Chapter 7: PHYLUM CNIDARIA FORM OF COLONIAL INDIVIDUALS

-Occurs when a juvenile replicates via budding, however, buds do

-radially symmetric not separate
-flowers of the sea -Produces zooids
-includes fleshy polypsfreshwater hydras, sea anemones, stony Means tiny animal
coals, plantlike soft corals, and hydroidsas well as medusa, or Resemble the juvenile
jellyfishes -Preserves SA:Vol because zooids are small and thus have a large
-May be colonial (corals) or solitary (jellyfish) SA:Vol
-Responsible for the building of coral reefs, which are rivaled in -Predisposition to filter feeding
diversity only by tropical rainforests Multiple mouths and feeding appendages
-All are marine (approx. 10,000 spp.) or freshwater (approx. 20 spp.), Broad distribution
with no terrestrial spp. Small size
-Former Name: Coelenterata -Three main types of colonies, varying in complexity
-Possess cnidocytes (cnid = nettle)-used for disabling prey Stolonate Colony
o Stolon=tubular body wall outgrowth that includes
FORM AND SYMMETRY OF SOLITARY INDIVIDUALS coelenteron; zooids bud at intervals along its
*General length; typically enclosed by periderm
-General body structure resembles a gastrula o Unbranched zooids
-Coelenteron=gastrovascular cavity
-Tentacles=surrounds mouth Coenosarcal Colony
-Radial symmetry around an oral-aboral axis o Coenosarc (stolonal mat)=common flesh; unites
=extends from mouth to base the zooids and attaches colony to substratum;
=Useful because food, predators, etc. may approach from Periderm restricted to undersurface of coenosarc
any angle (can be replaced by mineral skeleton)
o Thin, membranelike sheet coenosarc=stony
*Polyps and Medusae corals
-Display two body forms, often in one life-cycle o Thick, fleshy mass of coenosarc=soft corals
-Polyp o Solenia=network of hollow gastrodermal tubes
Resembles a flower and stalk between the upper and lower epidermal surfaces
Stalk=cylindrical elongated column; of coenosarc; course through mesoglea and
o arises from aboral pedal disc interconnect zooidal coelenteron
Manubrium(hypostome)=elevation with the mouth at its o Solenia lack epidermis and periderm (only
summit gastrodermis)
o situated at the center of oral disc
Periderm=chitinous exoskeleton Fruticose Colony
o secreted by pedal disc and column o Budding from other zooids
o for protection and attachment o typically upright and branching with a plantlike /
Chiefly attached, sessile and benthic, with a mouth-up feathery appearance
orientation -Two types of budding
Fixed-length Budding
-Medusa o First zooid grows to a fixed length and then buds
Umbrella or bell-shaped another zooid from its column below the whorl of
tentacles
Subumbrella=oral surface (disc)
o Found in Obelia
Exumbrella=opposite aboral side
o Attachment by stolons
Manubrium=defined and resembles an elephants trunk
Axial-polyp Budding
with a mouth at the end
o Main stem of fructicose colonies arises from a
Mouth-down orientation column of an axial-polyp, growing in length
Commonly known as Jellyfish o Axial-polyp buds lateral zooids/buds
o Found in staghorn corals, hydroids, and
*Tissues and Body Compartments siphonophores
-In general, the body wall is composed of three tissue layers o Attachment by stolons or coenosarc
Epidermis=outer epithelium
o Cnidocytes, Muscle, Nerve, Glandular, Interstitial
and Ciliated Cells SKELETON
o Sensory cells -Exceeds the diversity of poriferan skeletons
Mesoglea (a gelatinous ECM)=connective tissue (mesohyl -Exoskeletons of:
in sponges) Chitinous periderm some hydrozoans
Gastrodermis=inner epithelium Calcium carbonate stony corals
o Lines coelenteron and joins epidermis at mouth Shell fragments covering the epidermis colonial
o Cnidocytes, Muscle, Nerve, Glandular, Interstitial anemones (zoanthids)
and Ciliated Cells
o Germ cells -Endoskeletons of:
-Cnidarians are diploblastic Horny organic fibers and calcareous spicules in mesoglea
-Epithelia=cells concerned with communication, movement, soft corals
digestion, internal transport, and reproduction
Columns of cells containing turgid vacuoles some
-Mesoglea and coelenteron are multifunctional extracellular
hydrozoans (Tubularia)
compartments; both are enclosed by epithelia
-Hydrostatic skeletons
Hydra, many anemones
-Mesoglea
Sole skeleton of Medusae
MUSCULATURE AND MOVEMENT
-In Polyps
Possess antagonistic sheets of fibers
Circular smooth muscle gastrodermis
Longitudinal smooth muscle - epidermis
-In Medusae
Possess coronal muscles, encircling the subumbrella.
o These muscles are antagonized by the elastic
mesoglea
-Cnidarian muscles primarily epidermal and epitheliomuscular cells
Transformed into Myocytes (true muscle cells) in
Anthozoans and Scyphozoans
-Cnidarians perform a wide variety of movements
Shortening, extending and bending in polyps
Constriction of bells in medusae (facilitates swimming)
Inch-worming and somersaulting in polyps, Hydra, sea
anemones
Movement of feeding appendages for prey manipulation
Retraction of the subumbrella in polyps and medusae
NERVOUS SYSTEM
-Consists of superficial sensory neurons(monitor receptors), motor
neurons(activate effectors), and interneurons(forms ganglia, control
intensity and quality of signal conduction)
-Two dimensional nerve nets
Base of epidermis
Base of gastrodermis
-Nets are joined by nerve bridges(neurons) that span mesoglea
Nerve impulses can travel any direction
Important because of radial sensory structures
o Diffuse Conduction=impulses arising from a
point stimulus radiate through the net
-Medusa possess nerve rings, swimming musculature, ganglia, and
sensery organs around bell
Statocysts
Ocelli
Chemoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors
-Ganglion=concentration of neurons that serves as brainlike
integration center
-Motor impulses are simultaneously conducted via nerve ring to the
medusas coronal muscle thrust
CNIDOCYTES AND CNIDAE
-Cnidoctye=combined sensory-effector cell
For prey capture and defense
Each houses Cnida=fluid-filled capsule with long tubular
invagination of capsule wall
-Three general types of cnidae
Nematocyst
o Cnidocyte: Nematocyte
o Sting/release toxins
o Thick-walled, often have spines or barbs on the
surface of everted/discharged tubule
o Firing site may be covered by either:
Operculum=hinged lid
Three apical flaps
o Sensory cilium is mechanoreceptive:
Cnidocil=nonmotile and stiff
Ciliary Cone=motile
9x2+2 axoneme
Spirocyst
o Cnidocyte: Spirocyte
o Contains sticky threads used for adhesion
o Thin-walled, undischarged tubule is coiled like
