedy these evils in a manner fully in
accordance with the political and economic principles of S t
Thomas, three points must be emphasized. The first point o* ic-
form is that the creation or.issuing of exchange-medium must be
71
taken o u t of private hands/ The issuing of claims to goods and
services valid and acceptable t o all the citizens of a country is by
right the prerogative of the authority exercising jurisdiction over
the whole country. This is clearly seen by the fact that additional
credit-money issued or loaned into existence, if it does not Jhappen
to coincide w i t h a proportional increase of g o o d s for sale, " will
rai.se prices and make the value of everybody's money in the
country worth less in goods, so repudiating part of the nation's
81
debt in goods and services t o the owners of money."' To put
(6) An Outline of Money, >p. 333.
(7) The ihree p o i n t * ^'hh-h will ho developed under (h), (c) and (d),
are taken from Money Creators (Chapters XII and XVII), by Miss
G. M. Coogan, I n his Foreword to this hook, Mr; Robert L. Owen
says that /* it contains scientific truthsnot quackery." Mr. Owen's
standi no: in the banking world has already been referred to.
(8) The Role of Money, by Professor Soddy (p. 91). The private
creators of exohan^o-medhim are not concerned about the alterations of
the price-level. Their-preoccupation is with interest on money. " Pro
fessor Soddy is very insistent that . . .*. the banks by the issue of new
money to themselves or their borrowers actually enforce a direct levy
in kind on the wealth-on-salc of the community (i.e., on all there is
for sale) . . . . Anyone can see that this is the case when a counterfeit
note is put in circulation, but the forced levy on the wealth-on-sale ia
just the same -whoever creates the new money " (The Root of Ml Evil,
b y Sir Reginald Rowe, p . 59).
 MONETARY REFORM 525

this a n o t h e r w a y , w h o e v e r originates the exchange-medium must,

b y t h e v e r y n a t u r e of m o n e y o r e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m o b t a i n s o m e
t h i n g for n o t h i n g , t h a t is, h e m u s t obtain t h e original purchasing-
p o w e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e S t a t e , a t a trifling cost. Again, w h o e v e r
has t h e p o w e r to issue the e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m controls the volume
of i t . A r b i t r a r y c h a n g e s i n t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y c a u s e p r i c e s t o
r i s e o r t o fall. W h o e v e r o r i g i n a t e s a n d c o n t r o l s t h e v o l u m e o f
m o n e y thus controls every single economic operation. I f a p r i
v a t e g r o u p exercises t h e p o w e r to o r i g i n a t e the e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m
a n d t h e n m a n i p u l a t e s t h e v o l u m e of it, t h a t g r o u p b e c o m e s a
p o w e r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e g o v e r n m e n t itself. Tt b e c o m e s a s u p e r -
g o v e r n m e n t , p a r a l y s i n g t h e e f f o r t s of t h e l a w f u l g o v e r n m e n t f o r
t h e C o m m o n G o o d . I t is p e r f e c t l y idle t o t a l k a b o u t a D e m o c r a c y
o r a R e p u b l i c , w h e n t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r is r e a l l y b e i n g e x e r c i s e d
( 9 )
by an invisible s u p e r - g r o u p . In his excellent book from which
1 h a v e a l r e a d y q u o t e d , v i z . , Economic Tribulation, M r . V . C.
V i c k e r s points o u t this t r u t h a n d its consequence. " T h r o u g h o u r
o w n base carelessness and ignorance," he writes, " w e have per
m i t t e d t h e m o n e y i n d u s t r y , b y t h e v e r y v i r t u e of i t s business,,
g r a d u a l l y t o a t t a i n a p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c influence s o w i d e a n d
p o w e r f u l t h a t i t h a s a c t u a l l y u n d e r m i n e d t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e S t a t e
a n d u s u r p e d t h e p o w e r of d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t . . . . T h i s
n a t i o n a l a n d m a i n l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i c t a t o r s h i p of m o n e y , w h i c h
p l a y s off o n e c o u n t r y a g a i n s t a n o t h e r a n d w h i c h , t h r o u g h t h e o w n
e r s h i p of a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e P r e s s , c o n v e r t s t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t
of i t s o w n p r i v a t e o p i n i o n i n t o t h e s e m b l a n c e of g e n e r a l p u b l i c
opinion, cannot for m u c h longer be p e r m i t t e d to render Democra
t i c G o v e r n m e n t a m e r e n i c k n a m e . . . . T h e finance i n d u s t r y , t h e
e x c h a n g e b a n k e r s and the Stock E x c h a n g e g r o w rich upon t h e
u p s a n d d o w n s of T r a d e , a n d a r e l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t o n v a r i a t i o n s
a n d c h a n g e s of t h e p r i c e l e v e l s of c o m m o d i t i e s . B u t p r o d u c t i v e
i n d u s t r y g r o w s r i c h u p o n s t a b l e m a r k e t s , a c o n s t a n t p r i c e level,
a n d t h e a b s e n c e of v i o l e n t e c o n o m i c f l u c t u a t i o n s . . . . U n d e r s u c h
g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e C o m m u n i s t is n a t u r a l l y c o n t e n t t o a b i d e h i s
t i m e ; f o r h e o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e t r e n d of affairs is s l o w l y c o n v e r g i n g
t o w a r d s the v e r y conditions he m o s t desires to seea g r o w i n g
d i s c o n t e n t w i t h finance a n d t h e m o n e y s y s t e m , a n i n c r e a s i n g
w e a r i n e s s of t h e p r e s e n t f o r m of p a r t y g o v e r n m e n t , a n d a n i n -
c r e a s i n g p o v e r t y a n d l o s s of i n f l u e n c e a m o n g t h o s e w h o h a v e s o
r e c e n t l y b e e n t h e m a i n s t a y a n d b a c k b o n e of t h e c o u n t r y / *

O) " We have always m a i n t a i n e d t h a t the foreign policy of ihN

c o u n t r y where i t came i n t o touch with exceptional e x p e n d i t u r e u p o n
i n t e r n a t i o n a l actionnotably i n connection with English armament
. . . . d e p e n d e d upon the decision . . . . of the B a n k o f E n g l a n d imp-
p o r t e d by t h e i r financial allies beyond the A t l a n t i c . . . . They W I M V
c e r t a i n l y opposed to an a d e q u a t e a r m v {The Wr.eihj Jit rieu\ Oct.
17, 1040).
526 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

As n a t i o n s h a v e to s t r u g g l e to m a i n t a i n their n a t i o n a l sov
e r e i g n t y a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a n i p u l a t o r s of m o n e y , t h e
s o v e r e i g n a u t h o r i t y in t h e n a t i o n m u s t t a k e o v e r t h e creation of
t h e e n t i r e m e d i u m of e x c h a n g e , c o n s i s t i n g of t h e l a w f u l , p h y s i c a l
o r t a n g i b l e m o n e y of t h e c o u n t r y . P r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s e n g a g e d in
f i n a n c e c a n n o t be e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e s t r u g g l e t o s a f e g u a r d
national sovereignty against " the deadly and detestable inter
n a t i o n a l I m p e r i a l i s m of m o n e y / ' t o u s e t h e w o r d s of P o p e P i u s
X I . n o ) T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s i n c e b a n k e r s in e v e r y c o u n
try have a l r e a d y s u c c u m b e d to its rule and a r e a c c u s t o m e d to look
u p o n t h e t r e n d s f a v o u r e d b y it a s i n d i c a t i v e of t h e t r u e l i n e of
p r o g r e s s for t h e w o r l d . T h e y h a v e h i t h e r t o c o n s p i c u o u s l y failed
t o p r a c t i s e t h e v i r t u e of g e n e r a l o r l e g a l j u s t i c e .
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e e n t i r e m e d i u m of e x c h a n g e , consisting of the
lawful money of each country, s h o u l d be paid i n t o use by the
S o v e r e i g n P o w e r in t h e c o u n t r y . No private promises-to-pay
should be a l l o w e d to c i r c u l a t e as legal t e n d e r , b u t s h o u l d be s u b
jected to t h e penalties a p p l y i n g to c o u n t e r f e i t m o n e y . T h e m o n e y
created and paid into use by the S o v e r e i g n P o w e r should be non-
intcrest-bearing at the source and non-cancellable, except by re
c a l l i n g it t h r o u g h t a x a t i o n . It s h o u l d n o t b e b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t
e n c e a s a l o a n . T h e w h o l e a m o u n t of n e w m o n e y i s s u e d s h o u l d
lie p a i d i n t o c i r c u l a t i o n t o d e f r a y l e g i t i m a t e g o v e r n m e n t e x p e n s e s
o r t o p a y off e x i s t i n g g o v e r n m e n t d e b t . T h e p e o p l e , a s a w h o l e ,
w o u l d t h u s s h a r e t h e b e n e f i t s a n d t h e a d v a n t a g e s i n v o l v e d in a
c h a n g e in t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y in e x i s t e n c e in a n a t i o n . " By
p l a v i n g t h i s first b u y i n g p o w e r in t h e h a n d s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t ,
t h e b e n e f i t s fall t o all t h e p e o p l e , for b y w h a t e v e r a m o u n t t h e n e w
m o n e y is i s s u e d , t a x c o l l e c t i o n s m a y b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y r e d u c e d .
T h i s s t a t e m e n t can b e t w i s t e d i n t o t h e t h o u g h t t h a t t a x e s c a n be
a b o l i s h e d b y m e r e l y i s s u i n g m o n e y ad infinitum. T h i s is fallaci
o u s , for n e w m o n e y s h o u l d be paid i n t o u s e ^ c i r c u l a t i o n ) o n l y as
the total stock of c o n s u m e r g o o d s t h e things t h e people have
p r o d u c e d a n d n e e d in c i v i l i z a t i o n - h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d b y e x p a n d e d
11
p r o d u c t i o n . " * * B e s i d e s , it s e e m s o p p o s e d l o t h e d i g n i t y of h u m a n
p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t t h e i s s u i n g of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m n e c e s s a r y for t h e
C o m m o n G o o d s h o u l d p l a c e s o m e in a p o s i t i o n of i n f e r i o r i t y , as
h a p p e n s w h e n m o n e y is loaned i n t o e x i s t e n c e . A s w e shall p r e
s e n t l y s e e , t h e S o v e r e i g n P o w e r in t h e S t a t e s h o u l d n o t e n g a g e in
lending money.

(io T h e P o p e ' s words in the Encyclical Letter, Quadragesimo Anno,

(
a r c : " funcstus et e x s e c r a n d u s rei n u m m a r i a e internalionalismus '
sou ' i m p e r i a l i s m s i n t e r n a l i o n a l i s ' cui, ubi hene, ibi p a t r i a e s t / '
This I n t e r n a t i o n a l I m p e r i a l i s m " will tend to e l i m i n a t e all t h a t is
enshrined in the Cuiholic concent of " p a t r i a / ' This end coincides
with t h a t of M a r x ' s d i c t u m : " Workmen have no c o u n t r y . "
U i ) Money Creators, by Miss G. M. Coogan, p. 333. "
 MONETARY REFORM 527

(c) LENDING OF L A W F U L EXCHANGE-MEDIUM BY

BANKING GUILD.

T h e creation of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m , t h e n , s h o u l d be w i t h d r a w n
from private individuals. It should be reserved to the National
G o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h e lending of m o n e y should be c o m p l e t e l y
divorced from money origination. T h i s is t h e s e c o n d p o i n t of
m o n e t a r y r e f o r m . T h e lending of t h e l a w f u l m o n e y i s s u e d b y t h e
g o v e r n m e n t a l m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d n o t be c a r r i e d o u t b y
t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t y , b u t by p r i v a t e l y - o w n e d
C o r p o r a t i o n s e r e c t e d i n t o a G u i l d a n d f u n c t i o n i n g u n d e r a Guild
C h a r t e r . L e t u s t a k e t h e s e t w o p r o p o s a l s in t u r n .
" T h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s t h i n g t h a t c o u l d be d o n e w o u l d be t o
p l a c e t h e m e r c h a n d i s i n g of m o n e y in t h e h a n d s of t h e N a t i o n a l
Government. Such a step would give the internationalists their
final w e a p o n to d e s t r o y t h e p r o p e r t y a n d p e r s o n a l r i g h t s of loyal
n 2 )
citizens." G o v e r n m e n t in t h e l e n d i n g b u s i n e s s is t h e e s s e n c e
of S o c i a l i s m o r C o m m u n i s m . F o r a g o v e r n m e n t t o c r e a t e m o n e y
a s loans is e v e n m o r e v i c i o u s t h a n for p r i v a t e b a n k s to c r e a t e
m o n e y a s l o a n s ; for, in t h e c a s e of p r i v a t e b a n k s , a r b i t r a r y d i s
c r i m i n a t i o n is n o t t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v e in d e n y i n g l o a n s . N o p r i
v a t e b u s i n e s s can l o n g e n d u r e if t h e G o v e r n m e n t e n g a g e s in t h e
l e n d i n g of m o n e y , e v e n m o n e y c r e a t e d b y itself, o r d e t e r m i n e s
w h a t b u s i n e s s e s m a y a c q u i r e s a v i n g s f r o m t h e p e o p l e in r e t u r n
f o r p a r t o w n e r s h i p . T h i s s e e m s t o b e . a g r a v e d e f e c t in t h e G e r
m a n b a n k i n g s y s t e m , e v e n t h o u g h t h e fallacy o f m a k i n g t h e
v o l u m e of e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m o f a c o u n t r y d e p e n d on t h e a m o u n t
of g o l d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a s b e e n d e c i s i v e l y
s h o w n up in t h a t c o u n t r y . It is q u i t e t r u e t h a t t h e v o l u m e of
e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m o u g h t to be p r o p o r t i o n e d to the d e v e l o p m e n t of
a c o u n t r y ' s p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y , n o t t o t h e a m o u n t o f g o l d in i t s
C e n t r a l Hank. l>ut t h e G e r m a n financial s y s t e m a s a w h o l e , in
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the r a c e - th c o r v, will t end l o (lis r e g a r d h u m a n
p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e U e i c h s b a n k c r e a t e s b a n k credii a s loans to t h e
G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t , a n d the G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t allows this
n e w b a n k c r e d i t to r e a c h t h e c h a n n e l s of t r a d e by g r a n t i n g loans
of it t o w h a t e v e r b u s i n e s s e s it a r b i t r a r i l y c h o o s e s . This means
t h a t t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t is determining what businesses may
o r m a y n o t b o r r o w . S u c h a c t s of a g o v e r n m e n t a l l o w it to aid
t h e b u s i n e s s e s it c h o o s e s via granting loans, a n d d e s t r o y t h o s e it
c h o o s e s t h r o u g h denial of loans. This m e t h o d d e s t r o y s the indi
v i d u a l p e r s o n ' s r i g h t ' t o t h e d i s p o s a l of h i s o w n e a r n i n g s a n d t h e
i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n t o o w n , u s e a n d c o n t r o l h o n
estly acquired private p r o p e r t y . As has already been r e m a r k e d ,
t h e h u m a n b e i n g is t h u s in d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g a m e r e individual

"2) Op. c i t , p. 334.

 528 T H E MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST
m
a t t h e m e r c y of t h e S t a t e . H e is n o t b e i n g t r e a t e d a s a personS
W i t h r e g a r d to t h e s e c o n d p r o p o s a l , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e l e n d i n g
of m o n e y s h o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t b y p r i v a t e l y - o w n e d C o r p o r a t i o n s ,
" e a c h of t h e e x i s t i n g b a n k s s h o u l d be d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s e p a r a t e
i n s t i t u t i o n s o r a t l e a s t i n t o d e p a r t m e n t s of t h e o r i g i n a l b a n k . T h e
first s e t w o u l d b e girobanksAW The Americans designate them
' c h e c k b a n k s / , 'All banks c a r r y i n g deposits subject to check
w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o t r e a t t h e s e d e p o s i t s a s t r u s t - f u n d s of m o n e y
h e l d f o r t h e d e p o s i t o r s . . . . A full 100 p e r c e n t , r e s e r v e h a s t h e
s t a t u s of a t r u s t - f u n d t h e r e a l o w n e r s of w h i c h a r e t h e d e p o s i -
1 5 )
tors/< . . . . T h u s b a n k - d e p o s i t s w o u l d once m o r e b e c o m e real
deposits e n t r u s t e d t o t h e b a n k e r a n d w i t h d r a w a b l e o n d e m a n d .
N o i n t e r e s t w o u l d of c o u r s e b e p a i d o n t h e m ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e
d e p o s i t o r s w o u l d h a v e to p a y t h e b a n k for its b o o k - k e e p i n g ser
vice in a r r a n g i n g for t r a n s f e r s b y c h e q u e . . . . In a d d i t i o n to

13 ((
< > Miss Coogan wrote as follows in 1937: If the G o v e r n m e n t
controls the l e n d i n g of money, i t can d e t e r m i n e who m a y or who may
n o t borrow money, a n d hence, can c o n t r o l e v e r y single business in the
c o u n t r y . C o n t r o l l i n g every business m e a n s c o n t r o l l i n g every economic
a c t i v i t y ; control of every economic a c t i v i t y gives power to control also
the c u l t u r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l activities of the citizen. L e n i n recommended
G o v e r n m e n t o r i g i n a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l of the l e n d i n g of the m e d i u m for
exchange. Unless the power to o r i g i n a t e money is r e t u r n e d t o sover
e i g n t y a n d scientifically exercised, a n d l e n d i n g is restricted exclusively
t o p r i v a t e , i n d e p e n d e n t , S t a t e - c h a r t e r e d c o r p o r a t i o n s , i t is n o t h i n g
s h o r t of childish p r a t t l e t o t a l k a b o u t p r e v e n t i n g the onrusTi of Social
ism, C o m m u n i s m , o r whatever n a m e one w a n t s to use to d e s i g n a t e an
1
a n t i - C h r i s t i a n S t a t e , in which all b u t the * chosen few a r e hopeless
slaves."
<i<) A G i r o b a n k is a bank in which the money (coins or bullion in
the early d a y s ) r e m a i n s the p r o p e r t y of the customers or members, t h u s
being a depositum in the s t r i c t sense, the b a n k e r being a c u s t o d i a n or
bailee. The owners c a n w i t h d r a w the money a n d the o w n e r s h i p of it
c a n also be^ t r a n s f e r r e d by written o r d e r s . Hence, when the c l a i m s are
c i r c u l a t e d from one to another, they a r e said to make a g i r o (a circuit
or t u r n ) from h a n d to h a n d .

tion still siib.sisls in modern banksin the p l a t e , jewellery, securities

ion .still
ettc kept m a b a n k e r s safe or strong-room. N o w a d a y s 'a deposit is
th(
h. l i a b i l i t y of the banker [ p a y a sum on d e m a n d , a r i - h t of action
whi
dnch he has creafed a g a i n * himself in order to purchase an asset or
countei-claim. U i s not, a depo^tuw. it N not the cash in reserve.
i t is not some t h i n g or some v a l u e e n t r u s t e d to Ihe h a n k e r as bailee.
Even if the customer lodges legal tender, t h i s is not a de positum but
what in L a t i n is called a vnituuni, i.e., a loan . . . . A ' d e p o s i t ' n o
longer menns a tleposihnn hut a d e b t . " Cf. Mfwe'i/, by Professor
OMlahiUy, VP- 57. 48, 40, 70.
ns) I r v i n g F i s h e r , 100% Monet/, 2nd Ed. (1936).
 MONETARY REFORM 529

g i r o b a n k s t h e r e w o u l d b e l o a n - b a n k s b u t n o t s o l i m i t e d in t h e i r
s c o p e , fur l e n d i n g o r i n v e s t i n g . M o w w o u l d t h e s e n e w s a v i n g s -
b a n k s g e t m o n e y lo l e n d ? F r o m their o w n m o n e y ( c a p i t a l ) , from
the m o n e y received from c u s t o m e r s ( s a v i n g s a c c o u n t s ) , from the
m o n e y r e p a i d on m a t u r i n g l o a n s . . ' T h e only new limitation
on b a n k - l o a n s w o u l d b e a w h o l e s o m e o n e , n a m e l y , t h a t n o m o n e y
c o u l d b e l e n t u n l e s s t h e r e w a s m o n e y t o l e n d . T h a t is, t h e b a n k s
c o u l d n o l o n g e r o v e r l e n d b y m a n u f a c t u r i n g m o n e y o u t of thin
a i r s o a s t o c a u s e i n f l a t i o n a n d a b o o m . . . . U n d e r t h e 100 p e r
c e n t , s y s t e m , b a n k s w o u l d m a k e l o a n s j u s t like a n y b o d y else,
e i t h e r o u t of t h e i r o w n s a v i n g s o r o u t of s o m e b o d y e l s e ' s , p r e
c i s e l y a s t h e e a r l i e s t l e n d i n g b a n k s did b e f o r e t h e y w e r e p e r v e r t e d
by s o m e b o d y ' s ' b r i g h t i d e a ' to lend o t h e r people's m o n e y while
still l e t t i n g t h e s e o t h e r p e o p l e t h i n k t h e y h a d t h a t m o n e y t o u s e
( 1 G >
as m o n e y . '
" It m u s t be distinctly u n d e r s t o o d t h a t this s c h e m e does not
i n v o l v e t h e n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of b a n k i n g . T h e r e a r e t h r e e f u n c t i o n s
i n v o l v e d : ( 1 ) T h e i s s u e a n d c a n c e l l a t i o n of m o n e y , w h i c h p e r t a i n
to t h e c o m m u n i t y . H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e b a n k s have m a n a g e d to a n n e x
t h i s m o n e t a r y f u n c t i o n , w h i c h t h e ' 100 p e r c e n t . ' p l a n p r o p o s e s t o
r e s t o r e t o t h e S t a t e ; ( 2 ) T h e t r a n s f e r of m o n e y - c l a i m s Ivy b o o k -
entries. Historically this giro-function was a service provided by
t h e S t a t e o r b y t h e C i t y : b u t it is p r o p o s e d t o a l l o w p r i v a t e i n s t i
t u t i o n s t o c o n d u c t it if t h e y w i s h ; ( 3 ) M o n e y - l e n d i n g . As I
a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d , t h e b a n k e r of t o - d a y w o u l d be i n s u l t e d if y o u
c a l l e d h i m a m o n e y - l e n d e r ! B u t , a p a r t f r o m t h e s a f e - k e e p i n g of
v a l u a b l e s a n d t h e c u s t o d y of a f u n d ( t r a n s f e r a b l e b y g i r o ) t h i s
is r e a l l y t h e o n l y s t r i c t l y b a n k i n g f u n c t i o n . It is not p r o p o s e d t o
n a t i o n a l i s e t h i s . ' T h e 100 p e r c e n t , s y s t e m w o u l d i n v o l v e o n l y a
n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of t h e monetary function n o w usurped by the
b a n k s , n o t a g e n e r a l n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of b a n k i n g . . . . S o f a r f r o m
n a t i o n a l i s i n g t h e b a n k s , t h e 100 p e r c e n t , s y s t e m m i g h t afford t h e
banks the only escape from nationalisation. F o r if in a n o t h e r
decade w e should h a v e a n o t h e r depression like the one w e have
j u s t b e e n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h , t h e b a n k s w o u l d p r o b a b l y find t h e m
s e l v e s p e r m a n e n t l y in t h e h a n d s of t h e G o v e r n m e n t . J t w o u l d
be b e t t e r f o r t h e b a n k s t o g i v e u p g r a c e f u l l y t h e i r u s u r p e d f u n c
tion of m i n t i n g m o n e y i n t h e f o r m of b a n k - n o t e s a n d be
content to conduct their strictly banking business, unmolested and
u n i n t e r f c r e d w i t h b y b o o m s a n d d e p r e s s i o n s s o l a r g e l y of t h e i r
o w n m a k i n g . T h e 100 p e r c e n t , s y s t e m w o u l d afford p r o t e c t i o n
b o t h w a y s : for it w o u l d a l s o s a f e g u a r d t h e G o v e r n m e n t a g a i n s t
t h e d o m i n a t i o n of t h e b a n k s . . . . W e m u s t d e n o u n c e t h e n o t i o n
t h a t b a n k e r s , b e c a u s e t h e y d e a l in m o n e y , h a v e a n y r i g h t w h a t
ever to control money, to m a n u f a c t u r e and destroy money and

<1G) Op. cit.. p p . 17, 92.

NN
 530 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

s o t o l o w e r o r r a i s e t h e v a l u e of t h e m o n e t a r y u n i t of o u r
n a t i o n / "(W
M r . A. X . Field g i v e s an e x c e l l e n t a c c o u n t of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g
of h a n k i n g u n d e r t h i s s y s t e m . " Flanking business," he writes,
" w o u l d be d i v i d e d i n t o t w o d e p a r t m e n t s : ( 1 ) a c h e q u e - a c c o u n t
d e p a r t m e n t , a n d ( 2 ) a l o a n s d e p a r t m e n t . A b o r r o w e r w o u l d in
terview the loans d e p a r t m e n t , and on depositing his collateral,
w o u l d b e g i v e n a l o a n of a n a g r e e d a m o u n t for a n a g r e e d p e r i o d .
T h e m o n e y l o a n e d w o u l d b e p a i d o v e r in a c t u a l ' c a s h b y t h e loans
d e p a r t m e n t t o t h e c r e d i t of t h e c u s t o m e r ' s a c c o u n t in ( h e c h e q u e -
account department. All c h e q u e a c c o u n t s w o u l d t h u s b e c r e d i t
a c c o u n t s , w i t h a c t u a l c a s h in h a n d in t h e b a n k . T h e cheque
d e p a r t m e n t w o u l d be on a t r u s t - a c c o u n t b a s i s , w i t h e v e r y t h i n g
fully c o v e r e d . I t s i n c o m e w o u l d b e d e r i v e d b y c h a r g i n g a fee to
c u s t o m e r s , v a r y i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a m o u n t of w o r k i n v o l v e d in
k e e p i n g t h e i r a c c o u n t s . T h e d e p a r t m e n t w o u l d t h u s s t a n d o n its
o w n feet a s a b u s i n e s s p r o p o s i t i o n . T h e l o a n s d e p a r t m e n t w o u l d
r e c e i v e m o n e y o n fixed d e p o s i t s , m a k e a d v a n c e s t o c u s t o m e r s ,
d i s c o u n t bills, a n d s o o n . F r o m t h e c u s t o m e r ' s p o i n t of v i e w , the
c h i e f c h a n g e w o u l d be t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e o v e r d r a f t s y s
t e m . " * >>
In d r a w i n g u p t h e C h a r t e r for t h e B a n k i n g G u i l d o r C o r p o r
ation, p a r t i c u l a r care must be t a k e n t h a t the needed exchange-
m e d i u m b e r e a d i l y o b t a i n a b l e b y t h o s e e n g a g e d in a g r i c u l t u r e .
T h e y s u p p l y t h e p r i m a r y n e c e s s i t i e s of b o d i l y life a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
t h e y m u s t h a v e t h e p r e f e r e n c e o v e r t h o s e w h o s u p p l y a r t i c l e s of
s e c o n d a r y utility or l u x u r y articles. W e h a v e seen h o w the pre
s e n t r e v e r s a l of o r d e r , by w h j c h m e n a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d l o p r o
d u c t i o n , a n d p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n t o the
m a n i p u l a t i o n of finance, h a s t o l d h e a v i l y a g a i n s t a g r i c u l t u r e with
i t s s l o w e r r h y t h m . T h e evil m u s t b e u n d o n e : m o n e y m u s t be
b r o u g h t i n t o o r d e r . " T h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s of f a r m i n g a r c
g o v e r n e d by N a t u r e V L a w s a n d n o t by o u r o w n : s e e d t i m e s and
h a r v e s t , the period needed to p r o d u c e an a n i m a l , t h e a g e a t which
a c o w can begin to give m i l k t h e s e a n d m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s which
s e t t h e p a c e of f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e o u t of o u r c o n t r o l . T h e
u n i t of l i m e is n o t t h e d a y o r .the w e e k , b u t t h e y e a r ; s o m e t i m e s
i n d e e d it is l o n g e r , a n d c o v e r s t h e w h o l e p e r i o d of t h e r o t a t i o n .
. . . F r o m a b o u t 1880 o m v a n l s t h e o p e n i n g u p of t h e N o r t h
A m e r i c a n p r a i r i e s led to (he p r o d u c t i o n of q u a n t i t i e s of w h e a t
w h i c h w a s sold h e r e at p r i c e s f a r b e l o w t h o s e a t w h i c h o u r f a r m
e r s c o u l d p r o d u c e it. P u b l i c o p i n i o n w a s e n t i r e l y a g a i n s t the
i m p o s i t i o n of a n y tariff o n food, a n d f a n n e r s b o t h o n t h e p r a i r i e s
a n d at h o m e w e r e left t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m a s b e s t t h e y could.
U7) I r v i n g Fisher, op. cit., p p . -201, 203, 213. Th whole quotation is
from Afonej/, by Professor O ' K a h i l l y , p p . 3b0-351.
(18) The Truth ahovt Nrw Zealand, p p . 147, J-Jfl.
 MONETARY REFORM 531

T h e prairie farmers suffered and had to accept a very low standard

1
of living a n d t o a d o p t m e t h o d s w h i c h l e d u l t i m a t e l y t o t e r r i b l e
d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e soil. T h e h o m e f a r m e r s s u f f e r e d e q u a l l y ; m a n y
1 9 1
w e n t u n d e r , a n d t h e r e w a s g r e a t d i s t r e s s in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e / ' *
" A S t a t e is c o m p o s e d of t w o e l e m e n t s / ' w r i t e s M r . A. N .
Field, " the nation and the territory, and a p r i m a r y object . . . .
is t o s e c u r e t h e n a t i o n i n p o s s e s s i o n of i t s t e r r i t o r y . T h i s r e q u i r e s
protection against e x t e r n a l d a n g e r s ; and, the nation being com
p o s e d of f a m i l i e s , i t f u r t h e r r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s e f a m i l i e s shall b e
s e c u r e in p o s s e s s i o n of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o r t i o n s of t h e n a t i o n ' s
territory. If a n y t h i r d a g e n c y h a s p o w e r to s e p a r a t e t h e p e o p l e
of t h e S t a t e f r o m o c c u p a t i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e S t a t e t h e
w h o l e s t r u c t u r e is i m p e r i l l e d . U n d e r t h e m o r t g a g e s y s t e m e v e r y
p e r i o d of l o w p r i c e s m a k e s t h e h o l d of t h e p e o p l e o n t h e i r h o m e s
and farms very precarious, producing discontent and unrest, and,
if r e a c h i n g a c e r t a i n p o i n t , a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n . O u r o w n
[ N e w Z e a l a n d ] local h i s t o r y s h o w s t h a t depressions t h r o w the
p e o p l e i n t o t h e a r m s of t h e S o c i a l i s t s , a n d p r o s p e r i t y s w i n g s t h e m
t o C o n s e r v a t i s m : a f a c t w h i c h s p e a k s f o r itself. A s t a b l e p r i c e -
l e v e l is t h u s a first n e c e s s i t y of n a t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y , a m a t t e r o n
w h i c h m o r e w i l l be s a i d l a t e r .
" T h e r e are several o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s however. A State can
n o t b e in a h e a l t h y c o n d i t i o n if i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l
w e a l t h is s w a l l o w e d u p b y i n f l a t e d l a u d v a l u e s : t h i s is i n e v i t a b l e
w h e n l a n d is o n a c o m m o d i t y b a s i s . N o r is a S t a t e in a s o u n d
position w h e n p r i v a t e p e r s o n s can d e t a c h its citizens from occu
p a t i o n of t h e soil. T h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e w a y t o m e e t t h e first of
t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s is t o d e m o n e t i s e l a n d . T h i s can be sufficiently
a c h i e v e d for practical p u r p o s e s by r e c o g n i s i n g e x i s t i n g m o n e t a r y
2 0 1
values, but checking their future g r o w t h / . . . . T a k e n on ihe
w h o l e , f a r m i n g [in X e w Z e a l a n d | h a s n o w b e e n r e d u c e d l a r g e l y
t o t e n a n c y u n d e r t h e m o n e y - l e n d e r s . At t h e s a m e t i m e m u c h of
t h e r o u g h e r a n d p o o r e r l a n d h a s g o n e o u t of o c c u p a t i o n , a n d
f a r m e r s h a v e b e e n t u r n e d off h o l d i n g s t h a t w o u l d y i e l d a m o d e s t
living b u t could n o t be m a d e to p a y i n t e r e s t as well. M a n y such
idle h o l d i n g s a r e r e p o r t e d , w i t h r u b b i s h g r o w i n g o n t h e m , a n d
p r e s e n t l y c o s t i n g m o r e t o r e c o n d i t i o n t h a n t h e y will e v e r be
w o r t h . S u c h a r e t h e r e s u l t s of s a c r i f i c i n g f a r m i n g t o finance. T h e

(19) English Farming, by S i r J o h n Russell, p p . 13, 16.

