Environmental Engineering Reports

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Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
In partial fulfillment of the requirements in Environmental Engineering
ECOLOGY OF LIFE
Submitted by:
Reuben Verungque
Jaganath Das Villamor
Johann Sebastian Alcantara
Jonnel Fuertez
Dharell Crisostomo
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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Disciplines of Ecology
ECOLOGY
Ecology refers to the interdisciplinary scientific study of the abundance and distribution of
organisms and their underlying interactions with environment.
It came from Greek: /ee kOs/, "house", or "environment"; - /lO yA/, "study of".
Approaches in Ecology
Hierarchical organization
o according to level of organization
Conceptual organization
o according to theoretical construct or processes studied
Descriptive ecology (WHAT)
What organisms & environments occur in a given area?
What are their distributions? What are their quantities?
Functional ecology (HOW)
How are organisms & environments functionally related?
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How are relations similar & different in similar/different

ecosystems?
Evolutionary ecology (WHY)
Why are organisms functionally related to each other & their
environments in certain ways & not others?
or in certain ecosystems & not others?
Taxonomic
o according to organisms studied
Plant Ecology
Animal Ecology
Microbial Ecology
Avian Ecology
Time/Place
o according to time/place
Marine ecology
Tropical ecology
Freshwater ecology
Paleo-ecology
DISCIPLINES OF ECOLOGY
1. Behavioral Ecology
The study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological
pressures.
2. Ecophysiology
Analyzes how both biotic and abiotic organisms physiological functions influences the
way they interact with the environment.
Biotic Factors Biotic factors are the living

components of an ecosystem.
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They are sorted into three groups:

producers or autotrophs,
consumers or heterotrophs, and
decomposers or detritivores.
Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors are non-living
chemical and physical parts of
the environment that affect
living organisms and the
functioning of ecosystems.
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3. Population Ecology
Population ecology studies how and why a population changes over time (population
growth, regulation, and dynamics, or demography.)
Terms used to describe natural groups of individuals in ecological studies

Term Definition
Species population All individuals of a species.
Metapopulation A set of spatially disjunct populations, among which there is some
immigration.
Population A group of conspecific individuals that is demographically, genetically,
or spatially disjunct from other groups of individuals.
Aggregation A spatially clustered group of individuals.
Deme A group of individuals more genetically similar to each other than to other
individuals, usually with some degree of spatial isolation as well.
Local population A group of individuals within an investigator-delimited area smaller than
the geographic range of the species and often within a population (as
defined above). A local population could be a disjunct population as well.
Subpopulation An arbitrary spatially delimited subset of individuals from within a
population (as defined above).
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4. Community Ecology
Community is an assemblage or association of populations of

two or more different species occupying the same geographical area
and in a particular time
Community Ecology is the study of the interactions between

species in communities on many spatial and temporal scales,
including the distribution, structure, abundance, demography,
and interactions between coexisting populations.
5. Ecosystem Ecology
An ecosystem includes all of the living things in a given area, interacting with each other,
and also with their non-living environments.
Food Chain is a hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source
of food.
6. Landscape Ecology
Landscape ecology examines processes and relationship in a equally explicit manner, often
across multiple ecosystems or very large geographic area.
PATCH-CORRIDOR-MATRIX MODEL
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Landscapes are composed of elementsthe spatial components that make up the landscape.
A convenient and popular model for conceptualizing and representing the elements in a categorical
map pattern is known as the patch-corridor-matrix model (Forman 1995). Under this model, three
major landscape elements are typically recognized, and the extent and configuration of these
elements defines the pattern of the landscape.
Patch.--Landscapes are composed of a mosaic of patches (Urban et al. 1987).

Landscape ecologists have used a variety of terms to refer to the basic elements or
units that make up a landscape, including ecotope, biotope, landscape component,
landscape element, landscape unit, landscape cell, geotope, facies, habitat, and site
(Forman and Godron 1986). Any of these terms, when defined, are satisfactory
according to the preference of the investigator. Like the landscape, patches
comprising the landscape are not self-evident; patches must be defined relative to
the phenomenon under consideration. For example, from a timber management
perspective a patch may correspond to the forest stand. However, the stand may not
function as a patch from a particular organism's perspective. From an ecological
perspective, patches represent relatively discrete areas (spatial domain) or periods
(temporal domain) of relatively homogeneous environmental conditions where the
patch boundaries are distinguished by discontinuities in environmental character
states from their surroundings of magnitudes that are perceived by or relevant to
the organism or ecological phenomenon under consideration (Wiens 1976). From
a strictly organism-centered view, patches may be defined as environmental units
between which fitness prospects, or "quality", differ; although, in practice, patches
may be more appropriately defined by nonrandom distribution of activity or
resource utilization among environmental units, as recognized in the concept of
"Grain Response".
Patches are dynamic and occur on a variety of spatial and temporal scales
that, from an organism-centered perspective, vary as a function of each animal's
perceptions (Wiens 1976 and 1989, Wiens and Milne 1989). A patch at any given
scale has an internal structure that is a reflection of patchiness at finer scales, and
the mosaic containing that patch has a structure that is determined by patchiness at
broader scales (Kotliar and Wiens 1990). Thus, regardless of the basis for defining
patches, a landscape does not contain a single patch mosaic, but contains a
hierarchy of patch mosaics across a range of scales. For example, from an
organism-centered perspective, the smallest scale at which an organism perceives
and responds to patch structure is its "grain" (Kotliar and Wiens 1990). This lower
threshold of heterogeneity is the level of resolution at which the patch size becomes
so fine that the individual or species stops responding to it, even though patch
structure may actually exist at a finer resolution (Kolasa and Rollo 1991). The lower
limit to grain is set by the physiological and perceptual abilities of the organism
and therefore varies among species. Similarly, "extent" is the coarsest scale of
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heterogeneity, or upper threshold of heterogeneity, to which an organism responds

(Kotliar and Wiens 1990, Kolasa and Rollo 1991). At the level of the individual,
extent is determined by the lifetime home range of the individual (Kotliar and
Wiens 1990) and varies among individuals and species. More generally, however,
extent varies with the organizational level (e.g., individual, population,
metapopulation) under consideration; for example the upper threshold of patchiness
for the population would probably greatly exceed that of the individual. Therefore,
from an organism-centered perspective, patches can be defined hierarchically in
scales ranging between the grain and extent for the individual, deme, population,
or range of each species.
Patch boundaries are artificially imposed and are in fact meaningful only
when referenced to a particular scale (i.e., grain size and extent). For example, even
a relatively discrete patch boundary between an aquatic surface (e.g., lake) and
terrestrial surface becomes more and more like a continuous gradient as one
progresses to a finer and finer resolution. However, most environmental dimensions
possess 1 or more "domains of scale" (Wiens 1989) at which the individual spatial
or temporal patches can be treated as functionally homogeneous; at intermediate
scales the environmental dimensions appear more as gradients of continuous
variation in character states. Thus, as one moves from a finer resolution to coarser
resolution, patches may be distinct at some scales (i.e., domains of scale) but not at
others.
Corridor Corridors are linear landscape elements that can be defined on the basis
of structure or function. Forman and Godron (1986) define corridors as narrow
strips of land which differ from the matrix on either side. Corridors may be isolated
strips, but are usually attached to a patch of somewhat similar vegetation. These
authors focus on the structural aspects of the linear landscape element. As
a consequence of their form and context, structural corridors may function as
habitat, dispersal conduits, or barriers. Three different types of structural corridors
exist: (1) line corridors, in which the width of the corridor is too narrow to allow
for interior environmental conditions to develop; (2) strip corridors, in which the
width of the corridor is wide enough to allow for interior conditions to develop; and
(3) stream corridors, which are a special category.
Corridors may also be defined on the basis of their function in the landscape.
At least four major corridor functions have been recognized, as follows:
1. Habitat Corridor Linear landscape element that provides for survivorship,

natality, and movement (i.e., habitat), and may provide either temporary or
permanent habitat. Habitat corridors passively increase landscape connectivity
for the focal organism(s).
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2. Facilitated Movement Corridor Linear landscape element that provides for

survivorship and movement, but not necessarily natality, between other habitat
patches. Facilitated movement corridors actively increase landscape
connectivity for the focal organism(s).
3. Barrier or Filter Corridor Linear landscape element that prohibits (i.e.,

barrier) or differentially impedes (i.e., filter) the flow of energy, mineral
nutrients, and/or species across (i.e., flows perpendicular to the length of the
corridor). Barrier or filter corridors actively decrease matrix connectivity for
the focal process.
4. Source of Abiotic and Biotic Effects on the Surrounding Matrix Linear

landscape element that modifies the inputs of energy, mineral nutrients, and/or
species to the surrounding matrix and thereby effects the functioning of the
surrounding matrix.
Most of the attention and debate has focused on facilitated movement

corridors. It has been argued that this corridor function can only be
demonstrated when the immigration rate to the target patch is increased over
what it would be if the linear element was not present (Rosenberg et al. 1997).
Unfortunately, as Rosenberg et al. point out, there have been few attempts to
experimentally demonstrate this. In addition, just because a corridor can be
distinguished on the basis of structure, it does not mean that it assumes any of
the above functions. Moreover, the function of the corridor will vary among
organisms due to the differences in how organisms perceive and scale the
environment.
Matrix A landscape is composed typically of several types of landscape

elements (usually patches). Of these, the matrix is the most extensive and most
connected landscape element type, and therefore plays the dominant role in the
functioning of the landscape (Forman and Godron 1986). For example, in a
large contiguous area of mature forest embedded with numerous small
disturbance patches (e.g., timber harvest patches), the mature forest constitutes
the matrix element type because it is greatest in areal extent, is mostly
connected, and exerts a dominant influence on the area flora and fauna and
ecological processes. In most landscapes, the matrix type is obvious to the
investigator or manager. However, in some landscapes, or at a certain point in
time during the trajectory of a landscape, the matrix element will not be
obvious. Indeed, it may not be appropriate to consider any element as the
matrix. Moreover, the designation of a matrix element is largely dependent
upon the phenomenon under consideration. For example, in the study of
geomorphological processes, the geological substrate may serve to define the
matrix and patches; whereas, in the study of vertebrate populations, vegetation
structure may serve to define the matrix and patches. In addition, what
constitutes the matrix is dependent on the scale of investigation or management.
For example, at a particular scale, mature forest may be the matrix with
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disturbance patches embedded within; whereas, at a coarser scale, agricultural

land may be the matrix with mature forest patches embedded within.
It is important to understand how measures of landscape pattern are

influenced by the designation of a matrix element. If an element is designated
as matrix and therefore presumed to function as such (i.e., has a dominant
influence on landscape dynamics), then it should not be included as another
"patch" type in any metric that simply averages some characteristic across all
patches (e.g., mean patch size, mean patch shape). Otherwise, the matrix will
dominate the metric and serve more to characterize the matrix than the patches
within the landscape, although this may itself be meaningful in some
applications. From a practical standpoint, it is important to recognize this
because in FRAGSTATS, the matrix can be excluded from calculations by
designating its class value as background. If the matrix is not excluded from the
calculations, it may be more meaningful to use the class-level statistics for each
patch type and simply ignore the patch type designated as the matrix. From a
conceptual standpoint, it is important to recognize that the choice and
interpretation of landscape metrics must ultimately be evaluated in terms of
their ecological meaningfulness, which is dependent upon how the landscape is
defined, including the choice of patch types and the designation of a matrix.
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7. Political Ecology
Political ecology connects politics and economy to problems of environmental control and
ecological change
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Political ecology studies the complex interaction between economics, politics, technology, social tradition
and the biological environment. These terraced rice fields in Yunnan, China, evidence how the
environment is shaped by and shapes economy and society.
8. Systems Ecology
Systems Ecology is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study, development and

organization of ecological systems holistic perspective.
Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological
and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of
ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts
from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.
Ecological analysis of CO2 in

an ecosystem
Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of
the interactions and transactions within and
between biological and ecological systems.
Systems ecologists realise that the function of
any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have
therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration
of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:
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Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of

organisms using the techniques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the
methods and tools developed, largely in engineering, for studying,
characteriszing and making predictions about complex entities, that is, systems.
In any study of an ecological system, an essential early procedure is to draw a
diagram of the system of interest ... diagrams indicate the
system's boundaries by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series of
components are isolated which have been chosen to represent that portion of
the world in which the systems analyst is interested ... If there are no
connections across the systems' boundaries with the surrounding systems
environments, the systems are described as closed. Ecological work, however,
deals almost exclusively with open systems.
As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general
application of the principles of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable
proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems
ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute ecosystem principles. Reasoning
by formal analogy from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles
functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used
the Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.
The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum power efficiency, takes central place
in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most
evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the
internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal
resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems
ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just
as the electronic engineer would do.
9. Evolutionary Ecology
Evolutionary ecology lies at the intersection of ecology and evolutionary biology. It

approaches the study of ecology in a way that explicitly considers the evolutionary histories of
species and the interactions between them. Conversely, it can be seen as an approach to the study
of evolution that incorporates an understanding of the interactions between the species under
consideration. The main subfields of evolutionary ecology are life history
evolution, sociobiology (the evolution of social behavior), the evolution of interspecific relations
(cooperation, predatorprey interactions, parasitism, mutualism) and the evolution
of biodiversity and of communities.
Pristine, natural environments that have been relatively unaltered by humans are of particular
importance in evolutionary ecology because they constitute the environments to which any
particular organism has become adapted to over time.
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Biosphere
Biosphere
The biosphere (from Greek bos "life" and sphaira "sphere") also known as
A phylogenetic tree of living things
the ecosphere(from Greek okos "environment" and ), is the worldwide sum of
all ecosystems. It is where biological functions such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition,
nitrogen fixation, and denitrification. It can also be termed as the zone of life on Earth. A thin
mantle of life that covers the earth. It is the global ecosystem
Biomes
A biome is NOT an ecosystem. You

may find many units of ecosystems
within one biome. Biomes are very
large ecological areas on the earths
surface, with animals and plants
adapting to their environment.
Desert
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Deserts makeup about 20% of total land cover on earth and are characterized by little no rainfall.
Hot and dry Desert
Hot DesertSonoranS.W. USA,

Mexico Sahara of North Africa.
Deserts with hot and dry climates
are warm all year round, and are
extremely hotin the summer.
Usually, they have very little rainfall,
making the climate extremelydry,
and hard for plants and animals to
survive.
Semi Arid Deserts
arid- (of land or a climate) having

little or no rain; too dry or barren to
support vegetation."hot and arid
conditions"
Ex. sagebrush of Utah, Montana and

Great Basin.
Coastal Deserts Desert of

Chile
Coastal Deserts is a desert that is more

hospitable than all other desert types
in both rainfall and temperature.
Ex. Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru

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Cold Deserts
January is the coldest month, and

average January low and high
temperatures range between -24 and -
11 degrees Celsius (-11 to 12
degrees Fahrenheit). However,
temperatures in the Gobi can drop to
much more frigid temperatures, and
lows can reach below-40 degrees
Celsius (-40 degrees Fahrenheit)
Aquatic Biome
This includes all water bodies on the earths surface.
Freshwater Biomes
It is a type of aquatic biome that is

commonly river and lake. Every
Body of water with fresh water.
Ex. The Amazon River
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Marine Biomes
It is a type of aquatic biome that is

commonly sea and ocean. It is a body
of water that is salt water.
Ex. Amazon river in Brazil.
PARTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem not only comprises the plant and animal life, even the non-living is also a part
of ecosystem. The nonliving things in an ecosystem create and define the ecosystem's
environment and include sunlight, temperature, precipitation, weather, landscape, soil
chemistry, water chemistry and even base nutrient supply.
Producers
This are the plants that have the ability to make their own food through the process of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some
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protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
This glucose can be converted into pyruvate which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
by cellular respiration. Oxygen is also formed
Composers
It pertain to animals. They get their energy from the producers or organisms that eat
producers. There are three types of composers, herbivore which eats only plants, carnivore
which eats animals and omnivore which eats both plants and animals.
Decomposers
This are the third type of living organisms which is either plants or animals that break down
dead plants and animals into organic materials that sink into the soil, and become part of
it.
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Non-Living or Abiotics
It consist of dead organic matters and nutrients in the soil and water consisting of water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, solar energy and other elements.
COMMUNITY INTERACTION
Population of one specie frequently interact to population of other species in order for them
to survive. The following are the types of interaction of organisms in order for them to
obtain the necessary nutrients and energy for them to survive.
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Competition
Challenged for resources (water, nutrients, mate, etc.)

Occurs when the resources are limited.
Competitive Exclusion Principle: no two species can occupy the same niche in the same
habitat at the same time.
Predation
When an organism captures and feeds on other organisms.