spring, discharged spirocyst lacks barbs or
spines
o Sensory cilium absent
Ptychocytes
o Cnidocyte: Ptychocyte
o Releases adhesive tubule, lacks spirocysts
radiating sticky threads, stored differently within
the capsule when undischarged
o Tubule folded to compact zigzag
o Motile cilium
-Cnidocytes are fairly ubiquitous
Throughout epidermis
On tentacles
Often in gastrodermis
-Nematocyst firing
Tubule coiled in capsule
Triggered by a combination of chemical and mechanical
cues from prey (rarely fires on accident)
Cytoplasmic water rushes in and ejects tubule
-Toxins (proteins) may interfere with Na+/K+ pumps or degrade cell
membranes
-Hydra discharges 25% of nematocysts eating one brine shrimp
Replaced in 48 hrs
INTERSTITIAL CELLS
-Interstitial cells (I-cells)=multipotent stem cells that originate from
embryonic endoderm but migrate into all three tissue layers of the
body
-Only in Hydrozoans (Hydra)
Differentiates into neurons, gland cells, gametes and
cnidocytes
I-cell CnidoblastCnidocyte Development path
-In anthozoans
I-cellSclerocytesSpicules
COELENTERON: NUTRITION AND INTERNAL
TRANSPORT
-Coelenteron=blind, saclike cavity lined by gastrodermis and
opening to the exterior via mouth
-Coelenteron of large polyps may possess septa to increase SA for:
Digestion
Absorption
Gas exchange
Excretion
Reproduction
Hydrostatic skeletal support
-Various canals in medusa, that radiate out from central stomach
Radial canals
Marginal ring canals
In polyps and medusa, coelenteron typically branches into
each tentacle
-Feeding in Carnivorous Cnidarians:
Prey contacts tentacles(or any prey-capturing appendages)
Discharged cnidae paralyzes prey, initiates digestion by
injecting proteolytic enzymes
Cnidarians response to a.a. (gluthathione) by opening
mouth and stuffing tentacles (with prey) inward.
Enzymatic Gland cells in gastrodermis releases
proteases that digest prey into surry of juice and fragments
Slurry circulation in coelenteron, absorbed by
epitheliomuscular cells, germ cells, and other gastrodermal
cells
Phagocytosis and intracellular digestion
-Gastrodermal cells contains mutualistic algae
Zoochlorellae=green, freshwater
Zooxanthellae=yellow-brown, marine
Photosynthate accounts for 90% of nutrition
-Often defined patterns of fluid circulation around coelenteron
Ciliated gastrodermis
Muscular contractions
GAS EXCHANGE AND EXCRETION Partitions the competing energy demands of sexual and
-All gas exchange occurs across general body surfaces asexual reproduction to life stages in different ecological
Tentacles (gill surface) niches
Body wall (gill surface) -Lacking a medusa
Ciliated epidermal (circulation of water over body surface) Directly confront energetic challenge by supplementing
-Waste exchange (excretion) occurs across body wall their normal nutritional input with photosynthate (from
Ammonia is primary waste product (aqueous) zoochlorellae and zooxanthellae)
Freshwater Hydra concentrates K+ and release Na+ -Presumed Apomorphic (medusozoan) Life Cycle:
Na+ realeased in coelenteric fluid elevating osmotic PolypMedusa(adult)PlanulaPolyp
concentration
H2O influx helps pressurize hydrostat (excess H2O and Na+ ANTHOZOAC
discharged at the mouth) -Flower animals
-largest cnidarian taxon (6000 solitary/colonial sp.)
REPRODUCTION AND DVELOPMENT -Polyps only
*Regeneration and Clonal Reproduction -large polypsdiameter: 0.5cm-1m
-Amazing regenerators -MesogleaAmoebocytes present
-Only taxon that has three types of cnidae
Can lose oral end and regrow (differentiation) of new
mouth and tentacle Hydra
Living anemones can fully recover from *POLYP FORM
dissectionsAiptasia pallida -BodyTubular Column
-Clonal reproduction is common among polyps, but is less common Surrounded by Oral Disc
in medusa -Mouth: center of oral disc (whorl of tentacles at the margin)
Transverse Fission (uncommon) -Pedal Disc=expansion at the base of the column
Longitudinary Fission (common) Adheres to substratum
Budding -Pharynx=tubular, laterally compressed
Fragmentation Descends below oral disc and opens into the coelenteron
-Anthozoan polyps-all forms via internal opening
-Scyphozoan polyps-budding and transverse fission Pharyngeal CompressionElongated slits of mouth and
-Hydrozoan polyps-budding internal pharynx opening
-Hydrozoan Medusae-Fission -Siphonoglyphs=Ciliated grooves along pharynx
Biradial
*Sexual Reproduction and Life Cycles Bilateral
-Cnidarian adults are generally gonochoric (others are -Cinclides=perforation by pores on body wall of column
hermaphrodites) Through which coelenteric fluid can be releasewd
-Germ cells originate in the endoderm and generally grow and -Septa (Mesenteries)=vertical partitions dividing the coelenteron into
differentiate in the gastrodermis (migrates in epidermis in some radial compartments; Each is an outfold of gastrodermis and
hydrozoans) mesoglea
-External fertilization Complete Septa=span the coelenteron and join the
-Holoblastic cleaving of zygoteblastula pharynx
-GastrulationEndoderm, Ectoderm Epidermis, Gastrodermis Incomplete Septa=converse
Via Invagination/Ingression Also inserted on pedal and oral discs (i.e. tentacles)
Occurs at the animal-pole # of septa varies among body sizes
-BlastocoelMesoglea -Septal Filament=convoluted, swollen edge in the inner free margin
-BlastoporeMouth-anus of each septum
-Planula=planktonic larva Trilobed
Monociliated epidermis o Cnidoglandular band= Middle Lobe
Yolky gastrodermis Bears cnidocytes (nematocycts) and
-Fusimorm planula swims with aboral (vegetal) end leading enzymatic gland cells
-Planula settles to the bottom, attaches at its aboral end, and o Flagellar Band= 2 lateral lobes
metamorphoses into juvenile Densely flagellated
-Primitive Life Cycle of ancestral cnidarians (anthozoans) Unilobed
Sessile, benthic adult polyp o Middle sectionCnidoglandular Cells
Planktonic planula larva o Lateral PartsFlagellated
o Planktomorphic -Acontium= one region at cnidoglandular band, extends away from
o Lecitomorphic (often yolky) its attachment to the septum as long thread (usually with cnidae)
o Harbors zooxanthellae -Extended Acontia + Septal Filaments
o Larval life is long, dispersed widely For Defense, prey capture, and extracorporeal digestion of
Juvenile Polyp prey
-In hydrozoans and scyphozoans
Lecitothrops *MUSCULATURE AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
Lacks zooxanthellae -Sheets of epidermal/gastroepidermal epitheliomuscular cells
Larval life is short, limited dispersal range -Mesogleal Sphinctercomposed of myocytes