(20) Cf. w h a t M r . F i e l d suggests here with w h a t S i r R e g i n a l d Rowc
advocates on page 1 3 1 of The Hoot of All JHoih in order to prevent
profiteering i n site values. S i r R e g i n a l d holds t h a t an Act of P a r l i a
ment should be passed, a f t e r a v a l u a t i o n of the whole country, g i v i n g
the S t a t e the o p t i o n t o p u r c h a s e a n y p a r t thereof a t the price thus
decided to be its f a i r p r e s e n t value. This i s v e r y different and q u i t e
a p a r t from the scheme of l a n d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n advocated by him a
few pages earlier. Tn t h a t suggestion he differs from P o p e Leo X I I I
and Pope P i u s X I .
 532 T H K MYSTTCAT,. B O D Y O F CTIKTST

w r o n g in t e r e s I h a s b e e n p u t first, a n d a h i g h p r i c e will u l t i m a t e l y
21
he paid for the error."* *
T h e r e a d e r m u s t c o m p l e t e t h e s e r e m a r k s by a s t u d y of Air.
l l i l n i r c I k d l o c ' s s p l e n d i d p a m p h l e t on t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of p r o p e r t y ,
f 2 2 )
e s p e c i a l l y p r o p e r t y in l a n d . l i e l a y s d o w n c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s in
v i e w of t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of p r o p r i e t o r s h i p in K n g l a n d , w h i c h is " the
t y p i c a l e x a m p l e of a c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e d e s i r e for l a n d a n d the
s e n s e of o w n e r s h i p in it h a s . for t h e m a s s of t h e p e o p l e , fallen to
( 2 3 )
its l o w e s t . " T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s m u s t h e c a r e f u l l y h o m e in mind
i n c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e p r o b l e m i s o n e of s a f e g u a r d i n g e x i s t i n g
p r o p r i e t o r s h i p a n d g o i n g a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t of financial d o m i n a
t i o n . " T h e f o u r t h p r i n c i p l e , " b e w r i t e s , " w i l l , w h e n it is s t a t e d
p l a i n l y , a p p e a r f a n t a s t i c , b u t it is e s s e n t i a l . T h e b u r d e n laid upon
t h e l a n d of t h e s m a l l o w n e r , t h e t r i b u t e h e h a s to p a y w h e r e i n I
i n c l u d e u s u r y in all i t s f o r m s m u s t b e a m i n i m u m . In o t h e r
w o r d s , w h e n y o u a r c a t t e m p t i n g to r e - e s t a b l i s h a p e a s a n t r y under
a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h a t p e a s a n t r y m u s t lie p r i v i l e g e d a s a g a i n s t
t h e d i s e a s e d s o c i e t y a r o u n d it. T o - d a y false s t a t i s t i c s c o u l d easily
b e p r e p a r e d s h o w i n g t h a t a g r e a t m a s s of t h e K n g l i s h l a n d is in
t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h o s e w h o till it ; b u t a s a fact it is r e a l l y in t h e
possession of money-lendersprincipally the banks. T h e owner
s h i p is n o m i n a l ; t h e real c o n t r o l is in t h e m o n e y - l e n d i n g p o w e r
which exacts tribute. N o w , unless y o u a r c p r e p a r e d to start
a f r e s h w i t h a s y s t e m u n d e r w h i c h u s u r y shall n o t d r a i n t h e life-
b l o o d of t h e t i l l e r of t h e soil, y o u r e f f o r t s will fail. Kvcn co
o p e r a t i v e b a n k s , of w h i c h w e will s p e a k l a t e r , s h o u l d p l a y a sub
s i d i a r y , n o t n d o m i n a t i n g p a r i . . . . W e can s p r e a d ( a n d it is
t h e d u l y o f e v e r y g o o d c i t i z e n to s p r e a d ) , a k n o w l e d g e of the
a r b i t r a r y p o w e r possessed by m o d e r n b a n k s and proclaim the duty
of c o n t r o l l i n g it. T h a t g e n e r a l a c t i o n is o p e n t o u s , a n d of g r e a t
s e r v i c e it is Any d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e g u i l d s y s t e m w o u l d
m o d i f y t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b a n k s a n d w e a k e n t h e i r m o n o p o l y . As
small p r o p e r t y g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d , the b a n k i n g m o n o p o l y would
p r o g r e s s i v e l y l o s e m o r e a n d m o r e of i t s p o w e r . F o r instance,
b a n k c r e d i t , b y t h e l a w of i t s b e i n g , d i s c r i m i n a t e s in f a v o u r of
(20 The Truth nhout New ZtrtfatifJ, pp. 12(5-128.
An Nsmtjf on the I'estaration- of Properly, by Hilaire Hclloe
(The Dislvihutist League, 7 k H, Uolls Passage. London. h . C . 4 ) .
(-*'*' " T h e historical process | bv which the Knglidi peasantry were
swallowed up hy ihe groat or landowners and became a proletariat! is
now familiar to manyperhaps by this time to most educated men,
though our official academic history long remained silent upon it. First
caine the strengthening of the greater landowners by the loot of the
Churohjn the sixteenth century, then in the seventeenth century came
the eating up by the greater landowners of the smaller yeomanry,
notably under that ironically entitled ' Ntalufp of Kramls/ 'pa^od by
Parliament, that is. by the greater landowners themselves (who were
by that time masters 'of the eountrv) in the reign nf Charles I T "
(Hihtiro Bcfloc, op cit., p. <>3).
 MONETARY REFORM 533

t h e b i g c a p i t a l i s t a n d a g a i n s t t h e s m a l l m a n ; h u t it w o u l d b e g i n
to s i n g a d i f f e r e n t t u n e w h e n it h a d t o m e e t t h e p o w e r o f o r g a n
ised c o r p o r a t i o n s o f small m e n and w h e n differential taxation
b e g a n t o m a k e it m o r e a n d m o r e difficult f o r t h e l a r g e u n i t , n o
m a t t e r h o w e v e r w e l l s u p p o r t e d bv b a n k c r e d i t , t o e a t u p t h e
M ( 2 4 )
small. *
(d) S T A B I L I T Y O F PKICK LKVHL.

T o u n d e r s t a n d h o w s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r i c e l e v e l is t o b e o b t a i n e d ,
w e m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e m e t h o d b y w h i c h it is p r o p o s e d t o i s s u e a n d
lend lawful e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m . Sir Reginald R o w e g i v e s an e x
5
c e l l e n t s u m m a r y of I Y o f e s s o r S o d d y ' s p r o p o s a l s ' - ' for E n g l a n d
a s f o l l o w s : " T h e h u g e b a l a n c e of liabilities for cash w h i c h t h e
b a n k s h a v e in fact n o m e a n s o f m e e t i n g s h o u l d b e m e t b y i h c
N a t i o n b y a n e q u i v a l e n t i s s u e o f N a t i o n a l m o n e y in t h e f o r m o f
n o t e s , and t h e r e s h o u l d be n o f u r t h e r c r e a t i o n or d e s t r u c t i o n of
m o n e y b y the banks. A national issue equal l o the total of current
a c c o u n t b a n k d e p o s i t w o u l d be n e e d e d , s a y / 2 , 0 0 0 m i l l i o n . The
S t a t e w o u l d take o v e r from the banks securities to this a m o u n t .
W h e r e t h e s e w e r e collateral securities a g a i n s t loans, their o w n e r s
could redeem them by repaying the loans. W h e r e the State be
c a m e t h e o w n e r s of G o v e r n m e n t s e c u r i t i e s , h a v i n g paid for t h e m
w i t h n a t i o n a l n o t e s , it c o u l d c a n c e l t h e s e s e c u r i t i e s . Any other
securities could be e x c h a n g e d by m a r k e t process for G o v e r n m e n t
s e c u r i t i e s . T h e c o n c l u s i o n of the w h o l e m a t t e r w o u l d be that the
b a n k s w o u l d b o l d m o n e y ( p h y s i c a l m o n e y in t h e f o r m o f n o t e s )
t o t h e e x a c t v a l u e o f t h e i r t o t a l c u r r e n t a c c o u n t d e p o s i t s . .It w o u l d
b e r e a l m o n e y , a g r e a t p a r t o f w h i c h ( i . e . , all c u r r e n t a c c o u n t b a l
a n c e s ) t h e y could n o t l e n d , b u t m u s t hold in trust for i t s individual
owners. I M o n e y o n t i m e - d e p o s i t could be lent in t h e f a s h i o n
a l r e a d y e x p l a i n e d a b o v e tinder ( c ) | . T h e b a n k s could n o t c r e a t e
m o n e y t o lend, as n o w . O n e o b v i o u s result would be that w h e n
2,000 m i l l i o n h a d b e e n i s s u e d in n e w notes., t h a t a m o u n t o f

<--!> H i l a i r e Belloc, o p . c i t . , p p . (>s, (>n, S7. See also what lie. says o n
p a ^ e 81 about wholesale a n d retail e x c h a n g e . Though a smuli man is
heavily h a n d i c a p p e d i n retail e x c h a n g e , " h e m a y s n u g g l e on. B u t
w h o l e s a l e e x c h a n g e and all the m a c h i n e r y of it have been c a p t u r e d by
highly centralized c a p i t a l i s m . " He m e n t i o n s in p a r t i c u l a r wheat a n d
jute.
Alonu; w i t h Lord X o r t h b o u r n e ' s Look to the Land ( D e n t a n d S o n s ) ,
the e x c e l l e n t work of t h e E a r l of P o r t s m o u t h ( V i s c o u n t L y m i n g t o n ) ,
Alternative, to Death ( F a h e r a n d F a b c r ) , is to be h i g h l y r e c o m m e n c e d
for i t s e x p o s i t i o n of t h e r i g h t r e l a t i o n w h i c h should e x i s t between
finance a n d f a r m i n g . U n Fortunately, i n Attentat!re. to Deaih ( p p . 7,
121). in s t r e s s i n g the. respect d u e to the o r d e r of nattr-e a n d the ;;reat
t r u t h of t h e I m m a n e n c e of G o d i n t h e w o r l d , t h e author s e e s toe. far
and c o m p r o m i s e s the .ureal c o m p l e m e n t a r y t r u t h of (cod's T v .ms eetui -
ence.
(25) C o n t a i n e d in Wealth, I'lrtaal Wealth and Debt, p p . 196-1 SO.
 534 THK MYSTICAL P.ODY O F CHRIST

n a t i o n a l d e b t w o u l d h a v e b e e n c a n c e l l e d . It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i s e d
t h a t t h e i s s u e of f u r t h e r n e w m o n e y w o u l d n o t be a t t h e m e r c y of
a n y G o v e r n m e n t , but in t h e h a n d s of a s t a t u t o r y i n d e p e n d e n t
b o d y , w h i c h w o u l d w o r k s c i e n t i f i c a l l y on d a t a r e a d i l y o b t a i n a b l e .
I t s e c o n o m i c t h e r m o m e t e r w o u l d be p r i c e level, t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
of a v e r a g e p r i c e level b e i n g its s i n g l e a i m w h e n i n c r e a s i n g or
112111
d e c r e a s i n g t h e s u p p l y of m o n e y . "
VYc c a n supplement the above succinct statements by
quotations from M iss C o o g a n ' s Monet/ Creators a n d A. N.
F i e l d ' s The Truth about Xetr Zealand. A c c o r d i n g to the
former, a s c i e n t i lie s l a t istical authority, called in U.S.A.
M (metary Trustees, appointed bv a n d di recti v responsible
to the legi(imate < h i v e r u m e n i, s h o u l d determine the rate
a \ w h i c h law Mil m o n e \ s h o u l d be i s s u e d o r w i i h d r a w n , in
o r d e r to m a i n t a i n t h e p r i c e i n d e x of t h e m a i n c o m m o d i t i e s con
s t a n t a t a level w h i c h w o u l d p e r m i t full e m p l o y m e n t . " T h e
M o n e t a r y T r u s t e e s , " she w r i t e s , " should m a i n t a i n scientific re
c o r d s of p r i c e s p r i c e i n d i c e s w h i c h w o u l d r e l i a b l y i n d i c a t e at
w h a t l e v e l s t h e aggregate of r a w c o m m o d i t i e s arid a g g r e g a t e fin
ished goods arc c h a n g i n g hands at a n y particular time. Once raw
m a t e r i a l p r i c e levels h a d r e a c h e d a p o i n t w h e r e i n t h e n a t i o n ' s p r o
ductive a n d business activity h a d a b s o r b e d its u n e m p l o y e d , and
t h e p r i c e s t r u c t u r e w a s h i g h e n o u g h t o afford sufficient n a t i o n a l
i n c o m e to c a r r y t h e l e g i t i m a t e p r i v a t e d e b t s t r u c t u r e of t h e
n a t i o n , t h a t p r i c e level s h o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d . T h e fluctuations
t h e r e a f t e r s h o u l d be m i n o r , b e c a u s e t h e How of m o n e y A v o u l d
a l w a y s be s c i e n t i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e a c t u a l q u a n t i t y of p h y s i c a l
c o n s u m e r g o o d s a v a i l a b l e f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n . . . . In c a s e it b e c a m e
n e c e s s a r y t o c u r t a i l t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y , t h a t c o u l d be d o n e
t h r o u g h t a x a t i o n . . . . O n l y a d e c r e a s e in t h e v o l u m e of c o n
sumer goods, d u e to f a m i n e o r d i s a s t e r , w o u l d n e c e s s i t a t e a
d e c r e a s e in t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y . . . . If p r i c e l e v e l s a r e t o o
low, t o o l a r g e a s h a r e o f the p r o d u c t s g o e s to satisfy t h o s e w h o
o w n c l a i m s o n t h e fixed a s s e t s a n d t h o s e e n g a g e d in a c t u a l p r o -

(20) The Root of All Evil, p p . 5 3 , 5 4 . I t may he i n t e r e s t i n g to read

some of Professor S o d d y ' s own vigorous phrases on the p o i n t : " As
r e g a r d s t r a n s i t i o n s t a g e s / ' he writes (in The Pole of Money, p . 2 1 1 ) .
" f i x a price i n d e x on the cost of the morn i m p o r t a n t expenses of an
average middle-class household, r e q u i r e the hanks always to keep pound
for p o u n d o f n a t i o n a l money .against their c u r r e n t accounts d r a w a b l e
by cheque, set up a n a t i o n a l a d v i s o r y statistical b u r e a u on an i n
d e p e n d e n t scientific basis, and r e c o n s t i t u t e the m i n t for the issue o f
all money. Avoid as the p l a g u e schemes for n a t i o n a l i z i n g banks. The
object is to stop p r i v a t e m i n t i n g a n d nationalize money itself . . .
To nationalize the hanks is t o - m a k e money-creating a n d money-lending
powers both a n a t i o n a l function. Hence Professor Soddy is rightly
opposed t o it. A recent p a m p h l e t of his, 7'he Arch-En em g of Economir
Freedom, .published by himself at K n a p p , En stone, Oxon, England,
is strongly recommended to s t u d e n t s of finance.
 MONETARY REFORM 535

d u c t i o n r e c e i v e less t h a n w o u l d e n a b l e t h e m to c o n s u m e t h e p r o
d u c t s of i n d u s t r y . A f t e r t h e d e s i r e d p r i c e level is r e a c h e d , m o n e y
should be paid into the s t r e a m by the M o n e t a r y T r u s t e e s h i p only
a s g o o d s a p p e a r r e a d y for d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i c h g o o d s c a n n o t b e
m o v e d i n t o c o n s u m p t i o n a t t h e e x i s t i n g p r i c e levels w i t h o u t a d d i
t i o n a l m o n e y . G i v e n a n a d e q u a t e s u p p l y of m o n e y , t h e v o l u m e o f
g o o d s d i s t r i b u t a b l e a t a g i v e n p r i c e level w o u l d be l i m i t e d o n l y
b y t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e n a t i o n t o p r o d u c e t h e g o o d s . T h e v o l u m e
of g o o d s p r o d u c e d w o u l d be l i m i t e d o n l y by t h e a m o u n t of n a t u r a l
r e s o u r c e s , fixed c a p i t a l , a n d t h e n u m b e r of w o r k e r s a v a i l a b l e . . . .
T h e r e s u l t w o u l d b e , not a * f l u c t u a t i n g d o l l a r a s the d e c e i v e r s s h o u t ,
b u t a stable dollar, as c o m m o n sense proves. Stabilitv means
constant pnrchasinr/ poirer of a d o l l a r in t e r m s of t h i n g s p e o p l e
b u y . . . . T h e n a t i o n a l M o n e t a r y T r u s t e e s w o u l d be r e q u i r e d t o
file f o r p u b l i c a t i o n , o n c e a m o n t h , an i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d e a s i l y u n d e r
s t o o d report, which would indicate exactly how much currency
w a s o u t s t a n d i n g as a t t h a t d a t e . . . . A t a n y time c u r r e n c y w a s
issued, the e x a c t a m o u n t s and e x a c t l y to w h o m and h o w issued
w o u l d be m a d e p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e is no r e a s o n w h y s u c h
, f 2 7 j
r e p o r t s c o u l d n o t be s i m p l e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e to e v e r y o n e . '
T h e M o n e t a r y T r u s t e e s s h o u l d be e x c l u s i v e l y full c i t i z e n s of
t h e c o u n t r y , s h o u l d h a v e a n u n b l e m i s h e d r e c o r d for h o n e s t y a n d
i n t e g r i t y and should have had no connexion with international
b a n k i n g , e i t h e r as o w n e r s , p a r t n e r s , e m p l o y e e s or advisers. T h e y
s h o u l d r e c e i v e a d e q u a t e s a l a r i e s , b u t s h o u l d benefit .in n o w a y
w h a t s o e v e r , e x c e p t a s c i t i z e n s of t h e c o u n t r y , in t h e a m o u n t s of
m o n e y added to or w i t h d r a w n from the m o n e y s t r e a m . W
M r . A. N . F i e l d t r e a t s of s t a b i l i t y of p r i c e level in c o n n e x i o n
w i t h t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n . " U p t o 1914," h e
w r i t e s , " o u r N e w Z e a l a n d p o u n d w a s tied u p v e r y c l o s e l y w i t h
t h e B r i t i s h s t e r l i n g p o u n d : o n e c o u l d a l w a y s be o b t a i n e d for t h e
o t h e r w i t h v e r y s m a l l fluctuation in t h e r a t e of e x c h a n g e . . . . fn
A u g u s t , 1914, t h e B r i t i s h p o u n d b e c a m e i n c o n v e r t i b l e p a p e r , a n d
the N e w Zealand p o u n d followed suit. T h e e x c h a n g e rate r e m a i n e d
T
p r e t t y c o n s t a n t b e t w e e n t h e tw o u n t i l t h e s l u m p s e t in. T h e
b a n k s t h e n g r a d u a l l y l e t t h e r a t e w i d e n t o 10 p e r c e n t . , a n d t h e n
in J a n u a r y , 1933, t h e G o v e r n m e n t p u t it u p to 25 p e r c e n t . At
t h i s p o i n t it h a s s i n c e b e e n h e l d , e x c e p t f o r o n e v e r y s l i g h t r e d u c
( 2 9 )
tion. T h e fixed e x c h a n g e p o l i c y w a s t h u s b r o k e n b e t w e e n 1931
a n d - 1 9 3 3 , b u t t h e r e a f t e r it w a s r e s u m e d on a different level. T h i s
fixed e x c h a n g e m o n e y p o l i c y m e a n s t h a t if c o m m o d i t y p r i c e s in
B r i t a i n r e m a i n s t e a d y , c o m m o d i t y p r i c e s in N e w Z e a l a n d a l s o
r e m a i n s t e a d y . If B r i t i s h p r i c e s fluctuate v i o l e n t l y a s t h e y h a v e

(27) Money Creators, p p . 251, 252, 338, 254, 255.

(28) Money Creators, p . 250.
(29) F o r the a d v a n t a g e s to New Z e a l a n d of the higher exchange r a t e ,
cf. Money,-hy Professor O'Hahilly, p p . 404-409, 423.
536 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

d o n e to a r u i n o u s e x t e n t X e w Z e a l a n d p r i c e s m u s t a l s o fluctuate
w i t h equal violence. T h a t is t h e p o s i t i o n s o l o n g a s t h e one
m o n e t a r y u n i t is freely e x c h a n g e a b l e for t h e o t h e r a t a fixed r a t e .
A t p r e s e n t t h e fixed r a l e r e m a i n s , b u t free e x c h a n g e is p r o h i b i t e d .
" T h e a l t e r n a t i \ c m o n e t a r y p o l i c y t o a fixed e x c h a n g e is to
r e g u l a t e t h e s u p p l y of m o n e y in X e w Z e a l a n d lo m a i n t a i n a s t e a d y
i n t e r n a l p r i c e level, a n d lei t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e f l u c t u a t e a s t h e o u t
s i d e p r i c e level f l u c t u a t e s . L o w p r i c e s in B r i t a i n w o u l d t h e n
m e a n a l o w e x c h a n g e r a t e . E x p o r t e d p r o d u c e w o u l d b r i n g all the
t i m e a s t e a d i e r p r i c e in o u r m o n e y . M o n e y w o u l d t h u s be m a d e
a m u c h m o r e a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e of v a l u e t h a n it n o w is. T h i s
w o u l d n a t u r a l l y m e a n a r e d u c t i o n o f financial a n x i e t y a n d w o r r y
f o r e v e r y o n e e x c h a n g i n g g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s in r e t u r n f o r m o n e y
p a y m e n t s , w h i c h is p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y b o d y . Jf t h e p e o p l e m a i n
t a i n e d p r o d u c t i o n , t h e m o n e y e n d w o u l d t a k e c a r e of itself. This
is t h e m o s t u r g e n t l y n e e d e d s o c i a l r e f o r m in t h e w o r l d .
" T h e b a n k s in t h e p a s t h a v e r e g u l a t e d t h e q u a n t i t y of m o n e y
in c i r c u l a t i o n s o a s t o be a b l e to d e l i v e r s t e r l i n g on d e m a n d a t the
fixed r a t e of e x c h a n g e . . . . M e t h o d s of r e g u l a t i o n w o u l d suffice
t o f n a i n t a i n a s t e a d y i n t e r n a l p r i c e level. T h o s e c o n t r o l l i n g t h e
i s s u e of m o n e y , i n s t e a d of w a t c h i n g t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e , w o u l d
simply w a t c h the various price indices n o w compiled, and any
a d d i t i o n a l o n e s t h e y t h o u g h t n e c e s s a r y to h a v e c o m p i l e d . If p r i c e s
s t a r t e d r i s i n g a b o v e t h e p o i n t fixed, m o n e y w o u l d b e w i t h d r a w n
f r o m c i r c u l a t i o n : if p r i c e s b e g a n t o fall m o r e m o n e y w o u l d be g o t
i n t o c i r c u l a t i o n . T h i s is d o n e all t h e t i m e n o w . T o v a r y t h e cir
c u l a t i o n of m o n e y , i n t e r e s t r a t e s o n o v e r d r a f t s a n d fixed d e p o s i t s
a r e a l t e r e d ; bank advances are contracted or expanded. . . . In
c o n t r o l l i n g m o n e y Lo k e e p t h e p r i c e level s t e a d y n o a t t e m p t w o u l d
( ; U J 1
b e m a d e t o c o n t r o l t h e p r i c e of i n d i v i d u a l c o m m o d i t i e s . What
w o u l d b e d o n e w o u l d b e , in effect, t o m a k e u p a m a r k e t b a s k e t f u l
of s t a p l e c o m m o d i t i e s , t h e q u a n t i t y of e a c h a r t i c l e in t h e b a s k e t
b e i n g in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e q u a n t i t y p a s s i n g in t r a d e . The
o b j e c t i v e w o u l d t h e n be so t o r e g u l a t e t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y in
c i r c u l a t i o n t h a t a N e w Z e a l a n d p o u n d - n o t e w o u l d , a s n e a r l y as
p o s s i b l e , a l w a y s b u y this b a s k e t f u l . F l o u r m i g h t be u p . b u t t e r
d o w n , a n d e v e r y item m o v i n g a c c o r d i n g to d e m a n d and supply,
b u t , a v e r a g e d o v e r t h e lot, p o s s e s s i o n of a p o u n d - n o t e would
e n a b l e i t s h o l d e r t<> w a l k h o m e w i t h j u s t a b o u t t h e s a m e total
b a s k e t f u l all t h e t i m e .

tM) W h a t is said here by .Mr. Field in Tlw Truth about Jew-Zealand

must lie s u p p l e m e n t e d by the t e a c h i n g of Pope Pius X I in Quadra-
ijexitno Anno on the vole of Vocational <iroups. W h e n the G u i l d s or
Vocational G r o u p s are. organized and functioning nude)' a State,
C h a r t e r , the activities of the g r o u p s will be directed to the Common
Good and they w i l l strive to arrive, at a. j u s t price for the goods or
.services they furnish. The S t a t e will exercise s u p r e m e c o n t r o l .
 MONETARY REFORM 537

" S t a b i l i z i n g m o n e y t a k e s t h e m o n e y f a c t o r o u t of p r i c e fluc
t u a t i o n s , a n d l e a v e s j u s t t h e n o n - m o n e t a r y f a c t o r s of d e m a n d a n d
s u p p l y of c o m m o d i t i e s . A s o n e w e l l - k n o w n w r i t e r on t h e s e s u b
j e c t s h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h e m o n e y f a c t o r is like t h e t i d e s of t h e
o c e a n , a n d t h e c o m m o d i t y d e m a n d - a n d - s u p p l y f a c t o r is like t h e
w a v e s of t h e s e a , b o b b i n g u p a n d d o w n t o different levels all t h e
t i m e . T h e t i d e s a r e t h e b i g f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e level of t h e
w a t e r , a n d t h e w a v e s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l f a c t o r , e v e n in t h e
g r e a t e s t s t o r m . T h e m o n e y f a c t o r is l i k e t h e t i d e s , a n d is t h e
p r i n c i p a l t h i n g d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r i c e level. If il is g o t u n d e r
c o n t r o l w e c a n h a v e a s t a b i l i t y a n d a p r o s p e r i t y in i n d u s t r y t h a t
w e can never know to-day."
M r . F i e l d t h e n s h o w s b y m e a n s of i n d e x figures t h e p r a c t i c a l
w o r k i n g o n t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e w i t h L o n d o n of a s t a b i l i z e d p r i c e
level in X e w Z e a l a n d a n d a d d s t h a t t h e effect of t h e e x c h a n g e
m o v e m e n t w o u l d b e t o i r o n o u t p r i c e fluctuation lo a l a r g e e x t e n t .
H e c o n c l u d e s t h e c h a p t e r w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t " s t a b i l i t y in
i n t e r n a l p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r is t h e o n l y s e n s i b l e b a s i s on w h i c h t o
control money. M o n e y m u s t b e m a d e a j u s t m e a s u r e of v a l u e .
If i t is n o t , e v e r y m o n e y t r a n s a c t i o n p e r p e t r a t e s i n j u s t i c e , w i t h
d e b t s o n o n e level a n d p r i c e s of c o m m o d i t i e s on a n o t h e r level.
A n d i n j u s t i c e s o o n e r o r l a t e r m e a n s t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e
e x i s t i n g social o r d e r . "
S o m e i m p o r t a n t r e m a r k s o n t h i s a s p e c t of n a t i o n a l m o n e t a r y
r e f o r m a r e t o b e f o u n d in Minority Report No. Ill of the Irish
Banking Commission ( 1 9 3 8 ) , d r a w n u p b y M r . 1\ J . O T . o g h l e n .
I n C h a p t e r 1 of his r e p o r t a n d in h i s A p p e n d i x II. M r . 0 ' J , o g h I e n
s t r e s s e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i s o r d e r of m o d e r n e c o n o m i c life, w h i c h
h a s b e e n s o m u c h i n s i s t e d o n in t h i s b o o k , n a m e l y , t h e s u b o r d i n
a t i o n of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t t o p r o d u c t i o n a n d of p r o d u c t i o n t o
f i n a n c e , o r , t o p u t it m o r e s u c c i n c t l y , t h e d o m i n a t i o n of m o n e y
o v e r s o c i e t y . A f t e r a b r i e f a l l u s i o n t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t w e n t y -
s i x c e n t r a l b a n k s in t w e n t y - s i x d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ; affiliated t o t h e
B a n k f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d at B a s l e , h e q u o t e s
f r o m t h e M a j o r i t y R e p o r t , f r o m w h i c h h e is a d i s s e n t i e n t , t h e fol
l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e f u n c t i o n s of a c e n t r a l b a n k . " The
p r i n c i p a l d u t y of a c e n t r a l b a n k is t o m a i n t a i n t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e
national m o n e t a r y unit. T o c a r r y o u t this task the central b a n k
h a s t o e n s u r e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of e x t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y (in t e r m s of
g o l d , o r s t e r l i n g , o r s o m e o t h e r c u r r e n c y ) , a n d to t a k e c a r e of t h e
m o n e t a r y r e s e r v e s of g o l d o r f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e , a n d a l s o to have
certain means to influence the currency and credit position within
t h e c o u n t r y . " M r . O ' L o g h l e n t h e n a d d s : " T h e o b j e c t i v e of m o n e
1
t a r y policy, here so plainly stated, namely, the control or
r e s t r i c t i o n of c u r r e n c y a n d c r e d i t w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y , a p p e a r s t o
m e t o b e o n e in w h i c h t h e i n t e r e s t s of b o n d h o l d e r s , a n d t h o s e w h o
t r a d e in m o n e y , a r e g i v e n c o m p l e t e p r e c e d e n c e , and the i n t e r e s t s
 538 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

of t h e o r d i n a r y p e o p l e in e a c h c o u n t r y , w h o n e e d r e m u n e r a t i v e
e m p l o y m e n t a b o v e all e l s e , a r e c o n s i d e r e d l o b e of a v e r y m i n o r
i m p o r t a n c e , i h a v e a l r e a d y s t a t e d m y v i e w t h a t t h e c u r r e n c y and
c r e d i t p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y s h o u l d reflect its o w n p o w e r to
p r o d u c e w e a l t h , its c a p a c i t y f o r d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y to
provide e m p l o y m e n t for its people. It is t h e s t a t e d v i e w of m y
colleagues (of t h e M a j o r i t y R e p o r t ) t h a t these t h i n g s
a r e s e c o n d a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d should be sacrificed to maintain
a fixed f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e r a t e . "
N o w , t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of s t a b i l i t y in p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of
national exchange-media has not been a desideratum wherever
t h e m o n e y p o w e r h a s e x e r c i s e d d o m i n a t i o n o v e r s o c i e t y . In fact
m o n e y h a s c o m e to d o m i n a t e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , l a r g e l y t h r o u g h the
d i s r e g a r d o f t h i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n of t h e j u s t f u n c t i o n i n g
of a n e x c h a n g e - m e d i u m . M r . O ' L o g h l e n i r i g h t l y i n s i s t s u p o n a i m
i n g a t s t a b i l i t y of t h e p r i c e level in v i e w oi r e v e r s i n g t h e p r e s e n t
44
disorder. O w i n g t o o u r a t t a c h i n g t h e I r i s h c u r r e n c y t o t h a t of
G r e a t B r i t a i n , " h e w r i t e s , " p r i c e s in I r e l a n d h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d
h i t h e r t o b y t h e p r i c e s r u l i n g in K n g l a n d , w i t h d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s
for Irish a g r i c u l t u r e . . . . A s a g r i c u l t u r e will h a v e to k e e p its
c o s t s d o w n to t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e level in o r d e r t o r e t a i n its
m a r k e t in K n g l a n d , all h o p e of e i t h e r a r i s i n g s t a n d a r d of living,
o r of an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r n a l m a r k e t , will be in v a i n ; a n d in vain,
a l s o , will b e a n y h o p e of i n c r e a s e d e m p l o y m e n t in t h e r u r a l a r e a s .
. . . S e l f - g o v e r n m e n t d o e s n o t c o n s i s t in h a v i n g a flag a n d t h e
t r a p p i n g s a n d a p p e a r a n c e of i n d e p e n d e n c e , b u t in h a v i n g effective
c o n t r o l o v e r v i t a l n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s . W e h a v e b e e n p e r s u a d e d by
t h e B a n k i n g C o m m i s s i o n of 1926 t o r e l i n q u i s h all b u t t h e a p p e a r
a n c e of c o n t r o l o v e r s u c h i m p o r t a n t a n d v i t a l n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s
a s o u r p r i c e l e v e l . " B u t " t h e r e is n o s p e c i a l v a l i d i t y a t t a c h i n g t o
a n y p a r t i c u l a r p r i c e level. T h e p r i c e level f o r a n y c o u n t r y is the
l e v e l a t w h i c h t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y is b e s t a b l e t o a t t a i n a n d
m a i n t a i n t h e f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e u s e of i t s r e s o u r c e s . A s t h e c i r c u m
s t a n c e s v a r y w i t h i n w i d e l i m i t s , t h e l e v e l s of p r i c e s a t w h i c h t h e y
w i l l b e a b l e t o m a i n t a i n full e m p l o y m e n t will v a r y a l s o . The
m a i n t e n a n c e of fixed r a t e s of f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e t e n d s t o f o r c e the
prices in different c o u n t r i e s to c o n f o r m t o a c o m m o n level, thus
p r e v e n t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p r i c e l e v e l s w h i c h a r e m o s t con
d u c i v e t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of full e m p l o y m e n t , a n d a r e m u n e r a
tive r e t u r n for industry. . . .
" I t is q u i t e p r a c t i c a b l e t o d e v e l o p s u c h levels of w a g e s and
p r i c e s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y a s a r e m o s t c o n d u c i v e t o the
c o m m o n good, and the appropriate, and indeed the only, means
b y w h i c h s u c h a p o l i c y c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t is a n a t i o n a l m o n e t a r y
s y s t e m w h i c h h a s r e g a r d p r i n c i p a l l y t o t h e i n t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s of
t h e c o u n t r y in w h i c h it o p e r a t e s , a n d w h i c h is d i r e c t e d t o the
m a i n t e n a n c e of full e m p l o y m e n t f o r p r o d u c t i v e p u r p o s e s , a n d also
 MONETARY REFORM 539

of s u c h p r i c e s a n d w a g e s a s a r e m o s t c o n d u c i v e to n a t i o n a l w e l l -
being. On the o t h e r hand, a m o n e t a r y s y s t e m which aims at being
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d w h i c h , b y m a i n t a i n i n g fixed r a t e s of f o r e i g n
e x c h a n g e , f o r c e s i n t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s to a c c o r d w i t h t h o s e of o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s , precludes us from a d o p t i n g m e a s u r e s which would
e n a b l e r e m u n e r a t i v e p r i c e s , o r w a g e s on w h i c h p e o p l e can live in
d e c e n t c o m f o r t , b e i n g r e a l i s e d in p r a c t i c a l d a i l y life. . . .
" If a fixed r a t e of f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e is a b a n d o n e d , a n d a policy
of t h e i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u s e of all o u r r e s o u r c e s is fol
l o w e d , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h a t e v e r t o a p p r e h e n d a n y w i d e o r c o n
s t a n t f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e s . As b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d
o u r s e l v e s , t h e m o v e m e n t s of t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d
w i t h m o v e m e n t s in t h e l e v e l s of p r i c e s in t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s ; a n d
price levels, a p a r t from a b n o r m a l conditions such as a n o t h e r w a r ,
will t e n d t o m o v e s l o w l y arid g r a d u a l l y . M y p r o p o s a l s w o u l d n o t
i n t r o d u c e w i d e o r r a p i d f l u c t u a t i o n s of p r i c e s in I r e l a n d ; but
w o u l d allow t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s to adjust t h e m s e l v e s to each o t h e r
in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r , w h i c h
w o u l d n o t be s u b j e c t t o a n y g r e a t e r c o n d i t i o n of i n s t a b i l i t y t h a n
a t p r e s e n t . N o t o n l y is t h i s t h e c a s e , b u t a c t i v e s t e p s could a n d
s h o u l d b e t a k e n b y t h e I r i s h m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s to m i n i m i s e
s u c h i n c o n v e n i e n c e t o i m p o r t e r s a n d e x p o r t e r s as a m o v i n g r a t e
of e x c h a n g e m a y o t h e r w i s e b r i n g , b y t a k i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s t e p s for
this purpose. These steps should b e :

(1) T o e s t a b l i s h a n d m a i n t a i n a f o r w a r d m a r k e t for f o r e i g n
e x c h a n g e in I r e l a n d .
" ( 2 ) T o p r o v i d e a n d c o n t r o l a n e q u a l i s a t i o n fund, d e s i g n e d n o t
t o p e g t h e r a t e of e x c h a n g e a t a n a r b i t r a r y level, b u t to r e n d e r a s
g r a d u a l a s p o s s i b l e a n y m o v e m e n t s of e x c h a n g e r a t e s w h i c h w e r e
t h e r e s u l t s of a n a c t i v e p o l i c y of i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . . . .

" I n A p p e n d i x I, I h a v e o u t l i n e d t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d s c o p e of a n
E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t C o m m i s s i o n w h i c h w o u l d be a b l e t o
o r g a n i s e a n d to d i r e c t t h e u n u s e d p r o d u c t i v e r e s o u r c e s of t h e
n a t i o n , w i t h t h e o b j e c t of m a i n t a i n i n g full e m p l o y m e n t , a n d s o
r a i s i n g t h e s t a n d a r d s of e c o n o m i c life. . . . An effective b a l a n c e
b e t w e e n e x p a n s i o n a n d c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e v o l u m e of m o n e y ' w o u l d
r e q u i r e t o be m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t C o m
mission. T h e p r a c t i c a l d a i l y t e s t of t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s of such a
b a l a n c e w o u l d b e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of a c o n s t a n t a n d e q u a l a c t i v i t y
of t h e c o u n t r y ' s p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n , a s d i s c l o s e d b y
statistical indices [to be compiled by the E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t
C o m m i s s i o n ] , a n d t h e a b s e n c e of a n y c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e of u n
employment. . . . The Economic Development Commission
s h o u l d b e in close t o u c h w i t h t h e C u r r e n c y C o m m i s s i o n , t h e
D e p a r t m e n t of F i n a n c e , a n d t h e b a n k s , a n d s h o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d
 540 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

<n t h e F o r e i g n E x c h a n g e C o m m i t t e e w h i c h I r e c o m m e n d s h o u l d
3
lie e s t a b l i s h e d . " * ! )
Of c o u r s e , M r . O ' L o g h l e n ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , o n p a g e 4 1 of his
R e p o r t , t o t h e effect t h a t t h e b a n k s s h o u l d not b e a l l o w e d to
i n f l a t e t h e v o l u m e of c r e d i t , is u n n e c e s s a r y , w h e n t h e S t a l e h a s
r e s e r v e d t o itself t h e e x e r c i s e of i t s s o v e r e i g n r i g h t of i s s u i n g
m o n e y . W c h a v e s e e n t h i s in s u b - s e c t i o n s (h) a n d ( c ) .

fc) CONCLUDING REMARK'S OX NATIONAL MONlvTAR Y

KKKORM.

T h e f o r e g o i n g i d e a l of n a t i o n a l m o n e t a r y r e f o r m in h a r m o n y
w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c p r i n c i p l e s of S t . T h o m a s h a s been
set d o w n , in o r d e r t h a t C a t h o l i c s a n d all m e n w h o b e l i c \ e in the
D i v i n i t y of O u r L o r d , a f t e r h a v i n g g r a s p e d t h e c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n
t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of N a t u r a l i s m a n d the m a n i p u l a t i o n of the
e x c h a n g e - m e d i a of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , m a y h a v e a c l e a r idea h o w
l o g o to t h e r o o t of t h e financial d i s o r d e r . T h i s c l e a r idea of the
r a d i c a l r e m e d y t o be a p p l i e d , n a m e l y , t h e r e s u m p t i o n by t h e S t a t e
of t h e p o s i t i o n of s o v e r e i g n p o w e r , w h i c h h a s b e e n a l l o w e d to fall
i n t o p r i v a t e h a n d s , i s all t h e m o r e n e c e s s a r y n o w t h a t n a t i o n a l
i n d e p e n d e n c e i t s e l f is t h r e a t e n e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o n e y - m a n i p u l
ators. 11 is vital f o r t h e f u t u r e of the w o r l d that p r i \ a t e
i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h ill-defined or c a r e f u l l y - c o n c e a l e d international
c o n n e x i o n s s h o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e l o e x e r c i s e t h e s o v e r e i g n r i g h t of
11
issuing monc}', uncontrolled. F r e e c o m p e t i t i o n a n d still m o r e
1
e c o n o m i c d o m i n a t i o n , ' w r i t e s P o p e P i u s X I , " m u s t be b r o u g h t
u n d e r t h e effective c o n t r o l of t h e p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y , in m a t t e r s
2
a p p e r t a i n i n g to this hitter's c o m p e t e n c e . " ' * ' T h a t t h i s effective
c o n t r o l m a y l i c i t l y t a k e t h e f o r m of t h e c o m p l e t e r e t u r n of t h e
s o v e r e i g n r i g h t to the S l a t e . P o p e P i u s XI <|iiile d e f i n i t e l y l e a c h e s :
il
" It is r i g h t l y c o n t e n d e d , " he s a \ s , t h a t c e r t a i n f o r m s of p r o p e r t y
m u s t be r e s c w d to t h e S t a t e , s i n c e t h e y c a r r y w i t h t h e m a n
o p p o r t u n i t y of e c o n o m i c d o m i n a t i o n t o o g r e a t t o be left t o p r i v a t e
( 3 3 i
individuals w i t h o u t injury to the c o m m u n i t y a t l a r g e . "
T h e m e t h o d of c o n t r o l of t h e i s s u e a n d l e n d i n g of m o n e y
in v i e w of s i a l n ' i i y of the i n t e r n a l p r i c e level, o u t l i n e d in the p r e
c e d i n g p a g e s , r e p C M I U S an ideal t o w a r d s w h i c h w c s h o u l d t e n d .
W e m a y h a v e to c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s for t h e l i m e b e i n g w i t h ihe
m o r e m o d e r a t e plan of r e f o r m s k e t c h e d by P r o f e s s o r O ' R a h i l l y in
h i s b o o k , Afot/rt/ t a n d in h i s c r i t i c i s m of the I r i s h C e n t r a l B a n k
Bill in t h e Standard ( D u b l i n ) , b u t w e m u s t n o t lose s i g h t of the
i d e a l . T h e r e a r e m a n y w h o will n o t b e r o u s e d t o t h e effort r e
tail M i n o r i t y R e p o r t No. I l l , by M r . P . J . O'Loghlen, p p . 26, 42,
45, 50.
Encyclical Letter, Quadragesima Anno, On- the Social Ot'lrr.
Ibid.
 MONETARY REFORM 541
q u i r e d to r e l e g a t e m o n e y to its rightful s u b o r d i n a t e position and
s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r e t u r n t o o r d e r in t h e w o r l d , if t h e full ideal
is n o t k e p t c l e a r l y b e f o r e t h e m . T h e y will b e afraid of a n y c o m
p r o m i s e w i t h t h e evils t h e y see.
Jn o r d e r t h a t t h e S l a t e m a y be a b l e t o s e e k t h e C o m m o n G o o d
of i t s s u b j e c t s in s u c h w i s e as t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r efforts t o live
t h e i r l i v e s a s m e m b e r s of C h r i s t , it is c l e a r t h a t effective
c o n t r o l m u s t be e x e r c i s e d o v e r t h e i s s u e a n d c a n c e l l a t i o n of
m o n e y . C a r e m u s t b e e x e r c i s e d a l s o t o c o r r e c t a n o t h e r d e f e c t in
m o d e r n elective g o v e r n m e n t s , which has largely contributed to
t h e d o m i n a t i o n of m o n e y . M e n w h o a t t a i n to political p o w e r a s a
r e s u l t of a p a r t y t r i u m p h a t the polls a r e o f t e n d e v o i d of t r a i n i n g ,
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o r s p e c i a l a p t i t u d e s . It s e l d o m h a p p e n s
that a popularly elected minister has the mental formation neces
s a r y t o a p p l y t h e c o n s i d e r e d policy of t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t o t h e p r o
b l e m s of d a i l y life o r is c o m p e t e n t to d i s c u s s m a t t e r s w i t h h e a d s
of d e p a r t m e n t s w h o h a v e s p e n t t h e i r lives in public a d m i n i s t r a
tion. H o w e v e r able a n d e n e r g e t i c a m i n i s t e r m a y be, he seldom
h a s t h e t r a i n i n g a n d n e v e r c a n h a v e t h e t i m e t o u n d e r s t a n d fully
all t h e d o c u m e n t s he s i g n s o r t o k n o w of all t h e d e c i s i o n s t h a t a r e
m a d e in his n a m e . I n e v i t a b l y , m i n i s t e r s w h o a r e o n l y a s h o r t t i m e
in office a r e d e p e n d e n t to a g r e a t e r o r l e s s d e g r e e o n t h e i r p e r
m a n e n t officialssome absolutely. In practice, the p e r m a n e n t
officials a r e t h e G o v e r n m e n t . N o w , o w i n g t o t h e d o m i n a t i o n of
m o n e y in o u r clay, t h e p e r m a n e n t h e a d s of t h e T r e a s u r y D e p a r t
m e n t , w h o a r e t h e s p o k e s m e n of t h e " r u l i n g p o w e r s " of t h e
m o d e r n world, a r e by far t h e m o s t influential.
T h e n e t r e s u l t is t h a t e l e c t e d m i n i s t e r s can s e l d o m p e r f o r m a n y
a c t , o u t s i d e of p r e v i o u s l y s a n c t i o n e d r o u t i n e , w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t
of a s m a l l n u m b e r of p e r m a n e n t financial e x p e r t s . Tn o t h e r
w o r d s , e v e r y t h i n g m u s t pass t h r o u g h the F i n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t for
a v i s a . T h u s w h i l e t h e w o r k of g o v e r n m e n t is c a r r i e d on in t h e
offices, P a r l i a m e n t a n d e l e c t e d a s s e m b l i e s g e n e r a l l y a r e r e d u c e d t o
t h e p o s i t i o n of c e n t r e s of d i s c u s s i o n , l a r g e l y futile, On l e g i s l a t i o n
t h a t is c o n c e i v e d , d r a f t e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d b y p e r m a n e n t officials
u n d e r t h e d o m i n a n t i n f l u e n c e of f i n a n c e . Now, how many per
m a n e n t officials of T r e a s u r y D e p a r t m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d
h a v e g i v e n t h o u g h t t o t h e r e v e r s a l of o r d e r in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d ,
b y w h i c h m e m b e r s of C h r i s t a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d to p r o d u c t i o n , a n d
p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n s u m p t i o n to m o n e y ? M a n y of
t h e m a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t e v e n a w a r e of t h e d i s o r d e r a n d e a s i l y s u p
p o r t t h e f o r c e s w o r k i n g for t h e u n d o i n g of n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y ,
t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e s m a l l i n d e p e n d e n t o w n e r , t h e p r e v e n t i o n
of diffused p r o p e r t y , a n d t h e r e g i m e n t a t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g s .
L e s t a n y o n e m a y t h i n k t h a t , in i n s i s t i n g so s t r o n g l y u p o n 1 he-
c o n t r o l of finance o v e r e l e c t e d g o v e r n m e n t s , t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n
e x a g g e r a t i o n , if will be w e l l t o q u o t e a r e c e n t i s s u e of Th<
542 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

Weekly Review on t h e s u b j e c t . I n t h e i s s u e of N o v . 6, 1941, w e

r e a d : " F i n a n c i a l c o n t r o l is in t h e h a n d s of a c o s m o p o l i t a n clique
w i t h b e n e f i c i a r i e s in e v e r y c o u n t r y of t h e w o r l d ; i t is t h e r e f o r e
s o m e t i m e s t h o u g h t t h a t , in o r d e r t o c o u n t e r it, s o m e t h i n g in t h e
n a t u r e of a w o r l d G o v e r n m e n t is n e c e s s a r y . N o t h i n g c o u l d be
further from the truth. F i n a n c e l i v e s b y t h e s u b s e r v i e n c e of
n a t i o n s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s in n a t i o n s t o i t s d i c t a t e s . I t will c e a s e t o
live, a s s o o n a s t h e n a t i o n s d e t h r o n e it in t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s a n d
b e g i n t o m a k e t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r G o v e r n m e n t s r e s p o n s i b l e for
t h e e q u i t a b l e u s e of m o n e y . . . . So l o n g as m e n r e c o g n i z e the
n a t i o n a s a d e s i r e d u n i t , n a t i o n a l finance a n d t h e c o n t r o l of c u r
r e n c y m u s t b e in t h e h a n d s of G o v e r n m e n t s . "
Since t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s w e r e w r i t t e n , t h e w r i t e r has
r e a d L o r d P e r r y ' s p a m p h l e t , Beware Bureaucracy, in w h i c h the
i d e a s a b o v e o u t l i n e d a r e f o r c i b l y e x p r e s s e d b y o n e w i t h inside
experience. H e w r i t e s : " 1 do not s u g g e s t a n y t h i n g so d r a m a t i c
as t h a t the b u r e a u c r a t s have unlawfully seized p o w e r ; or that
t h e y a r e t h e w i l l i n g t o o l s of s o m e u n d e r g r o u n d c o n s p i r a c y t o c o n
v e r t Britain to a Socialistic S l a t e w i t h o u t the people b e i n g a w a r e
of t h e i r p u r p o s e . T h i s v i e w , 1 k n o w , is h e l d in m a n y q u a r t e r s .
T h e c u n n i n g d r a f l m a n s h i p of l e g i s l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e :
t h e i n s i d i o u s p u r s u i t of f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s of h e s i t a t i o n a n d a p p e a s e
ment ; t h e u s e of t h e C o m p a n i e s A c t s p e r m a n e n t l y t o
c r y s t a l l i z e G o v e r n m e n t D e p a r t m e n i a l C o n t r o l of p r i v a t e e n t e r
1
p r i s e : t h e c a r e f u l ' p l a c i n g of a d v i s e r s k n o w n t o be f a v o u r a b l e t o
p a r t i c u l a r s c h e m e s of N a t i o n a l P l a n n i n g a l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s g i v e
c o l o u r to s u c h c o n t e n t i o n s . I do n o t s u p p o r t t h e m , a n d a m n o t
concerned lo support them. W h a t I do support and a m very much
c o n c e r n e d t o e m p h a s i z e is t h e b e l i e f t h a t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e
s e d u c t i o n of B r i t a i n f r o m h e r old t r a d i t i o n s of free e n t e r p r i s e a n d
i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is d e l i b e r a t e o r a c c i d e n t a l , it is g o i n g on.
. . . . I a m p r i m a r i l y , a m a n of b u s i n e s s , b u t it h a s b e e n m y lot
in t w o w a r s a n d t h r o u g h s o m e y e a r s of p e a c e to s e e t h e o p e r a
t i o n s of b u r e a u c r a c y f r o m w i t h i n
" T h e H o u s e of C o m m o n s h a s b e c o m e a v e r i t a b l e m a n u f a c t o r y
for n e w legislation. In p i l i n g u p S t a t u t e L a w , P a r l i a m e n t finds
t i m e o n l y t o d i s c u s s t h e o u t l i n e of a n e n a c t m e n t ; a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
d e t a i l is left n o m i n a l l y in t h e h a n d s of a M i n i s t e r , b u t in f a c t a n d
p r a c t i c e , f o r t h e B u r e a u c r a c y t o f r a m e u n d e r t h e g u i s e of R e g u l a
t i o n s a s t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e of W h i t e h a l l in i t s i g n o r a n c e m a y d e s i r e .
T h u s t h e c o m m o n s e n s c a n d k n o w l e d g e of t h e w o r l d p o s s e s s e d by
o u r l e g i s l a t o r s is l o s t , a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e H l c c l o r s t h e
D e m o c r a t i c S y s t e m i s b e t r a y e d . . . . Let it be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t
w h a t e v e r n e w fields of g o v e r n m e n t t h e b u r e a u c r a t c o m m a n d s , he
d o e s d o t add to his responsibility. T h a t is still b o r n e b y t h e
p o l i t i c a l m i n i s t e r s w h o m h e d i r e c t s , w h o m h e t u t o r s a n d w h o m he
p a r a l y s e s . T h e n a t u r a l t r e n d , t h e n , of a p o l i t i c a l m i n i s t e r ' s p r o -
 MONETARY REFORM 543

f e s s i o n a l a d v i s e r s is t o w a r d s l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h g i v e s w i d e s c o p e t o
the Department which launches i t . I t is t h i s t h i r s t t o r p o w e r
w h i c h i n s p i r e s t h a t t y p e o f l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h L o r d H c w a r t in h i s
book, ' T h e N e w D e s p o t i s m / found so objectionablelegislation
w h i c h l e a v e s D e p a r t m e n t s free t o l a y d o w n r u l e s a n d to i m p o s e
r e g u l a t i o n s a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e r e is n o a p p e a l c i t h e r t o t h e C o u r t s
of L a w o r t o t h e P a r l i a m e n t itself. . . . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e
R a t i n g a n d V a l u a t i o n A c t of 1925, t h e M i n i s t e r t h a t is, in p r a c
tice, the D e p a r t m e n t w a s given the right to do w h a t e v e r
h e t h o u g h t e x p e d i e n t a n d to m a k e o r d e r s w h i c h m i g h t a c t u a l l y
' m o d i f y t h e p r o v i s i o n s ' of t h e v e r y A c t itself. In effect, t h e
D e p a r t m e n t w a s g i v e n carte blanche to interpret or vary the Act
a s i t t h o u g h t fit
" E v e r y H e a d of a D e p a r t m e n t a n d t h e M i n i s t e r h i m s e l f all
s t a n d in s p e l l b o u n d a w e of t h e c u r i o u s t a b o o k n o w n a s ' T r e a s u r y
S a n c t i o n , ' W h y t h i s s h o u l d b e is difficult t o c o m p r e h e n d a n d still
h a r d e r to explain. I n o r d i n a r y b u s i n e s s i t would be the Cashier's
officean i m p o r t a n t b u t quite subordinate functionary. Hut i n
t h e B u r e a u c r a t i c H i e r a r c h y t h e T r e a s u r y fiat o v e r r i d e s t h e j u d g
m e n t a n d d e c i s i o n of all o t h e r D e p a r t m e n t s of S t a t e . . . .
4
* L o r d H e w a r t , w r i t i n g in 1929, s u m s u p t h e m e t h o d s of t h e
* n e w D e s p o t i s m ' a s : ( a ) to m o d i f y p r o v i s i o n s of s t a t u t e s : ( b ) t o
t a k e p o w e r t o d e t e r m i n e a s t h e M i n i s t e r t h i n k s fit : ( c ) t o s e c u r e
t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r ' s d e c i s i o n shall b e final a n d c o n c l u s i v e ; ( d ) t o
s e c u r e t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r ' s o r d e r shall n o t be s u b j e c t to a p p e a l t o
a n y C o u r t ; ( e ) to s e c u r e t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r ' s r u l e s , o r d e r s , a n d
r e g u l a t i o n s shall h a v e effect a s if e n a c t e d in t h e A c t ; ( f ) to s e c u r e
t h a t t h e m a k i n g of t h e o r d e r shall b e c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e S t a t u t e h a v e b e e n c o m p l i e d w i t h .
" All of t h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y p l a n n e d d e v i c e s t o
r e m o v e t h e m a k i n g of l a w s f r o m t h e P a r l i a m e n t of t h e P e o p l e
a n d p l a c e P o w e r in t h e h a n d s of t h e b u r e a u c r a c y . They bypass
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l
l i b e r t y so t h a t R e g u l a t i o n s e n a c t e d b y i r r e s p o n s i b l e b u r e a u c r a t s
s h a l l c o n t r o l o u r d a i l y life, p e n a l i z e t h e f r e e d o m of o u r c o n d u c t
a n d d e s t r o y t h e r u l e of L a w In s o far a s t h e s e t h i n g s a r e
n e c e s s a r y for d e f e a t i n g t h e a l i e n e n e m y w i t h w h o m w e a r e a t
w a r , w e n e e d n o t , a n d d o n o t g r u m b l e . B u t let us b e w a r e of t h e
Bureaucracy, the hidden e n e m y within our gates, w h o whilst
G e r m a n y w a s still a f r i e n d l y n a t i o n , h a d a l r e a d y a r r o g a t e d - P o w e r
a n d p l a n n e d r e g u l a t i o n s for o u r e n s l a v e m e n t . P o w e r is a difficult
t h i n g t o r e l i n q u i s h . W h a t t o - d a y w e a r e told to e n d u r e a s a A v a r
n e c e s s i t y , w e s h a l l b e told t o a c c e p t t o - m o r r o w as a n e c e s s i t y of
34
reconstruction."* *
(34) Op. c i t , p p . 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25.
L o r d P e r r y insists t h a t the T r e a s u r y o r F i n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t m u s t
function exclusively a s t h e Account Office of each nation. He expresses
 544 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

Lord P e r r y a b s t r a c t s from the point w h e t h e r the " Bureaucra

tic P l a n n i n g " w h i c h is g o i n g o n u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n of finance
is d e l i b e r a t e o r a c c i d e n t a l . T h e R i g h t H o n . L o r d 1 I e w a r t of B u r y ,
L o r d Chief J u s t i c e of K n g l a n d , f r o m w h o s e b o o k . The New
Despotism, Kurd P e r r y q u o t e s , w r i t e s in t h a t b o o k a s f o l l o w s :
The c o m p l a i n t is not t h a i r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a r e m a d e , t h o u g h
the_\- a r e m a d e , t o be s u r e , m t h e m o s t e m b a r r a s s i n g m u l t i p l i c i t y .
T h e c o m p l a i n t is t h a i t h e y a r c m a d e at s u c h a s t a g e , in s u c h a
l o r n i . ;ind in s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s a s t o d e p r i v e , at o n e a n d t h e s a m e
t i m e , b o t h P a r l i a m e n t a n d t h e L a w C o u r t s of a n y r e a l a u t h o r i t y
in r e l a t i o n t o t h e m . T h e c i t i z e n is d e l i v e r e d o v e r t o t h e D e p a r t
ment. T h e D e p a r t m e n t b e c o m e s j u d g e in i t s o w n c a u s e . The
m e a s u r e w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e s e r e s u l t s is itself t h e h a n d i w o r k of
t h e D e p a r t m e n t . M o r e t h a n t h a t t h e m e t h o d is n o t o c c a s i o n a l or
s p o r a d i c . It h a s b e c o m e q u i t e s y s t e m a t i c . T h e c o n c l u s i o n is i r r e
s i s t i b l e t h a t it is m a n i f e s t l y t h e o f f s p r i n g of a well t h o u g h t o u t
plan."
W e h a v e s e e n w h a t P o p e P i u s XT s a i d a b o u t t h e t e r r i b l e p o w e r
a c c u m u l a t e d in t h e h a n d s of t h e r e l a t i v e l y f e w w h o c o n t r o l t h e
c r e a t i o n of m o n e y a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e a l l o t m e n t of c r e d i t . The
r e v e r s a l of o r d e r i n v o l v e d in t h e d o m i n a t i o n of f i n a n c e , n a m e l y ,
t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of m a n to p r o d u c t i o n , a n d of p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i
b u t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n t o m o n e y , h a s c o n t r i b u t e d e n o r m o u s l y to
t h e g r o w t h of i n d i v i d u a l i s m . " O n a c c o u n t of t h e evil of indi
v i d u a l i s m , " w r i t e s I \ >pc P i u s X I , " t h i n g s h a v e c o m e t o s u c h a
p a s s t h a t t h e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d social life, w h i c h o n c e n o u r i s h e d in
a v a r i e t y of p r o s p e r o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s o r g a n i c a l l y l i n k e d w i t h e a c h
o t h e r , h a s b e e n d a m a g e d a n d all b u t r u i n e d , l e a v i n g t h u s v i r t u a l l y
only individuals and the S t a t e . Social life h a s e n t i r e l y l o s t its
o r g a n i c f o r m ; t h e S t a t e w h i c h is n o w e n c u m b e r e d w i t h all t h e
b u r d e n s o n c e b o r n e b y a s s o c i a t i o n s r e n d e r e d e x t i n c t b y it, is in
c o n s e q u e n c e s u b m e r g e d a n d o v e r w h e l m e d by an infinity of affairs
3 5 1
and duties/'*
T h e g r o w i n g d o m i n a t i o n of finance o v e r i n d i v i d u a l s , w h o a r e
s u p p o s e d t o b e p o l i t i c a l l y free b u t w h o a r c b e c o m i n g m o r e and
more economically dependent, will lead t o e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g r e g i
m e n t a t i o n and bureaucracy, and t o l e g i s l a t i o n of t h e k i n d d e p l o r e d
i t in husiness l a n g u a g e as follows: ' ' F r o m hoing the final a r h i t e r o n
all questions ot policy and e x p e n d i t u r e the T r e a s u r y must r e t u r n to
its p r o p e r place as Accountant t o tin* Hoard of D i r e c t o r s o f C r e a t
B r i t a i n f Tonic nnd Colonial Lid. A (rusted and powerful servant of
the Management it imiM lv no means lie permitted to iiMivp the powers
T
of the \ a t ion's S h a r e h o l d e r s t h r o u g h 1 heir elceled C h a i r m a n and
Directors, eit her o p e n I \ <) hy p a c k i n g t he 1 )eparl inenl s, head, hody
and tail, wilh its nominees mid s \ e o p h a n l s Cop. eit., p. 215). Cf. also
JIinwtnift/s Chrtih f/t/r ' P a m p h l e t issued hy The Service foi* Economic
Action. 115 Essex Road. Soulhsea, H a n t s ) .
, 3 R )
Encyclical Letter. Qiif&dmgesimo Anno, On the Social Order.
 MONETARY REFORM 545

by L o r d P e r r y a n d L o r d H e w a r t in t h e t e x t s q u o t e d . It is i n e v i t
a b l e . T h e r o o t - r e m e d y is t h e r e t u r n of s u p e r n a t u r a l r e v e r e n c e
for t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of m e m b e r s of C h r i s t . T h e r e m e d y in t h e
n a t u r a l o r d e r will b e t o g e t rid of t h e r e v e r s a l of o r d e r m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e , b y p u t t i n g m o n e y a n d i t s m a n i p u l a t o r s in t h e i r p r o p e r
p l a c e . T o t h a t , h o w e v e r , m u s t b e a d d e d t h e r e v i v a l of t h e g u i l d s
in a f o r m a d a p t e d t o p r e s e n t - d a y c o n d i t i o n s . " J u s t a s it is
w r o n g , " w r i t e s P o p e P i u s X I , " t o w i t h d r a w from the individual
and c o m m i t to the c o m m u n i t y at large w h a t private enterprise
a n d i n d u s t r y c a n a c c o m p l i s h , s o t o o it is a n i n j u s t i c e , a g r a v e evil
a n d a d i s t u r b a n c e of r i g h t o r d e r f o r a l a r g e r a n d h i g h e r o r g a n i z a
tion t o a r r o g a t e t o i t s e l f f u n c t i o n s w h i c h c a n b e p e r f o r m e d effici
e n t l y b y s m a l l e r a n d l o w e r b o d i e s . T h i s is a f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n
ciple of s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y , u n s h a k e n a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e , a n d it
r e t a i n s i t s full t r u t h t o - d a y . . . . T h e S t a t e s h o u l d l e a v e t o t h e s e
s m a l l e r g r o u p s t h e s e t t l e m e n t of b u s i n e s s of m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e ;
it w i l l t h u s c a r r y o u t w i t h g r e a t e r f r e e d o m , p o w e r , a n d s u c c e s s
the t a s k s b e l o n g i n g t o it, b e c a u s e it a l o n e c a n e f f e c t i v e l y a c c o m p l i s h
these, directing, w a t c h i n g , s t i m u l a t i n g and restraining, as circum
s t a n c e s s u g g e s t o r n e c e s s i t y d e m a n d s . L e t t h o s e in p o w e r , t h e r e
fore, b e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e m o r e f a i t h f u l l y t h i s p r i n c i p l e b e fol
lowed, and a graded hierarchical order exist between the various
s u b s i d i a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e m o r e e x c e l l e n t will be b o t h t h e
a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e efficiency of t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a w h o l e ,
a n d t h e h a p p i e r a n d m o r e p r o s p e r o u s t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e
State."**'
I t m a y be well to c o n c l u d e this section b y d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n to
a n o t h e r a s p e c t of t h i s q u e s t i o n . I t is a p i t y t h a t s o m e of t h o s e
w h o h a v e g a l l a n t l y s t r i v e n t o u n d o t h e s e evils a n d p u t m o n e y in
its p r o p e r p l a c e , h a v e n o t a b e t t e r g r a s p of t h e r e a l h i s t o r y of t h e
world. F o r example, P r o f e s s o r Soddy, to w h o s e vigorous w r i t
i n g s o n m o n e y t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r is h a p p y t o c o n f e s s h i s i n d e b t e d
n e s s , u s e s t h e w o r l d " m e d i e v a l , " a t l e a s t o n c e , as a t e r m of c o n
37
t e m p t . * * O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e s p e a k s of C a r t e s i a n E c o n o m i c s
as if t h e t e r m " C a r t e s i a n " w e r e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t r u e a n d l a s t i n g
(38
progress. > N o w w e k n o w that Nominalist Philosophy was one
of t h e c a u s e s w h y t h e a d v a n c e of p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , t o w h i c h
D e s c a r t e s a m o n g s t o t h e r s c o n t r i b u t e d , h a s n o t r e s u l t e d in g r e a t e r
o r d e r a n d h a p p i n e s s f o r m a n k i n d . D e s c a r t e s w a s t h e i n i t i a t o r of
o n e of t h e m o d e r n c u r r e n t s i s s u i n g f r o m N o m i n a l i s m , a n d N o m
i n a l i s m itself w a s a d e p a r t u r e f r o m a n d a r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e
" m e d i e v a l i s m " of S t . T h o m a s A q u i n a s , w h o s e s a n e e c o n o m i c
p r i n c i p l e s w e h a v e s e e n in o u t l i n e . N o m i n a l i s m w a s c u l t i v a t e d in
t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s in s p i t e of t h e w a r n i n g s a n d e n t r e a t i e s of t h e
36
< ) Encyclical Letter, Quadragesima Anno, On the. Social Order.
(37) Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt, p. 201.
<38> Cf. The Bole of Money, p. 7.
00
 546 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
( 3 9
Popes. ' In t h e v e r y p a s s a g e , i n w h i c h P r o f e s s o r S o d d y u s e s
the term " m e d i e v a l " as equivalent to " b a c k w a r d s " a n d " n o n
p r o g r e s s i v e , " h e is d e p l o r i n g t h e f a c t t h a t s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s
h a v e not been utilized lo give o r d i n a r y people a b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t y
to cultivate their h i g h e r faculties a n d " l i v e on a less animal-like
plane.*' N o w h e h a s o n l y t o r e c a l l h o w C a t h o l i c C h u r c h Holydays
g a v e w a y t o H a n k Hoiitluys t o r e a l i z e h o w l o w w e h a v e fallen
s i n c e m e d i e v a l t i m e s . T h e o r d i n a r y p e o p l e w e r e d e p r i v e d of t h e
C h u r c h Ilolyday.s, o n w h i c h t h e y h a d a n o p p o r t u n i t y of t u r n i n g
t o t h e t h i n g s of t h e s o u l . T h e n , w h e n it w a s f o u n d t h a t s o m e
m o r e r e s t w a s n e e d e d b y t h e p o o r a n i m a l s , in t h e i n t e r e s t s of p r o
duction and r e t u r n on invested m o n e y , t h e y w e r e g r a n t e d Hank
Holidays. T h e v e r y n a m e is s i g n i f i c a n t of t h a t d i s o r d e r , t h e
d o m i n a t i o n of m o n e y , w h i c h P r o f e s s o r S o d d y h a s s o a b l y c o m
b a t e d in h i s w o r k s . T h a t d i s o r d e r is a r e v e r s a l of t h e o r d e r of
medieval times.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND MONEY.