Predator : organism doing the capturing or for short the Hunter.
Prey : organism being captured or for short the Hunted.
A predators survival depends on its ability to catch its prey.
A preys survival depends on its ability to avoid being caught
Parasitism
It is where one organism is drawing its nourishment and the other is harmed.
Parasite feeds on the host organism.
Unlike predation, it does not result in the immediate death of the host.
There are 2 different types of Parasites: Ectoparasites and Endoparasites.
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Coevolution
When two species have lived together and adapted to each for a long time such that changes
in the gene pool of one species leads to changes in the gene pool of the other species.
Coevolution Relationships
Mimicry
The ability to blend themselves into the background or makes them a part of the
surroundings.
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Adaptation
It is a feature that is common in population because it provides some improved function.
Mutualism
It is in which both species benefit one another.
BIOCHEMICAL CYCLE
- is the transport and transformation of chemicals in ecosystems.
TYPES OF BIOCHEMICAL CYCLE:
Gaseous Cycle
- A type of biochemical cycle which happens in the atmosphere.
Ex. Respiration, Combustion
Sedimentary Cycle
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- A type of biochemical cycle which is land based.
Ex. Decomposition
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Naturally-Occuring Carbon exist in the form of:
Graphite
Diamond
Carbon Dioxide (The most abundant form)
Oxygen Exists in:
Atmosphere (Approx. 20.8%)
Earths Crust (46.6%)

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CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE DIAGRAM

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CARBON DIOXIDE
Sources
Cellular Respiration
Decomposition
Combustion
Utilization/Absorption
Bodies of water (Where most of the carbon dioxide is being absorb to be used by photosynthesis
of phytoplankton and carbonate formation)
Photosynthesis
OXYGEN
Sources
Photosynthesis (78% by phytoplankton, 20% by plants)

Redox Reaction (2%)
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Utilization/Absorption
Cellular Respiration
Combustion
The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various
chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The
conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes.
Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification,
and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen making it the largest
source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use,
leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of
particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem
processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel
combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have
dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle
Processes
Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic
nitrogen, Ammonium (NH+4), nitrite (NO2), nitrate (NO3), nitrous oxide (N2O), Nitric
oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living
organism, humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes
of the nitrogen cycle transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are
carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form
needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken down
by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used as new. The diagram besides shows how these processes
fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen fixation
Conversion of nitrogen into nitrates and nitrites through atmospheric, industrial and biological
processes is called as nitrogen fixation. Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", in a
usable form to be taken up by plants. Between 5x1012 and 10x1012 g per year are fixed
by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria known
as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenaseenzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen
with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other organic
compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in
a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-nitrogenase is a complex two-
component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic groups. An example of the free-
living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live
in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form
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a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates.
Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor
soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed
nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process,[4] which uses high temperatures
and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into
ammonia.
Assimilation
Plants take nitrogen from the soil by absorption through their roots as amino acids,
nitrate ions, nitrite ions, or ammonium ions. Most nitrogen obtained by terrestrial animals can be
traced back to the eating of plants at some stage of the food chain.
Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil via their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it
is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic
acids, and chlorophyll.[5] In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen
is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there
is a more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant
provides amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroids
pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent
relationship.[6] While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by
ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs
(including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N
sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.
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Ammonification
When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic.
Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH+
4), a process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:
GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & Plastic)

GOGAT: Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferredoxin & NADH-dependent)
GDH: Glu Dehydrogenase:
Minor Role in ammonium assimilation.
Important in amino acid catabolism.
Nitrification
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other
nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH+
4) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia
to nitrites (NO
2). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites
(NO02)into nitrates (NO3). It is important for the ammonia (NH3) to be converted to nitrates
or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants.
Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly unable to retain anions, nitrates can
enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because
nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-
baby syndrome. Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate-enriched groundwater can
contribute to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially
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blue-green algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have
indirect effects on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe
eutrophication problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of
nitrogen fertilizer has been increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is
occurring along the same lines as control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is normally
considered essential to the recovery of eutrophied waterbodies.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N2), completing the nitrogen
cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in
anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during
respiration. These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions.
Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria
use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen gas, which is
inert and unavailable to plants.
Water Cycle
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water
on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs
of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range
of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean,
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or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes

of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In
doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For
instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the
environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater.
The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in
reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes
including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most
life and ecosystems on the planet.
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout
the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is
actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are
the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi3 (1,386,000,000 km3) of the world's water
supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also
estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.
During colder climatic periods more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water
supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is
true during warm periods. During the last ice age glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land
mass, with the result being that the oceans were about 400 ft (122 m) lower than today. During the
last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 18 ft (5.5 m) higher than
they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 165 ft (50 m) higher.
Changes over time
The scientific consensus expressed in the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Summary for Policymakers is for the water cycle to continue to intensify
throughout the 21st century, though this does not mean that precipitation will increase in all
regions. In subtropical land areas places that are already relatively dry precipitation is
projected to decrease during the 21st century, increasing the probability of drought. The drying is
projected to be strongest near the poleward margins of the subtropics (for example,
the Mediterranean Basin, South Africa, southern Australia, and the Southwestern United States).
Annual precipitation amounts are expected to increase in near-equatorial regions that tend to be
wet in the present climate, and also at high latitudes. These large-scale patterns are present in
nearly all of the climate model simulations conducted at several international research centers as
part of the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic
variability and change in climate has and will continue to have a profound impact on the water
sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the
global, regional, basin, and local levels.Research published in 2012 in Science based on surface
ocean salinity over the period 1950 to 2000 confirm this projection of an intensified global water
cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period
Fundamental thermodynamics and climate models suggest that dry regions will become drier and
wet regions will become wetter in response to warming. Efforts to detect this long-term response
P a g e | 31
in sparse surface observations of rainfall and evaporation remain ambiguous. We show that ocean
salinity patterns express an identifiable fingerprint of an intensifying water cycle. Our 50-year
observed global surface salinity changes, combined with changes from global climate models,
present robust evidence of an intensified global water cycle at a rate of 8 5% per degree of surface
warming. This rate is double the response projected by current-generation climate models and
suggests that a substantial (16 to 24%) intensification of the global water cycle will occur in a
future 2 to 3 warmer world.
An instrument carried by the SAC-D satellite launched in June, 2011 measures global sea
surface salinity but data collection began only in June, 2011.
Glacial retreat is also an example of a changing water cycle, where the supply of water to glaciers
from precipitation cannot keep up with the loss of water from melting and sublimation. Glacial
retreat since 1850 has been extensive.
Evaporation
Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a
gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization
is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase. Steam
produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase.
Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid phase below the melting point, as commonly
P a g e | 32
observed with ice at or below freezing or moth crystals (napthalene or paradichlorobenzene), is

called sublimation.
On average, a fraction of the molecules in a glass of water have enough heat energy to escape from
the liquid. The reverse also happens water molecules from the air enter the water in the glass
but as long as the relative humidity of the air in contact is less than 100% (i.e., saturation), the
net transfer of water molecules will be to the air. The water in the glass will be cooled by the
evaporation until an equilibrium is reached where the air supplies the amount of heat removed by
the evaporating water. In an enclosed environment the water would evaporate until the air is
saturated.
With sufficient temperature, the liquid would turn into vapor quickly (see boiling point). When the
molecules collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide.
Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends up with enough
energy to "escape" and enter the surrounding air.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The sun (solar energy) drives evaporation of
water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology,
evaporation and transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively
termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed,
allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor; this vapor can then rise up and form clouds.
Condensation
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is
the reverse of evaporation. The word most often refers to the water cycle It can also be defined as
the change in the state of water vapour to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid surface
or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere. When the transition happens from the
gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is called deposition (or desublimation)
P a g e | 33
Precipitaion
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapo

r that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation
include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the
atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and "precipitates".
Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the water vapor does not
condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air
becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as smaller
droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense
periods of rain in scattered locations are called "showers."
Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may
be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring.
A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing
and rising air. Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within
the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the cloud
droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will
freeze on contact with exposed objects. Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for
example due to water evaporation from lakes, lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind
of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones.
Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy. Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone's comma
head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is
possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation. On
the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional
heating. The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy
seasons to savannah clies.
P a g e | 34
QUESTIONS
A. Multiple Choice
1. It analyzes how both biotic and abiotic organisms physiological functions
influences the way they interact with the environment.
A. Behavioral Ecology
B. Ecophysiology
C. Population Ecology
D. Community Ecology
2. It is a hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of
food.
A. Food Chain
B. Food Web
C. Nutrient Cycle
D. Nitrogen Cycle
3. Under this model, three major landscape elements are typically recognized, and the
extent and configuration of these elements defines the pattern of the landscape.
A. Three-Cycle Landscape U-Matrix
B. Smart Landscape Matrix
C. Patch-Corridor-Matrix
D. Continental Pack U-Matrix
4. It is an assemblage or association of populations of two or more
different species occupying the same geographical area and in a particular time.
A. Species
B. Population
C. Community
D. Biome
5. Which of the following is not a biotic factor?
A. Detritivores
B. Producers
C. Composers
D. Decomposers
6. It is the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological
pressures
A. Community Ecology
B. Behavioral Ecology
C. Evolutionary Ecology
D. Landscape Ecology
7. One good example for this discipline of ecology is the significant change in the total
number of black and white-peppered moth due to the over logging for birch wood.
A. Ecosystem Ecology
P a g e | 35
B. Political Ecology
C. Taxonomic Ecology
D. Population Ecology
8. It is an approach in ecology wherein disciplines are considered to be in order
according to level of organization.
A. Time-Place Approach
B. Conceptual Organization Approach
C. Hierarchical Organization
D. Taxonomic Organization
9. Which of these are in the proper order according to level of organization?
A. Species-Community-Population-Biome-Ecosystem-Biosphere
B. Species-Community-Population-Ecosystem-Biome-Biosphere
C. Species-Population-Community-Ecosystem-Biome-Biosphere
D. Species-Community-Ecosystem-Population-Biome-Biosphere
10. Which of the following is NOT a discipline of ecology?
A. Taxonomic Ecology
B. Political Ecology
C. Systems Ecology
D. Behavioral Ecology
11. It is a biogeochemical cycle where ribosomes are used in order to create ammonia.
A. Water cycle
B. Nitrogen cycle
C. Carbon cycle
D. Oxygen cycle=
12. It is one of the steps in Nitrogen Cycle where nitrogen molecules are transform into
ammonia
A. Nitrification
B. Assimilation
C. Nitrogen fixation
D. Denitrification
13. It is one of the steps in Nitrogen Cycle where ammonia are oxidize to become nitrite
and follow by oxidation of nitrite to nitrate
A. Nitrification
B. Assimilation
D. Denitrification
14. It is use in atmospheric nitrogen fixation
A. Clouds
B. Light
C. Thunder
D. Rain
15. It is the process in nitrogen cycle where there is reduction of nitrates to nitrogen.
A. Nitrification
P a g e | 36
B. Assimilation
D. Denitrification
16. It is a biogeochemical cycle where water is use as a medium
A. Water cycle
B. Nitrogen cycle
C. Carbon cycle
D. Oxygen cycle
17. It is the boiling of the water surface
A. Evaporation
B. Condensation
C. Vaporization
D. Isomerization
18. What is the temperature when you are in high places
A. Lower
B. Higher
C. The same
D. Nevermind
19. It is the process in water cycle where the boiled water molecules form a cloud
A. Evaporation
B. Condensation
C. Precipitation
D. All of them
20. It is the process where plants releases excess water their leaves
A. Transmutation
B. Transforming
C. Trancedental
D. Transgen
21. It does not only comprises the plant and animal life, even the non-living is also a part
of ______.
A. Ecology
B. Ecosystem
C. Economics
D. None of the Above
22. They are the plants that have the ability to make their own food through the process
of photosynthesis.
A. Producers
B. Decomposers
C. Composers
D. Abiotics
23. It pertain to animals. They get their energy from the producers or organisms that eat
producers.
A. Producers
B. Decomposers
P a g e | 37
C. Composers
D. Abiotics
24. This are the third type of living organisms which is either plants or animals that
break down dead plants and animals into organic materials that sink into the soil, and
become part of it.
A. Producers
B. Decomposers
C. Composers
D. Abiotics
25. It consist of dead organic matters and nutrients in the soil and water consisting of
water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, solar energy and other elements.
A. Producers
B. Decomposers
C. Composers
D. Abiotics
26. Population of one specie frequently interact to population of other species in order
for them to survive.
A. Plant Interaction
B. Social Interaction
C. Animal Interaction
D. Community Interaction
27. Challenged for resources (water, nutrients, mate, etc.). Occurs when the resources
are limited.
A. Parasitism
B. Competition
C. Predation
D. Coevolution
28. When an organism captures and feeds on other organisms.
A. Parasitism
B. Competition
C. Predation
D. Coevolution
29. It is where one organism is drawing its nourishment and the other is harmed.
A. Parasitism
B. Competition
C. Predation
D. Coevolution
30. When two species have lived together and adapted to each for a long time such that
changes in the gene pool of one species leads to changes in the gene pool of the
other species.
A. Parasitism
B. Competition
C. Predation
D. Coevolution
P a g e | 38
31. It is cycle undergone by important substances so that it will be utilized by every

members of the ecosystem
A. Biochemical Cycle :-)
B. Biosubstance Cycle
C. Biomineral Cycle
D. Bioelement Cycle
32. It is a type of biochemical cycle which happens in the atmosphere
A. Atmospheric cycle
B. Gaseous cycle :-)
C. Air-based cycle
D. All of the above
33. It is stype of biochemical cycle which is land based?
A. Lithospheric cycle
B. Land-based cycle
C. Sedimentary cycle :-)
D. All of the above
34. In what form does most of the naturally occuring elemental carbon found?
A. Diamond
B. Graphite
C. Organic compounds
D. Carbon dioxide :-)
35. What is the approximate percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere
A.20.4%
B. 20.6%
C. 20.8% :-)
D. 21.0 %
36. Earth's crust is composed of approximately ____% of elemental oxygen
A. 46.2%
B. 46.4%
C. 46.6% :-)
D. 46.8%
37. Where do most the atmospheric oxygen came from
A. Photosynthesis of plants
B. Phytoplankton photosynthesis :-)
C. Redox reaction
D. None of these
38. Where do most of the carbon dioxide is being absorbed?
A. Plants
B. Decomposing materials
C. Bodies of water :-)
D. None of these
39. The process of producing food by means of reaction between water and carbon
dioxide in the air with the help of sunlight toto produce glucose and its byproduct,
oxygen.
A. Chemosynthesis
P a g e | 39
B. Photosynthesis :-)
C. Biosynthesis
D. All of the above
40. The process of utilizing food by combining it with the oxygen to break it down into
water and carbon dioxide and produces energy in the form of adenosine triphospate
needed for the cells to do its biological function.
A. Cellular combustion
B. Cellular respiration :-)
C. Cellular inhalation
D. Cellular exhalation
B. Identification:
1. It is also known as Ecosphere, is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems.
2. It is a very large ecological areas on the earths surface, with animals and plants
adapting to their environment.
3. It is makeup about 20% of total land cover on earth and are characterized by little no
rainfall.
4. This biome includes all water bodies on the earths surface.
5. It is a biome madeup about 30% of the total land cover on earth and are of incredible
value to life on
earth
6. It is a biome As the name suggests, these are massive areas dominated by one or a
few species of grass, with a few sparsely distributed trees.
7. This biome is known to be the coldest of all the terrestrial (land) biomes, with the
least bio-diversity capacity.
8. It is aquatic biome that has salt water
9. It is an aquatic biome that has fresh water
10. Give an example of an cold dessert
P a g e | 40
ANSWER KEY
A. Multiple Choice 37. B

1. B 38. C
2. A 39. B
3. C 40. B
4. C B. Identification
5. C 1. Biosphere
6. B 2. Biomes
7. D 3. Dessert
8. C 4. Aquatic biome
9. C 5. Forest biome
10. A 6. Grassland biome
11. B 7. Tundra
12. C 8. Marine biome
13. A 9. Fresh water biomes
14. C 10. Gobi dessert
15. D
16. A
17. A
18. A
19. B
20. A
21. B
22. A
23. C
24. B
25. D
26. D
27. B
28. C
29. A
30. D
31. A
32. B
33. C
34. D
35. C
36. C
P a g e | 41
AIR POLLUTION
Submitted by:
Patrishia Anne Azul

Ricky Judemer Antonio
Evandro Cruz
Rock Daniel Dizon
John Carl Francisco
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
P a g e | 42
WHAT IS AIR?
* The earth is surrounded by air, a mixture of extremely important gases such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. These gases provide animals with oxygen for respiration to occur. It also
provides green plants with carbon dioxide for photosynthesis to happen.
* It is vital that living things respire to get the oxygen for living cells to function. Without air, there is
no life.
Air is the most basic need of every human being. At rest, we breath about 6 litres of air every
minute. Air supplies us with oxygen for our bodily function to activate.
AIR IS COMPOSE OF
* By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon
dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on
average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere.
* Plants
Plants use Carbon Dioxide (together with sunlight and water) to produce energy and give out
Oxygen as a by-product. This oxygen is what almost all animals need to survive. They absorb
Carbon Dioxide from the air and discharge Oxygen through very tiny pores in the leaves.
Air is also important for living organisms in the soil to survive and function. Without soil aeration,
decomposers cannot work on organic matter to decompose them, as soil moisture alone is not
enough for decomposition. Moving air (wind) is also important for some plants to pollinate.
* Animals
Animals including humans need oxygen to live. We breathe in oxygen and breathe out Carbon
Dioxide. There are also air pockets in soils and water that help tiny living things survive in water
and beneath the soils. For example, fishes absorb Oxygen from water with their gills. All animals
are adapted with special organs and parts that help them absorb the oxygen they need from the
air.
AIR POLLUTION
* Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals from
factories, dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major
part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog. Some air
pollutants are poisonous.
* Pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty and
unsafe or unsuitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a contaminant into a
natural environment, but the contaminant doesn't need to be tangible. Things as simple as light,
sound and temperature can be considered pollutants when introduced artificially into an
environment.
* Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, according to Pure Earth, a non-
profit environmental organization. In some of the worlds worst polluted places, babies are born
with birth defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy may be as low as 45
years because of cancers and other diseases.
P a g e | 43
* Pollution is the presence in or introduction into the environment of a substance or thing that has
harmful or poisonous effects.
* Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals from
factories, dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major
part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog. Some air
pollutants are poisonous.
Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are
introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death of humans; it may also
cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or
built environment.
* An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies to communicate to the
public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become.
* As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience
increasingly severe adverse health effects
Diffusion tubes
* Diffusion tubes are a cheap and easy way to measure nitrogen dioxide. They are supplied and
analyzed by laboratories. Councils use them to get an indication of air pollution levels across their
borough by putting tubes in lots of different places. Residents and schools also use diffusion
tubes for citizen science projects to measure their local air quality.
* Diffusion tubes are small plastic tubes with a cap at each end one of which is coloured. Under
the coloured cap is a steel mesh disc which is coated with triethanolamine (TEA) a chemical that
absorbs nitrogen dioxide. When gases pass over this mesh the chemical changes. This chemical
change tells us how much nitrogen dioxide was in the air during the monitoring period.
* Tubes are attached in a vertical position with the coloured cap at the top to a stationary object
such as a lamppost, road sign, railings or a drainpipe. The bottom white cap is removed so that
the air can get into the tube (known as diffusion). Nitrogen dioxide in the air reacts with the
chemical on the mesh at the top of the tube and changes into nitrite. The tube must be left in
place with the bottom cap off for 2-4 weeks, after which time the bottom cap is replaced and the
tube is returned to the laboratory for analysis.
* In the laboratory, the steel mesh is removed and washed with distilled water which is then
analysed. The concentration of nitrogen dioxide is found by shining ultra violet light (UV) through
the water sample. The amount of light absorbed is equivalent to the concentration of nitrogen
dioxide that was present in the air during the monitoring period.
Bromophenol blue is used as a pH indicator, a color marker, and a dye. It can be prepared by slowly
adding excess bromine to a hot solution of phenolsulfonphthalein in glacial acetic acid.
Formula: C19H10Br4O5S
Molar mass: 669.96 g/mol
Density: 2.2 g/mL
Boiling point: 279 C (534 F; 552 K)
P a g e | 44
Melting point: 273 C (523 F; 546 K)