Medusa=planktotrophic stage, arises from budding -Epidermal musculature confined to:
-Medusa Tentacles
Prvides a stage capable of wide dispersal Oral Disc
Apporiates role of sexual reproduction from polyp Exception: Ceriantharia(tube anemones) and
Between Polyp and Planula stages Antipatharia(black corals)
o Longitudinal Musculature in column epidermis
Relieves polyp of energetic cost from egg production
-Retractors= longitudinal septal muscles, for polyp retraction
(feeds itself and grow)
function, strongly developed and conspicuous
-Planktonic, Sexual Medusa and Benthic, Asexual Polyp
 Occurs on one of two faces of each septum Zooxanthallae
Run itself from pedal to oral disc
Local concentration of enlarged epitheliomuscular cells that *GAS EXCHANGE AND EXCRETION
each contain a high density of myofilaments -Diffusion
o Apex to Apex (Faces each other) Gas exchange and release of Ammonia
o Base to Base (Faces away from each other) Fascilitated by Ciliary Flow of fluid over gastrodermis and
o Apex to Base epidermis
-Nervous SystemTwo intraepithelial Nerve Nets:
Epidermal *REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH
Gastrodermal -Clonal Reproduction
-EpidermisHighest density of Sensory Cells Fission, Fragmentation, Budding (Primary Modes)
Nematocytes(Ciliary Cones) and Chemoreceptros bear a Planula larva can also arise asexually
single cilium surrounded by collar of microvilli -Gonochorism and Hermaphroditism
-Gonads=aggregation of germ cells occurring in the septa behind
*RETRACTION AND EXTENSION septal filaments
-Retraction -Mature Gametes arise from endoderm, shed into coelenteron and
Simultaneous invagination of oral disc and tentacles spwned through mouth
Longitudinal Muscles -External Fertilization
o Originate on Pedal Disc, inserted underside of Exception: Viviparous sp. (inside coelenteron)
oral disc -ZygotePlanula Larva
o Contractionshortens column, bows oral disc Bears a well-developed tuft of sensory cilia at aboral end
inward, pulls it (and tentacles) into the column Mostly Planktonic Lecitotrophs
o Sphincter MuscleConstricts oral disc margin Some are Planktotrophs (filter feeder)
Functions for protection from disturbances -Metamorphosis
-Deflation Early morphogenesis of tentacles, septa, pharynx before
Loss of fluid requires: larval settlement (at aboral end)
o Radial Muscle Contraction
Opens pharynx and mouth *DIVERSITY OF ANTHOZOA
o Longitudinal Muscle Contraction
Retracts polyp, evacuating coelenteric
ZoanthariasC (Hexacorallia)
fluid through the mouth (Fluid loss) -4000 sp. Of sea anemones, stony corals, coral anemones, mat
anemones, and black or thorny corals
Results from partial to complete fluid loss
-Hexamorous Symmetry (septa and tentaclesmultiples of 6)
-Reinflation/Inflation/Extension
-Septa (complete/Incomplete)
Fluid-recovery mechanism
Pairs=closely set doubles
Pharyngeal Siphonoglyphswater pumps
Only Antipatharia(black corals) and Ceriantharia (tube
o Cilia beats with effective strokes directed inward
anemones) have single septum
(restoration of body fluid)
-Juvenile Polyp
Compressed Pharynx (by coelenteric fluid pressure)
6 pairs of septa
o Non-return valve
Prevents backflow of water from 12 tentacles (1 tentacle extend from each interseptal
coelenteron to exterior space)
-Cnidae
Functions for feeding, anchoring the polyp in a burrow,
tube, or crevice, aid in dispersal (e.g. Paranthus rapiformis) Nematocyst (6 types)
Spirocysts (unique in Zoantharia)
-Gonads
*NUTRITION AND INTERNAL TRANSPORT
Longitudinal Band behind septal filament of each fertile
-Most are opportunistic carnivores
septum
-Border of mouth inflated into lips
-Smaller prey (planktons) are transported by cilia to tentacle tips,
which are inserted to the mouth ACTINARIAO
-At the mouth, -Sea Anemones
Prey mixed with mucus and swallowed -Large, solitary polyps
-At the Pharynx -1350 sp. (approximate)
Swallowing results from ciliary action and peristaltic -Length: 1.5-10cm
movement of pharyngeal wall Metridium farcimen (1 m height)
-At coelenteron -Diameter: 1-5 cm
Food mass contacts cnidoglandular bands of septa Tealia Columbiana, Stichodactayla mertensii, Heteractis
-Extracellular Digestion magnifica (exceed 1 m diameter)
Nematocyst discharge -Brightly colored (white, green, blue, orange, red, etc.)
-Deep/Shallow coastal waters
Enzyme release
-Pedal Disc
o from enzymatic gland cells
o Proteases and Lipases Attachment on rocks and shells
First PhaseReduction of food into particles and May enclose air-filled chitinous sac, floats inverted at sea
molecules surface (Minyas)
-Physa=bulbous/mushroomlike swelling at basal end of burrowers,
Second PhaseCirculation throughout coelenteron
for anchorage in sediment
o By Flagellar Bands and flagella on gastrodermis
For submerged timbers or burrowers into mud or sand
-Intracellular Digestion -Tentacles
Phagocytosis 6 or more than 8 simple, tapered tentacles often bearing
o By gastrodermal cells (i.e. Gametes) terminal pore
-NutritionPhotosynthate Some are branched, knobbed, reduced to numerous low
Zoochlorellae nubbins
 o Stoichactis spp. Sun Anemones
Acrorhagi= specialized tentacle-like projections, lay below
and near bases of true tentacles
o Actinia, Anthopleura
o Wards off competitors, used as weapons
o Nematocyst-bearing acrorhagiactions when
contact to species
-Body Column
Capitulum= thin-walled, necklike introvert immediately
beloworal disc and tentacles
Parapet= collarlike fold
o Actinia, Metridium
Transition Regionbetween Capitulum and thicker column
Polyp Contraction
o Oral Disc + Tentacles + Capitulum Retraction
o Transitional Region Constriction
Due to epidermal and mesogleal
sphincter)
o Parapet covers and protects opening
Solid Papillae
o Haloclova producta, Bunodosoma cavernata
Adhesive Papillae
o Anthopleura, Urticina, Bunodosoma, Bunodactis
o For attachment of protective sand and shell
fragments
Vesicles= zooxanthallea-bearing, protrudes from column
o Bunodeopsis sp.
Cinclidesacontia and water exit during retraction
SiphonoglyphMost have two, some have one
Septal pairsmore than 12
AcontiaMaybe absent or present
o Aiptasia, Bartholomea, Metridium
-Skeleton
Hydrostatic Coelenteron= chief skeleton
Chitinous Periderm
o Protective than supportive
o Usually restricted disc or column below capitulum
o Minyas, and cloak anemones (deep-water
anemones)
-Locomotion
Muscular Gliding on Pedal DiscsFor attached anemones
Peristalsis with pedal-end leadingFor Sediment-dwelling
burrowers
Walking through tentacles
Thrashing through tentaclesGonactinia prolifera