(a) THE HANK I'OR INTERNATIONAL SETTLEMENTS
AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE.
W e h a v e s e e n s o m e t h i n g of t h e g r o w t h of C e n t r a l B a n k s a i m
i n g a t s e t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s free from n a t i o n a l control. T h e y have
r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e d in n u m b e r s i n c e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e F e d e r a l
R e s e r v e B o a r d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in 1913. W e h a v e s e e n also
t h a t t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B o a r d b y i t s c o n t r o l of g o l d p r a c t i c a l l y
c o n t r o l s t h e t r a d e of t h e w o r l d . W e k n o w t o o t h a t t h e n e t w o r k
of C e n t r a l B a n k s , w i t h t h e B a n k f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s a s
t h e a p e x of t h e s y s t e m , h a s for o b j e c t t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y
m e c h a n i s m for t h e " s a t i s f a c t o r y " w o r k i n g of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
gold s t a n d a r d . Dr. F u n k of G e r m a n y a n d M r . M o n t a g u N o r m a n
of G r e a t B r i t a i n r e t a i n t h e i r s e a t s on t h e B o a r d of D i r e c t o r s of
t h e B a n k f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s u n d e r t h e p r e s i d e n c y of
M r . T h o m a s II. M e K c t t r i c k of t h e U n i t e d S l a t e s , in s p i t e of the
w a r w h i c h h a s b e e n r a g i n g s i n c e 1939.
S o m e a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e B a n k of I n t e r
n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s is t o b e f o u n d in t h e a d d r e s s g i v e n b y Sir
C h a r l e s A d d i s , K . C M . G . , t o t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e of
(w
B a n k e r s , on 3rd April, 1930. > " T h e C o m m i t t e e a p p o i n t e d to
o r g a n i s e t h e n e w B a n k w a s c o m p o s e d of f o u r t e e n members
a p p o i n t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l B a n k s of t h e p r i n c i p a l p o w e r s c o n c e r n e d ,
G r e a t B r i t a i n , F r a n c e , B e l g i u m , I t a l y , G e r m a n y , J a p a n a n d the
U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e y m e t in l i n d e n B a d e n o n O c t o b e r 3 r d , 1929,
a n d c o n t i n u e d in s e s s i o n for a p e r i o d of six w e e k s . B a s i c , S w i l -

iW) Cf. Antitnodtrne, by J. M a r i t a i n , p. 137.

f4
) Tt is quoted from the Journal of ihc fns-iifnte of Hanker*, for
May, I MO, by C. M. B a t t c r s l e y , in A p p e n d i x K of This Aye of Plenty.
 MONETARY REFORM 547

z e r l a n d , w a s finally s e l e c t e d a s t h e s e a t of t h e n e w B a n k . . . . Tt
w a s n a t u r a l l y t h e a i m of t h e B a d e n B a d e n C o m m i t t e e , c o m p o s e d
a s i t w a s of h a n k e r s , t o p r o v i d e t h e B a n k w i t h c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m
of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d t o e x c l u d e a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e a n y political
i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h its p r o c e d u r e . But t h i s a t o n c e g a v e rise to a
v e r y difficult q u e s t i o n . . . . T h e p r o b l e m w a s h o w to r e c o n c i l e
t h e f r e e d o m a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e of m a n a g e m e n t i n d i s p e n s a b l e for
t h e s u c c e s s f u l w o r k i n g of a n y financial i n s t i t u t i o n w i t h t h a t
d e g r e e of G o v e r n m e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d c o n t r o l w h i c h in t h e l a s t
r e s o r t is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e a s s e r t i o n b y a n y G o v e r n m e n t of its
sovereign rights.
" T h e difficulty w a s s o l v e d by d i v i d i n g t h e S t a t u t e s i n t o t w o
S e c t i o n s . Of t h e s i x t y a r t i c l e s , f o r t y - s e v e n a r e r e g a r d e d a s a d m i n
i s t r a t i v e , a n d t h e B o a r d of t h e B a n k a r e free, b y a t w o - t h i r d s
m a j o r i t y , to a l t e r t h e m as and w h e n t h e y please. T h e r e m a i n i n g
t h i r t e e n a r t i c l e s of t h e S t a t u t e s , w h i c h deal w i t h t h e o b j e c t s of t h e
B a n k , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e B a n k , t h e e x e r c i s e of t h e r i g h t t o
v e t o , e t c . , a r e r e g a r d e d a s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d c a n n o t be a l t e r e d
u n t i l t h e c h a n g e h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y of
the Board, confirmed by a General M e e t i n g , and sanctioned by a
f r e s h S w i s s L a w s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e C h a r t e r of t h e B a n k , f o r
w h i c h t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e G o v e r n m e n t s s i g n a t o r y t o t h e t r e a t y
a u t h o r i s i n g t h e C h a r t e r is r e q u i r e d . . . . T h e C h a r t e r t a k e s t h e
f o r m of a C o n v e n t i o n w h i c h w a s s i g n e d a t t h e H a g u e o n J a n u a r y
2 0 t h , 1930, b y G e r m a n y , B e l g i u m , F r a n c e , G r e a t B r i t a i n , I t a l y
a n d J a p a n of t h e o n e p a r t a n d S w i t z e r l a n d of t h e o t h e r p a r t . . . .
T h e C h a r t e r , a s w e l l a s c e r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l a r t i c l e s of the
S t a t u t e s of t h e B a n k , c a n o n l y be a l t e r e d by a fresh l a w p a s s e d
in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r s i g n a t o r y p o w e r s . T h e B a n k a n d its
foreign employees a r e e x e m p t from taxation. The signatory
p o w e r s , i n c l u d i n g S w i t z e r l a n d , also a g r e e t h a t the Bank, its p r o
p e r t y and assets and its d e p o s i t s , shall be i m m u n e as r e g a r d s their
r e s p e c t i v e t e r r i t o r i e s f r o m a n y s e i z u r e o r c o n f i s c a t i o n , in t i m e of
p e a c e o r w a r , a n d f r o m a n y p r o h i b i t i o n o r r e s t r i c t i o n of e x p o r t s
of g o l d o r c u r r e n c y . . . .
" T h e B o a r d of t h e B a n k is c o m p o s e d of t h e G o v e r n o r s of t h e
s e v e n C e n t r a l B a n k s of B e l g i u m , F r a n c e , G e r m a n y , G r e a t B r i t a i n ,
I t a l y , J a p a n a n d the U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d of s e v e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
of f i n a n c e , i n d u s t r y o r c o m m e r c e of t h e s a m e n a t i o n a l i t y as t h e
Governors who appoint them T h e G o v e r n o r s of t h e C e n
tral B a n k s o t h e r than the original seven . . . . m a y each submit
a l i s t of f o u r c a n d i d a t e s f o r d i r e c t o r s h i p . . . . F r o m t h e s e lists
the B o a r d m a y elect, by a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y , n o t m o r e t h a n n i n e
persons. T h e full B o a r d w i l l t h u s b e c o m p o s e d of t w e n t y - f i v e
Directors. [France and G e r m a n y have each one additional repre
s e n t a t i v e for R e p a r a t i o n s |.
" In e x p l a i n i n g t h e o b j e c t s of t h e N e w B a n k , it m a y be c o n -
548 Tim MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

v c n i c n t to b e g i n w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e c l a u s e s . . . . T h e R a n k m a y
n o t o p e r a t e for i t s o w n a c c o u n t in c u r r e n c i e s w h i c h d o n o t s a t i s f y
t h e p r a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e g o l d o r g o l d e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d .
It m a y not e n t e r into any h a n k i n g o p e r a t i o n w h i c h conflicts with
t h e m o n e t a r y p o l i c y of C e n t r a l R a n k s . . . . T h e B a n k m a y n o t
i s s u e n o t e s , b u t it c a n b u y a n d sell a n d e a r m a r k g o l d . If it is
p r o h i b i t e d f r o m m a k i n g a n a d v a n c e t o a G o v e r n m e n t , t h e r e is
n o t h i n g l o p r e v e n t it f r o m b u y i n g i t s T r e a s u r y Bills if c u r r e n t l y
m a r k e t a b l e , o r l e n d i n g m o n e y to i t s A g e n t , t h e C e n t r a l B a n k . T h e
B a n k f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s m a y n o t a c c e p t b i l l s , b u t it
can discount them. It m a y n o t d e a l in o t h e r t h a n g o l d o r g o l d
e x c h a n g e c u r r e n c i e s for i t s o w n a c c o u n t , b u t it c a n d o s o for
a c c o u n t of o t h e r s , w h e t h e r b a n k s , f i r m s o r i n d i v i d u a l s , s o l o n g as
the Central B a n k does not object. In fine, t h e g e n e r a l i n t e n t i o n
of t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s is n o t s o m u c h t o r e s t r a i n t h e o p e r a t i o n s of t h e
B a n k , as to e n s u r e that t h e y shall b e confined to t r a n s a c t i o n s
t h r o u g h o r w i t h t h e c o n s e n t of C e n t r a l B a n k s . I t s c h i e f f u n c t i o n
i s t o a c t a s a c e n t r e of c o - o p e r a t i o n f o r C e n t r a l R a n k s . "
F o u r p o s s i b l e l i n e s of d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e R a n k f o r I n t e r n a
t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s w e r e o u t l i n e d in t h e Midland Bank Review of
J u n e / J u l y , 1930. Of t h e s e " t h e f o u r t h line of m o n e t a r y a c t i v i t y
w i l l , if f o l l o w e d , c a r r y u s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of s t a b i l i z i n g t h e v a l u e
of g o l d . T h e B a n k h a s t h e p o w e r , s u b j e c t t o t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e
s u p p o r t of c e n t r a l b a n k s , t o e n s u r e a n e v e n e x p a n s i o n of credit
s u p p l i e s i r r e s p e c t i v e of a n y s h o r t a g e o r p l e t h o r a of g o l d . If g o l d ,
a s s e e m s o n b a l a n c e l i k e l y , b e c o m e s s c a r c e in r e l a t i o n t o s u p
p o s e d m o n e t a r y n e e d s , t h e B a n k m a y m a k e g o o d t h e deficiency
t h r o u g h i t s p o w e r s of l e n d i n g , d i s c o u n t i n g bills a n d b u y i n g s e c u r i
t i e s , t h u s a c t i n g in m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a s a c e n t r a l b a n k in
i t s o w n c o u n t r y , \Vith t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t it is n o t b o u n d b y a n y
s t a t u t o r y o r c u s t o m a r y c a s h o r g o l d r a t i o s / ' A s M r . C. M . H a t -
t e r s l e y r e m a r k s , " i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t C e n t r a l B a n k s t o - d a y , by
a d v a n c e s a n d i n v e s t m e n t s , c r e a t e t h e ' b a n k - c a s h " upon w h i c h the
c o m m e r c i a l b a n k s operate, so the B a n k for International Settle
m e n t s will b e in a p o s i t i o n to c r e a t e a k i n d of s u p c r - b a n k - c a s h
4 1 1
u p o n w h i c h , in t u r n , t h e C e n t r a l B a n k s will r e l y . " '

(h) INTERNATIONAL P I A N N 1 N G AND T H E HOLD STANDARD.

K v e r y c o u n t r y o n t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d h a s s t a b l e r a t e s of
e x c h a n g e w i t h t h e o t h e r s . T h r e e d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s of s e c u r i n g
t h i s h a v e b e e n e v o l v e d . T h e first b a s e d on t h e free c o i n a g e of gold
m a y b e c a l l e d t h e g o l d s p e c i e s t a n d a r d . T h a t b a s e d o n t h e con
v e r t i b i l i t y of p a p e r m o n e y inU> b u l l i o n is c a l l e d t h e g o l d bullion
( 4 f i >
s t a n d a r d . T h e t h i r d is k n o w n a s t h e g o l d e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d .
(4D Thin Age of Plenty, p. 404.
42
< > Cf. Article, Money, in the Knoyclopaedia Britannica.
 MONETARY REFORM 549

Mr. Geoffrey C r o w t h e r explains the distinction between these

t h r e e w i t h his c u s t o m a r y lucidity. " A currency s y s t e m / ' he
w r i t e s , " in w h i c h g o l d c o i n s e i t h e r f o r m t h e w h o l e c i r c u l a t i o n o r
e l s e c i r c u l a t e e q u a l l y w i t h n o t e s is k n o w n a s t h e * full gold s t a n d
ard.' W h e n g o l d c o i n s d o n o t c i r c u l a t e , b u t t h e C e n t r a l B a n k is
n e v e r t h e l e s s u n d e r l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n to b u y a n d sell g o l d in e x
change for currency at a hxed price and in unlimited
amounts (sometimes with a minimum amount fixed but
never a maximum), it is known as the ' gold bullion
s t a n d a r d / a s t h e c u r r e n c y is t h e n c o n v e r t i b l e n o t i n t o gold
c o i n b u t i n t o gold b u l l i o n . . . . Y o u could still g e t gofd
f o r y o u r n o t e s , b u t o n l y if y o u w e r e p r e p a r e d to t a k e a t l e a s t o n e
b a r of g o l d , a t a b o u t 1,700 a b a r . T h e m a n in t h e s t r e e t could n o
l o n g e r g e t g o l d for h i s n o t e s . . . . A t h i r d f o r m is t h e ' g o l d e x
c h a n g e s t a n d a r d / u n d e r which the legal obligation r e s t i n g upon
t h e C e n t r a l B a n k is t o r e d e e m t h e c u r r e n c y n o t in g o l d itself b u t
in s o m e o t h e r c u r r e n c y w h i c h is itself c o n v e r t i b l e i n t o gold. T h e
g o l d e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d is u s u a l l y a d o p t e d by a s m a l l o r p o o r
c o u n t r y w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s a s t h e c u r r e n c y in w h i c h it will r e d e e m
i t s o w n n o t e s a t a fixed r a t e t h e c u r r e n c y of o n e of t h e l a r g e gold
standard countries. B u t w h a t e v e r form the gold s t a n d a r d m a y
t a k e , i t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is t h a t t h e c u r r e n c y is, e i t h e r
d i r e c t l y o r a t o n e r e m o v e , e i t h e r in v o l u m e o r in v a l u e , l i n k e d t o
gold."<43)
T h i s is t h e t h e o r y of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e g o l d e x c h a n g e
s t a n d a r d . D r . R o b e r t E i s l c r will i l l u s t r a t e for us t h e s y s t e m in
p r a c t i c e . " It is o b v i o u s / ' he w r i t e s , " t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e
g o l d e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d a l l o w s of a n o t h e r l a r g e scale e x p a n s i o n
of t h e w o r l d ' s f i d u c i a r y c i r c u l a t i o n o v e r a n d a b o v e t h a t p r o d u c e d
by the t r a n s i t i o n to the gold bullion s t a n d a r d . . . . If, s a y , t h e
P o l i s h N a t i o n a l B a n k i n c l u d e s in i t s g o l d - e x c h a n g e r e s e r v e s (in
s t e a d of s o m u c h g o l d ) a n e q u i v a l e n t a m o u n t of F e d e r a l R e s e r v e
d o l l a r n o t e s w h i c h n e e d n o t be c o v e r e d b y m o r e t h a n 35 p e r c e n t ,
g o l d a n a d d i t i o n of l / 3 r d of t h i s q u a n t i t y of g o l d will e n a b l e
t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e J J a n k t o c o m p e n s a t e t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of n o t e
c i r c u l a t i o n in A m e r i c a c a u s e d b y t h e e x p o r t of t h e d o l l a r n o t e s
i n q u e s t i o n t o P o l a n d . A n d if i n s t e a d of d o l l a r n o t e s the B a n k
P o l s k i h o l d s c h e q u e s o n t h e C h a s e N a t i o n a l Ba/ik of N e w Y o r k ,
t h i s b a n k is o n l y o b l i g e d t o h o l d t h e u s u a l p r o p o r t i o n - o f cash r e
s e r v e s (i.e., n o m o r e t h a n 10 p e r c e n t . ) in d o l l a r n o t e s a g a i n s t this
l i a b i l i t y , a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e S y s t e m n e e d n o t hold
m o r e t h a n 35 p e r c e n t , in g o l d . T h e r e f o r e a c h e q u e f g u r i n g for
full 100 p e r c e n t , of its g o l d v a l u e in t h e g o l d e x c h a n g e r e s e r v e of
t h e P o l i s h N a t i o n a l B a n k will i m m o b i l i s e o n l y 3.5 p e r c e n t , of b's
v a l u e in F e d e r a l R e s e r v e g o l d . T h i s is t h e m a g i c w a n d w h i c h

'43) The Outline of Monty* pp. 314, 80.

550 T H E MYSTfCAL BODY OF CHRIST

e n a b l e d t h e U . S . A . t o l e n d , d u r i n g t h e f o u r y e a r s 1925-1928, 4,789
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s t o E u r o p e on l o n g a c c o u n t , n o t t o m e n t i o n an
e n o r m o u s v o l u m e of s h o r t t e r m l e n d i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e gold
r e s e r v e s of t h e F e d e r a l R e s e r v e S v s l c m w e r e n e v e r h i g h e r t h a n
4 4
4.K10 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ( A p r i l . 1927) ( l u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . " ' '
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e c u r r e n c y of a c o u n t r y o n t h e g o l d e x c h a n g e
s t a n d a r d , i n s t e a d of b e i n g c o n v e r t i b l e i n t o g o l d , is c o n v e r t i b l e i n t o
foreign c u r r e n c i e s which a r c e q u i v a l e n t to gold. T h e gold ex
change standard, therefore, presupposes the existence somewhere
of a g o l d s p e c i e s t a n d a r d o r a t l e a s t of a g o l d b u l l i o n s t a n d a r d .
I t p r a c t i c a l l y c o m e s t o t h i s , t h a t in all e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n c o u n
t r i e s , t h e c u r r e n c i e s , in w h i c h t h e p r i c e s of t h i n g s a r c e x p r e s s e d ,
h a v e all .to b e c a l c u l a t e d in t e r m s of g o l d . O n l y o n t h i s c o n d i t i o n
c a n t r a d e b e t w e e n t h e c o u n t r i e s t a k e p l a c e . T h u s t h o s e w h o con
t r o l g o l d s t a n d a t t h e c r o s s - r o a d s a n d t a k e toll of t h e p a s s e r s - b y
o r t u r n t h e m b a c k , a s t h e c a s e m a y b e . T h i s is r e a l l y o n l y a m o r e
c o m p l e t e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n of w h a t w a s g o i n g
o n d u r i n g t h e 19lh c e n t u r y , s i n c e g o l d b e c a m e p r a c t i c a l l y t h e
m o n o p o l y of a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r of f i n a n c i e r s . N o c o u n t r y
c o u l d c o n t r a c t o u t of t h e s y s t e m b e c a u s e a n y c o u n t r y w h i c h t r i e d
t o d o s o w a s i m m e d i a t e l y d e n o u n c e d a s t h e p o s s e s s o r of u n s o u n d
money.
45
In h i s b o o k , Economic Peace / I m / . v t ' , O s w a l d D u t c h g i v e s us
a n o u t l i n e of a p l a n n e d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of c u r r e n c y a n d S t a t e fin
ance after the war. A few e x t r a c t s will suffice t o s h o w w h a t
s o m e f i n a n c i e r s h o p e t o a c h i e v e : " A C e n t r a l Ku r o p e a n B a n k will
be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i t s h e a d q u a r t e r s in a n e u t r a l S t a t e , p r e f e r a b l y
Switzerland. T h i s C e n t r a l B a n k will of c o u r s e m a k e u s e of
national b a n k s and their b r a n c h e s as executive o r g a n s for mone
t a r y e x c h a n g e a n d f o r c a r r y i n g o u t all f u r t h e r b a n k i n g t r a n s
a c t i o n s . N o i n d i v i d u a l S t a t e will i s s u e i t s o w n m o n e y . T h e old
n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c i e s will b e p r o v i s i o n a l l e g a l t e n d e r a t t h e r a t e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to their conversion to the n e w dollar currency. . . .
T h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e E u r o p e a n C e n t r a l B a n k will b e a b s o
l u t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of a n y i n f l u e n c e of t h e G o v e r n m e n t of t h e
E u r o p e a n C o m m o n w e a l t h o r of a n y n a t i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t s . A p a r t
f r o m c o m i n g u n d e r t h e p a r t c o n t r o l of t h e A m e r i c a n F e d e r a l
R e s e r v e B a n k s a n d t h e R a n k (if E n g l a n d , h o w e v e r , i t w i l l b e a
separate and independent institution. I n t h e initial s t a g e s t h e
C e n t r a l B a n k w i l l , it is t r u e , r e p r e s e n t n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a f o r m
of l a r g e - s c a l e b r a n c h , of t h e s e t w o R a n k s . It will o n l y g r a d u a l l y
become a separate institution as European economy grows
s t r o n g e r : even then the democratic parent institutes must retain
t h e i r r i g h t of c o n t r o l .

(44) The Money Maze, p p . 39-41, q u o t e d hy C. M. TIattersley in Thi*

Age of Plenty, p p . 165, 166.
(45) E d w a r d A r n o l d a n d Co., L o n d o n , 1941.
 MONETARY REFORM 551

" I t will b e a q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r i t is p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o s t a r t
off w i t h t h e i s s u e of d o l l a r n o t e s o n l y o r w h e t h e r t h e C e n t r a l B a n k
w i l l b e a b l e t o i s s u e c o i n s a s w e l l . If t h i s is n o t p o s s i b l e for t e c h
n i c a l r e a s o n s , t h e c o i n s of t h e n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c i e s can be r e t a i n e d
a s s m a l l c h a n g e , a t a fixed r e l a t i o n t o t h e d o l l a r The
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c o m m o n E u r o p e a n c u r r e n c y on t h e g o l d b a s i s
w o u l d n o t o n l y h a v e a d e c i s i v e effect on t h e e c o n o m i c r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n of t h e C o n t i n e n t ; it w o u l d a b o v e all e n s u r e t h e c o
o p e r a t i o n of all t h o s e p e o p l e s w h o , for t h e first t i m e since 1914,
w o u l d o n c e m o r e be s t a n d i n g on a firm m o n e t a r y b a s i s '.
O n l y o n e w h o h a s lived t h e last t w e n t y y e a r s in C e n t r a l Europe
c a n r e a l i z e w h a t it will m e a n t o t h e p e o p l e o f t h i s t e r r i t o r y if
E u r o p e once again has a real gold currency, and no longer a gold-
e d g e d o r m a n i p u l a t e d c u r r e n c y . D e s p i t e all t h e a t t e m p t s t o s h a k e
t h e p e o p l e ' s f a i t h in g o l d a n d t o c r e a t e all m a n n e r of s u b s t i t u t e
c u r r e n c i e s a n d c o v e r , g o l d still r e t a i n s its m a g i c influence
A c o m m o n E u r o p e a n c u r r e n c y will d o far m o r e to b r i n g t h e m a n y
p e o p l e s of E u r o p e t o g e t h e r a n d t o u n i t e t h e m t h a n t h e finest
p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e s , w o r l d p h i l o s o p h i e s a n d p r o g r a m m e s could e v e r ,
h o p e t o d o . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c o m m o n c u r r e n c y . . . m u s t ,
l i k e t h e p o l i t i c a l B o a r d of R e c o n s t r u c t i o n , be a l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e .
T h a t is, it m u s t c o n i c i n i o f o r c e on t h e d a y of t h e A r m i s t i c e . All
t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , b e t w e e n t h e E u r o p e a n G o v e r n m e n t s m u s t be c o n
cluded before the w a r ends
" A l l t h e a s s e t s of t h e G e r m a n R e i c h s b a n k and of a n y o t h e r
b a n k s in E u r o p e w h i c h m a y still be f u n c t i o n i n g will be t a k e n o v e r
b y t h e . E u r o p e a n C e n t r a l B a n k . T h e y will be u s e d to c o v e r p a r t
of t h e i s s u e of d o l l a r n o t e s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e D e m o c r a t i c S t a t e s
will g r a n t f u r t h e r s u p p l i e s of g o l d a s b a c k i n g for m o n e y in c i r
c u l a t i o n . T h e s u m m a d e a v a i l a b l e w i t h e v e n t u a l a s s e t s of t h e
E u r o p e a n b a n k s m u s t be sufficient t o p r o v i d e a m i n i m u m c o v e r
of 4 0 p e r c e n t in gold a n d f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e f o r t h e fiduciary i s s u e .
T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h ( C o n t i n e n t a l M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e
and the European P a r l i a m e n t ) , together with an Anglo-American
C o n t r o l B o a r d , will s u p e r v i s e t h e b u d g e t s of t h e M e m b e r
Stales."<>
' 4 6 ) Op. c i t . , p p . 200, 2 0 2 , 203, 2 0 1 , 204.
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to see t h i s a u t h o r o p p o s i n g a m a n i p u l a t e d currency
to a gold .currency, as if a gold c u r r e n c y were not a m a n i p u l a t e d
currency.
I n his book. Plan for Permanent Peace, H a n s H e y m a n n outlines an
even more elaborate scheme t h a n t h a t of Oswald Dutch for world-
c o n t r o l by a h i e r a r c h y of banks a n d b a n k e r s . As The New English
Weekly of Oct. 15, 1942, s a y s : " I t is the complete d i a g r a m for the
o r g a n i z a t i o n of h u m a n i t y u p o n what t h e a u t h o r calls the ' new ' p r i n
ciples of 'socialist c a p i t a l i s m / which a r e r e a l l y the old methods of
financial i m p e r i a l i s m w r i t l a r g e r . " T h e N a t u r a l i s m of the book is
a p p a l l i n g a n d is bound t o lead to d i s a s t e r , if the a t t e m p t is m a d e t o
realize the scheme.
 552 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

W h a t a r e w e to t h i n k of s u c h a n o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e w o r l d
b y t h o s e w h o c o n t r o l t h e w o r l d ' s g o l d s t o c k s ? P e r h a p s t h e best
a n s w e r will b e t h e w o r d s of M r . J e f f r e y M a r k in r e f e r e n c e to
i h c a t t e m p t s t o m a k e t h e B a n k f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s as
a u t o c r a t i c w i t h r e g a r d to w o r l d f i n a n c e a s t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d
is w i t h r e g a r d to B r i t i s h finance. " T h i s b a n k e r s ' d r e a m , " he
4
w r i t e s , " will c e r t a i n l y m a k e f o r a s t a b l e " b a n k i n g s y s t e m for the
w o r l d . W i t h t h e w h o l e of t h e w o r l d ' s g o l d s t o c k s c e n t r a l i z e d , a n d
with each country's internal hanking-sy.stem co-ordinated under
an all-powerful central bank, bank crashes and bank ' runs'
( w h e t h e r on a l o c a l i z e d o r n a t i o n a l s c a l e ) will be i m p o s s i b l e ; an
illusory gold-bucking to a w o r l d - c u r r e n c y can be successfully
1
maintained, and international g o l d - t o k e n s issued and ' r e d e e m e d
in a n y q u a n t i t i e s w h i c h s u i t t h e p o l i c y of t h e b o a r d of t h e W o r l d
B a n k . A t t h e s a m e t i m e all h o p e f o r f r e e d o m a n d p l e n t y f o r t h e
i n d i v i d u a l , for i n d u s t r y , a n d f o r n a t i o n s w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y dis
a p p e a r , a n d t h e w o r l d will b e r e l e n t l e s s l y d r i v e n i n t o c o m p l e t e
h e l o t r y u n d e r a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l g o l d idol. T h e a c t u a l g r a d u a t i o n
of p o w e r will t h e n a r r a n g e i t s e l f a s b e l o w :

Gold

Bank for International Settlements

(World Bank)

C e n t r a l B a n k s of t h e World

Joint Stock Banks

( M e m b e r s of F e d e r a l R e s e r v e B a n k i n g S y s t e m >

B r a n c h B a n k s of t h e a b o v e

Industry
47
P u b l i c "( >

W h a t is t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e a s o n w h y i t is t o be f e a r e d t h a t
s u c h a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a s t h e o n e o u t l i n e d is d e s t i n e d t o b r i n g a b o u t
d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s ? Il is e a s i l y g i v e n . T h e w h o l e o r g a n i z a t i o n is
n a t u r a l i s t i c o r a n t i - s u p e r n a t u r a l . T h e a l t i t u d e of t h o s e w h o will
s i t o n t h e S u p r e m e C o u n c i l t o w a r d s O u r D i v i n e E o r d a n d His
V i c a r m a y b e g u e s s e d f r o m t h e N a t u r a l i s m of t h e p r o p o s e r , t h e
a u t h o r of t h e w o r k q u o t e d . " T h e n a t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g , "

<) The Modern Idolatry, p p . 214, 215, 22!). This hook ;n>pi>;n'd in
1 9 3 4 .
 MONETARY REFORM 553

he w r i t e s , '* a r e a s e x a l t e d a c r e e d a s r e l i g i o n a n d r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g .
T h e w o r l d w o u l d be p o o r e r a n d s a d d e r did n o t t h e s e i d e a s s t a n d
s i d e b y side w i t h s c i e n c e a n d e c o n o m i c s Religion and
p a t r i o t i s m , t h e s e t w o g r e a t i d e a l s , h a v e b e c o m e a c u r s e to m a n
k i n d w h e r e v e r t h e a t t e m p t h a s b e e n m a d e to s u p p r e s s a n d c r u s h
t h e m . O n c e p a t r i o t i s m is s u b o r d i n a t e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o l l a b o r
a t i o n it will be a s m u c h a p r i v a t e m a t t e r a s r e l i g i o n h a s n o w b e -
1 4 8 1
come." T o p u t n a t i o n a l i t y on t h e s a m e level as t h e M y s t i c a l
I l o d y of C h r i s t a n d t o r e l e g a t e r e l i g i o n to t h e p r i v a t e s p h e r e , for
e x a m p l e , a r e i n d i c a t i v e of a m e n t a l i t y c o m p l e t e l y o p p o s e d t o t h e
D i v i n e P l a n for o r d e r in t h e w o r l d , p r o c l a i m e d by O u r L o r d J e s u s
Christ and His Church. W e know that " e v e r y t h i n g must crumble
t h a t is n o t g r o u n d e d o n t h e o n e c o r n e r - s t o n e , w h i c h is C h r i s t
49
Jesus."< > " C h r i s t o n l y , " w r i t e s in his t u r n P o p e P i u s X I I , " i s
t h a t ' c o r n e r - s t o n e ' u p o n w h i c h civil s o c i e t y , like t h e life of t h e
5 0 1
i n d i v i d u a l m a n , m u s t r e s t if it will r e s t s e c u r e . " ' W e know* t o o
t h a t " A n t i c h r i s t s h a l l m a k e all, b o t h l i t t l e a n d g r e a t , rich a n d
a n d p o o r , f r e e m a n a n d b o n d m a n , t o h a v e a c h a r a c t e r in t h e i r r i g h t
h a n d , o r o n t h e i r f o r e h e a d s . A n d t h a t n o m a n m a y b u y o r sell,
5 1 1
b u t he t h a t h a t h t h e c h a r a c t e r . " '
P e r h a p s t h e c o m p a r i s o n e m p l o y e d by The Sew English. M'eehtg
of O c t . 15, 1942, in i t s r e v i e w of t h e b o o k by H a n s H e y m a n n , Plan
for Permanent Peace, m e n t i o n e d in X o t e ( 4 6 ) , will h e l p the o r d i n
a r y r e a d e r to g r a s p the r o o t - o b j e c t i o n to a Central I n t e r n a t i o n a l
o r S u p r a n a t i o n a l R a n k of t h e k i n d d e n o u n c e d by M r . J e f f r e y
M a r k , " i t is g e n e r a l l y a d m i t t e d , " w r i t e s t h e r e v i e w e r , " t h a t t h e
P o s t a l Union has w o r k e d well. . . . Rut the trade exchanges be
t w e e n p e o p l e s . . . h a v e b e e n a c o n t i n u o u s c a u s e of a n n o y a n c e ,
suspicion and d o w n r i g h t robbery. Well, w h a t would the postal
s e r v i c e h a v e b e e n l i k e if it h a d b e e n r u n u p o n t h e l i n e s of i n t e r
n a t i o n a l finance? S u p p o s e t h a t t h e P o s t a l U n i o n h a d b e e n c r e a t e d
by a m o n o p o l i s t i c g r o u p of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s t a g e - s t a m p p r o d u c e r s ,
w h o h a d m a d e it a r u l e t o r e s t r i c t t h e s u p p l y of s t a m p s to a n y
n a t i o n w h i c h did n o t h a v e a f a v o u r a b l e b a l a n c e of l e t t e r s . Kach
n a t i o n w o u l d t h e n h a v e t o t r y t o d e s p a t c h m o r e l e t t e r s t h a n it r e
c e i v e d s o t h a t its c o r r e s p o n d e n t s w o u l d a l w a y s be o w i n g it l e t t e r s .
I t is e a s y t o f o r e s e e t h e r e s u l t s . T h e e p i s t o l a r y ' c r e d i t o r - n a t i o n s '
w o u l d b e t h o s e w h i c h s h o w e r e d u n n e c e s s a r y l e t t e r s on t h e i r
correspondents, who would thus become epistolary . debtors,
r e c e i v e f e w e r s t a m p s f r o m t h e s t a m p o l i g a r c h y a n d t h e r e f o r e fall
deeper into debt. T h e creditor nations on the other hand, having

(48) Economic Peace Aims, ipp. 19, 20, hy Oswald Dutch.

(49) Encyclical L e t t e r of P o p e P i u s X I , Divini Pede?nptoris y On
Atheistic Communism.
( 5 0 ) Encyclical Letter, Swmmi Pontificatus, Darkness Over the
Earth.
(5D Apocalypse, XIII, 16, IV.
554 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a n a u g m e n t e d s u p p l y of s t a m p s b u t f e w e r l e t t e r s t o a n s w e r , w o u l d
s e e k w i t h i n c r e a s i n g difficulty t o find c o r r e s p o n d e n t s w h o still had
a s u r p l u s of s t a m p s : a n d w o u l d p r e s e n t l y g o to w a r w i t h o n e
a n o t h e r t o s e i z e e a c h o t h e r ' s ' s p h e r e s of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e / The
t e n d e n c y w o u l d be for t h e w h o l e s y s t e m to s l o w d o w n t o a s t a n d
still, spasmodically s t a r t i n g up a g a i n w h e n e v e r the Stamp
O l i g a r c h s c h o s e to i*sue a c h a r i t a b l e g r a n t of s t a m p s o u t s i d e of
t h e r u l e s of t h e g a m e . T o h a v e s u c h a P o s t a l U n i o n w o u l d b e a
p a l p a b l e p i e c e of i n s a n i t y : b u t w o u l d it b e a n y m o r e m a d t h a n t o
t o l e r a t e t h e p r e s e n t d o m i n a t i o n of w o r l d t r a d e , b y a s y s t e m of
d e b t s a c c o u n t e d in i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c y ? "
Tn t h e l i g h t of w h a t h a s j u s t b e e n w r i t t e n a n d of w h a t w e
h a v e s e e n in p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , w c c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e o b s e r v a
t i o n s of The Weekly Review of M a v 22, 1941. o n s o m e s t a t e m e n t s
b y M r . C o r d e l l H u l l , U n i t e d S t a t e s S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e . I t first
q u o t e s M r . H u l l a.s s a y i n g : " T h e r e is l i t t l e p o i n t in p l a n n i n g for
f o r e i g n t r a d e u n l e s s t h e o u t c o m e of t h e w a r is f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e
f r e e p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d . " It t h e n g i v e s live p o i n t s t o g u i d e t h e
w o r l d o r five a i m s i n s p i r i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in t h e p r e s e n t c o n
flict, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s a m e m i n i s t e r . T h e s e five a i m s a r c : ( 1 )
e x c e s s i v e t r a d e r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e to c e a s e : (2) r a w m a t e r i a l s a r e
t o b e a v a i l a b l e lo a l l : ( 4 ) c o n s u m i n g c o u n t r i e s a r c t o b e p r o
t e c t e d b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n of s u p p l i e s : ( 5 ) i n t e r n a t i o n a l
financial aid is t o be g i v e n for t h e e s s e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t of all
c o u n t r i e s . The Weekly Review c o m m e n t s on t h e s e p o i n t s in t h e
f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : " A s it is i m p r o b a b l e t h a i t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l fin
a n c i a l aid will t a k e t h e f o r m of g i f t s , M r . H u l l m i g h t b e i n t e r
p r e t e d a s f o l l o w s : All c o u n t r i e s t o a c c e p t i n t e r n a t i o n a l financial
a i d ; t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l financial a i d e r s t o c h o o s e t h e e s s e n t i a l e n t e r
p r i s e s for d e v e l o p m e n t ; i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s t o r e g u l a t e s u p
plies for c o u n t r i e s d e s i g n a t e d as c o n s u m e r s , these c o u n t r i e s t h u s
b e i n g a t t h e m e r c y of t h e r e g u l a t o r s ; r a w m a t e r i a l s t o b e a l l o t t e d
t o c o u n t r i e s a g r e e d u p o n a n d in t h e r e g u l a t e d p r o p o r t i o n s ; n o
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in the application of these p r i n c i p l e s ; t r a d e re
strictions to continue, but n o t those r e g a r d e d by international
financiers a s e x c e s s i v e ; t h e A m e r i c a n financial i n t e r e s t s t o d e t e r
m i n e w h a t is e x c e s s i v e a n d w h i c h a r e t h e f r e e p e o p l e s u p o n w h o m
to impose the system outlined above."
A c c o r d i n g l y , i t l o o k s a s if all c o u n t r i e s , b u t e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e
w i t h i m p o r t a n t mineral resources, a r e destined to s h a r e the fate
of Bolivia. " Tin/' writes the American author, Ludwcll
D e n n y , " is m a k i n g Bolivia a c o l o n y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
A s w e h a v e s e e n in e x a m i n i n g A m e r i c a n financial penetra
tion. Wall S t r e e t b a n k e r s and c o r p o r a t i o n s e i t h e r o w n or
h a v e a m o r t g a g e on m u c h of B o l i v i a ' s r e s o u r c e s a n d h a v e
an appreciable control over Bolivian fiscal affairs if not
o v e r its d o m e s t i c and foreign policies Washington's
 MONETARY REFORM 555

p o l i t i c a l d o m i n a t i o n of Bolivia h a s b e e n o u t l i n e d a b o v e in t h e
c a s e of t h e r e c e n t f r o n t i e r ' w a r ' w i t h P a r a g u a y . T h e n e t r e s u l t
is t h a t t h e B o l i v i a n p e o p l e , l i v i n g in t h e m i d s t of g r e a t n a t u r a l
r i c h e s , a r e p o o r ; l i v i n g in a n o m i n a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t r e p u b l i c , they
a r e s u b s e r v i e n t to the U n i t e d S t a t e s Extraordinary
b a d l a b o u r c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t in t h e [ t i n ] m i n e s A m e r i c a n p r o p e r
(52
t i e s in B o l i v i a a r c n o e x c e p t i o n . " > " T h e A m e r i c a u i s a t i o n of
E u r o p e a n d t h e f a r p l a c e s of t h e e a r t h a d v a n c e s , " he w r i t e s e l s e
w h e r e . . . . " T o m a n y t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the w o r l d i n t o a
c h e a p e r i m i t a t i o n of all t h a t is c r u d e a n d l i t t l e t h a t is g o o d , in
A m e r i c a n civilization, s e e m s a frightful thing. But the A m e r i c a n s
d o n o t d o u b t . W e a r e s m i t t e n w i t h t h a t m o s t p o t e n t of i l l u s i o n s ,
(
t h a t w e a r c t h e C h o s e n P e o p l e / . . . B u s i n e s s c o n q u e s t is a s m u c h
a r e l i g i o n t o A m e r i c a n s a s s p i r i t u a l c o n q u e s t w a s to t h e e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n s a n d physical c o n q u e s t w a s once to the Britons
G e n i u s e s of m e c h a n i c a l efficiency, w c c a n n o t o r g a n i z e an e q u i t
a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n of o u r n a t i o n a l w e a l t h . Instead we exploit
n a t i o n s l e s s rich T o o w i s e t o t r y to g o v e r n t h e w o r l d , w e
( 5 3 )
shall m e r e l y o w n i t . "
On the o t h e r hand, w e have seen that the G e r m a n b a n k i n g sys
t e m l e a d s a l s o t o t h e t r e a t m e n t of e v e n G e r m a n s as m e r e indi
v i d u a l s . A fortiori will t h i s s y s t e m , w h e n r e i n f o r c e d by t h e G e r
m a n r a c e - t h e o r y w i t h i t s a b r o g a t i o n of t h e o b j e c t i v e m o r a l l a w .
l e a d t o t h e o p p r e s s i o n of n o n - G e r m a n s .
W e can, therefore, readily see that, with the existing m o n e t a r y
s y s t e m s , t h e t h i r d f u n d a m e n t a l e s s e n t i a l of a n e w o r d e r laid d o w n
b y H i s H o l i n e s s , P o p e P i u s X I I , in his C h r i s t m a s (1941)
A l l o c u t i o n , will be difficult of r e a l i z a t i o n . H i s H o l i n e s s s e t f o r t h
t h i s t h i r d e s s e n t i a l p o i n t a s f o l l o w s : " W i t h i n t h e . I i m i t s of a m o r a l
o r d e r f o u n d e d o n m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s , t h e r e is n o p l a c e for t h a t cold
and calculating egoism w h i c h tends to h o a r d economic resources
a n d m a t e r i a l s d e s t i n e d f o r t h e u s e of all, t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t
t h e n a t i o n s less f a v o u r e d by n a t u r e a r e not p e r m i t t e d access to
t h e m . I n t h i s r e g a r d , i t is a s o u r c e of g r e a t c o n s o l a t i o n to s e e

(52) America Conquers Britain, pp. 202, 203, by Liwhvell Denny.