PubChem CID: 8272
Sources of Air Pollution
Two Types of Sources
1. Natural Sources
Natural
o Plants
Plants emits hydrocarbon which could be a source of pollution. They emit Isoprene
which is a water-white like fluid that protects them from abiotic stress which are strong wind
or too much sunlight. As the isoprene is emitted, hydroxyl radical that are present in the
troposphere reacts with it removing the electrons using redox reaction. The hydroxyl radicals
are also called a detergent of the troposphere. As the isoprene, reacts with the hydroxyl
radicals that could add up to the production of hydroperoxides which could is a factor of
producing ozone. The ozone in the troposphere could kill any living tissue.
o Forest Fires
It is caused by combustion of dry fuel which could be dry leaves. It has three types;
ground fires, which happens on the soil part, it includes the grass; Surface fires, which occurs
in the surface of a forest like bushes, small plants and stems; Crown fires, which occurs on top
of trees, this is the most deadly type of forest fire because it spreads fast.
Forest fires emit particulate matter, any small solid or liquid type that could harm
people, which is 2.5 microns, 30 times smaller than the width of hair strand.
o Volcanic Eruptions
During eruptions, a volcano emits ash and dust, sulfur dioxide and greenhouse gases.
Larger particles could fall down by means of gravity but the smaller ones could reach the
stratosphere where it could last for weeks before it finally dissolves.
Sulfur dioxide that is emitted by a volcano could reach the stratosphere. As it was there,
haze is formed as a reaction of the droplets from the sulfur where it could block off the
ultraviolet rays that comes from the sun that results to temporary cooling. Sulfur that
reached the stratosphere could last for three years.
An example of a massive volcanic eruption, Mount Tambora that happened in 1915
during winter time in Indonesia. This eruption resulted to 10,000 civilians dead, and the
following year, 1916, was called "A Year Without Summer" because of the too much sulfur
dioxide that blocked of the ultraviolet rays coming from the sun, it was experienced
worldwide.
P a g e | 45
o Dust Storms
Are commonly found in deserts. Happens when a strong wind causes the dust particles to
leap from one place to another.
Agricultural
o In crop Production
o Raising Animals
Raising animals such as in a barn could produce a large amount of manure that emits
ammonia. It came from nitrogen which is produced from nutrients that did not become
the animal's product.
2. Anthropogenic Sources
Are types of sources that is man-made.
Mobile Sources
Mobile means moving by itself, an example of this is a car. Cars emits carbon monoxide that
removes oxygen from blood and organs and could cause heart disease. It also emitss
Nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter and hydrocarbons.
Area Sources
are small stationary sources. These sources are small sources where in when you add it all
up, it could cause a great addition to pollution.
Stationary Sources
Stationary means it is not moving.
o Cement Works
In producing cement, limestone is heated made of calcium carbonate breaking down
into calcium oxide using the process of calcination. During the process, calcium oxide
and carbon dioxide are produced.
o Manufacturing Food-related Products

o Metallurgical Works
o Oil Refineries
Types of Pollutant
Pollutants are being discharge in the atmosphere into many forms :
Criteria Pollutants- are air pollutants with national air quality standards that set allowable
concentrations of the most common pollutants in ambient air.
Non-criteria Pollutants- are air pollutants for which no specific emission limit have been
established through lawmaking or scientific researches but their concentration to environment will
P a g e | 46
cause harm to living or scientific researches but their concentration to environment will cause
harm to living organisms.
Particulate Matter (PM)
is a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets in the air and may either be visible or
microscopic.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
-is a colorless, odorless at low concentration but pungent very high concentrations.
-it is formed usually from emission of burning of coal and oil in electrical energy generation or
from internal combustion engine.
-it can cause breathing problems , respiratory infection, alteration in the lungs defense and
permanent damage to lungs.
-the environmental effects: formation of acid aerosols and sulfuric acid which can cause
acidification of lakes and streams, accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments and
reduced visibility.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
-is a brownish reactive gas called oxides of nitrogen.

P a g e | 47
-whenever air is heated to high temperatures, such as in automobile cylinders or high

temperature furnaces of power plants and industrial boilers.
-it effects on health include the irritation of lungs and may cause lung damage and lower
resistance to respiratory infections such as influenza.
-environmental effects: contributes to formation of ozone layer and acid rain and may effect the
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to regional and transport and deposition.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
-is a colorless , odorless, poisonous gas resulting from incomplete fossil fuel combustion which is
lighter than air.
-it is produced from motor vehicles, fossil fuel do not burn completely .
-it impairs the ability of blood to deliver oxygen to vital tissues, affecting the cardiovascular ,
pulmonary and nervous systems.
Lead (Pb)
-is a heavy metal which can cause adverse health effects through ingestion or direct inhalation.
-sources include lead-contaminated paints, leaded fuels, coal combustions and car batteries.
-it can cause brain and nervous system, kidney and blood and gastric. It also harms wildlife
through deposition on leaves which are food source for gazing animals.
Ozone at the Ground Level
-is a colorless gas which is the major substance of photochemical smog.

-sources included motor vehicles, factories, landfills, industrial solvents and gas stations.
-it effects health like irritation of respiratory tract, production of impaired lung function,
asthma, throat irritation, chest pain, cough and lung inflammation.
-its environmental effects include the reduction of agricultural crops and damage forests and
other vegetation.
Non-Criteria Pollutants
1. Solid and Metals

Asbestos Asbestos is an incombustible, chemical-resistant fibrous material used for
fireproofing as well as for insulation, building materials, brake linings. Asbestos fibers in the
ambient air pose risks to human health in the forms of cancer and other diseases.
P a g e | 48
Mercury Mercury is released to the atmosphere from various sources and then deposited
on the earths surface. Some of the deposited mercury ends up in the swamps, lakes, and
streams where bacteria turns into a methyl mercury, a toxic form that bioaccumulates in the
food chain, particularly in the tissues. Mercury may accumulate in fish to levels that would
be toxic if eaten a long period by humans or by wildlife.
Copper Copper is a reddish metal with high electrical and thermal conductivity (among
pure metals at room temperature, only silver has a higher electrical conductivity). Copper
has this characteristics color because it reflects red and orange when light strikes absorbs
other frequencies in the visible spectrum. Contrastingly with optical properties of silver, gold
and aluminum, copper is insoluble in water (H2O) as well as in isopropanol, or isopropyl
alcohol.
Zinc Zinc is a moderately reactive metal that can be combined with oxygen and other Non-
Metal substances, and can react with dilute acids to release hydrogen. Zinc is the fourth
most common used metal iron, aluminum, and copper in annual production.
COMMON USES OF ZINC

Zinc is used to galvanize steel to prevent corrosion
Zinc is used to Parkerize steel to prevent rust and corrosion
Zinc is used in alloys such as brass, nickelled silver, typewriter metal, various
soldering formulas and German silver.
Zinc is the primary metal used in making American pennies since 1982.
Zinc is used in die casting notably in the automobile industry.
Zinc is used as part of the containers of batteries.
Zinc is used in contemporary pipe organ building as a substitute for the classic
lead/tin alloy in pipes sounding the lowest (pedal) tones, as it is tonally almost
indistinguishable from lead/tin at those pitches, and has the added advantages of
being much more economical and lighter in weight. Even the best organ builders
will use zinc in this capacity.
Cadmium Cadmium is soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white bivalent metal which can be
easily cut with a knife. It is similar in many respects to zinc but lends itself to more complex
compounds.
Antimony Antimony, in its elemental form, is a silver white, bristle, fusible, crystalline solid
that exhibits poor electrical and heat conductivity properties and vaporizes at low
temperatures. A metalloid, antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and physical
properties, but does not chemically react as metal. It is also attacked by oxidizing acids and
halogens. Antimony and some of its alloys expand on cooling.
Arsenic This is a notoriously poisonous metalloid that has many allotropic forms. Yellow,
black and grey are a few that are regularly seen. Arsenic and its compounds are used as
pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and various alloys. Arsenic is very similar chemically to its
predecessor phosphorus, so much so that it will partly substitute for phosphorus in
biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous. When heated it rapidly oxidizes to arsenic
P a g e | 49
trioxide, which has a garlic odor. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also sublime
upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form.
2. Volatile Organic Compounds

Total Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons (HCs) are usually unburned fumes that evaporate from
gas tanks and are emitted from exhaust of vehicles. They can be also the evaporating
solvents of asphalts, gaseous emissions of rotting vegetation, or the product of any reaction
that involves an organic material.
Aromatics like Benzene Benzene is one of the VOC emitted by internal combustion engines
and is cancinogenic. Benzene results from the processing of oil to gasoline.
3. Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) Manufactured ODS like CFCs have attacked this protective
ozone layer, depleting it and exposing life on earth to the adverse health effects UV
radiation (e.g., increased skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune system).
CFCs are various compounds used as aerosol propellants, solvents, and refrigerants. Such
compounds when released into the atmosphere contribute to the breakdown of the
atmospheric ozone layer, which shields the earths surface from dangerous solar UV
radiation.
4. Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2) While not strictly a pollutant, CO2 emissions have become a major
issue in recent years because of its effect as a greenhouse gas. The accumulation if CO2 in
the atmosphere helps the atmosphere retain move heat than its usual, contribution to the
global warming and climate change.
Methane Methane is another greenhouse gas, whose warming effect is 21 times of CO2.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Nitrous oxide is the third and last greenhouse gas accounted for in
the Philippine greenhouse gas inventory, with a warming effect 310 times that of CO2.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Perflourocarbons (PFCs), and Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) These
greenhouse gases are not included in the Philippine greenhouse gas inventory.
5. Radioactive Compounds
These are usually emitted from nuclear energy facilities or by projects that involve the
use of nuclear energy.
6. Odors
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Odors are usually gases from anaerobic decomposition of putrescible materials. The
problem is most common around dumpsites and landfills, but may also occur around
certain chemical plants.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution has certain detrimental effects in man like menace to health; modification of the
earths climate; and economic loss due to damage to vegetation, animals, material and visibility.
1. Menace to health
a) Major Factors in respiratory ailments
b) Increased incidence of cardiovascular diseases
c) Abnormal human behavior
d) Death
2. Modification of the Earths Climate
a) Earths climate is modified which is caused by: deliberate weather modification efforts
such as cloud-seeding; hurricane-taming; and human activities like power generation
and other sources of air pollution.
b) Action conditions like; areas of warm air developing and remaining only in large urban
areas or thermal inversion; industrial pollution such as smoke, which can combine with
air to form corrosive acid rain; chemicals used in aerosols, which some scientist fear,
might destroy parts of the upper atmosphere, which protect the earth against harmful
rays of the sun; a general warming up of the earth continually circulating air through the
burning of fuel; and a prolonged increase in the amount of CO2 could affect the earths
heat balance. The ultimate consequence of which would be the melting of the ice and
the flooding of the land.
3. Economical problem due to damage to vegetation, animals, materials and visibility.
a) It reduces agricultural productivity thus, reduces the salability of fruits, flower and
vegetables.
b) It adversely affects normal growth and function of domestic animals.
c) It damages paint and erodes metals, masonry and air sculptures.
d) It fades and deteriorates fabrics and damages connection and switches of electrical
system.
e) It reduces visibility and thus spoils or obliterates vistas, causes airplane and vehicular
accidents, delays airplane schedules and reduces real property values.
Thermal Inversion
Thermal inversion occurs when a layer of warm air settles over a layer of cooler air that lies near the
ground. The warm air holds down the cool air and prevents pollutants from rising and scattering.
Normal Conditions
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Thermal Inversion condition
Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals from factories,
dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major part of air pollution
in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog. Some air pollutants are poisonous. Air
pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced
into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death of humans; it may also cause harm to
other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built environment.
Clean air act
The Philippines Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749) outlines the governments measures
to reduce air pollution and incorporate environmental protection into its development plans. It relies
heavily on the polluter pays principle and other market-based instruments to promote self-regulation
among the population. It sets emission standards for all motor vehicles and issues pollutant
limitations for industry. Emission limit values are laid down by The Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, Philippines as Implementing Rules and Regulations for Philippine Clean Air Act
of 1999. These rules and regulations shall apply to all industrial emissions and other establishments
which are potential sources of air pollution.
The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in
accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
The State shall promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while
recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with environmental problems.
The State recognizes that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily area-
based.
The State also recognizes the principle that polluters must pay
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1. Which is not a Greenhouse Gas?

a. Carbon dioxide
b. Nitrous Oxide
c. Methane
d. None of the above
2. It has certain detrimental effects in man like menace to health; modification of the earths
climate; and economic loss due to damage to vegetation, animals, material and visibility.
a. Greenhouse Gases
b. Volatile Compounds
c. Air Pollution
d. Radiation
3. It is an incombustible, chemical-resistant fibrous material used for fireproofing as well as for

insulation, building materials, brake linings.
a. Zinc
b. Arsenic
c. Cadmium
d. Asbestos
4. Which is not a source of Mercury?

a. Pesticides
b. Crematorium
c. Wildfires
d. Mining
5. Which is a source of Methane?

a. Cows
b. Cigarettes
c. Paints
d. Vehicle emissions
6. What is not an effect of Air pollution?

a. Lung Cancer
b. Diarrhea
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c. Abnormal Behavior
d. High Blood Pressure
7. Which is not a Modification of Earths Climate?

a. Hurricane Taming
b. Cloud Seeding
c. Power Generation
d. None of the Above
8. Which is not an Economical problem caused by Air Pollution?

a. Affects normal growth and function of domestic animals
b. damages paint and erodes metals
c. Increased incidence of cardiovascular diseases
d. It fades and deteriorates fabrics and damages connection
9. What atomic compound destroys Ozone?

a. Chlorofluorocarbons
b. Carbon Monoxide
c. Carbon Dioxide
d. Methane
10. Which is not a type of Solid and Metal Non Criteria Pollutant?
a. Zinc
b. Mercury
c. Cadmium
d. Lead
11. It is vital that living things respire to get the oxygen for living cells to function. Without air, there
is no life.
a.air b.air pollution c.water pollution
12. The _____is surrounded by air, a mixture of extremely important gases such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. These gases provide animals with oxygen for respiration to occur. It also
provides green plants with carbon dioxide for photosynthesis to happen.
a.Earth b.sea c.sun
13. Plants use _______(together with sunlight and water) to produce energy and give out Oxygen as
a by-product.
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a.Carbon dioxide b.oxygen c.nitrogen

14. the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty and unsafe or
unsuitable to use.
a.air pollution b.land pollution d c.pollution
15. is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air.
a.air pollution b.land pollution d c.pollution
16. a number used by government agencies to communicate to the public how polluted the air
currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become.
a.AQI b.PUP c.POEA
17. small plastic tubes with a cap at each end one of which is coloured. Under the coloured cap is a
steel mesh disc which is coated with triethanolamine (TEA) a chemical that absorbs nitrogen
dioxide
a.test tubes b.diffusion tubes c.graduated cylinder
18. The Principle used in diffusion tubes
a.molecular diffusion b.law of relativity c.thermodynamics
19. Unit of measurement of air quality
a.ppm b.psi c.Joules/second
20. Meaning of PPM
a.parts per million b.pounds per milligram c.pounds per microns
21. Are air pollutants with national air quality standards that set allowable concentrations of the most
common pollutants in ambient air.
a.Pollutants b.Criteria Pollutants c.Non-Criteria Pollutants
22. It is a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets in the air and may either be visible or
microscopic.
a.Sulfur b. Ozone at the ground level c.Particulate Matter
23. It is a colorless, odorless at low concentration but pungent very high concentrations.
a.Particulate Matter b.Nitrogen Dioxide c.Sulfur Dioxide
24. It effects on health include the irritation of lungs and may cause lung damage and lower
resistance to respiratory infections such as influenza.
a.Nitrogen Dioxide b.Lead c.Carbon Monoxide
25. It is a colorless , odorless, poisonous gas resulting from incomplete fossil fuel combustion which
is lighter than air.
a.Carbon Monoxide b.Lead c.Ozone at the ground level
26. It is a heavy metal which can cause adverse health effects through ingestion or direct inhalation.
a.Nitrogen Dioxide b.Particulate Matter c.Lead
27. It is a colorless gas which is the major substance of photochemical smog.