Swinging lower half of columnStomphia
-Food Intake
Tentacles
Suspension Feeders
o Uses mucus on column surface and tentacles
o Metridium, Radianthus, Stichodactyla
Muscular Oral Disc
o Stichodactyla helianthus (catch sea urchins)
Gastrodermal Zooxanthallae and Zoochlorellae
o Anthopleura elegantissima
o Lebrunia danae (w/ pseudotentacle for
photosynthesis and a tentacle)
-Reproduction
Fragmentation
o Pedal Laceration= specialized form of
fragmentation occurs in clonal species
Small pieces from margin of pedal disc
detach and remain behind as anima
moves, or
Pieces may move away from stationary
anemone to form a fairy ring around
the base of parental column
Aiptasia pallida, Haliplanella luciae,
Metridium senile
Fission
Gonochoric/Hermaphrodidtic
o Gonadal Band= each septal gonad that is
longitudinal, cushionlike between the septal
filament and retractor muscle
Fertilization
o Internal (Coelenteron)
o External
Planula Larva
o Planktotrophic
o Lecitotrophic
o Larval Metamorphosis
-Ecological relationships
Hermit crabs will wear anemone on shell; will transfer to
new shell if anemone doesnt transfer itself
o Anemone gets substrate, transportation to food,
protection from predators, and access to mates
o Crab gets (passive)camouflage,
(active)nematocyst protection
Clown fish has surface mucus that lacks nematocyte-
triggering compounds
o Anemone gets food attracted by fish, and
removal of sediment and necrotic tissue
o Clownfish gets protection and food scraps
SCLERACTINIAO
-Stony corals (Madreporarian Corals)
-largest taxon of Anthozoans (approx.. 3600 species)
-Secrete a CaCO3 exoskeleton
-Some are solitary with polyps as large as 50 cm in diameter
Fungia
-Most are colonial with polyps 1mm to 3mm in diameter
Can weigh tons
Grow several meters in height
More than 100,000 polyps
-Coral Polyps
Similar with anemones except that:
o Lacks siphonoglyphs
o Retractor muscles are sheetlike (not bulging)
-Skeleton
Composed of Calcium Carbonate (Aragonite)
o Secreted by epidermis of the lower half of the
column and pedal disc(in solitary sp.)
Produces Corallite= skeletal cup which
polyp inhabits and retracts for
protection
Theca= wall of the corallite
Sclerosepta(Hard Septa)= radiating calcareous vanes
born from the floor of the corallite
o Hallmark of stony corals
o Thin edge projects upward into the polyps pedal
disc, infolding between each pair of septa
o Costae= sclerosepta spilling over the rim of coral
cups and extending onto surface of intervening
skeleton
In colonial species, Lettuce
corals(Agaricia)
o Functions in
Anchorage
Desmocytes= specialized
anchoring cells attach polyps
to skeleton
Resists predation
Help zooxanthallae to be exposed to
light for photosynthesis
Columella= central projection born from the floor of the
corallite
-Polyps of Colonial Corals
Coenosarc continuous with column wall
o Contains broad extension of coelenteron and
coelenteric tubes (solenia) sandwiched between
2 layers of epidermis
 o Coenosteum (Common Bone)= skeleton that lie
between the corallites secreted by undersurface
of coenosarc
Corallum= Corallite + Coenosteum
-Growth
New CaCO3 deposited beneath the living tissues
o Deposition increases corallum thickness and
diameter ++ sclerosepta height
Each polyp has fixed adult shape
o Reduces depth of the corallite by lifting its base
and secreting new floor (Tabula), sealing old
floor and small pace above it
-Coral Skeletons
Diversity and beauty results from colonys growth form and
polyps arrangement
o Flat/Round skeletal mass
o Fructicose growth form
Acropora sp.
o Pitted appearance
When polyps and corallites are well-
separated
Ivory coral Oculina, star coral
Astrangia, reef coral Montastrea
o Coalesced Corallites arranged in curve rows
Brain Corals
-Reproduction
Budding
o In colonial corals
o Adds new zooids and increases area of colonial
body
o Intratentacular Budding= buds that arise on the
oral disc within the whorl of tentacles
Produce colonies of individually
separated polyps, or
Row of incompletely separated polyps
whose merged corallites form
meandering channels
Brain corals Diploria and
Manicina
o Extratentacular Budding= buds arise outside
the tentacular whorl
Produce colony of individually
separated polyps
Lateral Budding from axial polyp
Acropora sp.
Clonal Reproduction
o Highly developed in Zooxanthellate mushroom
corals (Fungiidae) which are large, solitary,
semimotile
o Juveniles attached to substratum by stalk
Differentiated corallite cap detaches
from stalk and moves away
Stalk regenerates another cap and
cycle repeats
Sexual Reproduction
o Gonochoric (1/3 of spp.) and Hermaphroditic (2/3
of spp.)
o 70%-85% External Fertilization
Zooxanthallae are often released in
conjunction with gametes
o Remaining Internal Fertilization
In coelenteron
Short-lived Planula Larvae
o Larval Settlement and Metamorphosis
o Juvenile polyp deposits skeleton
Colonial sp. Buds additional polyps
-Mutualism
Between zooxanthallae and most corals
o Zooxanthellate= corals that house
zooxanthallae in gastrodermal cells
All reef-building (hermatypic) corals
Protective habitat for zooxanthellae
Source of nutrients (PO4, NH3 and
CO2)
Coral receives N, C, O2, and 50%
energy need from algae
Inreases Cral-skeleton growth rate
o Azooxanthellate = lacks zooxanthellae,
Aposymbiotic
-Food Intake
Zooxanthallae and Azzoxanthalle corals feed on animals
(from zooplankton to fish)
Broad continuous mesh of adjacent tentacles of polyps
Mucous sheets/StringsCiliaMouth
o Mucous Suspension Feeding
Based mainly in Mucus
Acropora acuminate releases
mucus(40% as many as C received
from zooxanthellae)
-Bleaching= white calcareous skeleton visible through transparent
tissue, algae partially or completely expelled, may occur under
stressful environmental conditions
Incorrect light intensity (including UV)
Salinity Fluctuations
Temperature (even 1C inrease)
ZOANTHIDEAO
-200 largely tropical and common reef-inhabiting species
-Do not secrete CaCO3
Rely on Periderm, hydrostat, mesoglea, foreign matter
-Colonial
Coenosarcal
Stolonate
-Some solitary
Large, thick, fleshy polyps tall
-Fringe of short marginal tentacles on broad oral disc
-Periderm
covers column and coenosarc
has embedded sand and other debris
-Thick Mesoglea
with solenia that open into coelenteron and column surface
-One siphonoglyph
-Complete/Incomplete Unpaired Septa
-Genus of species:
Zoanthuszooxanthellate reef species
Palythoa sp. (P. toxica)thickly encust rocks, polytoxine
Epizoanthus and Parazoanthuscomensals