W i t h r e g a r d to the bad l a b o u r conditions in Bolivian tin mines, he
vefers to The Hankers in Bolivia, p p . 40-42, by Miwgaret A. Marsh.
Ludwell D e n n y ' s book was published in 1930.
I n the lecture on Social J u s t i c e quoted in C h a p t e r I, Pere Gillet,
O . P . , p o i n t s out t h a t those who invest money in an i n d u s t r y should at
least i n t e r e s t themselves in the conditions of labour therein. It is a
question of Social J u s t i c e a n d , indirectly, of Commutative Justice.
The worker in an i n d u s t r y has a r i g h t to conditions which safeguard
his r i g h t to live a h u m a n life as becomes a h u m a n person- conditions
of s a l a r y a n d of d u r a t i o n of -work, of l o d g i n g , of p r o m i s c u i t y , a n d of
hygiene. The shareholder m a y not content himself with merely pocket
i n g d i v i d e n d s : h e has a social d u t y to fulfil, which obliges in c o n s c i e n c e .
'33) Qp. czt p p . 404, 407.
M
556 THK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

a d m i t t e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a p a r t i c i p a t i o n of all in " t h e n a t u r a l
r i c h e s of t h e e a r t h , e v e n o n t h e p a r t of t h o s e n a t i o n s w h i c h , in
t h e fulfilment of this p r i n c i p l e , b e l o n g t o t h e c a t e g o r y of g i v e r s
a n d n o t t o t h a t of r e c e i v e r s . It i s , h o w e v e r , in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h
i h e p r i n c i p l e s of e q u i t y t h a t a s o l u t i o n t o a q u e s t i o n s o \ i i a l l o
w o r l d e c o n o m y shcfuld be a r r i v e d a t m e t h o d i c a l l y a n d in e a s y
s t a g e s wit h all n e c e s s a r y g u a r a n t e e s , a l w a y s d r a w i n g useful
l e s s o n s f r o m t h e o m i s s i o n s a n d m i s t a k e s of t h e p a s t . If in the
f u t u r e p e a c e , t h i s p o i n t w e r e n o t t o be c o u r a g e o u s l y d e a l t w i t h ,
t h e r e w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e s a dee]) a n d
f a r - r e a c h i n g r o o t b l o s s o m i n g f o r t h i n t o b i t t e r d i s s e n s i o n s and
b u r n i n g jealousies and which would lead eventually t o a new
conflict."
The anxiety above expressed with r e g a r d t o the p r e p a r a t i o n s
b e i n g m a d e by n a t u r a l i s t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r t h e p e a c e a t t h e end
of t h e p r e s e n t w a r ( 1 9 3 9 ? ) finds an e c h o in t h e s t a t e m e n t of
t h e A m e r i c a n H i e r a r c h y , i s s u e d a f t e r t h e i r m e e t i n g in N o v e m b e r ,
1942. T h e S t a t e m e n t , from w h i c h 1 q u o t e a f e w p a s s a g e s , r e a c h e d
me l o n g after L had w r i t t e n wruit p r e c e d e s .
44
In the d i s c h a r g e of o u r p a s t o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , " t h e i r L o r d
s h i p s said, " w e a r c g r a v e l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e w o r l d p e a c e of
t o m o r r o w . S e c u l a r i s m c a n n o t w r i t e a real a n d l a s t i n g peace. . . .
ICxploilation c a n n o t w r i t e a real a n d l a s t i n g p e a c e . W h e r e g r e e d y
m i g h t a n d selfish e x p e d i e n c y a r e m a d e t h e s u b s t i t u t e s of j u s t i c e
t h e r e can be n o s e c u r e l y o r d e r e d w o r l d T h e s p i r i t of
C h r i s t i a n i t y c a n w r i t e a real a n d l a s t i n g p e a c e in j u s t i c e and
c h a r i t y to all n a t i o n s , e v e n to t h o s e n o t C h r i s t i a n . In t h e e p o c h a l
r e v o l u t i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e w o r l d is p a s s i n g , it is v e r y n e c e s s a r y
f o r us t o r e a l i z e t h a t e v e r y m a n is o u r b r o t h e r in C h r i s t . All
s h o u l d be c o n v i n c e d t h a t e v e r y m a n is e n d o w e d w i t h t h e d i g n i t y
of h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y , a n d t h a t h e is e n t i t l e d by t h e l a w s of n a t u r e
t o t h e t h i n g s necessary to s u s t a i n life in a w a y c o n f o r m a b l e to
human dignity. In t h e p o s t - w a r w o r l d , t h e profit e l e m e n t of in
d u s t r y and c o m m e r c e must be m a d e s u b s e r v i e n t to t h e c o m m o n
g o o d of c o m m u n i t i e s a n d n a t i o n s if w c a r c to h a v e a l a s t i n g p e a c e
w i i h j u s t i c e a n d a s e n s e of t r u e b r o t h e r h o o d for all o u r n e i g h b o r s .
T h e i n e q u a l i t i e s of n a t i o n s a n d of i n d i v i d u a l s can n e v e r g i v e to
g o v e r n m e n t s o r t o l e a d e r s of i n d u s t r y o r c o m m e r c e a r i g h t t o be
u n j u s t . T h e y c a n n o t , if t h e y f o l l o w t h e fixed p r i n c i p l e s of m o r a l
i t y , maintain or encourage conditions under which men cannot
live a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a n d a r d s b e f i t t i n g h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y
W e u r g e t h e s e r i o u s s t u d y of t h e p e a c e p l a n s of P o p e P i u s X I I
w h i c h i n s i s t t h a t j u s t i c e be i n s p i r e d b y love-first, l o v e of God
a n d , t h e n , l o v e of e v e r y h u m a n b e i n g . ' T h e c o m m a n d of love
a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s f o u n d in t h e G o s p e l s / said B e n e d i c t X V ,
' d i f f e r s in n o r e s p e c t from t h a t w h i c h s h o u l d r e i g n a m o n g s t a t e s
a n d p e o p l e s ' [l*arem Dei, Mcncdict X V , 1920). If w e a r e n o t to
 MONETARY REFORM 557

h a v e a C h r i s t i a n p e a c e , t h e n w e shall b e g i v e n o n l y a n a r m i s t i c e
54
a n d w e s h a l l b e g i n t o p r e p a r e f o r a t h i r d w o r l d conflict/'* *

(c) P R O P O S E D REFORM O F MONETARY SYSTEM IN VIEW

OF I N T E R N A T I O N A L TRADE.<55>

S i r R e g i n a l d R o w e d e p i c t s in e x c e l l e n t f a s h i o n t h e d e a d l o c k
a n d c o n f u s i o n in i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e a f t e r t h e w a r of 1 9 1 4 - P H 8 .
" W h e n the United States and France became large creditor
n a t i o n s a f t e r t h e w a r , t h e y did n o t s a y to t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s : ' I f
y o u will n o t t a k e a l o a n w e will t a k e g o l d f r o m y o n . ' T h e y s a i d :
4
W e will n o t g i v e y o u a l o a n : p a y u p t h e g o l d . ' . . . . T h e o t h e r
n a t i o n s w e r e p r e p a r e d t o c o n t i n u e y e a r by y e a r to g e t m o r e h o p e
lessly into debt, since t h e y w e r e never asked to pay beyond E n g
l a n d ' s w i l l i n g n e s s to t a k e p a y m e n t in t h e f o r m of s u r p l u s i m p o r t s .
W h e n , h o w e v e r , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s called upon t h e m to p a y u p ,
she t o o k their gold. T h i s compelled t h e m to c o n t r a c t their cur
rency, thus forcing d o w n prices. This ruined their producers and
i n d u s t r i e s a n d p u t t h e i r p e o p l e o u t of w o r k . I n t h i s w a y it w a s
b r o u g h t h o m e t o t h e d e b t o r c o u n t r i e s in w h a t a F o o l ' s P a r a d i s e
t h e y h a d been living. E v e n w h e n they p u t an e m b a r g o on the
r
e x p o r t of g o l d t h e y w e r e liable t o h a v e t h e e x c h a n g e v a l u e of t h e i r
c u r r e n c i e s d e p r e c i a t e d b y s a l e s of t h o s e c u r r e n c i e s in e x c e s s of
t h e d e m a n d f o r t h e m h e n c e t h e i m p o s i t i o n of e x c h a n g e l i m i t
a t i o n s . T h e y s a w t h a t in o r d e r t o r e c t i f y t h e i r p o s i t i o n t h e y m u s t
either increase their exports or diminish their imports. They were
u n a b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r e x p o r t s o r if t h e y did, t h e y g o t n o m o r e
f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y f o r t h e m , o w i n g t o t h e fall in t h e p r i c e of t h o s e
e x p o r t s a n d t h e y w e r e t h e r e f o r e d r i v e n t o t r y to d i m i n i s h i m
p o r t s , b u t . . . . t h e i m p o r t s of o n e c o u n t r y a r e t h e e x p o r t s of
a n o t h e r , so that w h e n they restricted imports they automatically
restricted exports, with the consequence that world trade has
b e e n r a p i d l y d i m i n i s h i n g u n t i l it is n o w [1935] a t h i r d of i t s 1929
value.
" ft w i l l b e s e e n t h a t t a r i f f s , q u o t a s a n d e x c h a n g e r e s t r i c t i o n s
w e r e t h e m e a n s e m p l o y e d b y all t h e n a t i o n s in t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o
rectify their debtor position. T h e y w e r e n o t in t h e m s e l v e s
o r i g i n a l c a u s e s of t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of w o r l d t r a d e . . . . T h e o r i g i n a l
c a u s e w a s t h e i m p e r a t i v e n e e d , w i t h w h i c h e a c h n a t i o n w a s faced,
of r e c t i f y i n g its d e b t o r p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h m o s t of t h e m
h a d b e l a t e d l y a b a n d o n e d t h e G o l d S t a n d a r d , t h e y w e r e still liable
(5t) The t e x t is quoted as given an the Letter from Amerieo of
December 4, 1942.
<5o) These Proposals of which a n outline is given here arc to be
found in the A p p e n d i x to S i r R e g i n a l d Rowe's hook. The Hoot of All
Evil. T h e A p p e n d i x is p u b l i s h e d as a s e p a r a t e p a m p h l e t by tIn*
Economic Reform Club, 32, Queens Avenue, Muswel] Hill, London.
1 S T . 10.
558 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

to have their currencies sold o n the e x c h a n g e b y t h e c r e d i t o r

nations which owned them, so k n o c k i n g d o w n their e x c h a n g e rate.
. . . A s y s t e m w h i c h p e r m i t s p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s of o n e n a t i o n
n o t m e r e l y to d a m a g e their o w n c o u n t r y b y k n o c k i n g ' d o w n its
e x c h a n g e , b u t a l s o t o u p s e t t h e t r a d e of t h e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w i t h
t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d , is i n d e f e n s i b l e . T h i s b u y i n g a n d s e l l i n g of
currencies by private individuals, across the exchange, w a s recog
n i s e d b y t h e A i a c M i l l a n C o m m i t t e e a s a s o u r c e of g r e a t d a n g e r
a s l o n g a g o a s J u n e , 1931, . . . It w a s t h e c a u s e of E n g l a n d ' s
c r i s i s in S e p t e m b e r , 1931, a n d it m a y a t a n y m o m e n t b e c o m e t h e
c a u s e of a f u r t h e r c r i s i s . S o l o n g a s t h e f e a r of h a v i n g t h e i r e x
c h a n g e s k n o c k e d d o w n e x i s t s a m o n g s t t h e n a t i o n s , it is u s e l e s s t o
p r e a c h t o t h e m t h a t t h e y s h o u l d r e d u c e t h e i r tariffs o r e l i m i n a t e
quotas or exchange restrictions.
" In o r d e r l o r e m o v e t h i s f e a r w e b e l i e v e t h a t it is n e c e s s a r y
to recognise internationally the same principle which each nation
recognises internally as b e t w e e n its o w n citizens, n a m e l y , that the
g i v i n g of a c l a i m d i s c h a r g e s a d e b t , b u t t h a t it is f o r t h e c r e d i t o r
t o e x e r c i s e o r r e f r a i n f r o m e x e r c i s i n g t h a t c l a i m . If a n i n d i v i d u a l
i n E n g l a n d o w e s 5 t o a n o t h e r , h e h a s d i s c h a r g e d h i s d e b t w h e n
h e p a y s h i m 5 . T h e IS i s , h o w e v e r , of v a l u e o n l y b e c a u s e , b e i n g
l e g a l t e n d e r , it will b u y g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s . T h e d e b t o r is n o t
u n d e r a n y obligation to see t h a t his c r e d i t o r docs b u y g o o d s and
services . . . . I t is u n r e a s o n a b l e t h a t f o r e i g n e r s s h o u l d be
r e q u i r e d t o p a y t h e i r d e b t s t o E n g l i s h m e n in p o u n d s , t o F r e n c h
m e n in francs, a n d l o A m e r i c a n s in d o l l a r s . T h e y d o n o t m a n u
f a c t u r e t h e s e c u r r e n c i e s in t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s ; t h e y c a n o n l y
a c q u i r e d o l l a r s , f o r e x a m p l e , if A m e r i c a is p r e p a r e d t o a l l o w t h e m
t o sell t h e i r g o o d s t o A m e r i c a n i m p o r t e r s . T h e d o l l a r s w h i c h t h e
A m e r i c a n i m p o r t e r p a y s for t h e s e g o o d s a r e t h e n t h e p r o p e r t y of
t h e f o r e i g n e x p o r t e r s a n d c a n be u s e d by t h e m . . . t o p a y t h e i r
d e b t s i n A m e r i c a . If, h o w e v e r , A m e r i c a , a s s h e d o e s , d e l i b e r a t e l y
e x c l u d e s f o r e i g n g o o d s b y m e a n s of t a r i f f s , t h e n f o r e i g n n a t i o n s
c a n n o t p o s s i b l y a c q u i r e d o l l a r s a n d it is p r e p o s t e r o u s t h a t A m e r i c a
should be able to insist upon their a t t e m p t i n g lo do the impossible.
. . . N a t i o n s s h o u l d o n l y be r e q u i r e d t o m a k e p a y m e n t in t h e i r
o w n n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c i e s b e c a u s e t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n is, in f a c t , t o
s u p p l y t h e i r o w n g o o d s in e x c h a n g e for t h e g o o d s t h e y i m p o r t , a n d
their own national currencies alone buy their own goods.
" N e x t , it is t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m t o f a c i l i t a t e
t r a d e a n d t o act a s a c l e a r i n g h o u s e b e t w e e n e x p o r t e r s a n d i m
porters. W e p r o p o s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e x c h a n g e r a t e s s h o u l d be
i m m u t a b l y fixed b y a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n n a t i o n s a n d t h a t t h e r e
s h o u l d b e n o i n t e r n a t i o n a l currency ( g o l d ) . T h e scientific basis
of t h a t fixation w o u l d h a v e r e g a r d t o t h e p r i c e l e v e l s of t h e v a r i
o u s c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e r a t e s n e c e s s a r y t o g i v e e a c h of t h e m of t h e
o n e p a r t , a n d t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d of t h e o t h e r , a p p r o x i m a t e
 MONETARY REFORM 559

e q u i l i b r i u m . F o r e x a m p l e , if a C a n a d i a n d o l l a r w o u l d b u y on a n
a v e r a g e , a b o u t a q u a r t e r a s m u c h s a t i s f a c t i o n in C a n a d i a n g o o d s
a n d s e r v i c e s a s a p o u n d w o u l d b u y in E n g l a n d of E n g l i s h g o o d s
a n d services, then 4 dollars should equal one pound. Whilst that
is t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s of c o m p u t a t i o n , in p r a c t i c e it w o u l d b e
n e c e s s a r y t o fix t h e r a t e , b y n e g o t i a t i o n , at s o m e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
c o r r e c t f i g u r e , w h e t h e r 4, 4-1 o r 5 d o l l a r s t o t h e p o u n d . If it w e r e
t h e n f o u n d , in p r a c t i c e , t h a t t h e s e r a t e s did n o t r e s u l t in E n g l i s h
e x p o r t s t o t h e w o r l d b e i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l to E n g l i s h i m p o r t s
f r o m t h e w o r l d , it w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o a d j u s t t h e E n g l i s h p r i c e
level. W h e n , h o w e v e r , this had been done, that English internal
g e n e r a l p r i c e level w o u l d h a v e t o b e k e p t s t a b l e . T h i s d o e s n o t ,
of c o u r s e , m e a n t h a t p r i c e s of i n d i v i d u a l c o m m o d i t i e s in E n g l a n d
w o u l d h a v e t o be fixed, b u t m e r e l y t h a t t h e G e n e r a l P r i c e I n d e x
figure w o u l d h a v e t o b e k e p t a t t h e s a m e p o i n t A given
i n c o m e , t a k e n o v e r t h e a v e r a g e of all p r i c e s , w o u l d g i v e i t s o w n e r
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e s a t i s f a c t i o n in g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s , i.e. in
his s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g , in 10, 2 0 o r 30 y e a r s , a s it d o e s n o w . S u r e l y
t h i s is a b e t t e r s t a n d a r d of v a l u e f o r a u n i t of m o n e y t h a n t o s a y
t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l : ' P r i c e s m a y be d o u b l e d in 10, 20 o r 30 y e a r s
a n d a g i v e n s u m of m o n e y o n l y b u y half a s m u c h t h e n a s n o w , b u t
w e will g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h a t s u m of m o n e y will b u y t h e s a m e
q u a n t i t y of g o l d in t h e o r y , t h o u g h in p r a c t i c e , if m o r e t h a n a n
i n s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r of y o u a s k for it t h e G o v e r n m e n t will d e c l a r e
a m o r a t o r i u m a n d y o u will n o t be a b l e t o h a v e it. . . .'
" T h e v a l u e ot t h e p o u n d w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , d e p e n d u p o n its
p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r o v e r E n g l i s h g o o d s g e n e r a l l y , i.e. u p o n t h e in
t e r n a l g e n e r a l p r i c e level A s s u m i n g fixed e x c h a n g e s and n o
i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o n e y p a y m e n t s , if a n a t i o n k e p t its i n t e r n a l g e n
e r a l p r i c e l e v e l s t a b l e , all w o u l d b e w e l l w i t h it. B u t s u p p o s e it
r a i s e d i t s i n t e r n a l g e n e r a l p r i c e level b y i s s u i n g m o r e n e w m o n e y
t h a n w a s j u s t i f i e d by e x p a n d i n g p r o d u c t i o n , it w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y
b e g i n t o lose its e x p o r t t r a d e . F o r e x a m p l e , s u p p o s i n g t h e r a t e of
e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n C a n a d a a n d E n g l a n d h a d b e e n r i g i d l y fixed, b y
a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e t w o n a t i o n s , at f o u r d o l l a r s t o t h e p o u n d ,
a d o l l a r w o u l d a l w a y s be w o r t h five s h i l l i n g s . L e t u s n o w a s s u m e
t h a t a n E n g l i s h m a n h a d b e e n in t h e h a b i t of b u y i n g s o m e t h i n g
w h i c h c o s t in C a n a d a 80 d o l l a r s , a n d w h i c h t h e r e f o r e c o s t h i m
20. Tf C a n a d a w e r e " t h e n t o i n f l a t e , i.e. i s s u e m o r e C a n a d i a n
m o n e y t h a n w a s j u s t i f i e d b y t h e v o l u m e of b u s i n e s s t o be d o n e ,
p r i c e s in C a n a d a w o u l d r i s e . T h e E n g l i s h m a n w o u l d n o w find
t h a t h i s c o m m o d i t y c o s t in C a n a d a , let u s s a y , 120 d o l l a r s , a n d
w i t h a r i g i d l y fixed e x c h a n g e c o s t h i m , t h e r e f o r e , 30 i n s t e a d of
20. H e w o u l d c e a s e t o b u y f r o m C a n a d a : in o t h e r w o r d s , C a n a d a
would lose h e r e x p o r t t r a d e .
" S i m i l a r l y , if a c o u n t r y , e.g. J a p a n , c a m e o u t of e q u i l i b r i u m
w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d b y l o w e r i n g its g e n e r a l p r i c e level, its
560 TIIK MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

t r a d e r s w o u l d e x p o r t m o r e , b u t w o u l d i m p o r t l e s s . . . .' S h e
w o u l d not even get the o t h e r nations into debt to h e r ; she would
m e r e l y h a v e a c q u i r e d c l a i m s o n f o r e i g n g o o d s ( b l o c k e d c r e d i t s in
f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s ) w h i c h , t h r o u g h h e r o w n a c t i o n in d r o p p i n g
h e r p r i c e level, s h e c o u l d n o t c l e a r b y t a k i n g i m p o r t s . T h e J a p a n
e s e i m p o r t e r c o u l d n o t a f f o r d to b u y t h e m o r e e x p e n s i v e g o o d s of
f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , t a k e t h e m i n t o J a p a n a n d sell t h e m a t a p r o f i t .
T h e credits, therefore, c r e a t e d by the J a p a n e s e e x p o r t s would
remain unused and useless."
T h e E c o n o m i c R e f o r m C l u b p a m p h l e t s u m s up t h e p r o p o s a l s a s
follows
( 1 ) T h a t e a c h n a t i o n s h o u l d h a v e its o w n n a t i o n a l m o n e y .
(2) T h a t each nation should k e e p its internal g e n e r a l price
level s t a b l e , u s i n g P r i c e I n d e x f i g u r e s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .
( 3 ) T h a t t h e e x c h a n g e v a l u e s of t h e s e n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c i e s , i.e.
t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e s , s h o u l d b e i m m u t a b l y fixed b y a g r e e m e n t b e
5 11
t w e e n t h e c o - o p e r a t i n g n a t i o n s , r e g a r d l e s s of g o l d / *
( 4 ) T h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be n o i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o n e y .
( 5 ) T h a t all i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e s h o u l d be d o n e o n Bills of
E x c h a n g e n e g o t i a t e d , a s at p r e s e n t , t h r o u g h t h e o r d i n a r y c h a n n e l s
of t h e B a n k s , a n d r e d i s c o u n t e d b v t h e m w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t r a l
Bank.
( 6 ) T h a t n o p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l o r p r i v a t e ins tit u t i o n s h o u l d
b u y , sell o r o w n f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s .
( 7 ) T h a t all t h e f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s a c q u i r e d b y a n a t i o n
t h r o u g h t h e s a l e a b r o a d of i t s g o o d s . . . . s h o u l d be h e l d f o r t h e
n a t i o n b y i t s N a t i o n a l C e n t r a l B a n k , t h e i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n s of t h a t
n a t i o n r e c e i v i n g t h e i r o w n n a t i o n a l m o n e y a t the fixed e x c h a n g e
r a t e in lieu of t h o s e f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s .
(8) T h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e a C e n t r a l B a n k e r s ' C l e a r i n g H o u s e
w h i c h w o u l d in n o s e n s e be an I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a n k , b u t m e r e l y a
c o m m o n m e e t i n g place w h e r e the respective National Central
B a n k s of t h e c o - o p e r a t i n g n a t i o n s c o u l d m e e t o n e a n o t h e r t o e x
c h a n g e t h e c l a i m s w h i c h t h e y m i g h t h o l d t o t h e g o o d s of o n e
n a t i o n , for c l a i m s lo t h e g o o d s of o t h e r s , a n d w h e r e t h e y m i g h t
c a n c e l o u t t h e i r c l a i m s on o n e a n o t h e r .
T h e object of e a c h n a t i o n w o u l d be t o k e e p its i m p o r l s in
a p p r o x i m a t e e q u i l i b r i u m o v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e w i t h its e x p o r t s .
E a c h n a t i o n w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , be as m u c h i n t e r e s t e d in i t s i m p o r t
a s in its e x p o r t t r a d e , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e w o u l d b e c o m e an
e x c h a n g e of g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s bet w e e n t h e n a t i o n s t o t h e i r
m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e , i n s t e a d of a d e s p e r a t e s t r u g g l e b y e a c h to

U;) ft will bo noticed t h a t , when S i r R e g i n a l d "Rowe and the Econo

mic Reform Club are s p e a k i n g of fixed exchanges, ihey are envisaging
a very different set of circumstances from those in which Mr. P. J.
CVLoghlen proposes the a b r o g a t i o n of fixed exchanges.
 MONETARY REFORM 5 6 1

l o w e r its g e n e r a l price level w i t h a v i e w to underselling o t h e r s and

g e t t i n g t h e m i n t o a p o s i t i o n of u n p a y a b l e d e b t .
T h i s l a s t p o i n t h a s b e e n t r e a t e d in e x c e l l e n t f a s h i o n in A
Twentieth Century Economic System, also published by the Econo
m i c R e f o r m C l u b . I n it w e r e a d : " T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w h i c h t h i s
s c h e m e places squarely upon each nation to keep its o w n imports
a n d e x p o r t s in e q u i l i b r i u m m u s t in n o c i r c u m s t a n c e s be t r a n s
ferred to a Central I n t e r n a t i o n a l Clearing Bank. If a C e n t r a l
I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a n k w e r e e n t r u s t e d t h i s t a s k i n s t e a d of e a c h n a t i o n
b e i n g f r e e t o s o l v e i t s o w n d o m e s t i c p r o b l e m in i t s o w n w a y , w e
s h o u l d o n c e m o r e be b a c k t o t h e old c o n d i t i o n of financial w a r t o
c o n t r o l a c e n t r a l m o n e t a r y a u t h o r i t y w h i c h , in i t s t u r n , w o u l d
c o n t r o l t h e d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s of s o - c a l l e d i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s . "
I t m a y b e well to q u o t e h e r e w h a t Sir R e g i n a l d R o w e w r o t e
a b o u t t h e M o r g e n t h a u P l a n in a l e t t e r t o The Tiincs, w h i c h r e
mained unpublished. " T h e M o r g e n t h a u p r o p o s a l s / ' he said,
" quite f r a n k l y put gold on its f o r m e r pedestal or nearly there.
This means that any country possessing or-producing large stocks
of g o l d , w h i c h a d d n o t h i n g t o t h e w o r l d ' s r e a l w e a l t h , will b e
e n a b l e d t o o b t a i n a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h a t real w e a l t h w i t h o u t
a d d i n g t o it. C a n a n y b o d y w h o r e a l i s e s t h i s a p p r o v e of i t ? T h e
a c t u a l m o v e m e n t of g o l d , u n l e s s I a m m u c h m i s t a k e n , w o u l d c o n
t i n u e t o b e f r o m o n e h o l e in t h e e a r t h ( t h e m i n e ) t o a n o t h e r , b u t
t h e s e c o n d h o l e w o u l d be u n d e r n e a t h t h e g u a r d i a n s , of t h e n e w
i n t e r n a t i o n a l f u n d i n s t e a d of a s n o w u n d e r F o r t K n o x . Apart
from this, t h e p r o p o s a l s issued by M r . M o r g e n t h a u involve to so
s e r i o u s a n e x t e n t , if i n d i r e c t l y , t h e s u b j e c t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l m o n e
t a r y p o l i c y of a n y ' m e m b e r c o u n t r y ' t o t h e j u d g m e n t of t w e l v e
i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t t h e s e financial a p o s t l e s m a v in effect c o m e t o r u l e
us all."
P r o f e s s o r S o d d y ' s c r i t i c i s m of t h e M o r g e n t h a u a n d t h e K e y n e s
P l a n s w i l l b e f o u n d in t h e p a m p h l e t , The Arch-Enemy of Economic
Freedom, a l r e a d y referred to.

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC CODE.