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a.Sulfur b.Lead c.Ozone at the ground level

28. It is the combination of smoke and fog.
A.Smog b.Vapor c.Sulfur
29. (29-30) Give a bad effect of ozone
30. at the ground level in environment.
31. What is occurs when a layer of warm air settles over a layer of cooler air that lies near the ground
a. Thermal cycle b.thermal inversion c. thermal reversal
32. What causes thermal inversion ?

a. Warm air b. sea breeze c. sun convection
33. Main pollutants found in air (enumeration atleast 2)
34. Most polluted country
a. China b. india c. wadiya
35. What is smog ?
36. Who is the president when the clean air act was established
a. Erap Estrada b. Gloria macapagal arroyo c. fidel ramos
37. When was it signed
a.1999 b .1997 c.1998
38. What is the principle of the state stated in the clean air act
a.polluiters must pay b. clean earth c. tapat mo linis ko
39. (39-40) Main targets of the
40. clean air act (enumeration)
41. What is Anthropogenic source?
42. (42-43) Give 2 example of
43. Area Sources:
44. (44-45) Differentiate Mobile Sources from
45. Stationary Sources
46. Plants, aside from CO2 emits?
a.Hydrocarbon b.Sulfur Dioxide c.Nitrogen
47. What sources does Oil Refineries belong to?

a.Natural Sources b.Agricultural Sources c.Stationary Sources
48. (48-50) Give 3
49. Sources
50. Of Pollution
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Answer Key
1. D 31. B
2. C 32. A
3. D 33. Co2 , sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
4. A
methane, particulate matter
5. A
6. B 34. A
7. D
35. fog plus smoke
8. C
9. B 36. A
10. D
37. A
11. A
12. A 38. A
13. A
39. Pharmaceutical ,
14. C
15. A 40. autmobiles factories and power plants
16. A
41. Man-made sources
17. B
18. A 42. Smoking
19. A
43. burning of garbage
20. A
21. B 44. Moving
22. C
45. Fixed
23. C
24. A 46. A
25. A
47. B
26. C
27. C 48. Agricultural, Natural,
28. A
49. Area Sources, Anthropogenic
29. Desposition
30. damge to forest 50. Stationary, Mobile
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NOISE POLLUTION
Submitted by:
Jerrymiah Cabrera
Sung Hum Cho
Joyce Garcia Jr.
Romari Miranda
Guillen Liggayu
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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Noise Pollution
It is defined as sounds, or noises, that are loud, annoying and harmful to the ear.
pdf file
A form and level of environmental sound that is generally considered likely to annoy, distract or
even harm other people.
business dictionary
annoying or harmful noise (as of automobiles or jet airplanes) in an environment
Merriam Webster
the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort to all living
beings
Blogspot
Relative Scale of Sound Pressure
Intensity
Power is a measure of work per unit of time, and is measured in watts. For example, audio
amplifiers are described by their maximum power output (e.g., ``30 watts peak power'').
In studying hearing or speech our interest is usually not in the total power of a sound source, but
in the power per unit of area, the Intensity, as in watt/m2. This is because the human ear offers a
fixed area (the ear drum) for detection of sounds in the environment. Intensity is the amount of
energy transmitted per second over an area of a square meter.
The sound intensities that human ears are sensitive to are very small compared to a watt, but still
very wide between the weakest sound detectible and the strongest that does not cause pain (or
damage the ear). Since the watt itself is far too large, the reference level of intensity that all
others are compared to is, by convention, 10 -12 watts/m 2 . This intensity was chosen as the
standard reference level because it is approximately the weakest intensity of a pure tone at 1000
Hz that can be detected by human listeners, that is, an auditory threshold. The most intense
audio signal that is not painful is roughly 10 watts/m2. Since the most intense is 10 12 or
1,000,000,000,000 (a trillion times) larger than the threshold level sound, it clearly makes sense
to use a logarithmic scale to discuss sound intensity.
The Bel and Decibel
For this reason, the Bel (named after A. G. Bell) was defined this way,
number of Bels = log10 Ix / Ir

where is Ix the signal being described and Ir is a signal used as a reference level. The Bel can be used to
compare the relative intensities of any two signals, e.g., the input and output of an acoustic filter. When a
relatively àbsolute' description of the intensity of a signal is needed (like if you want to say `how loud' the
background noise in a room is), the reference level, Ir , is taken to be 10 -12 watts/m 2 . This measure is
said to be an Intensity Level or IL.
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But each incremental unit in the Bel scale, from 1 to 2 or from 5 to 6, corresponds to a factor of 10 in
intensity. As we said, the total range that is relevant for human hearing is thus 12 Bels. But a smaller unit
would be more manageable when most practical comparisons are made. Thus the decibel, or dB was
defined as one tenth of a Bel:
Intensity Level in dB = 10 log 10 Ix / Ir
Pressure
It turns out that a measure of sound pressure is often more useful than intensity. (For one thing,
microphones basically `measure' sound pressure, and instantaneous pressure is the àmplitude' axis in a
typical waveform plot.) But sound pressure is proportional to the square root of the intensity. And
conversely, intensity is proportional to the pressure squared. That is, I = P2 . Thus,
n dB = 10 (Px / Pr )2
Now since log ab = b log a , it follows that
n dB = 20 (Px / Pr)
When pressure is measured in dB, with respect to the standard reference level mentioned above, it is
called `dB sound pressure level' or dB SPL. This is probably the most common àbsolute' measure of
sound level. And is closest to what most lay people think the term ``dB'' means.
The following table (based on Moore, 1989) shows some relationships between intensity ratios, pressure
ratios and the standard reference level. Sound levels in dB SPL are expressed relative to a reference
intensity level of 10 -12 W/m 2.
Sound level Intensity ratio Pressure ratio
dB SPL I / Ir P / Pr
140 1014 10 7
120 10 12 10 6
100 10 10 10 5
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80 10 8 10 3
70 10 7 3.16 x 10 3
50 10 5 316
30 10 3 31.6
20 10 2 10
6.5 4.5 2.1
0 1 1
Noise Data Averaging
How we can calculate average for a large data (e.g.24 hours data records of per second each) after
downloading multiple files from the meter.
Simple averaging can be produced will not represent the level of energy of a record. For
example, 45, 46, 48, 43, 78, 79, 71, 33, 55 levels, the simple arithmetic average would be 55.3.
But the energy level of noise for 78, 79 and 71 is high compared to other values so how can we
calculate the average now?.
This is an interesting question regarding noise data averaging and one that we get asked quite frequently.
There are some applications where you would use a simple linear average to calculate a value from noise
measurements but these are few and often very specific.
In this case, what you need to do is to do a logarithmic average of the values. This can be done quite
easily if you are using a spreadsheet
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SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION
1. NOISE IN THE COMMUNITY

-The main sources of noise pollution in the community are transport sources such as of aircrafts,
taking off and landing , road traffic, and railways, fixed industrial and commercial installations,
construction activities and increasingly from leisure activities. Noise from neighbors now causes more
reported complaints than any other source.
2. ROAD TRAFFIC
- It is the most widespread noise source in developed countries. In order to reduce exposure to it,
noise emission limits have been defined for all new vehicle types. The limits have been progressively
lowered over the years so that the noise emitted by new vehicles at the beginning of the 21 st century was
some 8 to 10db lower than 25 years before.
3. RAILWAYS
- Although railways are generally seen as the safest, most economical, and most environmental-
friendly of all conventional transport systems, many countries are now reappraising the cost of new
railways in terms of its impact to pollution.
4. AIRCRAFT
- The concern about impact noise grew rapidly after world war II and in the middle of 1960s , it had
reached such a level that aviation authority and manufacturers of aircrafts realized that noise from early
jet engines needed to be controlled and reduced in order to create a more acceptable environment.
5. INDUSTRY
- Most manufacturing and industrial plants create noise. In many cases, this may be confined to the
plant interior structure, while in others, will affect the communities where they are located. Although the
problem in the community was formerly restricted mainly to heavy manufacturing industrial equipment,
this is not necessarily the case today, and small manufacturing or service businesses which create noise
may be located closed to residential areas.
6. CONSTRUCTION
- construction activities are noisy and have the potential to cause disturbances in the surrounding
communities. Some sources will generate continuous steady levels, some will be intermittent while others
are impulsive.
7. SOCIAL NOISE
- neighbors make noise. In fact, noise from social habits of our neighbors is generating more
complaints than any other single source of noise. Sources Include domestic equipment, stereo and TV,
animals and children activities and lawn mowering, plus the household verbal noise from arguments.
8. MILITARY SOURCES
- Noise from military sources is generally limited to noise from military aircraft and from practice firing
ranges. Low-flying aircraft cause considerable disturbance on route from air buses to exercise areas
which are usually remote and often recreational areas. The noise is likely to startle people as the aircraft
flies at high speed and at low altitude.
9. LOW FREQUENCY SOURCES

- a small percentage of the pollution appears to be highly sensitive to certain types of low-frequency
noise which is sensed rather than heard. In some instances complaints cannot be related to any
identifiable source but on occasions they can be traced to specific sources which may be distant from the
complainant.
NOISE POLLUTION EFFECT ON HEALTH

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Hearing loss
The mechanism of hearing loss can be attributed to aging, infection, surgery, prolonged use of
some medications, trauma, and to stereo cilia of the cochlea, the principal fluid filled structure of the inner
ear. [Citation needed] The pinna combined with the middle ear amplifies sound pressure levels by a factor
of twenty, so that extremely high sound pressure levels arrive in the cochlea, even from moderate
atmospheric sound stimuli. Underlying pathology to the cochlea are reactive oxygen species, which play a
significant role in noise-induced necrosis and apoptosis of the stereo cilia.
Exposure to high levels of noise have differing effects within a given population, and the
involvement of reactive oxygen species suggests possible avenues to treat or prevent damage to hearing
and related cellular structures.
The elevated sound levels cause trauma to cochlear structure in the inner ear, which gives rise to
irreversible hearing loss. A very loud sound in a particular frequency range can damage the cochlea's hair
cells that respond to that range, thereby reducing the ear's ability to hear those frequencies in the future;
however, loud noise in any frequency range has deleterious effects across the entire range of human
hearing. The outer ear (visible portion of the human ear) combined with the middle ear amplifies sound
levels by a factor of 20 when sound reaches the inner ear.
Cardiovascular effects
Noise has been associated with important cardiovascular health problems. In 1999, the World
Health Organization (WHO) concluded that the available evidence suggested a weak correlation between
long-term noise exposure above 67-70 dB (A) and hypertension. More recent studies have suggested that
noise levels of 50 dB (A) at night may also increase the risk of myocardial infarction by chronically elevating
cortisol production.
Typical roadway noise levels are sufficient to constrict arterial blood flow and lead to elevated blood
pressure; in this case, it appears that a certain fraction of the population is more susceptible to
vasoconstriction. This may result because annoyance from the sound causes elevated adrenaline levels
trigger a narrowing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction), or independently through medical stress
reactions. Other effects of high noise levels are increased frequency of headaches, fatigue, stomach ulcers,
and vertigo.
Stress
Research commissioned by Rockwool, a UK insulation manufacturer, reveals in the UK one-third

(33%) of victims of domestic disturbances claim loud parties have left them unable to sleep or made them
stressed in the last two years. Around one in eleven (9%) of those affected by domestic disturbances claims
it has left them continually disturbed and stressed. More than 1.8 million people claim noisy neighbors have
made their life a misery and they cannot enjoy their own homes. The impact of noise on health is potentially
a significant problem across the UK given that the inhabitants of neighboring properties have disturbed
more than 17.5 million Britons (38%) in the last two years. For almost one in ten (7%) Britons this is a
regular occurrence.
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Annoyance
Because some stressful effects depend on qualities of the sound other than its absolute decibel
value, the annoyance associated with sound may need to be considered about health effects. For example,
noise from airports or sudden Impulse noises are typically perceived as more bothersome than noise from
traffic of equal volume. Annoyance effects of noise are minimally affected by demographics, but fear of the
noise source and sensitivity to noise both strongly affect the 'annoyance' of a noise. Even sound levels as
low as 40 dB (A) (about as loud as a refrigerator or library) can generate noise complaints and the lower
threshold for noise producing sleep disturbance is 45 dB (A) or lower.
Other factors that affect the 'annoyance level' of sound include beliefs about noise prevention and
the importance of the noise source, and annoyance at the cause (i.e. non-noise related factors) of the noise.
For instance, in an office setting, audible telephone conversations and discussions between co-workers
were considered to be irritating, depending upon the contents of the conversations. Many of the
interpretations of the level of annoyance and the relationship between noise levels and resulting health
symptoms could be influenced by the quality of interpersonal relationships at the workplace, as well as the
stress level generated by the work itself. Evidence for impact on annoyance of long-term noise versus
recent changes is equivocal.
Estimates of sound annoyance typically rely on weighting filters, which consider some sound
frequencies to be more important than others based on their presumed audibility to humans do. The older
dB (A) weighting filter described above is used widely in the U.S., but underestimates the impact of
frequencies around 6000 Hz and at very low frequencies. The newer ITU-R 468 noise-weighting filter is
used more widely in Europe. The propagation of sound varies between environments; for example, low
frequencies typically carry over longer distances. Therefore, different filters, such as dB (B) and dB(C), may
be recommended for specific situations.
Furthermore, studies have shown that neighborhood noise (consisting of noise from neighboring
apartments, as well as noise within one's own apartment or home) can cause significant irritation and noise
stress within people, due to the great deal of time people spend in their residences. This can result in an
increased risk of depression and psychological disorders, migraines, and even emotional stress.
In the workplace, noise pollution is generally a problem once the noise level is greater than 55 dB
(A). Selected studies show that approximately 35% to 40% of office workers find noise levels from 55 to 60
dB (A) extremely irritating. The noise standard in Germany for mentally stressful tasks is set at 55 dB (A),
however, if the noise source is continuous, the threshold level for tolerability among office workers is lower
than 55 dB (A).
One important effect of noise is to make a person's speech less easy to hear. The human brain
compensates for background noise during speech production in a process called the Lombard effect in
which speech becomes louder with syllables that are more distinct. However, this cannot fully remove the
problems of communication intelligibility made in noise.
Child physical development
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency authored a pamphlet in 1978 that suggested a
correlation between low-birthweight (using the World Health Organization definition of less than 2,500
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grams (88 oz.) and high sound levels, and high rates of birth defects in places where expectant mothers
are exposed to elevated sound levels, such as typical airport environs. Specific birth abnormalities included
harelip, cleft palate, and defects in the spine.
According to Lester W. Sontag of The Fells Research Institute (as presented in the same EPA
study): There is ample evidence that environment has a role in shaping the physique, behavior, and
function of animals, including man, from conception and not merely from birth. The fetus is capable of
perceiving sounds and responding to them by motor activity and cardiac rate change." The effects of noise
exposure are highest when it occurs between 15 and 60 days after conception, a period in which major
internal organs and the central nervous system are formed.
Later developmental effects occur as vasoconstriction in the mother reduces blood flow and
therefore oxygen and nutrition to the fetus. Low birth weights and noise were also associated with lower
levels of certain hormones in the mother. These hormones are thought to affect fetal growth and to be good
indicators of protein production. The difference between the hormone levels of pregnant mothers in noisy
versus quiet areas increased as birth approached.
In a 2000 publication, a review of studies on birthweight and noise exposure note that while some
older studies suggest that when women are exposed to >65 dB aircraft noise a small decrease in birthweight
occurs, in a more recent study of 200 Taiwanese women including noise dosimetry measurements of
individual noise exposure, the authors found no significant association between noise exposure and birth
weight after adjusting for relevant confounders, e.g. social class, maternal weight gain during pregnancy,
etc.
Cognitive development
When young children are regularly exposed to levels of noise that interfere with speech, they may
develop speech or reading difficulties, because auditory processing functions are compromised. Children
continue to develop their speech perception abilities until they reach their teens. Evidence has shown that
when children learn in noisier classrooms, they have more difficulties understanding speech than those
who learn in quieter settings.
In a study conducted by Cornell University in 1993, children exposed to noise in learning

environments experienced trouble with word discrimination, as well as various cognitive developmental
delays. In particular, the writing learning impairment dysgraphia is commonly associated with environmental
stressors in the classroom.
High noise levels have also been known to damage the physical health of small children. Children
from noisy residences often have a heart rate that is significantly higher (by 2 beats/min on average) than
those of children from quieter homes.
Dementia
A study by Public Health Ontario showed a 7 per cent higher risk in developing dementia among
those living within 50 metres of a road. Some scientists said that the study does not rule out items like
poverty and having a lower education. Some Scientists also noted that the air pollution might be part of the
P a g e | 65
cause. The study found that here was a linear decline in deaths for people that lived further away from
roads.
Types of Noise Pollution
1. Industrial Noise
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines.

Sources of such noise pollution is caused by machines from machines in various factories,
industries and mills.
Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public.
2. Transport Noise
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft.
The number of automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and
diesel engine vehicles have increased enormously in the recent past further aggravating the
problem of transport noise.
3. Neighborhood noise
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community.
Common sources being musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones, and
loudspeakers etc.
4. Continuous Noise
Continuous noise is what it says on the tin.