CORALLIMORPHARIAO
-Coral Anemones
-50 species, all solitary
-Lack calcareous skeleton
-On coral reefs
-Expanded oral disc, with many short tentacles or no tentacles
-Food/Nutrition
Zooxanthellae on polyps
Large Prey (i.e. fish, sea urchin etc.)
o Muscular Oral Disc
-Everted Nematocyst and Spirocyst tubules
In azooxanthellate
Longest known in Anthozoa
-Two weakly developed siphonoglyphs
-Complete/Incomplete Septa
-Genus of species:
Corynactis
Discosoma
ANTIPATHARIAO
-150 spp.
-black or thorny corals
-Exclusively Colonial
Slender fructicose colonies
-On deep, vertical, seaward walls of coral reefs Bear long, densely ciliated septal filaments
-Axial Skeleton= dark thorny, flexible inside thin mantles of polyps -Circulation of Nutrients and Gases
and coenosarc, as well as in stems and branches Orally directed water flow (by septal filaments) and
-Skeleton Aboral Flow (by siphonoglyph)
Antipathin= noncollagenous protin -Colonies
-6 slender tentacles (2 are longer) Few are stolonate
-6, 10, 12 Complete Unpaired Septa Most are united by coenosarc (Coenenchyme)
-Nonretractile Polyps o If coenosarc is thick, polyps are deeply
-Pharynx embedded with only their oral-most ends
2 siphonoglyphs (Anthocodia) extending above surface
One Hyposulcus Includes Pharynx and septa (except
-Feeding asulcal septa)
Plankton-trapping mucous strings o Coeleteron may end below coenosarcal surface
-Epidermal Longitudinal Musculature Gastodermal Tube= coelenteron free
-Black skeletoncollected, for jewelry of septa, extending deeply into
-Genus of species: coenosarc
Antipathes Some fructicose developed from axial polyp
Dendrobrachia -Skeleton
Schizopathes PeridermProstate Stolons, Coenosarc, and upright
stems
CERIANTHARIAO Calcareous Skeleton
-Tube Anemones o Blue Corals
-75 species Calcified Internal Skeleton
-Large, solitary, mostly burrowing polyps permanently occupy feltlike o Organ-Pipe Coral
tubes Mesoglea
-Tubes o Surrounds solenia and lower ends of polyp
Can exceed 1m length o Contains Calcareous Spicules
Typically buried in sediment except top few cm o Contains Organic Fibers
Fabric tough Organic Calcified Axial Skeleton
Feltlike from discharged o Fructicose species (sea plumes and precious red
Woven coral)
-3 types of Cnidae o Support their stem and branches
-Suspension Feeders -Dimorphic Polyps
2 whorls of tentacles Autozooids= typical feeding polyps
-Polyp Retraction Siphonozooids= highly modified for ciliary water pumping,
Physa for anchorage colony inflation, circulation, sexual reproduction
o Has terminal anal pore o Lack tentacles
-Epidermal Longitudinal Musculature o Developed siphonoglphs
-Complete Unpaired Septa o Do not extend above coenosarcal surface
-Lack retractor muscles o Receive nutrition from autozooids (via Solenia)
-Single siphonoglyph-hyposulcus -Reproduction
-Genus of species: Clonal Reproduction
Cerianthus o Fragmentation
Ceriantheopsis o Fission
Pachycerianthus Gonochorism
o Release gametes in mass spawnings
Gonads occur on all septa
AlcyonariasC (Octocorallia)
Exception: Asulcal Septa
-Exclusively marine
o Few Viviparous spPlanula Larvae
-Octamerous Symmetry
Settle and metamorphose into polyps
-Mostly colonial
Often zooxanthallate
-Sea Plumes, Fans, Pens and Pansies, Organ Pipe Coral, Red
Coral, Blue Coral, and Soft Corals
-2000++ species STOLONIFERAO
Mostly associated with coral-reef communities -Stolonate/Coenosarcal
o More tolerant in environmental extremes than -Cornularia cornucopae
stony corals Stolonate, Thin Mesoglea, Lacks spicules; stolon and polyp
-Nutrition bases enclosed in periderm
Zooxanthellae -Clavularia
-Defense Prostate stolons fused into coenosarc; upright tubular
Chemical defenses (terpenoids) to poison or discourage polyps interconnected at various levels by coenosarcal
would-be predators bridges with solenia; Mesoglea has spicules
-Retractile Polyps -Tubipora Musica: Organ-Pipe Coral
0.5 mm-2 cm in diameter Parallel, upright, tubular polyps from basal coenosarc;
8 Pinnate tentacles horizontal coenosarcal platforms containing solenia unite
o Pinnules= side branches born from each polyps above substratum
tentacle Calcareous Tubular Endoskeleton
-Single Siphonoglyph o Composed of fused red mesogleal spicules
-8 Complete Unpaired septa o Red color imparted by Iron Salt
Bears unilobed septal filaments and retractors that lie on
siphonoglyph (sulcal) side of each septum
-Asulcal septa= two septa opposite the siphonoglyph
HELIOPORACEAO GORGONACEAO, HOLAXONIAsO
- Heliopora coerulea: Blue Coral -sea plumes, sea fans, sea whips
Sole reef-building alcyonarian -Mostly branched, seldom single upright stems
Zooxanthellate Branched sea fans form mesh
Calcareous Exoskeleton (Aragonite) -Anthocodia
o From underside of matlike coenosarc Around coenosarcal stems and branches
Corallum Blue Expanded (Autozooids) are densely distributed
o Due to Iron salts in skeleton o Siphonozooids absent
Tiny polyps -Axial Rodprimary organic skeletal support
o 1mm diameter, extend singly from circular Axial epithelium= specialized secretory epithelium that
corallites that lack sclerosepta encloses axial rod
Coelenterons Gorgonin= highly cross-linked collagen that composes
o United by coenosarcal solenia rod, more or less calcified
o Diverticula= blind vertical tubules -Parallel gastrodermal tubes
Extends into pits between corallites
Produces Tabulae PENNATULACEAO
Increases surface area -sea feathers, sea pens, sea pansies
Secrete CaCO3 -Polymorphic colonies
Bilateral Symmetry
TELESTACEAO Anchors in soft bottom of sand or mud
-Telesto sp. -Nutrition
Branching coenosarcal colonies of polyps Zooxanthellae absent
o Coenosarcal solenia interjoins polyps Plankton-feeders
coelenteron Organic Materials
Stem and branches -Body form
o Elongate axial polyps Colonies composed of 3 or 4 types of polyps in a thin
With short, laterally budded zooids spicular coenosarc
o Enclosed in specular coenosarc Enlarged main axis and body bulk
o Elongated Axial Polyp
ALCYONACEAO Chunella (more than 3m)
-Soft, leather, or mushroom corals Umbellula
-With or without zooxanthellae -Growth
-Elongate, upright, parallel, tubular polyps Axial-polyp tentacles, mouth, and pharynx regress and
Embedded in thick fleshy coenosarc disappear
o Except oral-most ends (anthocodia) Column persists
o Spicular coenosarc o Peduncle=swollen lower part
o Sometimes with organic fibers for burrowing and anchorage
o Thick coenosarc needs ventilation devoid of zooids
Gas exchange o Rachis= upper part
-Polyp Gastrodermal Tubes (Coelenterons) Budding zone