A t t h e e n d of C h a p t e r V I I I of h i s u s e f u l w o r k , An Outline of
Money, a l r e a d y quoted m o r e than once, M r . Geoffrey C r o w t h e r
s p e a k s of t h e n e c e s s i t y of a s p r e c i s e a c o d e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e c o n
r
o m i c law a s c a n be c o n t r i v e d a n d of a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s t t h e
p o w e r s t o u s e t h e i r e c o n o m i c p o w e r a g a i n s t a n y t r a n s g r e s s o r of
t h e r u l e s . W c h a v e a l r e a d y i n s i s t e d in C h a p t e r s 11 a n d fll t h a t t h e
H o l y F a t h e r ' s voice m u s t be the deciding factor w i t h r e g a r d t o
t h e m o r a l i t y of the p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n s of a n y f u t u r e
L e a g u e of N a t i o n s . His Holiness, Pope Pius X I I , has pointed
o u t in h i s E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r , Stimmi Pontificates, that the stand
ards a d o p t e d by the m o d e r n w o r l d a r e corrupted at their source,
P P
 5 6 2 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

b e c a u s e ( h e p e o p l e s of t h e w o r k ] , o w i n g t o d e c a y of f a i t h in
C h r i s t , a r e l o s i n g t o u c h w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of r i g h t d e a l i n g . T h e
P o p e a l o n e c a n f o u n d t h e n e w o r d e r o n t h e i m m o v a b l e r o c k of
C h r i s t i a n R e v e l a t i o n a n d n a t u r a l l a w . W i t h o u t h i m , all t h e s e
much-vaunted schemes a r e hardly w o r t h the paper on which they
are written.
T w o p o i n t s c o n c e r n i n g e c o n o m i c s m u s t b e m a d e t h e s u b j e c t of
special international a g r e e m e n t . T h e first c o n c e r n s t r a d i n g in
money. T r a d i n g in a c o u n t r y ' s m o n e t a r y s t a n d a r d of m e a s u r e
m e n t as a c o m m o d i t y and t h e r e b y v a r y i n g its value should be
made a punishable crime exactly the same as attempts to interfere
w i t h national w e i g h t s and m e a s u r e s . N a t i o n s should a g r e e upon
t h e p e n a l t i e s t o b e inflicted f o r all a t t e m p t s t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e e x c h a n g e - m e d i a a n d u p o n t h e m o d e of p r o c e d u r e for
e x t r a d i t i o n , e t c . , in t h e c a s e of s u c h c r i m e s . Stock-exchange
s p e c u l a t i o n s in m o n e y , t h e n , s h o u l d b e f o r b i d d e n a l t o g e t h e r , a s
opposed to peace and order, national a n d international. Secondly,
s t r i n g e n t r e g u l a t i o n s should be m a d e for s t o c k - e x c h a n g e specula
t i o n s in g e n e r a l . T h e r e f o r m of t h e s t o c k - e x c h a n g e all o v e r t h e
w o r l d is l o n g o v e r d u e . W e have already seen h o w speculations
o p p o s e d to social justice and t h e C o m m o n Good a r c f a v o u r e d by
t h e p r i v a t e m a n u f a c t u r e of b a n k - c r e d i t . S t o c k - e x c h a n g e s p e c u l a
t i o n s a i m i n g at g a i n b y all k i n d s of d e c e i t ful m a n o e u v r e s a r e
o p p o s e d t o t h e C h r i s t i a n .social d o c t r i n e of t h e J u s t P r i c e . Such
s p e c u l a t i o n s s u b s t i t u t e for the jusl price a forced o r factitious
57
p r i c e fixed b y o n e o r s e v e r a l in v i e w of p r i v a t e gain.* *
Finally, 1 would r e c o m m e n d the following r e m a r k s on Death
D u t i e s b y t h e E a r l of i ' o r i s m o u l h , in Alternafire to Death, t o t h e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of m y r e a d e r s : " D e a t h D u t i e s a r e t h e c n e m v of
157) M g r . P i e of P o i t i e r s , in 1855, asked to have decrees concerning
speculation placed on the p r o g r a m m e of the Vatican Council.
Tn the M i d d l e Ages, grea! severity \ as shown i o w a r d s crimes
a g a i n s t social or legal justice, such as monopolies or f a c t i t i o u s prices.
C e r t a i n points of e x a m i n a t i o n of conscience for Confession, t a k e n from
old m a n u a l s , a r e quoted in f/f?nurc aa.v temnx prc-irntn* hy Pere
Dchon : " 1 accuse myself of h a v i n g a r r a n g e d a monopoly with those
of my t r a d e , t h a t is to say, of h a v i n g m a d e a n a g r e e m e n t fo sell a t h i n g
at too high a price, or to buy it a t too low a -price, or to keep it,
in o r d e r to raise the price. I accuse myself of h a v i n g succeeded in
selling an object for more than it was worth, hy lying' a n d 'deceptive
statements. I accuse myself of h a v i n g sold a t h i n g necessary to my
neighbour a t more than it was w o r t h . "
Cf. ha fiaursc H trt (fniixrienrr, by Kdg. -lanssens, Professor a t Liege
U n i v e r s i t y , p p . ^ 24-26, a n d VhhivyvUqve Vix Pt rrenif, by L'Abbe P.
Tibergbien (RdHions S p c \ p p . 01.
In the Lecture on Social Justice, a l r e a d y quoted, Pere Gillet, O.P.,
p o i n t s o u t t h a t those who invest their money in such things as cinemas
and dance-halls, in view of gain a n d regardless of the Common Good,
riin a.gainst social justice. l i e says the cinema has become a school of
i m m o r a l i t y a n d t h a t dance-halls a r e centres of i m m o r a l i t y .
 MONETARY REFORM 563

c o n t i n u i t y a n d p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . . . . T h e p o l i c y of i m p o s
i n g D e a t h D u t i e s on responsibly held p r o p e r l y can only bene/il the
b a n k e r , t h e speculator, a n d m a s s capitalist, and as a corollary, ihe
C o m m u n i s t , w h o desires a p r o l e t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d slave
v a l u e s t o a c h i e v e h i s e n d s . . . . L a n d i s n o t t h e o n l y c l a s s of r e
s p o n s i b l y held p r o p e r l y t o w h i c h f r e e d o m f r o m D e a t h D u t i e s
should apply. I n d u s t r i a l c o n c e r n s w h i c h a r e a m a t t e r of f a m i l y
o w n e r s h i p and direction, and where conditions are sound and
h e a l t h y f o r t h e w o r k m e n , s h o u l d l i k e w i s e b e r e l i e v e d of D e a t h
D u t i e s for the s a m e r e a s o n t h a t c o n t i n u i t y a n d security in personal
relationship are thereby established T h e principle
of t h e l i m i t e d l i a b i l i t y c o m p a n y is w r o n g in t h a t i t s u b s t i t u t e s f o r
responsible o w n e r s h i p an a n o n y m o u s direction w h i c h m a y conceal
all s o r t s of financial s u b t e r f u g e a n d i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s , Tt r e s u l t s
i n t h e m o n o p o l i e s a n d s o - c a l l e d g i g a n t i c r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i n h e r e n t in
t h e s k i v e s t a t e . A t t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e s c a l e t h e l i m i t e d l i a b i l i t y
c o m p a n y a l l o w s f o r all t h e f r a u d u l e n t m a c h i n a t i o n s of t h e p r o
fessional bankrupt. S h a r e s h e l d in l i m i t e d l i a b i l i t y c o m p a n i e s
s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e s u b j e c t t o D e a t h D u t i e s . B o n d s h e l d in s o -
called trustee securities should be subject to a n even higher rate
o f D e a t h D u t i e s , f o r t h e s e b e a r e v e n l e s s risk a n d e v e n l e s s r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y t h a n h o l d i n g s in t h e o r d i n a r y s t o c k of l i m i t e d l i a b i l i t y c o m
panies.
" T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o w n e r s h i p of m o n e y is a s o u r c e of e v e n
g r e a t e r i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a n d e v e n g r e a t e r e v i l s , s i n c e it m a y i n
v o l v e t h e s a c r i f i c e of o n e ' s o w n p e o p l e f o r t h e s a k e of i r r e s p o n s i b l e
g a i n . It c o v e r s u p t h e c a u s e s of w a r s a n d s l u m p s , a n d c r e a t e s a
v a s t i n s e c u r i t y o v e r t h e w h o l e w o r l d j n t h e n a m e of p r o g r e s s .
T h e r e c a n b e n o p e a c e u n t i l t h e f a m i l y is s e c u r e a n d t h a t a g g r e
g a t i o n of f a m i l i e s k n o w n a s t h e n a t i o n is a l s o s e c u r e in w h a t it-
c a n i t s e l f c o n t r o l . T h i s m a y n o t e l i m i n a t e w a r , b u t it will c e r
t a i n l y e l i m i n a t e t h e m o s t f e r t i l e c a u s e s of w a r . T h e r e f o r e , it is
r i g h t t o d i s c o u r a g e s u c h h o l d i n g s b y t h e i m p o s i t i o n of s e v e r e
Death Duties upon them By such m e a n s land would be
o n c e m o r e r e g a r d e d in i t s t r u e l i g h t as a m o s t p r e c i o u s p o s s e s s i o n ,
d e m a n d i n g t h e g r e a t e s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in o w n e r s h i p . B y t h e s a m e
t o k e n i t will d i s c o u r a g e w h a t t h e F r e n c h s o r i g h t l y call t h e Society
Anoinpne, o r L i m i t e d L i a b i l i t y C o m p a n y , in f a v o u r of t h e o p e n
a n d r e s p o n s i b l y o w n e d s m a l l b u s i n e s s . J t will d i s c o u r a g e t h e c o n
c e p t i o n f o s t e r e d b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t in e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g r a n g e s i n c e
t h e d a y s of W i l l i a m a n d M a r y t h a t , f o r t h e s a k e of i m m e d i a t e
p o l i t i c a l a d v a n t a g e , t h e m i s e r y of u s u r i o u s d e b t c a n be f a s t e n e d
a b o u t t h e n e c k s of f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s . " A s a n e x a m p l e of t h e
m o n o p o l i e s t o w h i c h h e a l l u d e s , t h e E a r l of P o r t s m o u t h m e n t i o n s
t h e e c o n o m i c p o w e r of t h e P a l e s t i n e E c o n o m i c C o r p o r a t i o n in
1941. H e t h e n a d d s : " T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e P a l e s t i n e E c o n o
m i c C o r p o r a t i o n w e r e n o t i n P a l e s t i n e o r t h e L e v a n t n o r in K n g -
564 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST

l a n d w h i c h is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l a w a n d o r d e r in P a l e s t i n e . I n s t e a d
t h e y w e r e in N e w Y o r k o n L e x i n g t o n A v e n u e . " H e t h e n g i v e s t h e
n a m e s of t h e D i r e c t o r s f r o m M o o d i e ' s Manual of Investments,

APPENDIX.

P O P E P I U S XTFS F I V E P E A C E POINTS.

I n h i s a l l o c u t i o n t o t h e C a r d i n a l s o n C h r i s t m a s E v e , 1939, H i s
H o l i n e s s f o r m u l a t e d t h e e s s e n t i a l r e q u i s i t e s of a s a t i s f a c t o r y
p e a c e as follows :
1) T h e r i g h t t o life a n d t o i n d e p e n d e n c e of all n a t i o n s , g r e a t
a n d s m a l l , p o w e r f u l a n d w e a k , m u s t b e s e c u r e d . T h e will of a
s i n g l e n a t i o n t o l i v e m u s t n e v e r b e e q u i v a l e n t t o s e n t e n c e of d e a t h
o n a n o t h e r n a t i o n . R e p a r a t i o n m u s t be m a d e for p a s t violations
of t h e s e r i g h t s , in a c c o r d a n c e n o t w i t h m i l i t a r y force o r a r b i t r a r y
s e l f - i n t e r e s t b u t w i t h t h e r u l e s of j u s t i c e a n d m u t u a l e q u i t y .
2 ) T h e o r d e r t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d , if i t is t o h a v e t h e c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s of t r u e p e a c e , v i z . , t r a n q u i l l i t y a n d s t a b l e d u r a t i o n , m u s t b e
accompanied by spiritual and material disarmament, mutually
a g r e e d u p o n , o r g a n i c a n d p r o g e s s i v e . U n l e s s t h i s is s e c u r e d , t e r m s
o f p e a c e will, s o o n e r o r l a t e r , s h o w t h a t t h e r e is n o life i n t h e m .
T h e n a t i o n s m u s t b e d e l i v e r e d f r o m t h e s l a v e r y of t h e r a c e f o r
a r m a m e n t s a n d f r o m t h e d a n g e r of m a t e r i a l f o r c e b e c o m i n g ,
i n s t e a d of a p r o t e c t i o n f o r r i g h t s , a t y r a n n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e i r
violation.
3) In c r e a t i n g o r r e c o n s t i t u t i n g international institutions,
w h i c h h a v e s o h i g h a m i s s i o n , i t is i m p o r t a n t t o p r o f i t b y t h e e x
p e r i e n c e of t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r f a u l t y functioning* of s i m i l a r
i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e p a s t . S i n c e it is p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o f o r e
s e e a n d p r o v i d e f o r e v e r y t h i n g a t t h e t i m e w h e n p e a c e is b e i n g
n e g o t i a t e d , it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t j u r i d i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s b e e s t a b l i s h e d
t o g u a r a n t e e t h e f a i t h f u l e x e c u t i o n of t h e t e r m s of p e a c e a n d , in
c a s e of a d m i t t e d n e e d , t o r e v i e w a n d a m e n d t h e m , s o a s t o a v o i d
u n i l a t e r a l a n d a r b i t r a r y b r e a c h e s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h o s e
terms.
4) T o achieve a b e t t e r E u r o p e a n order, attention m u s t be
p a i d t o t h e t r u e n e e d s a n d j u s t d e m a n d s of n a t i o n s a n d p e o p l e s , a s
of e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s . E v e n if t h e s e d e m a n d s a r e in conflict w i t h
e x i s t i n g treaties o r o t h e r juridical titles, they merit benevolent
e x a m i n a t i o n w i t h a v i e w t o a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n , e v e n , if n e c e s s a r y ,
b y a n e q u i t a b l e , p r u d e n t , a n d a g r e e d r e v i s i o n of t h e t r e a t i e s .
5) T h e b e s t a n d m o s t c o m p l e t e t e r m s of p e a c e will p r o v e a
f a i l u r e u n l e s s g o v e r n m e n t s a n d p e o p l e s a c q u i r e m o r e a n d m o r e of
t h a t s p i r i t w h i c h a l o n e c a n g i v e life, a u t h o r i t y a n d b i n d i n g f o r c e
t o t h e d e a d l e t t e r of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s : a s e n s e of d e e p
 MONETARY REFORM 565

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , j u d g i n g h u m a n l a w s b y t h e s t a n d a r d s of t h e l a w
of G o d : t h e h u n g e r a n d t h i r s t a f t e r j u s t i c e , b l e s s e d in t h e S e r m o n
o n t h e M o u n t : t h a t universal love which s u m m a r i l y expresses the
(58
C h r i s t i a n ideal. >

POPE P I U S X J I ' S A L L O C U T I O N , C H R I S T M A S , 1941.

T H E FIVE ESSENTIALS OF A NEW ORDER.

(1) Rights of Small Nations:

F i r s t l y , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of a n e w o r d e r f o u n d e d o n m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s , t h e r e is n o r o o m f o r v i o l a t i o n of t h e f r e e d o m , i n t e g r i t y
a n d s e c u r i t y of o t h e r S t a t e s , n o m a t t e r w h a t m a y b e t h e i r t e r r i
t o r i a l e x t e n s i o n or t h e i r c a p a c i t y f o r d e f e n c e .
If i t is i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e p o w e r f u l S t a t e s s h o u l d , b y r e a s o n
of t h e i r g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a n d t h e i r p o w e r , p l a y l e a d i n g r o l e s
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of e c o n o m i c g r o u p s , c o m p r i s i n g n o t o n l y t h e m
s e l v e s b u t s m a l l e r a n d w e a k e r S t a t e s a s w e l l , it is n e v e r t h e l e s s
i n d i s p e n s a b l e t h a t , in t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o m m o n g o o d , t h e y , a n d
all o t h e r s , r e s p e c t t h e r i g h t s of t h o s e s m a l l e r S t a t e s t o p o l i t i c a l
freedom, to economic d e v e l o p m e n t , and to adequate protection,
i n t h e c a s e of conflicts b e t w e e n n a t i o n s , of t h a t n e u t r a l i t y w h i c h
is t h e i r s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r a l , a s w e l l as i n t e r n a t i o n a l , l a w .

(2) The Rights of Minorities :

S e c o n d l y , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of a n e w o r d e r f o u n d e d o n m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s , t h e r e is n o p l a c e f o r o p e n o r i n v i s i b l e o p p r e s s i o n of
t h e c u l t u r a l a n d l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s , ,
f o r t h e h i n d r a n c e o r r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e i r e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s , f o r
t h e l i m i t a t i o n o r a b o l i t i o n of t h e i r n a t u r a l f e r t i l i t y .

(3) No Hoarding of Economic Resources:

T h i r d l y , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of a n e w o r d e r f o u n d e d o n m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s , t h e r e is n o p l a c e f o r t h a t cold a n d c a l c u l a t i n g e g o i s m
which tends to hoard economic resources and materials destined
f o r t h e u s e of all, t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e n a t i o n s l e s s f a v o u r e d
by n a t u r e are not permitted access to them.

(4) Progressive Limitation of Armaments Essential:

F o u r t h l y , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of a n e w o r d e r f o u n d e d o n m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s , o n c e t h e m o r e d a n g e r o u s p r i n c i p l e s of a r m e d conflict
h a v e b e e n e l i m i n a t e d , t h e r e is n o c a s e for t o t a l w a r f a r e o r for a
m a d r u s h t o a r m a m e n t s . T h e c a l a m i t y of a w o r l d w a r w i t h t h e
e c o n o m i c a n d social r u i n a n d t h e m o r a l d i s s o l u t i o n a n d b r e a k -

(58) The Five Peace P o i n t s a r e t a k e n from Pope Pius XII on World

Order, by Rev. Lewis W a t t , S.J., p p . 40, 41.
566 THE MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

d o w n w h i c h f o l l o w in i t s t r a i n s h o u l d n o t b e p e r m i t t e d t o e n v e l o p
t h e h u m a n r a c e for a t h i r d t i m e .
In o r d e r t h a t m a n k i n d m a y be p r e s e r v e d from such a mis
f o r t u n e i t is e s s e n t i a l t o p r o c e e d w i t h s i n c e r i t y a n d h o n e s t y t o a
p r o g r e s s i v e l i m i t a t i o n of a r m a m e n t s .

( 5 ) No Persecution of li cliff ion ;

F i f t h l y , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of a n e w o r d e r f o u n d e d on m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s , t h e r e is n o p l a c e for t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of r e l i g i o n a n d of
59
t h e Church.* *

vSOME E X T R A C T S F R O M P O P E P I U S X I F S
A L L O C U T I O N , C H R I S T M A S , 1942.

It is t r u e t h a t t h e r o a d f r o m n i g h t t o full clay will be l o n g .

O n i t s first five m i l e s t o n e s , t h e r e a r e c h i s e l l e d t h e
following m a x i m s :

FIRST MILESTONE.

Dignity and rights of the human person.:

H e w h o w o u l d h a v e t h e S t a r of P e a c e t o s h i n e o u t a n d s t a n d
o v e r society should c o - o p e r a t e for his p a r t in g i v i n g b a c k to t h e
h u m a n p e r s o n t h e d i g n i t y g i v e n t o it b y G o d f r o m t h e v e r y
beginning.
H e s h o u l d o p p o s e t h e e x c e s s i v e h e r d i n g of m e n a s if t h e y
w e r e a s o u l l e s s m a s s , r o o t e d in e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , i n t e l
l e c t u a l a n d m o r a l q u i c k s a n d s , w i t h o u t firm p r i n c i p l e s a n d s t r o n g
c o n v i c t i o n s , t h e pi e y ol e m o t i o n a l e x c i t e m e n t a n d f i c k l e n e s s .
H e s h o u l d f a v o u r b y e v e r y l a w f u l m e a n s , in e v e r y s p h e r e of
life, social i n s t i t u t i o n s in w h i c h a full p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is
a s s u r e d a n d g u a r a n t e e d b o t h i n t h e e a r t h l y a n d e t e r n a l o r d e r of
things.
Me s h o u l d u p h o l d r e s p e c t for a n d t h e p r a c t i c a l r e a l i s a t i o n of
the following fundamental personal r i g h t s :
T h e r i g h t to maintain and develop one's corporal, intellectual
a n d m o r a l life, a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e r i g h t , in p r i n c i p l e , t o r e l i g i o u s
formation and education.
T h e r i g h t t o w o r s h i p G o d in p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c , a n d t o c a r r y
on r e l i g i o u s w o r k s of c h a r i t y .
T h e r i g h t t o m a r r y , a n d a c h i e v e t h e a i m of m a r r i e d life.
T h e right to conjugal and domestic society.
T h e right to w o r k as the indispensable means towards the
m a i n t e n a n c e of f a m i l y life.

(59) T a k e n from The Catholic fie? aid, J a n u a r y 2, 1942.

 MONETARY REFORM 567
T h e r i g h t t o a f r e e c h o i c e of a s t a t e of life, a n d h e n c e , t o o , o f
t h e p r i e s t h o o d o r r e l i g i o u s life.
T h e r i g h t t o t h e u s e of m a t e r i a l g o o d s in k e e p i n g w i t h h i s
duties and social limitations.

SECOND MILESTONE.

The Sense of Social Unity and Especially of the Family:

H e w h o w o u l d h a v e t h e S t a r of P e a c e s h i n e o u t a n d s t a n d
o v e r s o c i e t y s h o u l d r e j e c t e v e r y f o r m of m a t e r i a l i s m w h i c h s e e s
i n t h e p e o p l e o n l y a h e r d of i n d i v i d u a l s w h o , d i v i d e d a n d w i t h o u t
a n y i n t e r n a l cohesion, a r e c o n s i d e r e d as a m a s s to b e lorded over
and t r e a t e d arbitrarily. He should strive to u n d e r s t a n d society as
a n i n t r i n s i c u n i t y , g r o w n - u p a n d m a t u r e d , u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of
P r o v i d e n c e , a u n i t y w h i c h , w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s a s s i g n e d t o it, a n d
a c c o r d i n g to its o w n peculiar gifts, tends, w k h the collaboration
of t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s e s a n d p r o f e s s i o n s , t o w a r d s t h e e t e r n a l a n d
e v e r n e w a i m s of c u l t u r e a n d r e l i g i o n .
H e s h o u l d d e f e n d t h e i n d i s s o l u b i l i t y of m a r r i a g e .
H e s h o u l d g i v e t o t h e f a m i l y t h a t u n i q u e cell of t h e p e o p l e
s p a c e , l i g h t a n d a i r s o t h a t it m a y a t t e n d t o its m i s s i o n of p e r
p e t u a t i n g n e w life, a n d of e d u c a t i n g c h i l d r e n in a s p i r i t c o r r e s
p o n d i n g t o i t s o w n t r u e r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s , a n d t h a t it m a y
p r e s e r v e , fortify and r e c o n s t i t u t e , a c c o r d i n g to its p o w e r s and its
purpose, economic, spiritual, moral, and juridic unity.
H e should take care that the material and spiritual advant
a g e s of a f a m i l y b e s h a r e d b y t h e d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s .
H e should strive to secure for e v e r y family a d w e l l i n g w h e r e
a m a t e r i a l l y a n d m o r a l l y h e a l t h y f a m i l y life m a y b e l i v e d in a d i t s
vigour and worth.
H e s h o u l d t a k e c a r e t h a t t h e p l a c e of w o r k b e n o t s o s e p a r
a t e d f r o m t h e h o m e a s t o m a k e t h e h e a d of t h e f a m i l y a n d t h e
e d u c a t o r of t h e c h i l d r e n a v i r t u a l s t r a n g e r t o h i s o w n h o u s e h o l d .
H e s h o u l d t a k e c a r e , a b o v e a l l , t h a t t h e b o n d s of t r u s t a n d
m u t u a l help should be re-established between the family and the
p u b l i c s c h o o l ; t h a t b o n d , w h i c h , in o t h e r t i m e s , g a v e s u c h h a p p y
results, b u t which n o w has been replaced by mistrust where the
s c h o o l , i n f l u e n c e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e s p i r i t of m a t e r i a l i s m , c o r
r u p t s a n d d e s t r o y s w h a t t h e p a r e n t s h a v e instilled i n t o the m i n d s
of t h e c h i l d r e n .

THIRD MILESTONE.

Dignity and Prerogatives of Labour:

H e who would have t h e S t a r of P e a c e s h i n e o u t a n d s t a n d
over society should give to w o r k t h e place a s s i g n e d to it by God
from the beginning. As an indispensable means towards gaining
568 T H E MYSTICAL BODY O F CHRIST

o v e r t h e w o r l d t h a t m a s t e r y w h i c h G o d w i s h e s f o r H i s G l o r y , all
w o r k h a s an i n h e r e n t dignity, and at the s a m e t i m e a close con
n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p e r f e c t i o n of t h e p e r s o n . T h i s is t h e n o b l e
d i g n i t y a n d p r i v i l e g e of w o r k , w h i c h is n o t in a n y w a y c h e a p e n e d
b y t h e f a t i g u e a n d t h e b u r d e n w h i c h h a s t o b e b o r n e in o b e d i e n c e
a n d s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e W i l l of G o d a s t h e r e s u l t of O r i g i n a l S i n .
T h o s e w h o a r c f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e g r e a t E n c y c l i c a l s of O u r P r e
d e c e s s o r s and O u r o w n p r e v i o u s m e s s a g e s k n o w well t h a t the
Church does not hesitate to d r a w the practical conclusions which
a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m o r a l n o b i l i t y of w o r k a n d t o g i v e t h e m all
t h e s u p p o r t of h e r a u t h o r i t y . T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c l u d e , b e s i d e s
a j u s t w a g e w h i c h c o v e r s t h e n e e d s of t h e w o r k e r a n d h i s f a m i l y ,
t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d p e r f e c t i o n of a s o c i a l o r d e r w h i c h w i l l m a k e
p o s s i b l e a n a s s u r e d , e v e n if m o d e s t , p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y f o r all c l a s s e s
o f s o c i e t y ; w h i c h will p r o m o t e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e c h i l d r e n
of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s w h o a r e e s p e c i a l l y e n d o w e d w i t h i n t e l l i g e n c e
a n d g o o d w i l l ; w h i c h w i l l p r o m o t e t h e c a r e a n d t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e
s o c i a l s p i r i t in o n e ' s i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o u r h o o d , in t h e d i s t r i c t , t h e
province, the people and the natioria spirit which, by s m o o t h i n g
o v e r friction arising from privilege or class i n t e r e s t s , r e m o v e s
from the w o r k e r s the feeling that they are isolated from a
genuinely h u m a n and paternally Christian solidarity.

FOURTH MILESTONE.

Restoration of the Rule of Law:

H e w h o w o u l d h a v e t h e S t a r of P e a c e s h i n e o u t a n d s t a n d
o v e r s o c i a l life s h o u l d c o l l a b o r a t e in a c o m p l e t e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e
r u l e of l a w . T h e s e n s e of l a w t o - d a y is o f t e n a l t e r e d a n d u p r o o t e d
b y t h e p r o f e s s i o n a n d t h e p r a c t i c e of a p o s i t i v i s m a n d u t i l i t a r i a n
i s m w h i c h a r e s u b j e c t e d a n d b o u n d t o t h e s e r v i c e of d e t e r m i n e d
g r o u p s , classes and m o v e m e n t s , w h o s e p r o g r a m m e s direct and
d e t e r m i n e t h e c o u r s e of l e g i s l a t i o n a n d t h e p r a c t i c e s of t h e c o u r t s .
T h e c u r e for this situation becomes feasible w h e n w e a w a k e n
a g a i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a r u l e of l a w r e s t i n g o n t h e s u p r e m e
d o m i n i o n of G o d a n d s a f e g u a r d e d f r o m all h u m a n i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ;
a c o n s c i o u s n e s s of a n o r d e r w h i c h s t r e t c h e s f o r t h i t s a r m , in p r o
t e c t i o n o r p u n i s h m e n t , o v e r t h e i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s of m a n a n d
p r o t e c t s t h e m a g a i n s t t h e a t t a c k s of e v e r y h u m a n p o w e r . F r o m
t h e r u l e of l a w a s w i l l e d b y G o d flows m a n ' s i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t t o
s e c u r i t y before the l a w , a n d b y this v e r y fact to a definite s p h e r e
of r i g h t s a f e g u a r d e d f r o m all a r b i t r a r y a t t a c k s . T h e r e l a t i o n s
of m a n t o m a n , of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o s o c i e t y , t o a u t h o r i t y , t o civil
d u t y ; t h e r e l a t i o n s of s o c i e t y a n d of a u t h o r i t y t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l
s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n a firm l e g a l f o o t i n g a n d b e g u a r d e d , w h e n t h e
n e e d a r i s e s , b y t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e c o u r t s . T h i s p r e s u p p o s e s :
 MONETARY REFORM 569

( a ) A tribunal and a j u d g e w h o t a k e their directions from

a clearly f o r m u l a t e d and defined c o d e ;
( b ) C l e a r j u r i d i c a l n o r m s w h i c h m a y n o t be u p s e t b y u n
w a r r a n t e d appeals to a supposed popular sentiment, or by
merely utilitarian considerations;
( c ) T h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t e v e n t h e S t a t e
a n d t h e f u n c t i o n a r i e s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n s d e p e n d e n t o n it a r e
obliged to alter and to w i t h d r a w m e a s u r e s which are harmful
t o t h e l i b e r t y , p r o p e r t y , h o n o u r , p r o g r e s s or h e a l t h of t h e
individual.

FIFTH MILESTONE.

Conception of the State according to the Christian Spirit:

H e w h o w o u l d h a v e t h e S t a r of P e a c e s h i n e o u t a n d s t a n d o v e r
h u m a n s o c i e t y s h o u l d c o - o p e r a t e t o w a r d s t h e s e t t i n g u p of a c o n
c e p t i o n a n d p r a c t i c e of t h e S t a t e f o u n d e d on r e a s o n a b l e d i s c i p l i n e ,
noble c h a r i t y , a n d a responsible C h r i s t i a n spirit. H e should help
t o r e s t o r e t h e S t a t e a n d i t s p o w e r t o t h e s e r v i c e of h u m a n s o c i e t y ,
t o t h e full r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r e s p e c t d u e t o t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a n d
his efforts to a t t a i n his e t e r n a l d e s t i n y . H e should apply a n d
devote himself to dispelling the e r r o r s which aim at t u r n i n g the
S t a t : a n d i t s a u t h o r i t y f r o m t h e p a t h of m o r a l i t y a n d s e v e r i n g
t h e m f r o m t h e e s s e n t i a l l y e t h i c a l b o n d s w h i c h link t h e m t o i n d i
v i d u a l a n d s o c i a l life, m a k i n g t h e m d e n y , or, in p r a c t i c e , i g n o r e
t h e i r e s s e n t i a l d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e W i l l of t h e C r e a t o r . H e s h o u l d
w o r k f o r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n of t h e T r u t h w h i c h t e a c h e s ,
e v e n in t e m p o r a l m a t t e r s , t h a t t h e d e e p e s t m e a n i n g , t h e u l t i m a t e
m o r a l b a s i s a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l r i g h t of g o v e r n m e n t lies in
60
serving.' *

<60) T a k e n from The Catholic Herald.

 Index
Abbo. Joseph, 157.
Abel, S.J., Fr., 409.
. ICACIA. 220.
Acres, VV. Mars-ton, 39o.
ACTA SAUCTAE SEEDS, 93, 232.
Adam, Madame. 410.
Addis. Sir Charles, K.C.M.G., 546.
\ddison. Rt. Hon. Lord, 467,
. I ({DRESSES LO THE GERMAN NATION
(Fiehie), 374.
-\dler. ISO.
ADRIANO LEMNRI, CHEF SUPREME DES
PRONE-MAEONS (Domcnico-Margiot-
to). 234.
AD CATHOLIEI SACERDOFII, ON THE CATHO
LIC PRIESTHOOD, 131, 132.
AD DIEM ILIUM LAETISSINUTM. 30.
AE.G., 516.
. IELEND PAINS, 98.
AguiHar. Baron D \ 394.
Abiman Kczon : Sec CONSTITUTIONS OF
FREEMASONRY.
Aillv. d\ 247/270.
Alembert. cY, 250, 263.
Alleghany Corporation, 499*
Allenby, General, 505.
Alexander III. Pope, 174.
Alexander of Hales, 47.
Allied Chemical and Dye Co., 512.
ALL THESE THINGS (A. N. Field), xiv,
323. 502 507.
; Arendzcn, Canon, 170.
Alsace, 515.
ALIA VENDITA, 125.
ALTERNATIVE TO DEATH (Earl of Ports
mouth), xiv, 457, 483. 484, 533, 562,
563.
Alvernia, Petrus de, 67.
Alvensleben, Baron Von, 408.
Amalgamated Copper, 494.
AMERICA CONQUERS BRITAIN (Ludwell
Denny), xiv, 106, 490, 491, 508, 512.
513, 514, 515, 516, 554, 555.
American Car and Foundry, 513.
American General Electric, 5 1 4 , 516.
AMERICAN HEBREW AND LAVISH MES
SENGER, 327.
American I HUM ii;iiiin:'! C"i porai ion
513.
American 1. G. Chemical C o v p ( , ira( olu
513.
Americaji l.oi'omolh'e, 513.
American Railway Express 513.
Amer i can S mel I ii i ^ and Refining
Company. 49-1.
AMOUR DE PICA ET LA CROIX DE JESU.*,
V (Pere Garrigou-l.agrangc, () P.).
7.
Ampthill, Lord, 204.
Anderson, 200, 201, 227, 234.
Andreades, Prof., 395, 396.
Andrew, blessed. 191.
.HTTIQITI J UDACURUIU. 175.
//NII-SEMITISM (1, Maritain), hS2
ANTISEMIIISME, I,' OVrnard Eazarc).
186, 234, 319.
. I POCAIYPSE, THE. 553.
APOLOGETICS. t'ALHOLIE ( \rchhidiop
Sheehan), 148.
APOLOGY FOR THE ORDER OF IRCC-
MASONS, AN (M. de la Tierce), 219
A QUO PNMNNI, 174.
ARCANUM DIVINAE SAPIENTIAE, ON
CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE, v, 41, 65. 95.
109.
ARCH-ENEMY OJ ECONOMIC PRCCDUW
(Professor Soddy), 534.
Argounow, 302.
Aristotle, 64, 6 6 . o7. 70. 74, 76. 247,
260.
Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., 447.
Arnim, Count Von, 409.
Ashley, Colonel, 514.
Associated Electrical Industries, 514
Astruc, M 285.
-\tholl, Duchess ot". 224,
Attlee, Mr., 225.
Aubaud, Raoul, 418.
Augustine. St., 27, 9-!. 119. 130.
Augusliniw Triumphus, 48.
Vulaire. Coum dc St.. 324. 325. 32o r
328.
572 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
Aumale, Lelchvre d\ 229. Benes, 110, 211.
\ntrecourt, Nicholas of, 2-16. Benigni, 268.
Axclrod, 364. Benuif, Mom. | \ . 53, 223, 280, 282.
Bahcuf, Francoi* Noel, 311, 312. Bciilham. 250.
Baehmetiew, Boris. 301. Bcmenisti, J. 1... 428.
Baron. 250. Btrkeiev, Bishop George, 373. 404,
Bade, 409. 405, 406. 407.
Baden Baden, 540. Birle. A. \ . Or.). 504.
Baden Baden Commilice, 547. Hrrnjinl. St., 30, 47.
Baker, C. Alma, C.B.E.. 466, 467. Bern. I h i d i e ^ uf. 180.
Maker, Geoi-e F , 493. Berliner. General, 343, 344.
Bank Act, 1^35, 501. Berirand, William, 418.
Hank for International Settlements, I Sotlik-hem Steel, 513.
523. Bcihlen, Premier, 508.
Hank of England. 513. Bevcridgc, Sir William. 511.
Hank of linqland from Within, The, P>ci>.\trc Hnreaucracx (Lord Perry),
3%. 542. 543, 544.
Hank of Manhattan, Co., 507. Bid, 247.
1
Hankers Conspiracy, The (A. Kitson). /aider tins detn Kowmitntstischen
430, 444, 402, 464. 1'INFANT ( l b \ Hans Eisele), 323.
Hankers in Holivia, The (Margaret A. MilM. S.J., 44, 47, 48, 50, 295.
Marsh), 5 5 5 . liirkenhead, Lord, 515.
Hankers Industrial IX-vdojimeut Co., liisl.ee D e f l a t i o n , 506.
513. Bismarck, 180. 229, 299, 300, 409, 410,
Hankers' Magazine, The, 444. 511.
Baiinez., 4-7. Bisschop, W . HI., 401.
Barclay, 4 7 . Mlank, Alexander Dimitrievitch, 329.
Baring Bros., 513. Blank, Maria Alexandrovna. 329.
HARRIER TO HEALTH (Hovd). xiv. 478, Bliss Thomas, 398.
479. Bloeh, Kabhi Isaac, 285.
Harniel, I/Abbc, 203, 279, 312. Blum, Leon. 287.
Harthas, I/Ahhc* C , 181, 191. Bhmtschli, 365.
Barndi. Hernard M.. 499, 5(H, 505. Bocrne, 188.
ttasih. Nicholas, 301. Holivia, 554.
Pu^kcrvilk, Heat rice, xiv, 314. 315, HALSHEVISM IS NOT JCIVISH, 184, 187,
316. 317. 314, 318, 323.
Ha;'c\ 537. 5 7 6 . Bonaventurc, St., 47.
F.asiiat, 103, 257, 262. Honuet, Georges, 417, 418.
B P . C , 476. lignum Sane, Mofn Proprio, '200.
Holies A.C.F., 111. Hon!. I/Abbe ). P>., 131.
PEA FITS . Indrcas, 191. Parkin. J.. 519.
Bosanquet. 401.
Bcckcndorff, 111. lionise el la Conscience, La ( E d j r .
"'Vo-cham's Pills," 481. Janssens), 562.
" I W f Yvnsi" (American), 497. Bourtzcw (Wladimir), 302.
Hcllarmine, Si. Robert, 41, 46, 47, 53, Hovd, Dr. Douglas, xiv, 478. 479, 511.
61. Bode, 250.
V P ' V , Hilaii.'. 122. 210. 226, 268, 270, Brand. Hon. K. TL, 491.
271, 2 ^ , 30f), 302, 394, 395, 401, 471, Hrandeis, justice Louis D., 498, 504,
517, 5 3 ? . 5 3 3 . 505.
Hc.'.e.lict XIV, Pone, 75, 82, 83, 174, P.ra^ol, Boris 309. 327.
177 1Q1, 2S9. 290. Hread in Peace and War, xiv, 472,
I t o i r l H X V , Pope, ii, xv, 84, 110, 174. 475. 476. 477. 478, 480.
112. 157. 200. 556. Hrrad of Britain. The, 474, 475.
Hevediet XT, Pate of Pear? (ttcv. Hrevis Conspectus Ilistoriae Philo-
H. E. 0 . Rope), 110. sophhic (Pere Gcny, S.J.), 247.