It is noise that is produced continuously by machinery that keeps running without interruption.
This could come from factory equipment, heating or ventilation systems.
5. Intermittent Noise
Intermittent noise is a noise level that increases and decreases rapidly.
This might be a freight train passing by, factory equipment that operates in cycles or aircraft
overhead.
How to Prevent Noise Pollution?
Planting trees and bushes in and around sound generating sources.
Path of transmission must of sound must be stopped and the receiver of the noise must be safe
guarded.
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For workers: hearing protection equipment should be provided.
Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals.
Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof.
Reduction of traffic density in residential areas.
Airports should be away from residential areas
Avoid noises that can cause damages.
Limiting heavy vehicles.
Keeping Your Home Noise-Free
Sound-proof your space.
Keep noisy machines away from your bedroom and living areas.
Spend time away from noise.
Use earplugs and noise-canceling headphones.
Helping Your Community Stay Quiet
Check into the noise pollution laws in your area.
Don't use your car horn unnecessarily.
Keep your car in good repair.
Keep your music down.
Respect quiet hours at night.
Noise Pollution is the disturbing noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or
animal life
Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to

reduce the impact of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors.
Noise Control:
Control at Receivers End
For people working in noisy installations, ear-protection aids like ear-
plugs, ear-muffs, noise helmets, headphones etc. must be provided to reduce
occupational exposure.
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Suppression of Noise at Source

This is possible if working methods are improved by:
(a) Designing, fabricating and using quieter machines to replace the noisy ones.
(b) Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines.
(c) Installing noisy machines in sound proof chambers.
(d) Covering noise-producing machine parts with sound-absorbing materials to check
noise production.
(e) Reducing the noise produced from a vibrating machine by vibration damping i.e.
making a layer of damping material (rubber, neoprene, cork or plastic) beneath the
machine.
(f) Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc. and convey
systems with ends opening into the atmosphere.
(g) Using glass wool or mineral wool covered with a sheet of perforated metal for the
purpose of mechanical protection.
Acoustic Zoning
Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy industrial
areas, bus terminals and railway stations, aerodromes etc. away from the residential
P a g e | 68
areas would go a long way in minimizing noise pollution. There should be silence
zones near the residential areas, educational institutions and above all, near hospitals.
Planting of Trees
Planting green trees and shrubs along roads, hospitals, educational institutions etc.
help in noise reduction to a considerable extent
Legislative Measures
Strict legislative measures need to be enforced to curb the menace of noise pol-
lution. Some of these measures could be:
(a) Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers especially near silence zones.
(b) Banning pressure horns in automobiles.
(c) Framing a separate Noise Pollution Act.
Noise Abatement:
Noise abatement measures are under the jurisdiction of local government except for
occupational noise abatement efforts. In todays mechanized world it is virtually impossible for
an active person to avoid exposure to potentially harmful sound levels. For this reason, hearing
specialists now recommend that we get into the habit of wearing protectors, not only to guard
against hearing lost but also to reduce annoying effects of noise.
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Questions:
1) is a measure of work per unit of time, and is measured in watts. For example, audio amplifiers
are described by their maximum power output
*Power
2) power per unit of area

*Intensity
3) A unit named after A. G. Bell

*Bel
4) Used more often than intensity, used in measuring in stress analysis too.
*Pressure
5) Sound level of the reference level

*0
6) Use for Calculating large average data on noise.

*Noise Data Averaging.
7) Meaning of Ir
*Reference Level
8) Meaning of IL
* Intesity Level.
9) The weakest intensity of a pure tone in Hz.

*1000Hz.
10) Is the signal being measured using a Reference level.

* Ix
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11) It is noise with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Industrial Noise
12) Type of noise consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. Transport Noise
13) This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community. Neighborhood
Noise
14) It is noise that is produced continuously by machinery that keeps running without interruption.
Continuous Noise
15) A noise level that increases and decreases rapidly. Intermittent Noise
16) -20) Give 5 ways to prevent noise pollution
Planting trees and bushes in and around sound generating sources.
Path of transmission must of sound must be stopped and the receiver of the noise must be
safe guarded.
For workers: hearing protection equipment should be provided.
Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals.
Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof.
Reduction of traffic density in residential areas.
Airports should be away from residential areas
Avoid noises that can cause damages.
Limiting heavy vehicles.
Keeping Your Home Noise-Free
Sound-proof your space.
Keep noisy machines away from your bedroom and living areas.
Spend time away from noise.
Use earplugs and noise-canceling headphones.
Helping Your Community Stay Quiet

Check into the noise pollution laws in your area.
Don't use your car horn unnecessarily.
Keep your car in good repair.
Keep your music down.
Respect quiet hours at night.
1. It is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact of that noise, whether
outdoors or indoors.
a. Noise Pollution
b. Noise control
c. Noise collection
2. Other term for noise control
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a. Noise mitigation
b. Noise disruption
c. Noise communication
3. It is the measures are under the jurisdiction of local government except for occupational noise
abatement efforts.
a. Noise control
b. Noise mitigation
c. Noise abatement
4. For people working in noisy installations, ear-protection aids like ear-plugs, ear-muffs,
noise helmets, headphones etc. must be provided to reduce occupational exposure. This
belongs to what kind of noise control?
a. Control at Receivers End
b. Suppression of Noise at Source
c. Acoustic Zoning
5. It is need to be enforced to curb the menace of noise pollution.
a. Planting of Trees
b. Acoustic Zoning
c. Legislative Measures
6. Which noise control is under the suppression of noise at source?
a. Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers especially near silence zones.
b. Installing noisy machines in sound proof chambers.
c. Banning pressure horns in automobiles.
7. Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy industrial areas, bus
terminals and railway stations, aerodromes etc. away from the residential areas would go
a long way in minimizing noise pollution. This belong to what kind of noise control?
a. Control at Receivers End
b. Legislative Measures
c. Acoustic Zoning
8. Which is not a kind of noise control?
a. Acoustic Zoning
b. Planting of Trees
c. Curfew hours
9. Planting green trees and ______ along roads, hospitals, educational institutions etc. help
in noise reduction to a considerable extent.
a. Grass
b. Shrubs
c. Small plants
10. It is the disturbing noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life
a. Noise pollution
b. Sound
c. Noise
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11. This is the common health effect of noise pollution to a person.

a. Hearing Loss b. Dementia c. Stress d. High Blood
12. 2. Exposing in ___ sound pressure in 8 hours could cause hearing damage.
a. 60dB b. 45dB c. 80dB d. 85dB
13. 3. Exposing in ___ sound pressure for 15 minutes could cause permanent hearing damage.
a. 80dB b. 60dB c. 100dB d. 90dB
14. 4. The following are one of the effects of noise pollution on health except for:
a. Diabetes b. Stress c. Hearing Loss d. Heart Disease
15. ___________ Development of a child could be interfered by noise pollution.

a. Cognitive b. Social c. Spiritual d. None of the Above
16. Hearing Loss could cause a person not to hear ____ Frequency Levels.
a. Low b. High c. A&B d. Neither of the two
17. ____________ could be caused even with low sound pressure or frequency.
a. Dementia b. Hearing Loss c. Heart Disease d. Annoyance
18. Exposing in ___ dB of sound pressure could cause immediate damage.

a. 100dB+ b. 120dB+ c. 90dB+ d. 80dB+
19. The ______ ear could amplify the sound levels.

a. Outer b. Inner c. Middle d. A&C
20. The choclear structure could be found on______ ear.

a. Outer b. Inner c. Middle d. none of the above
21. It is the most widespread noise source in developed countries. In order to reduce exposure to it,
noise emission limits have been defined for all new vehicle types.
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a. Road Traffic
b. Railways
c. Aircraft
d. Industry
22. These are generally seen as the safest, most economical, and most environtal-friendly of all
conventional transport systems.
a. Road Traffic
b. Railways
c. Aircraft
d. Industry
23. Although railways are generally seen as the safest, most economical, and most environmental-
friendly of all conventional transport systems, many countries are now reappraising the cost of
new railways in terms of its impact to ________.
a. pollution
b. economy
c. country
d. tourism
24. 4. The concern about impact noise grew rapidly after world war II and in the middle of
1960s , it had reached such a level that aviation authority and manufacturers realized that noise
from early jet engines needed to be controlled and reduced in order to create a more acceptable
environment.
a. Road Traffic
b. Railways
c. Aircraft
d. Industry
25. Most manufacturing and industrial plants create noise. In many cases, this may be confined to the
plant interior structure, while in others, will affect the communities where they are located.
a. Road Traffic
b. Railways
c. Aircraft
d. Industry
26. _______ activities are noisy and have the potential to cause disturbances in the surrounding
communities. Some sources will generate continuous steady levels, some will be intermittent
while others are impulsive.
a. Road Traffic
b. Construction
c. Military Sources
d. Low frequency Sources
27. Sources Include domestic equipment, stereo and TV, animals and children activities and lawn
mowering, plus the household verbal noise from arguments.
a. Social Noise
b. Construction
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c. Military Sources
28. Noise from these sources is generally limited to noise from military aircraft and from practice firing
ranges.
a. Social Noise
b. Construction
c. Military Sources
29. A small percentage of the pollution appears to be highly sensitive to certain types of these noise.
a. Social Noise
b. Construction
c. Military Sources
30. Low frequency noise is typically _____ rather than heard.
a. See
b. Feel
c. Taste
d. Hear
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Submitted by:
Krizdelle Sanchez
Mark Joseph Agapito
Cian Renz Henson
Benedictus Marvin Moldes
Eriberto Diaz
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste management refers to all activities pertaining to the control, transfer and transport,
processing and disposal of solid waste in accordance with the best principles of public health, economic,
engineering, conservation, aesthetic and other environmental consideration.
Characteristics of solid waste
Garbage
Garbage pertains to animal and

vegetable wastes resulting from handling
preparation, cooking and serving of food.
Garbage originates primarily in house
kitchens, stores, markets, restaurants and
other places where food is prepared and
served. It is composed largely of putrescible
organic matter and moisture. Garbage
decomposes rapidly, particularly in warm
weather, and may quickly produce
disagreeable odor.
Rubbish
These are non-decomposable wastes that are either combustible or non-combustible.
o Combustible Rubbish
Is not putrescible and may be stored for a longer period of time.
Example: Paper, Wood, Cartons, Furniture, Tree branches and so on
o Non-combustible Rubbish
Material that cannot be burned
Example: Metals, Glass, Tin Cans and Ceramics
Classification of Refuse/ Solid Wastes
1. Household wastes or Municipal Wastes
Solid waste comprising of garbage and rubbish generated from residential and commercial
establishments. It includes wastes from households, construction, and demolition sites, sanitation
residue and wastes from streets.
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Biodegradable
Biodegradable waste includes any organic matter in waste which can be broken down
into carbon dioxide, water, methane or simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other
living things using composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes.
Non- Biodegradable
Inorganic solid wastes which do not undergo decomposition hence are non-compostable
and non-putrescible or also non-biodegradable wastes materials.
2. Industrial Wastes as Hazardous Wastes
Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is
rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, industries, mills, and mining
operations. It may be dangerous because of chemical reactivity, toxicity, flammability and
explosiveness.
Household wastes that are Hazardous
Example: Needles, blades, nails, saws, glass,

dry cell, batteries, shoe polish paints, tins
fluorescent, bulbs, aerosols, thinners, paints,
disinfectants and bleach.
Hospital wastes that are Hazardous
Example: Formaldehyde and Phenols that

contains dangerous chemicals.
Industrial wastes that are Hazardous
Example: Metals, Chemical Paper, Pesticide, Dye, and Rubber Goods.
3. Biomedical Wastes or Hospital Wastes as Infectious Wastes.
Any waste which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings
or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological.
Example: Sharps, Soiled waste, disposables, cultures, chemical wastes that is in the form of disposable
syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta. Pathological wastes include tissues, organs and
human body parts from surgical operations.
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Key Components to Solid Waste Management
Generation
is the stage at which materials become valueless to the owner and since they have no use for them and
require them no longer, they wish to get rid of them. Items which may be valueless to one individual may
not necessarily be valueless to another. For example, waste items such as tins and cans may be highly
sought after by young children.
Storage
is a system for keeping materials after they have been discarded and prior to collection and final
disposal. Where on-site disposal systems are implemented, such as where people discard items directly
into family pits, storage may not be necessary. In emergency situations, especially in the early stages, it is
likely that the affected population will discard domestic waste in poorly defined heaps close to dwelling
areas. If this is the case, improved disposal or storage facilities should be provided fairly quickly and
these should be located where people are able to use them easily.
Collection
refers to how waste is collected for transportation to the final disposal site. Any collection system should
be carefully planned to ensure that storage facilities do not become overloaded. Collection intervals and
volumes of collected waste must be estimated carefully.
Transportation
is the stage when solid waste is transported to the final disposal site. There are various modes of
transport which may be adopted and the chosen method depends upon local availability and the volume
of waste to be transported.
Disposal
is the final stage of solid waste management is safe disposal where associated risks are minimized.
Collection Methods
Waste collection is the collection of solid waste from point of production (residential, industrial
commercial, institutional) to the point of treatment or disposal. Municipal solid waste is collected in several
ways
House to House
Waste collectors visit each individual house to collect garbage. The user generally pays a fee for this
service.
Community Bins
Users bring their garbage to community bins that are placed at fixed points in a neighborhood or locality.
MSW is picked up by the municipality, or its designate, according to a set schedule.
Curbside Pickup
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Users leave their garbage directly outside their homes according to a garbage pick-up schedule set with
the local authorities (secondary house-to house collectors not typical)
Self Delivered
Generators deliver the waste directly to disposal sites or transfer stations, or hire third-party operators (or
the municipality)
TRANSPORTATION
The stage when solid wastes are transported to the final disposal site.
Transporting can be divided into 3 ways:
HUMAN POWERED
ANIMAL POWERED
MOTORIZED TRANSPORTATION
Transport of waste:
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The vehicles used for transporting waste should be covered so that the waste is not
visible to the public or the environment thus preventing the scattering of waste.
The storage facilities should be cleared regularly to prevent overflowing. Finally the
vehicles are designed to avoid multiple handling of waste on its way to the final disposal
site.
DISPOSAL
This is the final stage in solid waste management.
Disposal is classified into four main methods:
Recycling - Recycling is a resource

recovery practice that refers to the
collection and reuse of waste materials
such as empty beverage containers. The
materials from which the items are made
can be reprocessed into new products.
Material for recycling may be collected
separately from general waste using
dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a
procedure called kerbside collection. In
some communities, the owner of the
waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics,
metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in
a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter
method is known as "single-stream recycling.
Land Application such as Landfilling - is a site for the

disposal of waste materials by burial and the oldest
form of waste treatment (although the burial part is
modern; historically, refuse was just left in piles or
thrown into pits). Historically, landfills have been the
most common method of organized waste disposal
and remain so in many places around the world.
Burning or Incineration - Incineration

is a disposal method in which solid
organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into
residue and gaseous products. This
method is useful for disposal of
residue of both solid waste
management and solid residue from
waste water management. This
process reduces the volumes of solid
waste to 20 to 30 percent of the
original volume. Incineration and other
high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal
treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.
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Composting - At the simplest

level, the process of composting
requires making a heap of wet
organic matter known as green
waste (leaves, food waste) and
waiting for the materials to break
down into humus after a period of
weeks or months. Modern,
methodical composting is a multi-
step, closely monitored process
with measured inputs of water, air,
and carbon- and nitrogen-rich
materials. The decomposition
process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper
aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material.
Bacteria requiring oxygen to function (aerobic bacteria) and fungi manage the chemical
process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium.
TRUCK ROUTING
DAILY ROUTE METHOD In this method, the collector of waste has a definite route and when
its done, the collector may leave.
SINGLE LOAD METHOD The route made by the truck must be full and collector may be loaded
up in a full day.
LARGE ROUTE METHOD A single area is designated to collector and must be finished for the
whole week.
Garbage disposal in Metro Manila, Waste Energy Technologies and Environmental Considerations
Metro Manila produces a fourth of Philippine garbage; it only harbors a rough ten percent of the nations
population.
Metro Manila dumps 861,967 tons of waste
Five Metro Manila citiesMakati, Muntinlupa, Pasig, Quezon City, and Valenzuelagenerate 861,967
tons of waste per year, according to a study conducted by the Asian Development Bank in 2003.
Waste-to-Energy (WTE) technology utilizes Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to create electric and heat
energy through various complex conversion methods.
WTE technology provides an alternative source of renewable energy in a world with limited or
challenged fossil reserves
MSW is considered a source of renewable energy because it contains a large amount of
biological and renewable materials There is a significant excess supply of MSW (primarily in
landfills) around the globe The demand for MSW as a fuel source has increased
The most common conversion method of MSW to energy is combustion and although it is
currently entrenched in the market, there are three emerging technologies moving toward the
forefront Biological treatment method via anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a waste-
to-fuel application; waste can be converted into purified biogas which can then be used to
P a g e | 82
power gas engines or turbines to create heat or electricity. The biogas can also be purified and
compressed to be used as vehicle fuel Thermal treatment methods that yield energy in the
form of heat and electricity include combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis Pyrolysis used in
the production of cellulosic ethanol there are multiple facilities in the pilot and
commercialization stages
Columbia University researchers assert that technology breakthroughs in recent years now
make sending trash to landfills a waste of energy The study, co-authored by researchers at the
university's Earth Engineering Center, determined that if the U.S. took all the non-recycled
plastic currently sent to U.S. landfills each year and instead sent that trash to a waste-to-energy
(WTE) power plant, it would produce enough electricity for 5.2 million U.S. homes annually
Some states are taking advantage of the latest waste management technology. Connecticut, for
example, has the best record for this, achieving a recovery of 65 percent on plastic waste when
including both recycling and waste-to-energy conversion Other states with the best record for
capitalizing on the energy of waste include (in order) Massachusetts, Hawaii, Maine, Virginia,
Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Maryland, and Pennsylvania
Over a billion tons of MSW is processed in landfills each year