Interjoined by solenia Bears auto- and siphonozooids
-Polyp Growth -Siphonoglyphs face attached end of colony
Indeterminate -Coelenteron interconnects rapidly
Branched or Lobed Solenial interconnections also present
o Anthocodia-restricted -Body at Organ-level of organization
-Siphonozooids are present: Polymorphic polyps
Heteroxenia Bilateral Symmetry
Sarchophyton Motility
-Autozooids are present o Renilla
Xenia -Genus of species:
Funiculina, Ptilosarcus
GORGONACEAO, SCLERAXONIAsO o Primary polyp encloses horny axial rod
-Corallium rubrum surrounded by axial epithelium, (similar to
Precious red coral gorgonin ut designated as pennatulin)
-Fructicose species Stylatula, Virgularia
-Lateral anthocodia on coenosarcal stems and branches o Axial rod mineralized with non-spicular CaCO3
Each supported by skeletal axis Renilla
-Skeleton o Lacks axial rod
Axial concentration of coenosarcal spicules and organic Pennatula
fibers Umbellula
o Briareum
Spicules alone
o Corallium
-Skeletal axis
Coenosarcal solenia present
o Except Corallium
Corallium: calcified skeletal axis surrounded by monolayer
of gastrodermal tubes parallel to axis, perpendicular to
anthocodia
-Auto- and Siphonozooids (Bear gonads) present
MEDUSOZOA o sensory organs having gastrodermal mesogleal
-Basic life cycle: medusaplanulapolypmedusa epidermal components
-Tetramerous symmetry o sensory structures:
Based on 4 or multiples of 4 gastrodermal statocyst
-Linear mitochondrial DNA mechanoreceptor,
Circular in anthozoa chemoreceptor,
-Cnidae present as nematocyst only photoreceptor
Spirocysts and ptychosysts absent o Functions:
-Includes 2 major taxa: gravity equilibrium, waterborne
vibrations and odor and light detection
Scyphozoa (large jellies) and
o rhopalial ganglia have pacemaker neurons
Hydrozoa (small jellies, Hydra, hydroids and relatives)
burst rate affected by input from
rhopalia
SCYPHOZOAC control swimming rate and
-box jellies, stalked jellies, flag-mouth jellies and root- mouth jellies direction
-Best known for its large medusae -subumbrellar locomotory muscles: cross striated coronal muscle and
-200 species radial muscle
-Jellyfish"
-adult feed on small animals
Form and Function prey captured with contact with tentacles or manubrium
-Scyphistomae: small funnel shaped polyps tentacle may bend or contract
solitary or colonial nematocysts occur in epidermis of polyps and medusae
wide oral end tapers to middle of column and gastrodermis of medusae
Columnnarrow stalk that extends to small pedal disc
attach to substratum with chitinous periderm -Reproduction
lack pharynx and oral sphincter Polyp Schyphistomae: Asexual
tetramerous symmetry 4 equidistant gastrodermal septa o Budding
partitioning coelenteron bud arise on column wall or stolon
o septa widest at insertion at oral disc and narrow Aurelia
and disappear before reaching pedal end for colonial species
o each septum has septal funnel (subumbrellar o Clonal Reproduction
funnel) that originate as invagination of oral disc For solitary species
and extend to septum o Strobilation: scyphistomae asexually produce
epitheliomuscular cells longitudinal young medusa
retractor muscle disclike medusa differentiate from oral
o Tetramerous symmetry apparent on specialized end of strobilating scyphistoma
manubrium (strobila) and separate by transverse
square/elongated fission
divided to 4 oral arms that stream Ephyra: free swimming juvenile
below bell medusa
o 4 equidistant septa divide coelenteron to Monodisc/Polydisc stobilation
central stomach and AureliaPolydisc
4 gastric pockets Medusae: Sexual
o thick septa has septal funnel opening to oral o adult scyphomedusae: gonochoric with 8
surface gastrodermal gonads
Cloxed proximity with 8 gonads (4 one on each septal surface
pairs) o GametesSpawned out through mouth
water flow enter and leave funnel o ZygotesPlanulae
Supplies oxygen to gonads o Eventually settles at bottom
o free margin of septa has slender gastric Attached by anterior end
filaments Metamorphose into polyps
unattached end of filament extend
freely to stomach Diversity of Schyphozoa
bear nematocytes and enzymatic gland -Cubomedusae (cubozoa)
cells Some considers it as siter taxa of Schyphozoa
important to subdue prey and Supported by synapomorphies
digestion
-Stomach region gives rise to radial canal SemaeostomeaeO
create coelenteric network in mesoglea and join marginal -flag mouth jellies
ring canal -manubrium elongate and divide to 4 arms
arteries and veinsof polyp -bell have marginal tentacles, lappets and 8 rhopalia
o Arteryaway from stomach -mouth lead to 4 lobed stomach called gastric pouches which
o Veintowards occupy positions of septa
-Gastrodermal cilia circulate coelenteric fluid -absent septa
-radial canal carry fluid away from stomach -subgenital funnel: gonad associated with blind inner end of septal
-mesoglea has amebocytes: tunnel
functional fibroblast -bidirectional water flow
-umbrellar margin scalloped into rounded lobes called lappets -coelenteric network: coelenteron breads up; discrete arterial and
provide flexion points in bell contraction venous flows is circulatory system for peripheral parts
Rhopalia: knoblike sensory lobes; -Aurelia: suspension feeder; trap plankton in mucus. 4 horseshoe
o At the niches of lappets shaped gonads lie in oral wall of stomach
-Cyanea: egg fertilized in gonad and released at gastrula stage;
planula larva settle and attach and metamorphoses into funnel
shaped scyhistomae
-strobilation in Aurelia, Chrysaora, Phacellophora
-Pelagia noctiluca: planula straight to medusa
-Aurelia arita (moon jelly), Chrysaora (sea nettles), Cyanea capillata
(winter/lions mane jelly), Phacellophora camtschatica (fried egg
jelly), Stygiomedusa fabulosa
RhizostomeaeO
-most diverse
-Cassiopeia xamachana (upside down jelly), Stomolophus meleagris
(cannonball jelly, cabbage head, jellyball), Rhizostoma octopus
(cauliflower jelly)
-collectively known as root-mouth jellie because rootlike
manubrium develops from branched or fused oral arms.
-manubrium develop from branch
-more manubrial growth increase surface area
-mucus allow to trap plankton
-Cassiopeia and Mastigias with manubrial zooxanthellae occur in
shallow protected sundrenched tropical lagoons
-Cassiopeia lie upside down
-polydisc or monodisc strobilation
CubomedusaeO
-box jellies
-distinct cubic bell, colorless transparent body, highly venomous
nematocysts
-Chironex fleckeri sea wasp, one of most venomous
-Chiropsalmus quadrumanus common box jelly of southeast US