Briant!. M . , 416.
B'nai B'rith, The First Lodge
England ( P a u l G o o d m a n ) , 235.
B ' n a i B ' r i t h , 162, 168, 234, 235, 417,
502.
Britain's Jeioish Problem CM.
Murchin), 403.
Britain's Lost Victory ( O . M . T o u c h e )
225.
Britain's Problem (II. D . Kuowles).
400, 4 0 1 .
British- \moncan Tin Corporation,
515.
British V ore sir x Committee t Report
of, 486.
B r i t i s h G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c , 514.
B r i t i s h M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 482.
B r i t i s h M o n d N i c k e l Co., 515.
B r i t i s h T h o m p s o n H o u s t o n , 514.
B r o n s t e i n (alias T r o t s k y ) , 302, 323.
B r o w n B r o s , a n d Co., 516.
B r o w n B r o s . , H a r r i m a n a n d Co., 516.
Brusski ( P a n f e r o v ) , 262.
B r y a n , W i l l i a m l e a n i n g s , 498.
B u c h a n a n , S i r John, 303, 304, 305, 307.
308.
B u c h a n a n , M e r i e l , 305, 306, 307.
B u i s s o n , 412.
B u l l i t t , 306.
B u r i d a n , 250.
Burnaby, M a j o r General, 299
B u r n e t , ' B i s h o p , 397.
B u r n s , M r . Tohti, 475.
B u r n s , R o b e r t , 398.
C a s l i o s t r o , 307.
Cahill, S.T., R e v . P . , 93, 215, 222, 232,
233.
C a i e l a n , C a r d i n a l , 46, 47. 70.
Co'lmct. M . P i e r r e . 223.
C a l v i n , 75. 278.
C a m a c h o , P r e s i d e n t , 107.
C a m b o n , J u l e s , 111.
Campaigners for Christ ( D a v i d G o l d
stein), 151, 348.
C a m p i n c h i . C e s a r , 417.
Capello, S . h . 45.^50, 54, 57.
C a r c o p i n o . M . , 287.
C a r d i j u , C a n o n 131.
Cariiati* Christ! Cojnpulsi, On the
Troubles of Our Times, 89, 109,
141, 144. 177. 455.
C a r l o s K i n g , 208.
C a r m o n a , G e n e r a l 337.
C a r t e r Glass Bill. 494.
Ca?*'f, Prof. C i K t a v e , 465, 492.
Casii C'Uinubii, On Christian Mar-
INDEX 573
riattc, v, 15, 87, 95, 109, 382, 480.
>>( 520.
C a t h e r i n e of Sienna, St., 269.
Catholic Church and International
Order (Bcales), 111.
r,. Catholic Gazette, The, 170, 171.
Catholic Herald, The, 107, 147, 226,
334._449, 513, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569.
Catholic Standard and Times, The,
184.
Catholic Times, The, 189.
Catholic Worker, The, 75, 76.
Cause des Resles d'Israel introdnile
an Concile Occumcnique du Vatican,
La ( L e m a n n ) , 177.
C a v a l l e r i i N , P e t r u s , 157.
C a v o u r , Count, 180, 227, 299.
C h a l o d i , 56.
C h a m b e r l a i n . Sir A u s t i n . 437.
C h a m b e r l a i n , H . S-t., 3 7 1 , 375, 376,
380.
C h a r l e s T h e Bald, 180.
C h a r l e s , E m p e r o r of A u s t r i a , 110.
C h a r l e s I I , K i n g of E n g l a n d , 532.
C h a r l e s I t . K i n g of S p a i n , 3 9 1 .
C h a p p e d e l a i n e , Dc. 418.
C h a r u e , A n d r e . 182, 191.
C h a s e n a t i o n a l Bank, 513.
Chase Securities Corporation ( N e w
Y o r k ) , 512, 513.
C h a s l c , P i e r r e , 329.
Chaucer (G. K . C h e s t e r t o n ) , 269, 451.
C h a n t e m p s , Camille, 417, 41S.
C h e s t e r t o n , G. K., 151, 269, 299, 300,
451.
Chiccn/o Daily Tribune, The, 505.
C h i c a g o W h e a t P i t , 449.
Church and Usury, The ( D r . C l e a r v ) ,
454.
C h u r c h i l l , John, D u k e of M a r l b o r
o u g h . 392, 393.
C h u r c h i l l , W i n s t o n . 296. 403, 437, 489.
Cite de ITobbes, La (T. V i a l a t o u x ) ,
259.
City of God ( S t . A u g u s t i n e ) , 136.
Civil Government, Treatise on
(T.ocke), 253. 254.
Civiltd Cattolica, La. 158, 159. 16o.
K>7. 170. 171. 179, 180.
Clairvoyance dc Rome (f. M a r ' t a i n ) .
203.
C l e a r y . D r . , 454.
C l e r n e n r c a u . 412.
C l e m e n t Y . Pope, 269.
C l e m e n t Y l . Pope, 244, 246.
C l e m e n t Yl 11, Pope. 174.
574 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST
Clement M i , Pope. 289. Corn Laws, 467.
CLEW AVWfje. THE, 7-1, 78, 82, 83. Corpus Reformatorum (1 fenillc,
C!eris.Nai\ O.P.. Pere H., 270. O.P.), 272.
Cleveland, 1'resident, 4 3 3 . Costa, Alfonso, 338
Clootz, Anae.harsis, 409. Costa. "Moses and Antony, da, 394.
Cobbeii. William, 394, 395, 397. Costa. Wcndcs da, 394.
Cochin. M. \ngnste, 279. Cot, Pierre, 418.
Codo Napoleon. 185. Count Your Head, They are Jlive*
Codex luris Canonici. 40, 56, 7 4 , 7 7 , (Wyndham Lewis), 145.
91, 452. Cowan, A.. 147, 228, 229, 234, 233, 23b.
Co1Iiu>\ .i97. Crelineau-Joh, 125, 344.
Cotu vn, I ,ord, 513. Crimes of linf/hnid. The (G. K . C h e s
Combe-, \L, 415. 416. terton), 300.
Comfort tioainst Tribulation, Dialogue Cripps, Sir Stafford, 225.
of cSi. Thomas More), 72. Crispi, 227.
Comment la Franc-M aconneric fail Criticism ot any form of Revelation
une Revolution (M. I. Marques- (Fichte), 374."
Riviere), 336. Cross, Dr. Reginald Edward,
Comment, in P.p. ad Ronuuws (St. M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 483
Thoma--), 3 5 . Crowlhcr, GeofTrev, xiv. 402. 443 . 496,
Comment, in Jithic. (St. Thomas) 62, 522, 524, 549. 561.
65, 68, 80. 421, 522. Cliche, Monsieur P., 385.
Comment, in Pofit. .'hist. (St Culberson, Senator, 495.
Thomas), 66, 67, 68, 69. 70, 71, 72, Culture Latine et Ordre Sociaic (\<.
74, 76. P. Gillct^ O.P.). 14. 20, 292.
Comment in Sent. (St. Thomas), 4 5 , Cunliffe Currency Committee's Re
40. port, 436, 437.
Comment in Sunnn. Theohxj. (Caje- Cursus 7 heofoj/iens (John of St.
tan), 46. Thomas). 40.
Commentary on St. John's dospel Cyprian. St.. 119.
(Libermann, C S.SiO. 151. 181. Czech Conspiracy, The (George L a n e -
Commonweal, The, 184. Pox Pitt-River*). 188.
Com tnunist .1 fanifest a (Marx and Czecho-SIovakia, 490.
Kneels). 362. Puiix Mail (London). 449.
Companies Act, 542. Daladier, Edouard. 417, 418.
Comlp. 249. Dalcho, 502.
GmdiUar, 2^0. Darien. 451.
Condorcrt. 263. Darmstadter Hank, 510.
Con'uration Jn'ree contre te nwnde Darrow, Clarence, 504.
CUvcl'en, La (M. Copm - Alban - Davidson. Henrv, 495.
eelh), 210, 221, 227. Dawes. G. K.. 498.
Connaught, Duke of. 205, 207. 226. Death Duties. 562, 563.
CormoNv. lame*. 14o. ,U3, 347, 348. Defensio Pidei (Snare*), 48.
349. 350, 351. 352. 353. Pefensor Paris (MarMlbm of Padua),
Co'itriencc Chretiennc et Justice 245.
Sociah (Gillct\ 18. Deores du Savoir, Les (Y Maritain),
Constitutions of Preeinastmry, The, 258, 250.
201. 203. 397. .W. 408. Dehon, Pere. 562.
Onnsiitniimi of ihc 1'ruled States, 501. P o l a r i s . M'vr. H . 110. 165, 284, 333.
Contre-RevnJulion, 223. 362. 363. 364, 409, 411.
O v i - r t n . .\fis G M. viii. 69. 403. 422,
Delhos, Vvon. 418.
W 439. 464. 500. 501, 521. 526. 528, Delpech. 220.
531. Pein^'-ev.
i
S L. R' v, Peninrd \ Y
Gm1i"d"P Ks-Pre^rlem. .|QO 505. DeniOe. O.I\. Fr. H . 247, 271 27?
Conm-MUmrvUi, 214. 218, 210, 220. 273.
221. 227. Denny, Ludwcii. xiv. 106, 490. 49!,
 INDEX 575
508, 512, 513, 514, 515. 516, 554, 555. Dutch, Oswald, 550, 551.
Derniers Jours des Roman of, Les Ebcrle. Dr.. 215. 36b.
(R. Willon), 318. Pcelesia, De (P,iilol, S.h), 45, 47, 48,
l
Descartes, .\ii, 2*8, 24 J. 250, 398. 50, 295.
Dcschamps, S.L Pere. 279, 288, 298, Pcelesia f V'/7"/.'.v7. De (Scbultes,
299, 300, 335, 362, 301, 3o5, 382. 41(1. O.I'.). 140.
Despotism in Disnuise. 221. liLctesutm (Pius \ I D. 233.
Dentz, 180. Fconomie Peace slims (Oswald
Devil Worship w J"ranee (Waile), 147. Dutch;, 550, 551. 553.
Le Diahle, Ses Paroles, Son A elion Economic Reform Club, 476, 557, 560.
dans les Passed es d'lllfurt, 284. 561.
Dialogue (William of Ockham), 245. Ceonomic Tribulation (V. C. Vieker*),
Diary of a Staff Ofjircr of the Bri
4 17. 458. 4 5 0 . 525.
tish lixpeditionarv Force, 287.
Fden. A.. 224. 517.
Diaz, Porfirio. 106. " Edict of Expulsion, 187.
Dictatttre de la h'ranc-Maconncrie en Edison Swan. 514.
Prance, La (Michel), 221. liditorial Research Reports (Wash
Dictionnaire Apotoqefique de la Poi ington), 515.
Chretiennc. 177, 187, 191. 192. Edmundson Electoral Corporation,
Dictionary of , imeriean Rioqraphy,
349. fifilise Romuine at face de la Revolu
Dictionnaire Laroussc, 411. tion, V (Crctmcau-.loly). 125, 344.
Dictatttre de la Macomierie, La (M. Einzig, Paul, 523.
Kobert Vallery-Kadot), 416. Eiscle, Dr. Hans, 323.
:
Dictionna re de Theologic, 244, 245. Eislcr, Dr. Robert. 549, 550.
Dieu (Garriuou-Lacrranire. O.P.), 16. Piemen ta Phihsophiae (Gredt,
Diderot, 250. 263. O.S.1L), 464.
Dillon, Dr. E. Y, 509. lue du Dragon, L\ 147
Dillon, Read & Co., 513. fimhereur Nicholas // et les Juifs,
Dillon, M<jr., 298. 299. .W0, 332. i: (\. Netehvolodov), 301, 322.
Disconto Ge^eltseliaft. 510. Pney clique 1
"Fix Pervenit, " L'
Dissolution of an Umpire, The (M. <l/AWw Tihevsbien). 75. 562.
Buchanan), 305. :
tincxclnpacd a ftriiannica, 396, 397,
Divinx Rcdemptoris, On Atheistic 400, 430, 548.
Communism, viii. 12, 15 19. 24, P.nrvrlnpaedta oj Freemasonry
25. 129, 1-13. 144. 155. 178, 311, 520, (Mackey), 201.
553. P.nd of the Armistice, The (G, K.
Divini //tins Maqistn, On the Chris Ch'Merton). 151.
tian Pduea/'o'i ,>f Youth. (:<). 96. 97, Engels. 317, 362.
108, 109. 520. ^ tui'dand and the Parmer, 470, 471.
Documentation CathoTujue. La. 325. 471 -178
Dot/made Constitution of the Church, (intdish Parminq (Sir John Ru-seil),
38, 50. 531.
Dohm. Willi-lm. 2.14. 363. Pnofish-Speakintj Freemasonry i Roh-
Dominie of Val. Ulc^ed. lOi. liin.). 2 0 8 . 398*
Dostoievsky. 310. Pnioma of James 11 L\I. V. Hay).
Douglas. AI a ior. 226. 517, 51R. 302. 307.
Drarfi. K X - K P M I M I , 150, 154. 156 HQ I in tree des Israelites dans la
162. 171. T77 Sorie*e et les Htats Chretten?, //
Drvdon. fnhn. 302. 397. (Fr. Joseph Lomann), 155. 284. 363.
Dublin <)tu'uior. 445. fip'-vode An/i Martinique (Hi.
Dud'ev. Rev. KiMnov 278. KiroullatuH. 221. 232.
Dukes. Sir Pan'. 323.
Duuioiilin. 7^. Hrrenr* Modernes. Les (Dom.
Pcnou), 53, 280. 282.
Dnndrnm fPo. T i t w r a n ) , 468. P.ssov Conecrniint Human l
l der-
Dunn. Thomas. 399
s/andiuf/ (Locke), 103, 251, 462.
 576 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF
Pssays in Jewish History (l,ucicn
Wolf). 391.
filendard Russe, / / , 302.
Pthics of Intrest. The (Fr. I.ewU
Waif, S.J.), 453.
fZz'am/ilc et Na/hmnhsmr fC. Mar
thas), 181, 191.
Ewingcr, 364.
Jixortae in is/a dil'ume, 222.
Kzckicl, Monleeai, 504.
Fabian (Socialist) Society* Tract So.
/?/, 99.
Fables (Ea Fontaine), 412.
Fairy Ring of Commerce, The fCom
mander H. Shove), 467, 408.
Fall of the Russian Umpire, 77i*
(Rev. K. A. WaMi, S.I.), 307. 311.
329.
Fascist, The, 395.
Feavearyear. A. E.. 254, 255, 256.
Feder, H5, 146,
Inderal Reserve Act, 510.
Federal Reserve Hoard. 490, 492, 493.
494, 495, 496. 501. 503, 508, 509, 512.
514, 523. 540, 549, 550.
Federal Reserve System: Its Origin
and Growth (P. Warburg), 496.
Ferdinand. 187.
Fereira, Moses hone/..-304.
Ferguson Paibn, 514.
Per mo Praposito, ft. On Christian
Social Action. 109.
Ferrer, 2$7.
Fcrrv, I litis, 411, 412.
Fichie, 127, 249, 371, 373. 374, 375.
380.
Field, A. N., xiv, 104. 105. 307, 308.
309, 323, 440. 457, 458, 459, 490, 491.
492. 493, 495, 496, 497, 498, 502, 504,
505, 507, 508. 509, 512. 514, 530. 531.
534, 535. 536.
Fin Da/la Prima, On the Social Ques
tion, 109.
Finance Co. of Great Britain and
America, 513.
Finance in the Meltinq 1*01 (V C.
Vickers), 437. 458.
Fisher, living, 528, 5*>, 530.
Filch, Inspector. 329.
Phut of Ireland. Tht\ 352.
Flee lo the Fields, 471.
Vox d'IsracL To (lulian Weill), 152.
Fontaine, ha. 412.
Fools GohHFra) R. Marvin). 50?, 503.
FIH.
Ford. Ed-el Ii., 4<>X. 513.
CHRIST
Ford. Henry, 145, 146, 158, 328, 498.
Ford Motor Co., 513, 514.
Forestry Committee of Britain, 486.
Foundations of the Faith (Abbo), 157.
Fo.xweii, Professor H. S., 396.
France, 420.
Francis, John. 393.
Francks, Aaron, 394.
Franc-Maconneric, La (R. P. Dom
Benoit), 223.
Pranc-Maconneric Dcmasquee, La,
301.
Franco, General, 123, 184, 336.
Frankfurter, Prof. Felix, 503, 504,
505, 50(>.
Frank, Jerome, 504.
Fraudulent Standard, A (A. Kitson),
435.
Frederick the Great, 364, 365, 381,
408, 409.
Freedom in Finance (Sir Oswald
Stoil), 509.
Freeman's Journal, The, 353.
1-recuHisaurv and the Anti-Christian
Movement (Cahill, S.J.), 93, 215,
222, 233.
Freemason s Chronicle, The, 217.
Freemason, The, 206, 207.
Free Press, 318.
French Revolution, The (N. II.
Webster), 409.
Friends of Israel, The, 172.
Frobcn of Basic, 157.
From Liberfv to Hrest-Litovsk (A.
T. Williams), 308, 309.
Frossard, E. O., 417, 418.
Frv, L, 391, 504.
Ftilfonl, George Taylor, 482.
Funk, Hr. (Poland), 474.
Funk, Dr. (Germany), 523, 546.
Furucmont, 337.
Future of Auditina, The, 261, 486.
Gambetla, 409, 410.
Cnnctfiki-Fiirstcnberg, 308.
Ganganelli, Card., 191.
Cans, 188.
Garcia. O.P., P. T. Perez, 99.
(Varibaldi, 218, 227, 299. 382.
Garrigoii-f/igrange, O.P., 7, 8, 16,
2!6, 374.
Garrett, William, 398.
Gasnarri, Card.. 130.
Gedanken und prinncrnngen (Bis
marck), 229.
Gi-Whiskf. General. 363.
Genera! Electric Company, and ihe
 INDEX
United States Steel Corporation,
494.
General Motors (du Pont), 513, 514.
Geneva versus Peace (Count de St.
Aulaire), 325, 328.
Gentin, Fernand, 417.
Geny, S.L, Pere, 247.
George, III, King, 298.
Georges, General, 287.
German Bolshevik Conspiracy (E.
Sisson), 309.
German Dye Trust, 509, 512, 513.
Germany after the War of 1866
(Mgr. Ketteler), 363.
Germany's Master Plan (Borken and
Walsh) 519.
v 510, 516.
Gerson, 270.
Gideon, Sampson, 392, 394.
Gillet, O.P., R.P., 14, 18, 20, 21, 292,
^ 555, 562.
Giraud, General, 420.
G.K.'s Weekly, 210.
Gladstone, Mr., 488, 489.
Gleeson, J. D., 395.
Globe, The, 227, 298.
Gobineau, 371, 375, 376, 380.
Goethe, 398.
Godfrey, Michael, 396.
Gold Bill (1934), 500, 501.
Golding, Louis, 190, 191, 192.
Goldsmith, 180.
Goldstein, David, 151, 348.
Goltz, von der, 409.
Goodman, Paul, 235.
Goutchkow, A. G., 302, 303.
Goyau, M. G., 221, 285.
Graetz, 188.
Graves de Communx, On Christian
Democracy, 109.
Gray, Finly, H , 440.
Great Catholics, 392, 397.
Great Conspiracy, The (Oldstock
Ryder), 123.
Great Heresies, The (Belloc), 122.
Great Western Union Telegraph Com
pany, 494.
Greater London Counties Trust, 514.
Grosz, M E T . Joseph, 189.
Grcdt, O.S.B., Dom. J., 464.
Green, John Richard, 101.
Gregory VII, Pope, 54, 150.
Gres:orv XT. Pone. 269.
Greeorv XTIT, Pope, 174, 175.
Gre^orv XVI, Pope. 75, 87, 93, 94.
156. 289
Grenfell, E. C, 507.
QQ
577
Grey, Sir Edward, 111.
Groot, O.P., Pere de, 50.
Gross, M. Rene, 363.
Grossmacht Presse (Dr. Eberle), 215.
Gruber, S.L, Rev. H. 202, 212, 214,
f
216, 229.
Gugenheim Gregory, Prof. T. E., 466.
9
Gtiillaume d Occam et la Democratic
Rcligicnse, 245.
Grisar, S.J., H., 247.
Gustavus TIT, King of Sweden, 409.
Gwynne, H. A., 184, 297.
Haase, 308.
Hague, Conference of, 111.
Hamburg-American Shipping Co.,
Harding, President, 505.
Hargrave, John, xiv, 438, 439, 450,
472, 489, 516.
Harmonic entre I'Uglise et la Syna
gogue, De I* (Ex-Rabbin Drach),
150, 154, 156, 157, 162, 171, 177.
Harmonies flconomiques (Bastiat),
262.
Harpe, La, 263.
Harper's Magazine, 416.
Harriman, Averall, 515, 516.
Harriman, E. H. 497, 512.
f
Harriman, Riley and Co., 513.
Hart, Moses, 394.
Hartlev, Olga, 100, 101.
Hattersley. C. M 546, 548, 550.
Hawarden, Lord, 468.
Hawks, Rt. Rev. Mgr. E. F. 184.
t
Hawtrey, R. I., 430.
Hay, M. V., 392, 397.
Hay, William Howard, M.D., 477.
Health Via Food (W. Howard Hay),
477.
Heath, Sir Thomas L., 489.
Heekelingren, H. de Vries de, 191
Hegel, 127, 249, 371, 373, 375.
Heine, Heinrich, 186, 188.
Helpfancl (alias Parvus), 302, 308, 309
Helvetms, 250.
Henckel. 410.
Henry VIIT, 101, 104, 395.
Henriques. 395.
Heris, O.P., Rev. C. V., 26.
Herz, Henriette, 188, 363.
Hewart, Rt. Hon. Lord, 543, 544 545
Heyman, Hans, 517. 551, 553.
Hibernian Journal, The, 352, 353
Hicks, General, 180.
Hieeinson. Major, L., 495.
Hiskett, 403.
578 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF
Hisioire dc la Philosophic Chretienne
(Keller), 250.
Histoirc dc la Philosophic liuropecune
(A. Weber), 375.
Histoirc de I'fcglise (Marion), 411-
Histoire et tes llistoires dans fa Bible,
U (Mgr. landrieux), 150.
Histoirc Secrete de la Revolution
Pspagnolc (I*, dc Poncins), 336.
Historiae Fcclesiasticac Propacdeutica
(Beniftm), 208.
Historv of the Bank of Ihnjlund
(Andrcades), 395.
.Historv of the Hank of Pnyland
Lodge (S. A. Pope), 204.
History of the Jews (Graetz), 188.
Historv of the Jeves in England (A.
M. Hyamson), 391, 392, 393.
History of the Protestant Reformation
in F.nqtand and Ireland (W. Coli-
hctt), 395, 307.
History of ihe Reformation (Burnet),
397.
Hitler. Adolf, 307, 490.
Hobbes, 13, 250, 253.
Holbach, d\ 250.
Hollis, Cbrisiopbcr, 395, 40-1.
Holy Ghost, The (Ucn, C.S.Sp.), 4.
Hoover, President, 505.
Hopkins, 474.
Hopkins, Harrv L., 504.
[Tome, Robert", 303.
Howe, Frederick C , 504.
House, Colonel, 495.
I low the Reformation Happened
(Betloc), 270. 271.
(
Hudson, vSir James, 29>.
Hutch of Si. Victor, 47.
Hull, Corrlcll, 554.
/1umauity's Challenge (Service for
Economic. Action), 544..
fhnnanum Cenns, On Freemasonry \
8, 93. 136, 137. 149, 1%, 197, * 198*
199, 200, 205. 288, 290, 363.
Humbert, VAbbe, 273.
Hume, 249, 2 5 0 , 373.
Hundred Percent. (W()y<) Money
(Irving Fisher), 528, 529, 530.
Hungarv, 508.
Hunt, Rev. C. P., 229, 233.
Hiinza, Peonle. 478
lUtr^U Mr.,' 474, 475.
Hurler, 54.
Hvnmson. Albert M., 391, 392, 39H
394.
Hymans, Max, 418.
CHRIST
Ickcs, Harold, 504.
idee dc Patrie et UHnmanitarisnie,
V (G. Goyau), 221, 285.
Idealismo di Giorgio Berkeley, V
(Francesco Olgiatt). 406.
[gnatiew, Count (Alexis) 30L
Imtnortaie Dei, On the Christian
Constitution of Slates, iv, v, vi, 10,
24, 36, 41, 43, 44, 85, 87, 102, 108,
109, 127, 128. 283, 288, 289, 354, 355,
356.
lmpcriali. 111.
l.C.l. (British Imperial Chemical In
dustries), 512, 513.
Income Tax Act (1918), 490.
Incrednliie des Juifs dans ie Nouveau
Testament, 1J (Andre Charue),
182, 191.
Incffabilis Dens, 30.
In l:minent>i, 289.
Initiation Maconnique, IJ (Ch.
Nieoullatid), 206, 221, 233.
Innocent HI, Pope, 174.
Innocent IV, Pope, 191.
hivcnttabili, 97.
Institute of Hankers, 546.
Instruction on Usury, 82.
Integrates Jitdenlum (Integral Juda
ism) (Nossig), 312.
I.G. (Tuteressen Gemeiushaft Far-
benindustric), 512, 513.
Interest and Csitry (Bernard W.
Dempsey, S.J.), xiv, 455.
International \creptance Bank, 507,
512, 513.
fuUrnational Corporation, 513.
International The. 157, 158, 328.
International Nickel Co., 494, 515.
International Paper, 513.
Intimate Papers of Colonel House,
The, 495.
Introduction to the Principles of
Human Knowledge (Bishop Ber
keley), 407.
Irish Bankinq Commission, 466, 523.
Irish Catholic, The, xv, 335.
Irish Central Bank TV 11 540.
Irish Fccfes-'astical Record, xv, 67,
383.
Irish Freedom, 361, 362.
Irish Rosary, The, 91.
Isabella of Spain. 187. 268.
Isabella of Spain (W. Walsh), 189,
268
Israel itnler den Vblkern (Erich
Kahler), 183.
 INDEX 579
Italian Super-Power, 516. Justice, La, 412.
Italus Brixiensis, 157. Kahler, Erich, 183.
Ivo of Chartres, v. Kahn, Otto H., 498.
I.W.W., 506. Kant, 249, 371, 373.
James The Second (M. V. Hay), 392. Karl MarxHis Life and Work
James II, King. 217, 392, 395, 397. (John Spargo), 185.
Jarochinsky, Charles, 302. Karski, 317.
Jansenists, 6. Kaulbars, Baron, 320.
Tanssens, Edg., 562. Kelly, Francis C, 107, 336.
Jarvie, J. R.," 396, 490. Kennan, George, 312.
JefTeris, Mr., 505. Kenny, S.J., Rev. Michael. 107, 336.
Jeremias, 62. Kerensky, Alexander, 302, 303, 304,
Jerome, St., 152. 305, 309, 318.
J csus-Ouvrier, Doctrine et Culte, 131. Kettlcr, Mgr., 362, 363.
Jcvons, Professor, '440. Keynes, Mr., 439, 561.
Jewish Chronicle, 327. Kiddcll, 398.
Jewish Communal Register, 313. Kidder, Pcabody & Co., 493, 494.
JczvisJi Encyclopedia, 154. Kilnamanagh, 468.
Jewish Guardian, 333. Kingship of Christ and Organized
Jewish Historical Society of England, Naturalism, The, 502.
The (Lucien Wolf), 233, 391. Kitson, Arthur, 256. 434, 435, 436,
J
Jewish I roblem, The (Louis Golding), 437.
190, 191, 192. Klausner. Prof., 191.
Jews and the British Empire, The Klootz, 180.
(L- Fry), 391. Knickerbocker Trust, 497.
loan of Arc, St., 270. Knigge, 234, 409.
Joffe, 302. Kuowlcs. G. B., 400, 401.
Johnson Matthcy, 403. Kolichak, 301. 302.
Johnson, General Hugh S., 504. Konigtu m Ch risii in Euro pa, Das
Tohnston, Mr. Thomas, 490, 523. (Dr. Kurt Ziesche), 366.
John of St. Thomas, 40. Kossuth, 218, 227.
Tohn Chrysostom, St., 124. Krajcwski, 180.
Tohn, St., 162, 231, 282. Krakowski, 250.
John XXTI. Pope, 245. Krassin. 306.
Jolivcl, Regis, 373. Krcuzzcitune:, 180.
Jones, Bis^ett. 445. Kuhn. Loob'fc Co., 310, 325, 326, -188,
Jouin, M E T . , 231. 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499,
Journal of Institute of Bankers, 546. 507, 512, 515, 516.
Journal Officiel de fa Maconneric Kun, Bcla, 336.
Francaise, 410, 413, 415. Kurth, GodeFroid, 245, 384.
lournct, L'Abbe Charles, xiv, 11, 18, Labour in Irish History (Tames Con
40, 45. 47. 48, 49. nolly), 352.
Judaism, in the War of Ideas (H. J. Labour, Nationality and Religion
Stern), 153. (lames Connolly), 351.
Jndeu und das IVirtschaftsleben, Die Labouring Earth, The (C. A. Baker,
(Wernrr Snmbart). 394. C.B.E.). 466.
Juifs et Catholiqucs (H. de Vries de La Chanabre, Guy, 417.
Heekelin^n). 191. La Follcltc, Senator. 503.
Juifs et Chretiens (Diet. Apolo- La Pranc-Macomierie Puissance
prctique). 187, 191. Occulfe (Leon dc Poncins), 233.
Juifs Par mi les Nations, L cs (J.
f Lagarde, G. dc, 47, 245, 277.
Maritain), 182. La Lecon dit Passe (Landrieux), xv,
Julien, Tulcs, 417. 409, 410.
Tiirecnsmeier, Dr. F., 117. Lamarche, O.P., Fr., 453.
Justice, et le t>r**t a xnterct, La Lamoignon, 263.
(Lamarche, O.P.), 453. Lamont, Thomas W., 498.
580 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF
Lamsdorf, Count, 326.
Landis, James N.. 504.
Landrieux, Mgr., xv, 150, 409, 412,
413, 414, 415, 416.
Lassallc, Ferdinand, 185, 299, 312.
Latcran Council, iv, v, 79, 190.
Laurentius, 56.
Laurence of Marostica, 192.
Lawful Money Lectures (G. M. Coo
gan), xiii, 464, 465.
Lowndes, William, 254, 256,
Lazare, Bernard, 186, 234, 349.
League of Nations, 110, 507, 517, 561.
Lcc, Higginson & Co. (Boston and
New York), 493, 494, 495.
Leen, C.S.Sp., Rev. Edward, 4.
Lecse, Arthur, 176, 395.
Lefebvre, Dom Gaspar, 160.
Lcfevrc, G. 76.
t
LeJunann, Herbert, 507.
Leibnitz, 54, 246, 248, 249, 398.
Leila (Bulwer Lytton), 185.
Lemann, Fr. losepb, 154, 155, 177, 284.
363.
Lemmi, 227.
Lenin, 296, 297, 302, 304, 306, 308, 309,
318, 326, 327, 328. 353, 360, 364, 515,
528.
Lenin, Life of (Pierre Chasle), 329.
Lenin on the Jewish Question, 319.
Leo XII, Pope, 156.
Leo XTI1, Pope, i, it, iv, v, vi, vii,
viii, ix, x, xiii, xv, 7, 10, 11, 24,
34, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 52, 59, 65, 82,
84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94. 95,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102. 103, 104, 107,
108, 109, 110, 120, 127, 128, 136,
138, 149, 155, 159, 174, 196, 200, 205,
215, 230, 282, 283, 287, 288, 289, 290,
297, 349, 350, 352, 354, 355, 363, 452,
454, 472, 511, 531.
Leo the Great, St., 5, 140.
Leon, Jacob (surnamed Tcmplo), 233.
Leon, Professor Daniel de, 348, 349.
Lessing, 234.
Lesson of Invents, The (Pastoral
Letter of Card. Mercicr), 87.
Letter front America, 556, 557,
Letter of Pope Pius XI to Cardinal
Patriarch of Lisbon, 5.
Letters Concerning Toleration
(Locke), 252.
Levien, 364.
Levy, Armand, 234.
Lewis, Wyndham, 145.
Lcwi.ssqhns, 507.
CHRIST
Libermann, C.S.Sp., Fr., 151, 181.
Libertas, On Human Liberty, 8, 85,
94, 103, 109, 196.
Liebknecht, 185, 186.
Life of Gladstone (Lord Morley), 489.
Life of Tone (written by himself).
344, 345, 346.
Lindbcrg, Hon. Charles A., 434, 498.
Linden, Dr. Von der (alias John
Locke), 397.
Lloyd's Bank, 491.
Lloyd George, 224, 303, 306, 307, 437,
511.
Locke, 14, 103, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254,
255, 256, 257, 261, 292, 293, 373, 396,
397, 398, 407, 462.
Loeb, Miss, 496.
Loeb, Solomon, 496, 497.
London Herald, The, 491.
Lonrjinque Oeeani, On Catholicity in
the United States, 86.
Look to the Laud (Lord North-
bourne), xiv, 402, 468, 469, 470, 478,
480, 533.
Lopez, Manasseh, 392, 393.
Losovski (Dridzo), 336.
Louis XVT, King cf France, 408, 409.
Louis St., King of France, 80.
Loukomsky, General, 301.
Lounatcharsky, 302, 309.
Luccy, Rev. C, 383.
Ludcndorff, General, 296.
Luke St.. 11. 115, 155, 486.
Lunn, Arnold, 123.
Luther, 6, 247, 271, 272, 273, 275,
278 372
Luther (H. Grisar, S.J.), 247.
Luther, Commentateur des Sentences
(Paul Vignaux), 247.
Luther et le Luthcranisme (Denifle-
Paquier), 247, 271, 273.
Luther et VAllematjne (L'Abbe*
Paquier), 275.
Luxembourg, Rosa, 317.
Lwow, Prince George, 301, 302, 303.
Lymington, Viscount (Earl of Ports
mouth), xiv, 457, 474, 478, 483, 484,
533, 562, 563.
Macaulay, Lord, 391, 393.
Macaura, 481.
Mackcy, Dr., 201.
MacLeod, 256.
MacMillan Committee on Finance
and fndustrv, Report of, 434, 438.
439, 472, 489, 558.
Macy and Co., R. H 507.
M
 INDEX
Macmillan, Lord, 438.
Madero, 106.
Majority Report a} Irish Banking
Commission, 537, 538.
Maklakow (Basil), 301, 302, 303.
Malachias, 61.
Malebranche, 248, 249.
Malhabec, Professor, 139.
Malo, De (St. Thomas), 73, 74.
Malthua, 103, 257, 258, 294.
Malynski, E., 223, 225.
Mar, Alexander del, 461.
Manchester Guardian, 448.
Manchester Guardian Commercial,
491, 515.
Marcus Marinus, 157.
Maiidcl, Georges, 417.
Monnerville, 418.
Morgan-Chase-General Motors, 512.
Manoilesco, M., 383.
M.D. Private Bulletin, 511.
Marsden, Victor E.. 184.
Marsh, Margaret A., 555.
Marsiliub of Padua, 245.
Manual of Investment (Moodie's) 564.
Manuale Juris Hcclesiastici (Prum
mer, O.P.), 92.
Marat, 232.
Mare, Eric S. de, 517.
Morgenthau Plan, 561.
Marie Antoinette, 408.
Marion, 411.
Marchandeau, Paul, 417, 418.
Marechal, S.h, Pere, 243, 244, 246,
248, 250, 407.
Margiotta, Domenico. 227, 234.
Maritain, Jacques, ix, 13, 14, 163,
182, 183, 247, 249, 258, 259, 261, 293.
360, 361, 373, 379, 398, 546.
Mark, St., 118, 148, 150, 190.
Mark, Teffrev, xiv, 424, 425. 426, 440,
445, 446, 449, 450, 457, 459, 471, 484,
552, 553.
Marlborough, Duke of, 392, 393, 485.
Marrnonlel, 327.
Marques-Riviere, M. F., 234.
Marr, Wilhelm, 310."
Marranos, 187.
Martoff, 318.
Marvin, Fred. R., 502.
Marx. Karl, 145, 146. 184, 185, 186,
187, 188, 299. 312, 317, 335, 348, 349,
350. 353, 360, 362, 526.
Marx, Heinrich, 1^5. 186.
Mary, Princes*, 397.
Mary, Queen of England, 563.
581
Masaryk, 110, 211.
Masclaux, M.P., 398.
Masham, Lady, 398.
Masonic Record, The, 207.
Matthew, St., 118, 132, 150, 152, 155,
233.
Maxwell, D. W., 426, 439, 441, 460.
Maynooth Statutes, 130.
Mazanac,, 321, 322, 323.
Mazzini. 121, 218, 227, 299, 381, 382.
McCarrison, Sir Robert, 473, 478.
McGowan, Sir Harry, 513.
McKenna, Reginald, 426, 428, 430,
438. 439, 457, 460, 489, 491.
McLaughlin, O.S.B., Rev. J. B., 74,
76, 77, 78, 82, 83.
McKettrick, Thomas H., 546.
Medina, Sir Solomon (The lew
Medina), 392, 393.
Mein Kampf (Hitler), 367, 376, 377,
380, 381.
Melanchton, 247.
Mclchett, Lord, 512, 513.
Melchior, Dr. Carl, 507.
Mellon Securities Corporation, 513.
Memoires de Marmontet, 327.
Metnoires pour servir a Fhistoric du
Jacobinisme (Barruel), 263.
Menace of freemasonry to the Chris
tian Faith (Rev. C. P. Hunt), 229,
233.
Merrier, Card., 87.
Mercure de France, Le (M. P. Mas
claux), 398.
Merkelbach, O.F., Rev., 74, 75.
Messaqere de la Politique Divine, La
Pere H. Clerissac, O.P.), 270.
Metropolitan Vickers, 514.
Metropolitan Life Insurance, 513.
Mexican Eagle, 106.
Mexicothe Land of Blood-drenched
Altars (Francis C. Kelly), 107, 336.
Michel, Monsieur Georges, 411.
Midland Bank Revieiv, 548.
Milioukow, Paul, 302, 303, 304.
Mill. John Stuart, 63, 64, 103, 246,
250, 257.
Minority Report No, III of Irish
Bankina Comvtission, 523, 537, 538.
539, 540.
Mirac Caritatis, On the Most /A/v
Fucharist, 119, 121.
Miraheau, 234, 327, 363.
Mirari Vos, 94, 289.
Miserentissiunts Redemptor, (hi Re
paration to the Sacred Heart, 109.
 582 THE MYSTICAL BODY OF
My Mission to Russia (Buchanan).
303, 308.
Mil Brcnnender Sorgo, On the Per
secution of the Church in Germany,
60, 89, 155. 172, 178. 283, 377.
Mitchell, Charles E.. 498. 513.
Mitchell, John, xiv, 490, 518.
Mocatia and Coldsmid, 403.
Modem idolatry (feffrev Mark) \ \ \ ,
425, 426, 429, 440, 445, "446. 449, 4 5 0 .
457, 4 J 9 , 471, 484, 552.
Moley, Prof. Raymond, 504.
Molina, 47.
Monarchy or Money-Power (R.
McNaiV-Wiison), 485.
Monti Co., 515.
Money (Prof. O'Kahillv). xiv. 78, 361.
399 423. 427, 429, 430, 454, 464. 529,
t
530, 535, 540.
Money Creators (G. M. Coogan). xiii.
69, 403, 423, 433, 434, 435/436. 439,
5(H), 501, 524, 526, 527, 528, 529, 534,
.Money and the Mechanism of Ex
change (Prof. Jevons), 440.
Money and Civilisation {Alexander
del Mar), 461.
Money Maze, The (Or. Robert
Eisfcr). 549. 550.
MonLacuie, Lord, 399.
Montague, 394.
Montague and Co., 403.
Montagu Normana study in Finan
cial Statesmanship (Paul Kin/ig),
Montesquieu, 250.
Morals and Dogma of ihe </. and .1
Scottish Rite (Pike), 212.
Afordechai, 185, 187.
Morgan and Co., 465, 493, 495 49K
499, 507.
Morgan. J. P.. 145, 498, 499.
Morgan Stanley and Co., 513.
Morgan et Cie (Paris), 507.
Morgan, Orenfell and Co., 507.
Morgenthau (Senior), TTenrv, 504 M)7
561.
Morin, S., 502.
Morin, Stephen, 408.
Morley, Lord, 488, 489.
Moser, 188.
Mortalinm stnimos, On True Re
ligious Unity, 109.
Muirhead, L H., 377.
Mullins, William, 398.
Mi'tfiplices inter Machinaliones 72?
228.
CHRIST
Murehin, 403.
Murphy, Mr. James, 307.
Mussolini, Signor, 382, 383, 385.
Mysterieuse Internationale Juive, La
(L. de Poncins), xv, 165, 323, 329.
Mxstere du Christ, Le (Rev. C. V.
keris, O.P.), 26.
Mystical Hody of Christ (I )r. 1 . ;
Jiirgcnsmeier), 117.
Mystical Body'ot Christ in the Mod
ern -world, 312, 380. 459, 493.
Myth of the 20th Century, The
(Rosenberg), 380.
Nakhamkess, 304.
Napoleon l 179. 343, 363, 485.
f
Napoleon (H. Belloc). 288.
Xapoleon III. 227, 298. 418, 419.
Xaq'uel, Alfred, 411.
Nathan, Ernesto, 382.
National Cilv I tank of Xew Vork,
The, 493, 44. 498, 512, 514.
National Economy and the Funking
System of //;> Vnited States (\<.
I,. Owen). 465.
National Health Insurance, 511.
National Resurrection {Rev. p.
Dudley). 278.
Xal ional L"nemplo\ ment Insurance,
511.
Xctchvolodow. A. 301, 322.
New Booh ot the Constitutions
(Anderson), 200, 201. 202, 203, 227.
New Corporative State of Portuqal,
The (S. George West), 341.
Xev\ Deal, The, 500, 502, 503, 504.
Neze Despotism. The (Lord Hcwart),
543.
A ew Encyclopedia of Social Reform,
497.
New English IPeeklv, The, 517, 551,
553.
New Portuguese State in the Political
Evolution of Europe, The, 340.
New York Evening Post, The, 490.
New York Herald Tribune, 107.
New York Slock Exchange, 498.
New York Times, 312, 448, 491, 515.
New York World, The, 508.
Nicholas H, Emperor, 302, 307, 326.
Nicholas TV, Pope, 174.
Nicoullaud, M.Ch., 221, 232, 233.
Xiemever, Sir Otto, 466.
Niclzsehc, 377.
No Cod Next Door (Kenny. S.L),
107, 336.
Noldin, S.L. Rev. PL. 74.
 INDEX
Non Abbiamo Bisogno, Concerning
the Apostolatc of the Laity, .383.
Norman, Montagu, 396, 438, 459. 472.
489, 490, 516, 523, 546.
Nornianby, Lord, 298.
Nortlibournc. Lord, xiv. 402, 468.
469, 470, 478. 480, 533.
North German Llovd Shipping Co..
510.
Nossig, Alfred. 312.
Nouvcau Mercure, Le, 363.
Noitveltcs de France, 287, 410.
Nova et Vetera, 11. 58, 164.
Novoe Vremia, 322.
Nuffield, 145.
O'Brien, Mr. William. 353.
Ockham, William of, 241, 243, 244.
245, 248, 250, 271, 272, 273.
O'Dzevcrs of Kilnamanaqh, The (Sir
Michael O'Dwver), 468.
O'Dwver, Sir Michael. 468
Officii*, De (Cicero). 60.
Officio Sanctissimo. 96.
Olgiati, Vranrcscu, 406.
O'Loghlen, P. I., 523. 537. o38. 53<J,
540, 560.
Old Lady I 'invited. The ( I . K.
Tarvio), 3%, 490.
O'Mahony. 352.
O'Neill, Owen R o e , 347.
Opus Nonaginta Picrum (Ockham).
245.
O'Rahillv, Professor A., n i v , 6 1 , 6 7 .
78, 79," 361, 399, 423. 427, 429, 430.
454, 464, 528, 530, 535, 540.
Ordre Social Chretien (Journet), 11.
Origines de la Civilisation Moderne,
Les (Godefroid Kurth), 384.
Origines Secretes du Bofchevisme,
Les (Salluste), 186, 312.
Origines de la Theologie Moderne,
Les (L'Abbe Humbert), 273.
Other People's Money (Louis I).
Brandcis), 498.
Oulianow, Waldimir-Illitch (alias
Lenin), 302, 329.
Oulianoxv Family at Simbirsk, The
329.
Our Daily Bread (Reilly), xiv, 473.
Outline of Money, An (Crowther),
xiv, 402, 443, 496, 522. 524. 549,
561.
Owen, Robert L., 465, 524.
Pacem Dei, 556.
Paiva, 180, 410.
Palestine Economic Corporation, 563
583
Palcy, Princess, 302, 303.
Palmerston, Lord, 227, 298, 299, 300,
362, 518.
Panfcrov, 262.
Paraguay, 555.
Partie Occultiste (R.I.S.S.), 398.
Parvus (cf. Hclpfand). 302, 3"8, 309.
326.
Pascendi. 85.
Paschal IT, Pope, v.
Paschales, Martinez, 234.
Patent Medicines, Report on, 483.
Patent Medicines, Select Committee
on, 481.
Paternoster, G. Sydney, 483.
Peterson, William, 395. 396, 397, 400.
Paul, Grand Duke, 302.
Paul IV, Pope, 174.
Paid, St., iii. xii, xiii. 5, 6, 15, 27,
28, 30. 34, 35. 42, 61, 62, 94, 95,
96, 107. 119, 120. 121. 129, 130,
131, 140, 148. 154, 158, 176, 177,
181, 193, 228. 275, 422, 521.
r
Peacock, Sirl .dward, 513.
Pearson, 106.
Pecaul, '112.
Pecora, Mr., 498, 499, 500. 507.
Peel, Sir Robert. 462, 463.
Pelagius, 48.
Peiinroad Corporation, 499.
Pennsylvania Bankers Association,
504.'
P.K.P. (Political Economic Plan
ning), 504
IVrevra, Isaac. 393.
Perry. Lord, 542, 543. 544, 545.
Persecution of the Catholic Church
in the Third Reich, xv, 370, 371.
Pershing, General, 499.
Peiain, Marshal, 420.
Peter, St., 49, 61, 62, 148.
Petition contre ta Franc-Macounerie
(M. Prache), 416.
Peirovsky, 304.
Petty, Sir William, 262.
Phelan, Rev. Gerald, B., 61.
Philipson, Dr., 285.
Philosophie ficonomique (Vialatotix) r
xiv, 63, 251, 252, 256, 257, 258, 260.
261.
Physiocrats, The, 103, 257.
Picciotto, James, 391, 393.
Picton, Dr. L..J., 474.
Pie of Poitiers, Cardinal, xv, 356..
357, 418, 419. 562.
Pike, 206, 212. 213, 218. 234.
 584 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF
Pilati, 56. .
Pilori, Le, 417.
Pilsudski, Marshal, 332.
Pin, Marquis dc la Tour du, 164,
165.
Pioneers of the Russian Revolution
(A. vS. Rappoport), 313.
Pitra, Cardinal, 364.
Pitl-Kivcrs, George Lane-Pox, 188.
Pius V, Pope St., 174, 177.
Pius VI, Pope, 344.
Pius VII, Pope, 163, 192, 342.
Pius V m , Pope, 156.
Pius IX, Pope, ii, xv, 30, 37, 50, 87,
93, 108, 148, 167, 176, 222, 223, 227,
281, 289, 290.
Pius X, Pope, ii, xiii, xv, 30, 45, 55,
57, 59, 84, 85, 86, 87, 109, 129, 351.
Pius XI, Pope, ii, v, vi, vii, viii, x,
xi, 1, 5, 9, 12, 15, 19, 24, 25, 26,
34, 36, 37, 44, 56, 59, 62, 64, 84, 85,
86, 88, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102,
CHRIST
Polovtzeff, 304.
Poncins, Comte Leon dc, xv, 165, 207,
208. 221, 223, 234, 316, 317, 323,
329, 336, 337, 341.
Pope Pius XII on World Order (Rev.
Lewis Wall, S.J.), 565, 566.
Pope Speaks, The (C. Rankin), 506.
Portsmouth, Karl of, xiv, 457, 474,
478, 483, 484. 533, 562. 563.
Portugal Renaif, Le (L de Poncins),
208, 337, 341.
Portuguese Revolution, The (Santos),
337.'
Post Tarn Diutnmas, 163, 342.
Post-War Monetary Stabilization
(Prof. Gustave Cassel), 492.^
Pound Sterling, The (E. A. Feavear
year), 254, 255, 256.
Ponrquoi de la Guerre Mondiale, Les
(Mgr. H. Delassus), 110, 165, 283,
333, 362, 363, 409.
Pouvoit Occulie eontre la I 'ranee :