Unlike most other biofuel inputs, using MSW feedstock for WTE is a low cost supply and can
actually create a revenue stream via tipping fees from landfill operators
MSW can be defined in different ways depending on the nation or international organization
involved; the definition has significant effects on the WTE markets
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In most developed countries, almost all waste that is generated is collected by municipal or
private services
MSW is transported by trucks with a capacity of multiple tons of MSW per trip - instead of being
delivered to traditional landfills, a percentage of landfill waste is diverted to WTE facilities
Depending on the conversion method, the waste may be pretreated for conversion through a
process of inspecting and sorting, which is an added cost to the facility
MSW availability is driven by three variables: population, diversion, and the economy
Future population and MSW diversion numbers are used to calculate long-term availability of
MSW as a feedstock
Ranges of feedstock availability and cost are developed through scenario analysis of population,
the economy, landfill capacity projections and by determining if there are other users of MSW
for landfills targeted as feedstock sources for a particular project
Conversion Technologies
Gasification and pyrolysis are types of thermal treatments used to convert MSW to energy
Gasification is a process that uses high temperatures (without combustion) to decompose materials to
produce synthetic gas
Synthetic gas, or syngas, is generally used to power gas engines or turbines to generate heat or
electricity, but can also be used as a fuel itself or as an intermediate in producing other fuels and
chemicals
1. Using syngas to generate heat or electricity is more efficient than combusting MSW
2. Syngas can be used to produce synthetic diesel - this liquid form of syngas is cleaner and
more efficient than many alternative liquid fuels
Pyrolysis is an advanced form of gasification that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in
the absence of oxygen. The process typically occurs under pressure and at very high operating
temperatures around 500 degrees Celsius
Bio-oil, a gas, and char are the products of the pyrolysis process
1. Bio-oil is a purified, liquid renewable energy source which can be used to produce
power and heat for industrial boiler
Pyrolysis as WTE technology has been piloted and is beginning to be tested in the markets
Pyrolysis is also reaching commercialization in the production of cellulosic ethanol
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the only form of biological treatment of MSW. It creates the least amount of
waste and is the most efficient conversion technology, yet has the smallest contribution to total energy
output of WTE
Anaerobic digestion produces a biogas which can be used to produce electricity, process steam,
or in the transportation sector
1. In this biological process, microorganisms are used to break down organic waste in the
absence of oxygen in an enclosed vessel. Temperature, moisture, nutrient contents,
and pH of the organic matter are key factors in the process
2. The biogas from AD consists of 60%-70% methane (CH4), 30%-40% carbon dioxide
(CO2), and other trace chemicals
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Many forms of anaerobic digestion exist and some of these are more efficient than others.
Efficiency of the AD process depends on the form of waste used as feedstock as well as the
vessel used to host the process
1. Until recently, AD adopters have been individual farms looking for ways to reduce their
environmental (waste) footprint and thus have been focused less on economics than
other non-financial factors
2. Municipal sewage contains biomass solids, so AD is also used in wastewater treatment
plants to reduce volume of those solids. However, AD of sewage produces other
harmful chemicals not found in AD of farm animal waste
3. Landfill gas (LFG)-to-energy is a less efficient form of AD that harnesses and uses gas
from pre-existing landfills
Two drawbacks of AD are its by-product and its need to be pre-treated
1. In addition to the methane-rich biogas created in the AD process, a digestate, in either a
solid or liquid form (depending on either dry or wet input) is also created as a by-
product. The digestate must be disposed of or composted in solid form or purified and
treated in its liquid form. This treatment process requires expensive, complex
technologies
2. In order for MSW to be used in this process, it must be inspected and sorted to remove
plastics and other contaminants. This added cost reduces the efficiency of AD
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Philippine Environmental Impact Statements
Presidential Decree 1586 which was ratified on June 11, 1978
maintain the balance between the environment and the socio-economic development of the
country.
Environmental Compliance Certificate
An ECC is a document issued by DENR/EMB after a positive review of the ECC application,
certifying that based on the representations of the proponent, the proposed project or undertaking will not
cause significant negative environmental impact.
Requirements:
Letter of request to DENR-EMB stating desire to receive ECC;

Project Description, indicating raw materials to be used and process or manufacturing technology to be
implemented;
Estimated project capacity, type and volume of products and discharges; and
Proof of possession of necessary capital for proposed project:
Location map of project area, and
Manpower requirements.
Projects required to comply with ECC criteria
Environmentally Critical Projects (ECP)
Project in an Environmental Critical Areas (ECA)

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An EIA
is a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of a proposed activity to

the:
bio-physical environment
socio-economic environment
and designing appropriate environmental measures to mitigate negative consequences &

enhance the positive impact.
EIA Considerations
Direct impact
Indirect impact
Cumulative impact
Scale of development
Sensitivity of location
Nature of impact
Environmentally Critical Projects (ECPs)
Heavy industries
Resource Extractive Industries
Infrastructure Projects
Golf courses
Environmentally Critical Areas (ECAs)
areas declared by law as national parks, watershed reserves, wildlife preserves & sanctuaries
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Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots
Areas which constitute the habitat for endangered/threatened species of indigenous Phil. Wildlife
(flora & fauna)
Areas of unique historic, archaeological, or scientific interests
Areas which are traditionally occupied by cultural communities
Areas frequently visited and/or hard-hit by natural calamities, geologic hazards, floods, typhoons,
volcanic activity, etc.
Areas with critical slopes
Areas classified as prime agricultural lands
Recharged areas of aquifers
Water bodies
Mangrove
Coral reefs
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Questions:
1. Refers to all activities pertaining to the control, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of
solid waste in accordance with the best principles of public health, economic, engineering,
conservation, aesthetic and other environmental consideration.
a) Solid Waste Management
b) Special Waste Arrangement
c) Management of Trash
2. Pertains to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from handling preparation, cooking and serving
of food.
a) Rubbish
b) Garbage
c) Both a and b
3. These are non-decomposable wastes that are either combustible or non-combustible.
a) Garbage
b) Rubbish
c) Both a and b
4. Is not putrescible and may be stored for a longer period of time and have a property of flammable.
a) Combustible Rubbish
b) Non- Combustible Rubbish
c) Biodegradable Waste
5. Material that cannot be burned
a) Combustible Rubbish
b) Non-combustible Rubbish
c) Flammable Waste
6. Solid waste comprising of garbage and rubbish generated from residential and commercial
establishments. It includes wastes from households, construction, and demolition sites, sanitation
residue and wastes from streets.
a) Household Waste
b) Hospital Waste
c) Biomedical Waste
7. Waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered useless during
a manufacturing process such as that of factories, industries, mills, and mining operations. It may
be dangerous because of chemical reactivity, toxicity, flammability and explosiveness.
a) Household Waste
b) Hospital Waste
c) Industrial Waste
8. Any waste which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings
or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological.
a) Household Waste
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b) Hospital Waste
c) Industrial Waste
9. It includes any organic matter in waste which can be broken down into carbon dioxide, water,
methane or simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other living things using
composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes.
a) Biodegradable Waste
b) Non-Biodegradable Waste
c) Both a and b
10. Inorganic solid wastes which do not undergo decomposition hence are non-compostable and non-
putrescible or also non-biodegradable wastes materials.
a) Biodegradable Waste
b) Non-Biodegradable Waste
c) Both a and b
11-15) Give the 5 Key Components of Solid Waste Management
16-18) Give at least 3 Collection Methods
19) It is the collection of waste from point of Collection to point of treatment or disposal
20) It is the collection method wherein the generators deliver the waste directly to the disposal sites or
transfer station.
21. This is the stage when solid waste are transported to the final disposal site.
a.Transportation b. Disposal c. Incineration d. Landfill
22. This is the final stage of solid waste management.

a.Disposal b. Transportation c. Incineration d. Composting
23. Method of transporting where animal is used.

a.Horse powered b. Animal powered c. Human powered d. Animalism
24. Method of transporting where human is the only one needed.

a.Human powered b. Humanism c. Humanitarian d. Human
25. Method of transporting where motorized vehicle is used.

a.Motorized Transportation b. Motor powered c. Technology base d. Animalism
26. It is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such
as empty beverage containers.
a.Recycling b. Incineration c. Composting d. Landfilling
27. It is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and the oldest form of waste treatment.
a.Garbage area b. Landfill c. Garbage site d.Landfull
P a g e | 90
28. It is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to
convert them into residue and gaseous products.
a.Waste Combustion b. Incineration c. Landfilling d. Composting
29. At the simplest level, the process of __________ requires making a heap of wet organic matter
known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting for the materials to break down
into humus after a period of weeks or months.
a.Landfilling b. Composting c. Burning d. Recycling
30. The process of identifying the possible route of garbage collection in an area or place.
a.Truck Routing b. Truck Collection c. Trucking system d. Truck Traffic
31-32. Metro Manila produces a _______ of Philippine garbage; it only harbors a rough ________
percent of the nations population.
a. fourth: ten
b. third: twenty
c. half: thirty
d. whole: five
33. Metro Manila dumps _________ tons of waste.
a. 861,957
b. 862,987
c. 861, 967
d. 876,596
34-35. _____________ technology utilizes _______________ to create electric and heat energy through
various complex conversion methods.
a. Waste-to-energy (WTE): Monetary Solid Waste (MSW)

b. Waste-to-energy (WTE): Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
c. Waste-to-ecology (WTE): Metropolitan Solid Waste (MSW)
d. Waste-to-efficiency (WTE): Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
36. ____________ is a process that uses high temperatures (without combustion) to decompose
materials to produce synthetic gas
a. Liquification
b. Solidification
c. Gasification
d. Emulsification
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37-38.____________ is an advanced form of gasification that chemically decomposes organic materials

by heat in the absence of __________. The process typically occurs under pressure and at very high
operating temperatures around 500 degrees Celsius.
a. Pyrolysis: oxygen
b. Personification: hydrogen
c. Pyrolysis: nitrogen
d. Pyrolysis: hydrogen
39. _____________________ is the only form of biological treatment of MSW. It creates the least
amount of waste and is the most efficient conversion technology, yet has the smallest contribution to total
energy output of WTE
a. Aerobic digestion
b. Anaerobic digestion
c. Atmospheric digestion
d. Anoxic digestion
40. ____________ is a process that uses high temperatures (without combustion) to decompose
materials to produce synthetic gas
a. Liquification
b. Solidification
c. Gasification
d. Emulsification
41. What does PEIS means?
a. Philippine Environmental and Industries Strategies
b. Philippine Environmental Impact Statements
c. Philippines Economic and Industries Strategies
d. Philippines Economic Impact Statements
42.What is the main objective of PEIS?

a. maintain the balance between the environment and the socio-economic development of the country.
b. Shut down mining companies
c. Replanting forest
43. What is an ECC?

a. document issued by DENR/EMB after a positive review of the ECC application
b. law that supports agricultural industries
c. a negative review on the ECC application
d. an act that prohibits deforestration in environmentally protected areas
44. what is a Environmentally Critical Projects (ECP)

a. industries that are located in dangerous places
b. areas wherein projects should not be built.
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c. Industries that may/ have a negative environmental impact

45. What is an Environmental Critical Areas (ECA)

a. industries that are located in dangerous places
b. areas wherein projects are in danger zone
c. Industries that may/ have a negative environmental impact
d. a negative review on the ECC application
46. what is an EIA?

a. is a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of a proposed activity and
designing appropriate environmental measures to mitigate negative consequences & enhance the
positive impact.
b. maintain the balance between the environment and the socio-economic development of the country.
c. Group of NGOs that protects marine diversity
d. Industries that disrupts the biotic and abiotic balance of the environment
47. in what country does EIA started?

a. Japan
b. US
c. Russia
d. Londan
48. Which one of the following are a Environmentally Critical Projects (ECPs) ?
a. Mining projects
b .Golf courses
c. Both a and b
d. A only
49. Which areas are not an Environmentally Critical Areas (ECAs) ?

a. areas declared by law as national parks, watershed reserves, wildlife preserves & sanctuaries
b. Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots
c. Water bodies
d. Hazing lands
50. Mining companies can only operate if they are given a/an ___
a. ECP
b. ECC
c. EIA
d. PEIS
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Answers:
1. A 25. A
2. B
26. A
3. B
4. A 27. B
5. B
28. B
6. A
7. C 29. B
8. B
30. A
9. A
10. B 31-32. A
11-15. Generation 33. C
Storage 34-35. B
Collection 36. C
Transportation 37-38. A
Disposal 39. B
16-18. (any of these) 40. B
House to House 41. B
Community Bins 42. A
Curbside Pick Up 43. A
Self Delivered 44. C
19. Waste Collection 45.B
20. Self Delivered 46. A
21. A 47. B
22. A 48. C
23. B 49. D
24. A 50. B

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WATER MANAGEMENT
Submitted by:
Kalvin Campang
John Pablo Cantoria
Jhon Helarch Antoni
Franz Dormel Catapang
Charlene Hipolito
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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MIRACLE OF WATER
Sources of Water
Human Body Composition (2/3 is water)
Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds
Brain (83%) and springs are natural sources of water. Dams,
Kidney (83%) wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc, are
Lungs (85%) man-made sources of water.
Blood (94%)
Eyes (95%) Rain Water
Heart (75%)
Rain water collects on the earth in the form of
Muscles (75%)
surface water and underground water (Fig. 8.1).
Purpose of water on human body
Surface Water
Forms of saliva
Manufacture hormones and Water present on the surface of the earth in the
neurotransmitters form of oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds and streams is
Keeps mucosal membranes moist called surface water. The water in rivers and lakes
Regulates body temperature comes from rain and melting of snow on
Allows bodys cells to grow, mountains. Rivers flow into the sea.
reproduce and survive
Underground Water
Acts as a shock absorber for brain and
spinal cord Some of the rainwater seeps through the soil on to
Flushes body waste the non-porous rocks below. This is underground
Digestion water. Sometimes due to high pressure, this water
Lubricates joints sprouts out in the form of springs. It can be
Help deliver oxygen all over te body obtained by digging wells, sinking tube wells, etc.
Water is the major component of
Purposes of Dams
most body parts
Water supply- dams gather drinking
Water on earth water for people.
Flood control- dams keep areas from
flooding.
Irrigation- dams help farmers bring
water to their farms.
Hydroelectric- dams create power
and electricity from water.
Recreation- dams can be used for
swimming.
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Types of water
Potable water water that is usable for domestic purposes
Contaminated water water that contains microorganisms and other wastes
Impurities of water
Fluorine - habitual consumption of water with fluorine during the period of formation of
permanent teeth will destroy the enamel that will result in discolored teeth. But according
to studies moderate amount of fluorine in drinking water is important for good tooth
development.
Viruses infectious agents that are smaller than bacteria.
Worms larvae of the adult flies that lay eggs on the surface of unclean water in reservoir.
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Turbidity the cloudiness or haziness of water by particles that are too small to be seen.
Color distinguished from turbidity.
Water borne diseases

Gastroenteritis an inflammation of the stomach and intestines caused by the bacteria or
toxins produces by bacteria in the water.
Infectious Hepatitis inflammation on the liver.
Poliomyelitis effect of the poliomyelitis virus on the spinal cord that leads to the classic
manifestation of paralysis.
Lead Poisoning a person swallows a lead substance or breath in lead dust will suffer from
poisoning which stay in the body and can cause serious health problems.
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Cholera - Drinking water contaminated with the bacterium vibrio cholerae
Leptospirosis - Water contaminated by the animal urine carrying the bacteria

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Typhoid Fever Ingestion of water contaminated with feces of an infected person
Amoebiasis - Sewage, non-treated drinking water, flies in water supply
Water Treatment
Drinking water supplies in the United States are among the safest in the world. However, even in the
U.S., drinking water sources can become contaminated, causing sickness and disease from waterborne germs,
such as Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Hepatitis A, Giardia intestinalis, and other pathogens.
Drinking water sources are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove
disease-causing agents. Public drinking water systems use various methods of water treatment to provide safe
drinking water for their communities.
Most common steps in water treatment:
It is used by community water systems (mainly surface water treatment)

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Coagulation and Flocculation
Coagulation and flocculation are often the first steps in water treatment. Chemicals with a positive charge
are added to the water. The positive charge of these chemicals neutralizes the negative charge of dirt and other
dissolved particles in the water. When this occurs, the particles bind with the chemicals and form larger
particles, called floc.
Sedimentation
During sedimentation, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply, due to its weight. This settling process
is called sedimentation.
Filtration
Once the floc has settled to the bottom of the water supply, the clear water on top will pass through filters
of varying compositions (sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore sizes, in order to remove dissolved particles,
such as dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals.
Disinfection
After the water has been filtered, a disinfectant (for example, chlorine, chloramine) may be added in order
to kill any remaining parasites, bacteria, and viruses, and to protect the water from germs when it is piped to
homes and businesses.
Water may be treated differently in different communities depending on the quality of the water
that enters the treatment plant. Typically, surface water requires more treatment and filtration than
ground water because lakes, rivers, and streams contain more sediment and pollutants and are more
likely to be contaminated than ground water.
Some water supplies may also contain disinfections by-products, inorganic chemicals, organic
chemicals, and radionuclides. Specialized methods for controlling formation or removing them can
also be part of water treatment.
Other Common Water Treatment:

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Water Fluoridation
Community water fluoridation prevents tooth decay safely and effectively. Water fluoridation has been named
one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century
Consumer Confidence Reports
Every community water supplier must provide an annual report, sometimes called a Consumer
Confidence Report, or "CCR," to its customers. The report provides information on your local drinking
water quality, including the water's source, contaminants found in the water, and how consumers
can get involved in protecting drinking water.
Household Water Treatment
Even though the water coming out from public faucets regulates and sets the
standards for public drinking water, there are still a lot of people who uses a home water
treatment; to remove specific contaminants, take extra precautions for members who have
low immune system, and to improve the taste of drinking water.
Household water treatment is an important public health intervention to improve
the quality of drinking-water and reduce diarrheal disease, particularly among those who
rely on water from unimproved sources, and in some cases, unsafe or unreliable
piped water supplies.
There are Four Common Types of Household Water Treatment which are: Filtration Systems,
Water Softening, Distillation Systems, and Disinfection.
A Filtration System or Water Filter is a device which removes impurities and any
remaining microorganisms from the water. The water travels through large filters made of
sand, gravel, and anthracite.
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Water softening is the removal of calcium,

magnesium and certain other metal cations in hard
water. It is usually achieved using lime softening
or ion-exchange resins. Hard water simply means that it contains more minerals which are
calcium and magnesium, the ions that create hardness. A water softener is a device that
reduces the hardness of the water, it typically uses a sodium or potassium ions to replace the
calcium and magnesium ions.
Four Main Components:
a.) Softener Valve Controls the water as it flows through the valve, resin bed,
distributor/manifold and brine tank.
b.) Resin Tank Hold water softening resin and under-bedding.
c.) Resin Small beads that hold the sodium charge.
d.) Brine Tank Holds salt and water used to regenerate the water softening resin.
Distillation is a process in which impure water is boiled and the steam is collected and
condensed in a separate container, leaving many of the solid contaminants behind. It is
probably the oldest method of water purification; the advantage is that it removes a broad
range of contaminants, but some contaminants are also carried into the condensate;
contaminants that has boiling point lower than 100C. Distillation consumes large amounts
of energy, and it is very slow to produce clean water, and it can also be very acidic.
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Disinfection is a physical or chemical process in which bacteria are killed; where the
water is disinfected to protect it against bacteria. Chlorine, chloramine (chlorine and
ammonia) or UV are used to destroy any disease-causing bacteria.
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Questions:
1. Water that is usable for domestic proposes.