-medusa has long tentacles on outgrowths (pedalia) of 4 bell corners
-velarium: shelflike outfold of subumbrellar margin restrict bell
aperture, create water jet
CoronataeO
-deep water
-Linuche unguiculata (thimble jelly)
-Peryphylla perphylla
-coronal groove: circumferential constriction around middle of
exumbrella below coronal groove -coronate feed with outstretched
StauromedusaeO
-sessile
-stalked jellies
-medusoid body attaches to substratum by aboral stalk
-anatomy and devt indicate adult is overgrown polyp whose oral end
is partially differentiated into a medusa
-sexually mature, monodisc strobila with ephyra still attached
-Haliclystus, Lucernaria, Thaumatoscyphus
-4 sided mouth and manubrium in center of oral disc -Halicystus feed
on amphipod crustaceans
-adhesive organs: temporary attachment and somersaulting
locomotion
-rhopalioids: adhesive organs: homologous with rhopalia
HYDROZOAC
-chiefly colonial medusozoans in which the life cycle may include
polyps, medusae or both
-only cnidarians to form colonies combining both polyp-zooids and
medusa-zooids.
-Include seaweed like hydroids, pelagic Portuguese man of war, and
reef building fire and rose corals
-Exclusively solitary species are a few marine jellies and the
freshwater Hydra.
-Only taxon of cnidarian with freshwater species, as Anthozoa and
Scyphozoa are entirely marine
-Nematocyst restricted to epidermal surface (23/30 forms of
nematocyst)
-Some nematocysts are glutinants and most are penetrants
-PolypSexual stage
-Medusaoriginates as bud on the polyp; not always liberated
-Medusae are either tall and bullet-shaped or squat and saucerlike
-Polyp covered by periderm (partly/completely)
-Best illustrated in reference to two hydrozoan taxa called
Anthoathecatae and Leptothecatae
Polyps
-Tiny polyp zooids
-large SA and small Volume (large SA:V ratio)
-Lack gastrodermal septa and the nematocyte bearing septal (or
gastric) filaments that accompany them in anthozoans and
scyphozoans.
-Hydra solitary conventional polyp with a mouth, manubrium,
tentacles, column, pedal disc
-Colonial hydropolyps
-Pedicel slender column (or stem or stalk)
-Hydranth (= water flower) flower
Has a well-developed manubrium (hypostome) which may
be finger like, conical, bulbous, or low and rounded.
Consists of mouth, manubrium, tentacles and stomach
-Swollen manubrium houses stomach
-Whorl of tentacles surrounds base of manubrium
-Sometimes a second (distal) whorl encircles mouth rim
-Tentacles may also be scattered over entire surface of manubrium
Capitate tentacles that are short and ends in a knob
Filiform tentacles that are long and thread like
Medusae(Hydromedusae)
-arise as lateral buds of hydranth or from other parts of the colony
A-form bells deeply arched and tulip shaped (Antho- = flower)
Gonads are found on the manubrium
L-form medusa bodies are shallow and saucer like (Lepto- = thin)
Gonads occur on the underside of the radial canals
Velum iris diaphragm below the bell, on the subumbrellar margin,
that creates a powerful water jet as the jelly swims
-Velum functionally the same with velarium of cubomedusae
-Tubular, four-square manubrium below the bell
-4 equidistant radial canals
-Radial canal joins ring canal which supplies hollow tentacles
-Usually have 4 tentacles (one at the end of each radial canal)
-Statocystbetween the bases of tentacles of L-form medusa
-Ocellitentacle bases of A-form
-Mesoglea- acellular, free of ameboid and other cells
-Germ cells originate from I-cells
-Gastrodermal or Epidermal gonads
A-form: Gonads are in manubrium
L-Form: Underside of radial canals
-Gametes spawed directly to exterior
Colonies
-Polyp-zooids and Medusa-zooids
Hydroids sessile, benthic colonies
Siphonophores most pelagic colonies
-Maybe stolonate, coenosarcal, or fructicose
Stems (hydrocauli) single or branched that constitute fruticose
colonies
each bearing multiple zooids
A-form stems: axial polyp that elongates more or less indefinitely
and with growth buds a succession of new zooids laterally
L-form stems: grows by fixed length budding, is composed of a
series of segmentlike sections, each a component zooid.
-Periderm may embrace hydranth up to tentacle bases to form wine-
glass shaped theca
Theca characteristic of L forms (hydrotheca)
Thecate hydroids with a theca (L forms)
Withdraw hydranths into theca for protection
Some has operculum that seals thecal opening as hydranth retracts
Athecate hydroids without a theca (A forms)
Monomorphic colony consists only of gastrozooids the typical
feeding hydranths
Medusa buds where free swimming medusa released by
monomorphic colonies have originated
Polymorphic colonies have gastrozooids and at least have one * The colonial zooids arise as lateral buds from the elongated column
other form of permanently attached zooid, either a modified hydranth, (stem or siphonosome) of the axial polyp.
a modified medusa or both.
Gonophore widespread medusa zooid Cormidia buds that arise in sets; each cormidium consisting
Incompletely differentiated medusae that produce gonads, but lack usually of a gastrozooid, gonozooid, and bract
some or most other medusan traits.
Gonozooids specialized gastrooozoids where medusa buds and Polyp zooids may be gastrozooids, dactylozooids or gonozooids
gonophores are often borne
Differ in gastrozzoids in having more or less reduced tentacles, Siphons long tubular gastrozooids which may either lack tentacles
mouth, and manubriumj or bear a single, long, branched tentacle packed with nematocysts.
Blastostyle finger like gonozooid with its lateral medusa buds
Dactylozooids (palpons or tasters) are similar to gastrozooids
Gonotheca theca where the blastostyle is enclosed in L forms and
but lack a mouth, and their single tentacle is unbranched
the entire structure is known as a gonangium
Dactylozooids protective or food catching polyps that lack mouth Nectophores (muscular) provide propulsion.
and tentacles, but have batteries of nematocytes and may be
strongly retractile. Bracts thick, gelatinous overhangs that cover, streamline and
Long and slender dactylozooids in A forms protect other zooids.
Nematophores dactylozooids of L forms which are shorter
Obelia example of a hydroid that produces free medusa from
medusa buds
Actinula developed from planula; may be creeping or planktonic, is CystonectidasO
short along the oral-aboral axis and has a whorl of four or more
slender tentacles as well as a manubrium and a mouth. - Medusa zooid absent, except for gonophores
PhysonectidasO