103, 105, 106, 109, 110, 118, 120, (Copin-Albancelli), 214, 218, 219.
126, 129, 130, 131, 141, 143, 144, 145, Prache, M., 416.
155, 159, 163, 167, 171, 174, 177, Praeceptis, De (Noldin, S.J.), 74.
178, 228, 283, 310. 311, 334, 350, 368, Praeclara Gratulationis Publicae, On
377, 382, 383, 385, 422, 452, 486, 519, the Re-Union of Christendom, 109.
520, 526, 531. 536, 540, 545, 553. Precis de P Histoirc de la Philosophic
Pius XII, Pope, 52, 85, 95, 109, 184, Modeme (Pere Marechal, S.L),
331, 337, 486, 487, 506, 553, 555, 556, 246, 248, 250.
561, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569. Preuss, A.. 201, 206.
Pixley and Abell, 403. Principal Cause of Unemployment (D.
Plan Commnnistc d'Insurrection W. Maxwell), 426, 427, 432, 439,
Armee (L. dc Poncins), 316, 317. 441, 444, 460.
Plan for Permanent Peace (Hans Principiis Punctionis Socialis Pro-
Heymann), 517, 551, 553. prietatis Privatae, De (Garcia,
Plehve, 313. O.P.), 99.
Point de Depart de la Metaphysigue Principles of Political Economy
he (Pere Marechal, S.L), 243, 244, (Stuart Mill), 103.
246, 248, 407. Prof essor Sic inn er alias Montagu
Pole, Reginald, 47. Norman (L Hargrave), xiv, 438,
Polish Fortnightly Reviciv, 334. 439, 448, 450, 472, 489, 516.
Polish Jen', The (Beatrice C. Basker- Promise to Pay (R. McNair Wilson),
villc), xiv, 314. 315, 316, 317, 318. 432, 433, 439.
Polities (Aristotle), 67. Pronouncement of the English Hier
Political Anatomy of Ireland (Sir W. archy, 96.
Petty), 262. Proofs of a Conspiracy (Robison),
Political Arithmetic (Sir W. Petty), 213. 263, 279.
262. Protopopoff, 310.
Political Constitution of the Portu Providas, 289.
guese Republic, 339. Priimmer, O.P., 92.
Political Reform and the Jezvs Ptolemy of Lucca, 60.
(Dohm), 363. Puio Commission, 459, 465, 493, 512,
Political and Social Doctrine of Fas 514.
cism, The (Mussolini), 383. Pval. Felix, 227.
IVlil, 145. Quadragesima Anno, On the Social

Order, vii, 1, 44, 64, 100, 102, 103,
105, 108, 109, 143, 144, 145, 167,
174, 178, 228, 350, 383, 422, 428,
452, 472, 519, 526, 536, 540, 544, 545.
Quanta Cttra, 94.
Quanta Conficiamur, 148.
Quas Primas, On the Kingship of
Christ, x, 26, 34, 35, 36, 109, 174,
178, 334.
Querist, The (Bishop Berkeley), 404,
405, 406.
Quesnay, 103, 250, 293.
Questions de Conscience (J. Mari
tain), 163.
Queuille, Henri, 417.
Qui Plurihus, 227.
Quo Graviora, 290.
Raccolta, 236, 237.
Race and Politics (Leese), 176.
Radomvslsky (alias Zinoviev), 302.
Ramadier, Paul, 417, 418.
Ramiere, S.J., Pere Henry, 2M.
Rankin, Charles, 506.
Rape of the Earth, The (G. V. Tacks
arid R. O. White), 466.
Rappoport, Dr. A. S., 313, 314.
Rasputin, 307, 308.
Rathenau, Walter, 510.
Rating & Valuation Act, 543.
Rattazzi, 227.
Raymundus. St., 47.
Reading. Lord, 513.
Rcchcrches sur I'Esprit Politique de
la Reforme (G. de Lagarde), 47,
245, 277.
Reeves, O.P., Rev. J. B., 147.
Reflections on Freemasonry, (An
Anglo-Catholic), 207.
Reflexions sur rintcUiqcnce
Maritain), 249, 259.
Refuse par la Pressc (L. de Poncins),
208.
Regime Tempore! et de la Liberie,
Du (J. Maritain), 14, 18. 379.
Regimine Principum, De (St.
Thomas), 39. 60, 61, 67, 73, 81, 82.
Regne Social du Coeur de Jesus, Le
(Ramiere, SJ.) 284.
Reichsbank, 510, 527.
Reign of the Elders, The, 325, 326,
495.
Reilly, Prof. Joseph, xiv, 473.
Religion and Culture, (J. Maritain),
261, 360.
Reliqion in Soviet Russia (N. S.
Ttmashcfr). 311.
INDEX 585
Religious Gilds and their Suppression,
The (Hartley), 100, 101.
Reminiscences of the Socialist Lab
our Movement and its Great
LeaderDaniel de Leon, 349.
Reponse a Dcronledz (Madame
Adam), 410.
Report of the Select Committee on
Patent Medicines, xiv, 481, 482
483.
Reru'm Novarum, 44, 82, 90, 99, 100,
103, 109, 110, 349, 350, 452.
Restoration of Property, The (H.
Belloc), 471, 532.
Retter, 250.
Reveillon, 327.
Revelattone, De (Garrigou-Lagrange,
O.P.), 8, 374.
Revel, 56.
Revolutionary Socialism (A. Lunn),
123.
Revue Internationale des Sodetes
Secretes, 223, 231, 398, 502.
Revue des Jeunes, La Justice, 67, 70,
73, 74, 76.
Revue de Paris, La, 302.
Revue Thomiste, 246.
Reyuaud, Paul, 417.
Ribes, Champctier de, 418.
Ricardo, 103, 257, 258, 294.
Richberg, Donald, 504.
Rise of the London Money Market,
The (IV. R. Bisschop), 401.
Rise and Progress of Poverty in
England, The (W. G. Wilkins,
I.P.), 468.
Ritual Murder Libel and the few,
The (C. Roth), 191.
(L Robbins, Sir Alfred, 208, 209, 398.
Robert Bums and his Masonic
Circle (Dudley Wright), 398.
Robison, 213, 263, 279.
Rockefeller. 106. 477, 512.
Rockefeller Institute, 477.
Rodzianko, 303.
Rogers, Prof. James Harvey, 504.
Role of Money, The (Prof. Soddy),
xiv, 82. 105, 427, 431, 432, 453, 457,
461, 488. 524, 534, 545.
Romano Pontifice, De (St. Robert
Bellarmine), 47, 53.
Roosevelt. President Franklin D. 449,
f
500, 503, 505, 506, 515.
Roosevelt, Theodore, 505, 506.
Root of All Evil, The (Sir Reginald
Rowe), xiv, 423, 441, 442, 450, 453,
 586 THE MYSTICA
454, 455, 456, 460, 524, 531, 534,
557, 558, 559.
Rosenberg, 176, 380.
Roth, Cecil, 191.
Rothschild, 145.
Rothschild, Baron Alphonse dc, 325.
Rothschild, Lcs (Kdouard Demachy).
325.
Rothschild, N. Ah & Sons, 403.
Rousseau, 13, 250, 292, 293, 294 , 363.
Rowc, Sir Reginald, xiv, 423, 441, 442,
450, 453, 454, 455, 456, 460, 524,
531 533, 534, 557, 560, 561.
Royal Dutch Shell, 106.
r
Royautc Sociale dc A .S. Jesus Christ
(Papres le Cardinal Pie. Lo (The
Kingship oj Christ according to
Cardinal J'ie oj J'(titiers), (Pere
Theotime de St. lust), xv. 356. 357,
418, 419, 420.
Rubinstein, 309.
Rucanl, Marc, 418.
Rudolph of I Seme, 192.
Riders of Russia, The, 305,* 307. 318,
323. 326, 504.
Russell, Sir John, 531.
Russia's Agony (Robert Wilton), 305.
Russia Under the Jews (IVtrov-kv).
304.
Ryder, Oldslock, 123.
Ryss, Peter, 382.
Salazar, Dr. Oiiveira, 337. 338. 339,
340, 341.
Salluste, 186, 187, 312.
Santos, Maehado. 337, 338.
Sapientiae Christianae, On the Chief
Duties of Christians as Citizens. 87,
88, 109, 128, 129.
Sarraut, Albert, 417, 418.
Saturday Evening Post, The, 503.
Savinkow (Boris), 301, 302.
Say, J. B., 257.
Sazanow (Sergius), 301, 302,
Schclling, 249.
Schiff, Jacob, 310, 312, 313, 495. 496.
497.
Schonerc. Zukunft, 366.
Schooncnberg, Pranz von, 395.
Schnltes, O.P., Rev., 149.
Scotus, 243, 247.
Scott, Sir Walter, 398.
Secret Power of Masonry, The ( A .
Selianinov), 327,
Secre t So cic ties and Subversive
Movements (Mrs. Webster), 222.
Sedecia, 180.
BODY OF CHRIST
Scigcl's Syrup, 481.
Selianinov, A., 327.
S-eligman, J. and W., 507.
Semachko, 304.
Sentences, Comm. on (St. Thomas).
454.
Sharps and Wilkins, 403.
Shcehan, Archbishop, 148.
Short History of the Enqlish l*eople
(Green), 101.
Shorter History of England, A (H.
lielloc), 390, 392, 394, 401.
Shove, Commander Herbert, D.S.O.,
467, 468.
Steele da Corporatisme, Ee (M.
Manoilesco), 383.
Sikopiki, (rcneral, 334.
Sillon, Letter on the. xih, 109, 351.
Simon, Sir lolin, 490.
Simon. Sl./P-M, 192.
Sinchoile, 301.
Singuluri Quadam, (h> Workuigmen's
. Issociations, 37. 43. 45, 55. 109,
148.
Singularis Dilcctionis, 2-16.
Sisson Documents, 309.
Sisson, Fdgar, 309.
Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History
(James Picciotto), 391.
Skoropadskv, 302.
Smith, Adam, 103. 250, 257, 293.
Smith, Vivian H., 507.
Social Contract (Rousseau), 294, 363.
Social Crediter, The, 515.
Socialism Unmasked (A. X. Field),
xiv.
Societes Secretes et la Socicte, Les
(Deschamps), 227, 279, 288, 298,
299, 335, 362, 382, 410.
Soddv, Professor, xiv, 82, 105, 144,
424, 427, 431, 432, 453, 457, 46
488. 524, 533, 534, 545, 546, 561.
Sombart, Werner, 393, 394.
Somerset, 101.
Sonne de Descartes. Le (I. Maritain),
398.
Soto, 47.
Soukinc, John, 302.
Sources de /' Fdealisme, Les (Regis
/olivet), 373.
Sources Medicvales de la Philosophie
de I^ocke, Les (Krakowski), 250.
Southern Cross, The, 139.
Souza, Antonio de, 391, 392, 395.
Spanish Hierarchy, Collective Letter
of, 126, 184.
 INDEX
Spargo, John, 185, 186.
Spencer, 250.
Spicq, O.P., Pere, 67, 70, 73, 74, 75,
76, 77, 80.
Spinoza, 248, 249. 373, 375. 398.
Spring-Rice, Sir Cecil, 516.
"S.S. Bremen," 516.
Stakhovitch, Michael. 302.
Stamp, Sir Josiah, 490.
Standard, (Dublin), xv, 79, 161, 337,
428, 540.
Standard Oil Company of America,
The, 106, 497, 513, 514.
Statist, 458.
Statute of Frauds 532.
Steeg, 412.
Stephen.-*, 352.
Stern, H a m Joshua. 153.
Stewart, Milton, 206.
Stillman. lames, 493.
Stoll, Sir "Oswald. 508, 509.
Storv of Ireland (A. M. Sullivan), 54.
.S7,vrv of "St. 25" (Sir Paul Dukes),
323.
Sindiorum Dncan (On St. Thomas as
Guide of Studies), 59, 62, 64, 520.
Study of /hneriean Freemasonry, A
(A. Prcu^s), 201, 206.
Strachcy, 145.
Strassburgcr. Ralph Beaver, 508.
Straus, 507.
Strong, James G.. 496.
Suarcz, 41, 48.
Sugar Trust (American), 497.
Summa Apologetica de Jiccksia
Catholica (Pere de Groot, O.P.), 50.
Summa de Ecclesia (Card, di Tur-
recremata), 55.
Summa Juris PubJici F.cclcsiastici
(Cappello), 45, 50, 54.
Summa Theologica, 1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 13,
14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
27, 32, 37, 47. 62, 66, 67, 68, 69,
70, 71, 72, 73. 74. 75, 76, 79, 99,
115, 119. 121, 124, 138, 139, 140,
153, 161, 228, 230, 231, 267, 292. 421,
522.
Sydenham, 250.
Syllabus, 50. 108, 281, 289.
Symbolisnte, Le (Oswald Wirth), 231.
Talleyrand-Perigord, 325.
Tametsi, On Christ Our Redeemer, i,
ix, 36, 53, 109, 155, 174, 282, 297,
511, 512.
Tax-bonds or Bondage (L Mitchell),
xiv, 490, 518.
587
Taxil, Leo, 232.
Taylor, Myron C, 499.
Teagle, Walter, 513.
Tellkamp. 250.
Temps, Le, 226, 413.
Tessan de, 418.
Theory and Practice of Banking
(McLeod), 256.
Theresc of Liseux, St, 139.
The Things that are not Caesar's (J.
Maritain), ix.
The Truth about Nezv Zealand (A
N. Field), xiv, 105, 530, 531, 532,
534.
The Truth about Portugal (B.
Berthon Waters), 338.
The Truth about the Slump (A. N.
Field), xiv. 307, 308, 309, 323, 440,
457, 490. 493, 495, 496, 507, 508.
509, 510, 511, 512, 514, 515. 516.
Third International, 518, 519.
This Aye of Plenty (C. M. Huttcr-
slcy), 546, 548, 550.
Thomas More, St., 72.
Thomas, St. (Aquinas), 1. 2, 4. 6, 9,
12, 13. 23, 24, 27, 32. 35. 37. 39,
45, 59, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69. 70,
71, 72. 73, 74, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80, 81, 121, 122, 124, 130, 139, 152,
153, 160, 230, 231, 241, 242, 245, 247,
248, 267, 268, 293, 421, 452, 460, 463,
464, 466. 488, 495, 520, 521, 522,
540, 545.
Three Reformers (]. Maritain). 13,
373.
Tiherghien, L'Abbe, 75, 562.
Tierce, M. de la, 219.
Tigre. Piccolo, 214.
TimashefT, N. S., 311.
Times, The, 123, 319, 320, 321, 561.
Toller, 364.
Tone, Wolfe, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347.
353.
Touche, D. M., 225.
Tourmentin, L'Abbe, 301.
Townsend, John, 399.
Trahison Spiritiiclle de la F,-. M.
La (J. Marques-Riviere), 234
Le iraite "de usuraf' de Robert de
Courgon (G. Lefevre), 76.
Traitors Within (Inspector Fitch),
329.
Tragedy of the Stuarts, The (J. D.
Gleeson), 395.
Tramarye, P. de la, 106.
 588 T H E MYSTICAL BODY OF
Treasury, The (Sir Thomas L.
Heath), 489.
Trent, Council of, 9, 119, 197.
Tribune Jttive, La, 382.
Tr'mitale, De (St. Augustine), 27.
Trotsky, 296, 304, 307. 309, 323, 326,
329, 332, 364, 515.
Trurman, Harold, 450.
Truth, 483.
Tugwell, Prof. Rexford, 504.
Turgot, 250, 263.
Turrecremata, Card, di, 47 55.
Twentieth Century Economic System,
A, 446.
Two Nations, The (C. Hollis). 395,
404, 405.
Tyranny of Cold, The (Hiskctt), 403.
Ubi Arcano, On- the Peace of Christ,
44, 51, 56, 109.
Ulpian, 384.
United Aircraft and Transport, 514.
United Slates Federal Reserve Hoard.
490, 492, 493.
U.S.A. Financial Chronicle, 450.
United States Senate Committee on
Hanking and Currency, 498.
L'Union des Ugliscs (iournct), 18,
275.
Untaught J-Jistory of Money (A. X.
Field), xiv, 104.
Untermeyer, Samuel. 465.
J
I sure Aux Temps Presents, 1/
(Pore Dehon), 562.
Utilities Power and Light Corpora
tion, 514.
Vallcry-Radol, M. Robert, 416.
Vanderlip, Frank A., 495.
Vatican, Council of, 244, 562.
Vehemenler, 86.
Veritate, de (St. Thomas), 2.
Versailles, Peace of, 110, 507.
Vers un Ordre Social Chretien (Mar
tinis de la Tour du Pin), 164.
Vialatoux. Monsieur L, xiv, 63, 250,
251, 252, 255. 257, 258, 259, 260.
Vie Iutelleciuelle, La, 65.
Vickers, Vincent C, 437, 447, 458,
459, 489. 525.
Vickers Ltd.. 447.
Vicrnaux, Paul, 247.
Vix Pervenit, 75, 82, 83.
Voigi, 54.
Voiets-Rbetz, 180.
Voltaire, 185, 250, 263.
Wadler, 364.
Waite, 147.
CHRIST
Wall Street Under Oath, xiv, 498,
499, 500, 507.
Wallace, Henry A., 504.
Wallace, Mr., 448.
Waldeck-Rousseau, M., 415.
Walpole, Hugh, 303.
Walsh, SJ., Rev. E. A., 307, 311,
329.
\Valsii, William. 189, 268.
War Memoirs (Lloyd George), 306,
307.
I Par of Anti-Christ with the Church
and Christian Civilization (Mgr.
Dillon), 298, 299, 300.
Warburg, Felix, 310, 326, 510.
Warburg, Max, 309, 326, 497, 508,
510.
Warburg & Co., Max (Hamburg),
507, 510.
Warburg. Paul. 310, 325. 326, 488,
495. 496, 497, 508, 510. 512.
Warren. Prof. George H.. 504.
Washington Post, 7 he. 503.
Waterloo, Battle of, 485.
Waters, 15. Berlhon, 338.
/ / \iters Flowing Eastward (7,. Fry),
504.
Watt, S.I., Fr. Lewis, 453.
Wealth, Virtual U calth and Debt
(Prof. Soddv), 533, 545.
Weber. Alfred, 375.
Webster, Nesta H 222. 409.
Weekly People, The, 348, 349.
Weekly Review, The. 225. 226. 501,
517, 525, 542. 554.
Weill, lulicn, 152.
Weishaupt, 409.
Wellington, 485.
Welsh, Charles A., 519.
W eltfreimaurerei, 7
\\ eltre7'oluiion,
Weltrepublik fWichll). 307. 337,
364, 365, 381.
White. R. O., 446.
Whitfield, Dr. Arthur. M.D.,
F.R.C.P., 483.
Whitney, George. 498.
Whitney. Richard P.. 498.
Wirhtl, 307, 337, 364. 381, 382.
Wilkins. W. G. 468.(
William of Orancre, 390. 391, 392, 393,
395, 397, 398, 404. 563.
Williams, Ariadna Tyrkova, 308.
Williams, Tohn Skelton, 440.
Wilmshurst, 206.
Wilson. President Woodrow, 110,
309, 488. 493. 494, 495, 505, 522.
 INDEX
Wilson, R. McNair, 432, 433, 485.
Wilton, Robert, 305, 318.
Wirth, Oswald, 231.
Wolf, Lucien, 233, 327, 333, 391.
Wolsev (H. Belloc), 268.
Woodin, William, 499.
World at ihe Cross Roads, The
(Boris Brasol), 309, 310, 327.
World Struggle for Oil (P. de la
Tramarye), 106.
Wright, Dudley, 398.
Wyroubrow (Basil), 301.
589
X-Rays in Freemasonry, The (A.
Cowan), 147, 228, 229, 234, 235,
236.
Yearsley, P. MacLeod, F.R.C.S., 483.
Young, Owen D., 498, 499.
Zabriskie of Arizona, 202.
Zangwill, Israel, 333.
Zay, Jean, 417, 418.
Zeinz, 188.
Zenisichina, 302.
Zicsche, Dr. Kurt, 366.
Zinovieff, 302, 309.
Z under, 322.