a. Potable water
b. Contaminated water
c. Salt water
d. Fresh water
2. Water that contains microorganisms and other wastes.
a. Salt water
b. Potable water
c. Contaminated water
d. Ground water
3. Infectious agents that are smaller than bacteria.
a. Worms
b. Turbidity
c. Virus
d. Color
4. Impurities of water that distinguished from turbidity.
a. Fluorine
b. Virus
c. Turbidity
d. Color
5. Water bourne disease cause by drinking water contaminated with the bacterium vibrio cholera.
a. Leptospirosis
b. Cholera
c. Poliomyelitis
d. Lead poisoning
6. A person swallows a lead substance or breath in lead dust will suffer in ___________.
a. Cholera
b. Lead poisoning
c. Amoebiasis
d. Typhoid fever
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7. An inflammation of the stomach and intestines caused by the bacteria or toxins produces by
bacteria in the water.
a. Typhoid fever
b. Amoebiasis
c. Gastroenteritis
d. Poliomyelitis
8. Impurities of water that destroy the enamel that will result in discolored teeth.
a. Fluorine
b. Virus
c. Worms
d. Turbidity
9. Inflammation of liver from drinking contaminated water.
a. Gastroenteritis
b. Amoebiasis
c. Infectious hepatitis
d. Poliomyelitis
10. Not purpose of dams.
a. Swimming
b. Water supply
c. Flood control
d. Recreation
11. Water bourne disease cause by drinking non-treated drinking water.
a. Typhoid fever
b. Lead poisoning
c. Amoebiasis
d. Cholera
12. Water contaminated by the animal urine carrying bacteria can cause.
a. Cholera
b. Amoebiasis
c. Infectious hepatitis
d. Leptospirosis
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13. The cloudiness or haziness of water by particles that are too small to be seen.
a. Color
b. Worms
c. Turbidity
d. Virus
14. How many percent in human body is water?
a. 90
b. 75
c. 80
d. 65
15. Effect of the poliomyelitis virus on the spinal cord that leads to the classic manifestation of
paralysis.
a. Infectious hepatitis
b. Poliomyelitis
c. Cholera
d. Gastroenteritis
16. Ingestion of water contaminated with feces of an infected person.
a. Typhoid fever
b. Cholera
c. Gastroenteritis
d. Poliomyelitis
17. Not sources of drinking water.
a. Stream
b. Lake
c. Rain
d. River
18. How many percent is water on earth.
a. 70
b. 60
c. 80
d. 85
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19. How many percent is water on our heart.

a. 83
b. 85
c. 75
d. 95
20. How many percent is water in our eyes.
a. 83
b. 85
c. 75
d. 95
21. Drinking water sources are subject to ______ and requires appropriate treatment to remove
disease-causing agents
a. Contamination
b. Coagulation
c. Communication
d. Constipation
22. What process often goes first in community water treatment?
a. Sedimentation
b. Filtration
c. Disinfection
d. Coagulation
23. Chemicals with a ________ charge are added to the water.
a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Neutral
d. all of the above
24. During sedimentation, ________ settles to the bottom of the water supply, due to its
weight.
a. Floc d. particles
b. Dirt
c. Sediments
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25. After the water has been filtered, a ___________ may be added in order to kill any
remaining parasites, bacteria and viruses.
a. Chemical
b. Disinfectant
c. anti-bacteria
d. coagulant
26. Community water ____________ prevents tooth decay safely and effectively
a. Fluoridation
b. Flocculation
c. Disinfection
d. Coagulation
27. _________ is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use.
a. coagulation
b. sedimentation
c. water treatment
d. filtration
28. Water treatment removes ________ and undesirable components.
a. Coagulants
b. disinfectants
c. Contaminants
d. Bacterias
29. ________ drinking water systems use various methods of water treatment to provide
safe drinking water for their communities.
a. Public
b. Private
c. community
d. household
30. Water may be treated differently in different communities depending on the _______
of the water that enters the treatment plant.
a. Quantity
b. Quality
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c. Number
d. all of the above
31. Some water supplies may also contain disinfections by-products, inorganic
chemicals, organic chemicals, and __________.
a. Radionuclides
b. Radionucleus
c. Radionucleia
d. radionucleius
32. Every community water supplier must provide an annual report, sometimes called
________.
a. Consumer confidence report
b. Community confidence report
c. Consumer report
d. Water report
33. Which one is a filter not suitable for community use?
a. Sand
b. Gravel
c. filter paper
d. anthracite
34. An example of disinfection.
a. Chlorination
b. Chlorification
c. Chloriding
d. Chlorinification
35. _____ is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main
constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most
living organisms.
a. Oxygen
b. Nitrogen
c. Chlorine
d. Water
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36. It is an important public health intervention to improve the quality of drinking-

water and reduce diarrheal disease particularly among those who rely on water from
unimproved sources, and in some cases, unsafe or unreliable piped water supplies.
a. Community Water Treatment
b. Household Water Treatment
c. Barangay Water Treatment
37. For what reason, why people still uses home water treatment unit?
a. To take extra precautions for members who have low immune system
b. To change the color of drinking water
c. To add a specific contaminants
38. What are the four common types of household water treatment?
a. Filtration, Distillation, Coagulation and Flocculation, Sedimentation
b. Coagulation and Flocculation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Disinfection
c. Filtration Systems, Water Softening, Distillation Systems, and Disinfection
39. A device which removes impurities and any remaining microorganisms from the
water.
a. Disinfection
b. Filtration Systems
c. Distillation Systems
40. A process in which impure water is boiled and the steam is collected and condensed
in a separate container, leaving many of the solid contaminants behind.
a. Water Softening
b. Filtration Systems
41. The ions that create hardness of the water.
a. Sodium and Potassium
b. Calcium and Magnesium
c. Calcium and Sodium
P a g e | 111
42. It is the removal of calcium, magnesium and certain other metal cations in hard
water.
a. Water Softening
b. Disinfection
43. It is a physical or chemical process in which bacteria are killed; where the water is
disinfected to protect it against bacteria.
a. Filtration System
b. Water Softening
c. Disinfection
44. It holds salt and water used to regenerate the water softening resin.
a. Filter Paper
b. Brine Tank
c. Salt Holder
45. It is a device that reduces the hardness of the water, it typically uses a sodium or
potassium ions to replace the calcium and magnesium ions.
a. Brine tank
b. Water Softener
c. Filter tank
46. Controls the water as it flows through the valve, resin bed, distributor/manifold and
brine tank.
a. Brine Valve
b. Filter Valve
c. Softener Valve
47. It is probably the oldest method of water purification; the advantage is that it removes
a broad range of contaminants.
a. Distillation System
b. Filtration System
c. Water Softening
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48. Hold water softening resin and under-bedding.

a. Resin Tank
b. Bedding Holder
c. Softener Holder
49. Small beads that hold the sodium charge.
a. Beads Holder
b. Salt
c. Resin
50. A Combination of chlorine and ammonia used to destroy disease-causing bacteria.
a. Chlorania
b. Ammorine
c. Chloramine
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ANSWERS
1. A
2. C
3. C
4. D
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. A
9. C
10. A
11. C
12. D
13. C
14. D
15. B
16. A
17. C
18. A
19. C
20. D
21. A
22. D
23. A
24. A
25. B
26. A
27. C
28. C
29. A
30. B
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31. A
32. A
33. C
34. A
35. D
36. B
37. A
38. C
39. B
40. C
41. B
42. A
43. C
44. B
45. B
46. C
47. A
48. A
49. C
50. C
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WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
Submitted by:
Mark EJ Vincent Tuyay

Adam Jamora
Jefourthvien Tabino
Rey Farly Garcia
Bernie Comia
Allen Pama
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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MANAGING WASTEWATER
Wastewater treatment or Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from household sewage or
wastewater either domestic or effluent. It includes chemical, biological and physical processes to remove chemicals,
biological and physical contaminants. The main objective of sewage treatment is to produce a waste stream (also
called as slug) that is suitable for discharge or reuse back to the environment
SEWAGE
Sewage (or domestic wastewater or municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced from
a community of people. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic
constituents, and its bacteriologic status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). It consists mostly
of greywater (from sinks, tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), blackwater(the water used to
flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away); soaps and detergents; and toilet paper (less so in
regions where bidets are widely used instead of paper). Whether it also contains surface runoff depends on the
design of sewer system.
TYPES SEWER PIPES

Clay pipes -Made up of clay or shale. The clay is grounded, mixed with water, molded into shapes and sizes,
dried and burned in a kiln at a high temperature.
A kiln (/kln/ or /kl/,[1] originally pronounced "kill", with the "n" silent) is a thermally insulated chamber, a type
of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical
changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles and bricks. Various
industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessingto calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to
transform many other materials.
Plain concrete sewer pipes- Used in small sewers. Size varies from 24 inches in diameter to smaller sizes
Reinforced concrete sewer pipes- Has a diameter of over 24 inches. It is made up of rings and
longitudinal reinforcement made of deformed bars to hold the rings in place to prevent transverse cracks.
Asbestos-cement pipe- Has a stronger crushing resistance-capability compared with other types of pipe. Its
advantage is the reduce infiltration in small pipes. It also makes installation easier because of its light materials.
Cast- iron pipes- this pipe is commonly used in pumping station and discharge line.
Corrugated steel pipes- Commonly used in storm sewers. It is made up of varying metal thickness and
diameters up to 15ft.
GASES IN SEWERS
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Existence of gases are common in sewers,hence, these gases may cause explosion. Explosion may cause danger to
the traffic because manhole may be blown into air.
Sewer gases may include hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, methane, esters, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides. Improper disposal of petroleum products such as gasoline and mineral spirits contribute to sewer gas
hazards. Sewer gases are of concern due to their odor, health effects, and potential for creating fire or explosions
Sewers combustible gases may be due to the following:

Discharge miscellaneous chemicals by accident or during design and construction
The production of methane as a product of decomposition
Discharged gasolines from filling stations and gases
Gases that may have leaked from nearby gas mains or sewers.
Prevention of accumulation of explosive mixtures can be done thru:
Requiring traps in the wastelines for garages and gas filling sites.
Encouraging gas companies to trace leaks
Inspecting and investigating the sources of all combustible materials that appears in the sewers.
Primary Treatment Process
1. Screening : Waterwaste entering the treatment may be composed of materials like wood, rock
and even dead animals. Unless they are removed, they could cause problems later in the treatment
process. Most of these materials are sent to a landfill area.
2. Pumping : The waterwaste system relies on the force of gravity to move sewage from your home
to the treatment plant. So wastewater treatment plants are located on low ground, often near a
river into which treated water can be released. If the plant is built above the ground level, the
wastewater has to be pumped up to the aeration tanks. From here on, gravity takes over to move
the wastewater through the treatment process.
3. Aerating : One of the first steps that a water treatment facility can do is to shake up the sewage
and expose it into air. This would cause some of the dissolved gases (such as hydrogen sulfide,
which smells like rotten eggs) that taste and smell bad if mixed with water. Wastewater enters a
series of long, parallel concrete tanks. Each tank is divided onto two sections. In the first section,
air is pumped through the water. While organic matters decay, oxygen goes through the
decomposition. Aeration replenishes the oxygen. Bubbling oxygen through the water also keeps
the organic materials suspended while they force grit (coffeegrounds, sand and other small,
dense particles) to leave out. Grit is pumped out of the tanks and taken to the landfills.
4. Removing sludge : Wastewater then enters the second section or the sedimentation tanks. Here,
the sludge (the organic portion of the sewage) settles out of the wastewater and is pumped out of
the tanks. Some of the water is removed in a step called thickening and then the sludge is
processed in large thanks called digesters.
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5. Removing scum : As sludge is settling to the bottom of sedimentation tanks, lighter materials are
floating to the surface. This scum includes grease, oils, plastics and soap. Slow-moving rakes
skim the scum off the surface of the wastewater. Scum is thickened and pumped to the digesters
along with the sludge. Many cities also use filtration in sewage treatment. After the solids are
removed, the liquid sewage is filtered through a substance, usually sand, by the aeration of
gravity. This method gets rid of almost all bacteria, reduces turbidity and color, removes odors,
removes the amount of iron, and removes most other solid particles that remained in the water,
Water is sometimes filtered through carbon atoms, which removes an organic particle, which is
used in some homes.
6. Killing bacteria : This disinfecting process starts when the wastewater flow into a chlorine
contact tank, where the chemical chlorine is added to kill bacteria that could pose a health risk.
To avoid infections and contaminations, as they do in swimming pools, the chlorine eliminates
the bacteria and neutralizes the water by adding other chemicals. This protects fish and other
marine organism, which can be harmed by the smallest amount of chlorine. The treated water
(called effluent) is the then discharged to a local river and then into the ocean.
R. Wastewater residuals : Another part of treating wastewater is dealing with the solid-waste material. These
solids are kept for 20 to 30 days in large, heated and enclosed tanks called digesters. Here, bacteria break
down (digest) the material, reducing its volume, odors, and getting rid of organisms that can cause disease. The
finished product is mainly sent to landfills, but sometimes can be used as fertilizer.
Secondary Treatment Process

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the
sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. Secondary
wastewater treatment is a biological process done either by aerobic digestion which include
processes such as trickling filters, RBC, aerobic granulation or anaerobic processes such as
constructed wetlands, aerated lagoon and membrane bio reactor.
The objective of the secondary treatment process is the further treatment of the effluent
from primary treatment to remove residual organic and suspended solids. Aerobic biological
treatment is performed in the presence of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms (principally
bacteria) that metabolize the organic matter in the wastewater, thereby producing more
microorganisms and inorganic end-products (principally CO2, NH3, and H2O). Several aerobic
biological processes are used for secondary treatment differing primarily in the manner in which
the oxygen is supplied to the microorganisms and in the rate at which organisms metabolize the
organic matter. High-rate biological processes are characterized by relatively small reactor
volumes and high concentrations of microorganisms compared with low rate processes.
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Consequently, the growth rate of new organisms is much greater in high-rate systems
because of the well controlled environment. The microorganisms must be separated from the
treated wastewater by sedimentation to produce clarified secondary effluent. The sedimentation
tanks used in secondary treatment, often referred to as secondary clarifiers, operate in the same
basic manner as the primary clarifiers described previously. The biological solids removed during
secondary sedimentation , called secondary or biological sludge, are normally combined with
primary sludge for sludge processing. Common high-rate processes include the activated sludge
processes, trickling filters or biofilters, oxidation ditches and rotating biological contractors
(RBC).
1. Activated Sludge - The most common option uses microorganisms in the treatment process to
break down organic material with aeration and agitation, then allows solids to settle out. Bacteria-
containing activated sludge is continually recirculated back to the aeration basin to increase the
rate of organic decomposition.
2. ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR - A rotating biological contactor or RBC is a
biological treatment process used in the treatment of wastewater following primary treatment.
The primary treatment process removes the grit and other solids through a screening process
followed by a period of settlement.
3. TRICKLING FILTERS - Trickling filters enable organic material in the wastewater to be absorbed by a
population of microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative bacteria; fungi; algae; and protozoa)
attached to the medium as a biological film or slime layer. The organic material is then degraded by the
aerobic microorganisms in the outer part of the slime layer. The sewage slowly moves through the porous
bed and the effluent is collected at the bottom. As the sewage drains through the porous bed, this microbial
community absorbs and breaks down dissolved organic nutrients in the sewage; this reduces the BOD. The
sewage may need to be re circulated several times through the filter in order to reduce the BOD
sufficiently. Simple, reliable, biological process
a. Low power requirement
b. Moderate level of skill and technical expertise needed to manage and operate the system.
c. Additional treatment may be needed to meet more stringent discharge standards
d. Vector and odour problems.
e. Requires regular operator attention.
TERTIARY TREATMENT
After the secondary treatment the treated effluent is sent for tertiary treatment processes. After which water
is discharged into a natural source such as river for further purification by natural processes.
Drainage System
Are the patterns forms by the streams, rivers and lakes in a particular water shed. They
are governed by the topography of the land, whether a particular region is dominated by hard or
soft rocks and the gradients of the land.
According to the configuration of the channels, drainage systems can fall into one of
several categories known as drainage patterns. Drainage patterns depend on the topography and
geology of the land
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Patterns of Drainage System
Dendritic Drainage System

Systems (from Greek , dendrites, "of or pertaining to a tree") are the
most common form of drainage system. In a dendritic system, there are many
contributing streams (analogous to the twigs of a tree), which are then joined together
into the tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the tree, respectively).
They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. Dendritic systems
form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be impervious and non-porous.
Parallel Drainage System

A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes with some
relief. Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with very few
tributaries, and all flow in the same direction. This system forms on uniformly sloping
surfaces, for example, rivers flowing southeast from the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya.
Trellis Drainage System

The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden
trellis. As the river flows along a strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into it from the
steep slopes on the sides of mountains. These tributaries enter the main river at
approximately 90 degree angle, causing a trellis-like appearance of the drainage system.
Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains
in North America and in the north part of Trinidad
Centripetal Drainage System

The centripetal drainage system is similar to the radial drainage system, with the
only exception that radial drainage flows out versus centripetal drainage flows in
Retangular Drainage System

Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform
resistance to erosion, but which have two directions of joining at approximately right
angles. The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends
to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The
result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line segments with
right angle bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles.
Radial Drainage System

In an annular drainage pattern streams follow a roughly circular or concentric path
along a belt of weak rock, resembling in plan a ringlike pattern. It is best displayed by
streams draining a maturely dissected structural dome or basin where erosion has exposed
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rimming sedimentary strata of greatly varying degrees of hardness, as in the Red Valley,
which nearly encircles the domal structure of the Black Hills of South Dakota.
Deranged Drainage System