- Physonects often have long stems, a pneumatophore and

Diversity of Hydrozoa nectophores
CalycoporidasO
A-form taxa: Anthoathecatae & Siphonophora
- Calycophores lack a pneumatophore, and the leading end
L-form taxa: Leptothecatae, Limnomedusae and Trachylina
of the colony bears on, two, or more rocket shaped
nectophores.
- Eudoxids oldest cormidia, at tail end of stalk, break free,
A-FORMS adopt an independent existence
- Only eudoxid gonozooids become sexually mature
- Athecate polyps, budding from axial polyps, tall medusae
with ocelli and manubrial gonads
L-FORMS

- Thecate or reduced polyps, colony growth by fixed length

budding, medusae short and flat with statocysts, gonads on
AnthoathecataeO (Anthomedusae, Athecata) radial canals or stomach wall.

- Mostly colonial A-form hydroids

- Divided into two groups: Capitata & Filifera; based on LeptothecataeO (Leptomedusae, Thecata)
structure of tentacles
- Thecate polyps often tiny, but medusae include largest
among Hydrozoa
CapitatasO

- Polyp tentacles capitate or terminate in knoblike swellings, LimnomedusaeO

with high nematocyte concentration
- Move by creeping or somersaulting - life cycle with both polyp and medusa
FiliferasO - shallow cup shaped medusa is dominant stage
- frustules planula like that creep over the substratum and
- Filiform tentacles lacking terminal knobs differentiate into polyps

SiphonophoraO TrachylinaO

- with trailing clusters of transparent zooids, resembling - life cycle devoid of polyp stage, medusa only
strings of diamond or crystal chandeliers cruising through - three trachyline taxa: Trachymedusae, Narcomedusae,
inner space Actinulida
- all are colonial, polymorphic, A form hydrozoans
- feed on animal plankton, especially crustaceans and even
small fish TrachymedusaesO
- are hermaphrodites; the gonozooids of each colony
bearing both male and female gonophores. - Medusae tall or hemispherical with well developed velum,
- Divided into three taxa: Cystonectida, Physonectida and usually many solid marginal tentacles, club shaped
Calycoporida statocysts, gonads on radial canals
Pneumatophore periderm-lined float, which is gas-filled and
provides buoyancy.
NarcomedusaesO

- Medusae relatively flat with thin lobed margin; central part

of the bell thick and lenslike
- Some species supply nutrition to young in maternal
stomach
- Others release parasitic larvae, attack manubrium or
stomach of other medusae

ActinulidasO

- Adults tiny medusoid animals adapted for life in seawater

filled, interstitial spaces between sand grains; resemble
actinula larvae and may have evolved via pedomorphosis,
from actinula stage of ancestor
- Gastric tube bulbous part of the body, bears mouth at
one end; may be manubrium or subumbrellar peduncle

Myxozoa (taxon of uncertain rank; may not even be cnidarians)

- cell and tissue parasites of connective tissue , muscle and

internal organs of invertebrates, fishes
- formerly considered a protozoan taxon related to
Apicomplexa