A deranged drainage system is a drainage system in drainage basins where there
is no coherent pattern to the rivers and lakes. It happens in areas where there has been
much geological disruption. The classic example is the Canadian Shield. During the last
ice age, the topsoil was scraped off, leaving mostly bare rock. The melting of the glaciers
left land with many irregularities of elevation, and a great deal of water to collect in the
low points, explaining the large number of lakes which are found in Canada. The
drainage basins are young and are still sorting themselves out. Eventually the system will
stabilize.
Drainage System Components
Successful construction involves selecting the appropriate materials for the collection, conveyance, and discharge
requirements of the system. Attention to proper capacity and durability of each drainage material is critical. The
performance of the system will be improved by using good construction techniques and by performing routine
periodic maintenance.
Drainage Materials
The quality and availability of drainage products vary greatly from area to area. However, in a couple of weeks of
pre-planning any material can be delivered to the site at a reasonable cost. Consequently, do not settle for poor
quality materials when you can have any item you need with just a phone call.
Drainage Pipe
Drainage pipe is available in rigid wall and flexible wall lengths. On individual lots, most applications require fairly
small diameter pipe (4 inches to 12 inches). Generally, plastic pipe is used by contractors based on cost, ease of
installation and availability. The walls of pipe vary from thin and corrugated, to thick and solid. Each pipe type has
some degree of flexibility over the length which has many advantages in slope applications. The biggest
disadvantage is that, the installer must check the grade of the pipe to ensure quality performance of the drainage
system.
The least expensive pipe selection is usually the thin corrugated pipe. The pipe is very flexible and is sold in coils of
one hundred feet or greater. This pipe can be satisfactory for very shallow installations without significant backfill
or backfill compaction, but it can fail easily by being crushed during installation with heavy equipment and by the
weight and compaction of soil backfill. It may also be susceptible to degradation by ultraviolet light. Finding
watertight connections (couplings) can be a problem with thin corrugated piping. Using corrugated pipe with thicker
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walls and watertight connections can help avoid the crushing and leaking problems from the common thin-walled
pipe installations.
Geotextile
A geotextile is a permeable fabric material made from synthetic polymers. It is used in many engineering
applications which primary functions are applications for filtration and drainage. Simply, it retains the soil while
water passes through the fabric and into the drainage collection system. Geotextile used in drainage applications can
be woven or unwoven fabrics. The woven geotextile have a weave pattern while the unwovens are formed from a
random pattern of fibers bonded together.
Typical drainage applications include interceptor drain construction, drainage blanket installation, geotextile wraps
for pipes. For interceptor drains, the geotextile is used to line the trench prior to backfilling with gravel drain rock to
limit the migration of the adjacent soil into the gravel backfill. For drainage blankets, the geotextile is used in a
similar manner, but more commonly placed on a slope or on a more horizontal location. Sometimes, the geotextile is
wrapped directly around pipes for commercial purposes.
Catch basins and Manholes
Drainage systems need a method to collect and concentrate water toward a location. Catch basins and manholes
allow pipes coming from different directions and elevations to converge at specific locations. They can convert
surface flow to subsurface pipe flow. Catch basins and manholes can trap larger sediment and debris allowing only
drainage with fine sediments to enter pipes. Also, they can provide a drop in elevation down a slope and dissipate
the energy of pipe flows. Catch basins and manhole structures are commonly constructed of concrete or
polyethylene with a number of lid options ranging from open grates to watertight construction.
Pipe Couplings
A pipe coupling connects one length of pipe to another without leaking. They can be rigid or flexible connections.
Improper or poorly retrofitted connections on drainage pipes are very common failure locations. It is important to
use a good connection system or couplings specifically manufactured for your pipe. The couplings should have a
watertight gasket seal. When pipe is placed above ground on a slope and is not anchored correctly or has too much
flow resistance, you will likely see a coupling failure in the future. By planning ahead, you can minimize the number
of couplings by ordering longer lengths of pipe.
Pipe Anchors
Pipe anchors should be used for pipes on steep slopes. Pipe bends should be adequately supported. Water flowing
downhill can placed tremendous forces on pipe connections and bends. It should be supported by anchoring the pipe.
Pipe anchors are not purchased but are built in place. Pipes should be anchored above grade as well as below grade.
Drainage Gravel
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Drainage gravel should be rounded rock ranging in sizes from inches to 1 inches in diameter. The gravel
provides uniform bedding for drain pipes to create a consistent pipe slope and provide a free draining material
adjacent to perforated pipes. Water moves through the spaces between the gravel before entering a pipe or other
means of conveyance.
FLOOD
What is a Flood?
A flood is an overflow of water or an expanse of water submerging the land , deluge.
In the sense of flowing water , the word is applied to the inflow of the tide , as opposed to the outflow or
ebb
Types of Flood
The following are types of flood occurs not only in water bodies but also in sand or desert.
Coastal Flood
Flash flood in arroyos
River Flood
Urban Flood
Coastal Flood
Hurricanes and tropical storms can produce heavy rains , or drive ocean water into land. Beaches and
coastal houses can be swept away by the water . Coastal flooding can also be produce by sea waves called
tsunamis , great tidal waves that are created by volcanoes or earthquakes in the ocean.
Flash flood in Arroyos
An arroyo is a water-carved gully or a normally dry creek found in arid or desert regions. When storms
appear in these areas , the rain waters cut into the dry, dusty soil creating a small , fast moving river . Flash
flooding in an arroyo can occur in just minutes , with enough power to wash away sections of pavement.
River Flood
Flooding along rivers is a natural event. Some floods occur seasonally when winter snows melt combine
with spring rains. Water fills basin too quickly , and the river will overflow its banks. Often, the land
around a river will be covered by water for miles around.
Urban Flood
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As undeveloped land is paved for parking lots , it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Rain water can not be
absorbed into the ground and becomes runoff, filling parking lots , making roads into rivers , and flooding
basements and businesses.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF POLLUTION:

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
DEFINED AS CARBON CONTAINING COMPOUNDS THAT ARE DISCARDED FROM THE

ENVIRONMENT
TWO GROUPS OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
ONCE LIVING- MATTER SUCH AS SEWERAGE AND VEGETABLE WASTE
SYNTHESIZED CARBON BASED COMPOUNDS, INCLUDING SOME PESTICIDES SUCH AS DDT
INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
DEFINED AS THE COMPOSITION OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES OF MINERAL ORIGIN THAT

ARE DISCARDED FROM THE ENVIRONMENT.
THIS POLLUTION IS GENERALLLY OF AN INDUSTRIAL OR AGRICULTURAL ORIGIN.
EFFECTS OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC POLLUTION
EFFECT ON HEALTH
EFFECT ON WATER QUALITY
EFFECT ON HEALTH
BOTH IN ORGANIC AND ORGANIC POLLUTANTS CAN ENTER HUMANS THROUGH THE
FOOD CHAIN,DRINKING WATER, OR PHYSICAL EXPOSURE.
THERE ARE SERIOUS CONCERNS THAT ONGOING ABSORPTION OF POLLUTANTS,

INCLUDING BIOACCUMULATION THROUH THE FOOD CHAIN, AND CAUSES IRREPARABLE
GENETIC DAMAGE.
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS), SUCH AS DIELDRIN, DIOXINS AND

HEPTACHLOR ARE SUSPECTED CARCINOGENS.
THESE COMPOUNDS ALSO DISRUPT THE REPRODUCTIVE AND ENDOCRINER SYSTEMS OF

HUMANS.
MERCURY POISONING FROM FISH IN JAPAN IS A TELLING EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECT OF

INORGANIC POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
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EFFECT ON WATER QUALITY
MOST KINDS OF AQUATIC LIFE NEED OXYGEN TO LIVE. RAIN AND THE MOVEMENT OF
THE WATER BODY REPLENISH OXYGEN NATURALLY.
SINCE ORGANIC WASTES REQUIRE OXYGEN TO DECOMPOSE, THEY DIMINISH THE

QUANTITY OF OXYGEN AVAILABLE IN THE WATER FOR NATURAL AQUATIC PLANT AND
ANIMAL GROWTH.
EXAMPLES OF ORGANIC POLLUTION
INORGANIC POLLUTION
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Questions
1. the most common form of drainage system

a. Radial Drainage System
b. Deranged Drainage System
c. Common Drainage System
d. Dendritic Drainage system
2. drainage system in drainage basins where there is no coherent pattern to the rivers and
lakes.
c. Common Drainage System
3. The ________drainage system is similar to the radial drainage system, with the only
exception that radial drainage flows out versus centripetal drainage flows in
c. Centripetal Drainage System
4. The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden trellis.

d. Trellis Drainage system
5. a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes with some relief. Because of the steep slopes,
the streams are swift and straight, with very few tributaries, and all flow in the same
direction.
b. Parallel Drainage System
d. Trellis Drainage system
6. Are the patterns forms by the streams
a. Water System
b. Drainage System
c. Centripetal System
d. Trellis system
7. Not Pattern of Drainage System
a. Rectangular Drainage System
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b. Parallel Drainage System

d. Common Drainage system
8. Trellis Drainage system is similar to a common garden ______
a. Trellis Garden
b. Flower Garden
c. Trellis Parallel Orthographic Garden
d. Trellis semi angular Garden
9. In Deranged Drainage System The melting of the ______ left land with many
irregularities of elevation, and a great deal of water to collect in the low points,
explaining the large number of lakes which are found in Canada.
a. Glaciers
b. Sedimentary rocks
c. Petroleum
d. Lime stones
10. River curves is called ________
a. Oxbow
b. Bow
c. Meanders
d. Scurvy
Questions: Envi (organic and in organic pollutants

11DEFINED AS CARBON CONTAINING COMPOUNDS THAT ARE DISCARDED FROM
THE ENVIRONMENT
a. organic pollutants c. noise pollutants
b. inorganic pollutants d. air pollutants
12. DEFINED AS THE COMPOSITION OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES OF MINERAL
ORIGIN THAT ARE DISCARDED FROM THE ENVIRONMENT.
a. organic pollutants c. noise pollutants
b. inorganic pollutants d. air pollutants
13. Chemical spraying in agriculture may contaminate
a. vegetables c. farmers
b. fruits d. underground water
14. Compounds which tend to accumulate in bodies are
a. passed on to final consumers c. may contain lead and mercury
b. are not excreted from bodies d. all of these
15. Water polluted by organic matter

a. contains too much sediment c. is strongly acidic
b. does not contain much oxygen d. contains a high amount of oxygen
16. Surface water with no dissolved oxygen is probably contaminated by
a. acid rain c. PCBs
b. organic matter d. suspended sediment
17. Mine waste can be a source of what type of pollution?
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a. organic matter c. nutrient

b. acid d. caustic
18. Flow of contaminated groundwater creates a
a. discharge area c. recharge area
b. confined aquifer d. plume
19. Settling ponds can dramatically reduce which kind of surface-water pollution?
a. fertilizers c. sediment
b. herbicides d. all of the above
20. Which hazardous waste is an organic compound?

a. arsenic c. DDT
b. asbestos d. all of the above
Questions: DRAINAGE SYSTEM COMPONENTS (ALLEN PAMA)

21. It is available in rigid wall and flexible wall lengths.
a. drainage pipe c. stop pipe
b. wall pipe d. air pipe
22. It is a permeable fabric material made from synthetic polymers.
a. geotextile c. pyrotextile
b. hydrotextile d. maxtextile
23. It connects one length of pipe to another without leaking.
a. Pipe couplings c. pipe thread
b. thermocouplings d. underground pipe
24. It should be used for pipes on steep slopes.
a. pipe couplings c. pipelines
b. pipe anchors d. all of these
25. It should be rounded rock ranging in sizes from inches to 1 inches in diameter.
a. rock gravel c. drainage gravel

b. stone gravel d. cement gravel
26. _______ and ________ can trap larger sediment and debris allowing only drainage with fine
sediments to enter pipes.
a. paper and scissors c. plates and table

b. rock and water d. Catch basins and manholes
27. The woven geotextile have a _______ pattern
a. straight c. weave
b. circular d. linear
28. The unwovens are formed from a ______ pattern of fibers bonded together.
a.in order c. unorganized

b. random d. organized
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29. The performance of the system will be improved by using _______ construction techniques
and by performing routine periodic maintenance.
a. good c. unorganized
b. bad d. random
30. The least expensive pipe selection is usually the thin corrugated pipe.
a. thin corrugated pipe c. hollow corrugated pipe
b. thick corrugated pipe d. tiny corrugated pipe
31 ________ is a a step-by-step guide describing what happens at each stage of the treatment process
and how pollutants are removed to help keep our waterways clean.
a) Primary treatment process

b) Secondary treatment process
c) Tertiary treatment process
d) None of the above
32. It is the first step of the primary treatment process where solid materials like wood and dead animal
bodies are being held.
a) Aerating
b) Pumping
c) Screening
d) Washing
33. It is a process of exposing the sewage in the air for the dissolved gases to be separated on the water
being treated.
a) Combustion
b) Chemical Reaction
c) Aeration
d) Combination
34.It is the organic portion of the sewage.
a) Sludge
b) Smudge
c) Sprudge
d) Strudge
35. These are light materials that float in the sedimentation tanks
a) Scum
b) Grit
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c) Sludge
36.______ is a chemical added to the water to kill the bacteria.
a) Fluorine
b) Iron
c) Chlorine
d) Aluminum
37.These are large tanks where the scum and sludge are being held.
a) Ingesters
b) Digesters
c) Convergers
38 How many days should the scum and sludge be stored in those large tanks?
a) 5-10 days
b) 10-15 days
c) 20-30 days
39. It is the process where the wastewater is being pumped from the sewers to the wastewater treatment
plant.
a) Clogging
b) Pumping
c) Aerating
d) Screening
40 It is one of the medium that is used in filtration.
a) Wax
b) Sand
c) Plastic
d) Water
Enumeration
41- 45 Types of Pipes used in Sewers
46-50 Types of Flood

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Answer
1. D 26. . D
2. B 27. . C
3. C 28. . B
4. D 29. A
5. B 30. A
6. B 31. A
7. C 32. C
8. A 33. C
9. A 34. A
10. D 35. A
11. A 36. C
12. A 37. B
13. D 38. C
14. D 39. B
15. B 40. B
16. B 41. Clay Pipes
17. B 42. Plain Concrete sewer Pipes
18. D 43. Reinforced Concrete sewer Pipes
19. D 44. Asbestos Sewer Pipes
20. . C 45. Cast Iron Pipes
21. . A 46. Corrugated Steel Pipes
22. . A 47. Coastal Flood
23. . A 48. River Flood
24. . B 49. Urban Flood
25. . B 50. Flash Floods in Arroyos
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FOREST CONSERVATION
Submitted by:
Gian Kirby Guillermo

Cristian Mozee Dalanon
Viva Ponamuthon Furaque
Brizelle Anne Laurio
Joshua Lugod
Eliezer Nodado Jr.
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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FOREST CONSERVATION
The country is endowed with natural resources lush forests, rich land, and abundant
seas. It is regrettable though that the demands of a growing population and the enticement of
profit persisted to exert pressure on our forest resources. In the same manner, illegal cutting and
exploitation of forest resources: pests and diseases: forest fires and other natural calamities;
severely threatened biodiversity; indiscriminate use of resources in the wetlands and coastal
areas; fast disappearance of forest habitat in the upland areas and deteriorating air and water
quality have, over time taken their toll on the countrys forests.
The Plant Life
The plant life or flora found in the forests consists of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses,
orchids, vines, ferns, mosses, fungi, algae and lichens
Trees are most dominant plants in the forest. Different species of trees are found in the
forest. Each tree species has distinct physical characteristics and is defined by a specific name
Shrubs
These are low growing woody plants. Shrubs grow in bushes. Their stems rise from a
common base from the ground. Their branches spread throughout the length of their stem.
Herbs
Herbs are seed plants. They do not develop woody tissues. Their stems are soft and juicy.
Herbs live only for one season. After their seed have ripened, they die.
Grasses
Grasses have long, narrow leaves and rounded, hollow stems. Grasses are used as food by
browsing animals. In the rural areas, some grasses are used as roofing material and as a cure for
some ailments.
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Orchids
Orchids are called aristocrats of the woodland. They are air plants that live and grow by
attaching themselves to the stems and branches of tall trees. Most orchids have colorful flowers.
Aside from their beautiful flowers, orchids are also sources of substances used in making
perfumes.
Vines
Some Vines climb tall trees by means of their tendrils, while others just creep on the
ground. Certain kinds of vines are useful on high prices in the market.
Mosses
Mosses are found in moist places in the forest, especially on the soil, or on top of stones
and rocks, and barks of trees. They contain chlorophyll, which enables them to manufacture their
own food. They act as moisture absorbers and help in soil building.
Algae
Algae are simple plants that grow mostly in water. They form slimy growths on wet
rocks, on surfaces of pools, seas, and riverbanks.
Fungi
Fungi are plant like organisms with an entirely different way of life process compared
with plants. They are not plants nor animals. Fungi are parasitic, living on dead or decaying
organic matter, many fungi are also small that they can only be seen in a microscope
Lichens
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Lichens are plants that are made up of an alga and a fungus living together as a single
unit. the fungus obtains its food from the alga, while the alga in turn gets its moisture from the
fungus. The existence of the alga and fungi in lichen is an example of a symbiotic relationship.
The Animal Life
There are various kinds of animal living in the forest. They are found living on the ground, trees
or in other vegetation, and water. Some even live under the ground.
The animal life or fauna in the forest includes mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, fishes, and
other lower forms of animals.
Mammals
- mammals belong to the highest class of vertebrates. They are warm-blooded and they nourished
and feed their young with milk.
Birds
-they are also a warm blooded vertebrates but, compared to the mammals, are of lower category.
The bodies of are more or less completely covered with feathers.
Fishes
-they are cold blooded vertebrates. They abound in lakes, ponds, deep streams and rivers in the
forest.
Reptiles
- reptiles are vertebrates with dry, scaly skin. Most reptiles such as alligators, crocodiles and
turtles have legs some lizards have no legs.
Forestry
Agro- forestry
- a sustainable management for land which increase overall production, combines agricultural
crops, tree and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially, and applies
management practices which are compatible with cultural patterns of the local population.
Forest
- a wide tract of land covered with trees and other wild plants. It is also the home of different
kinds of animals and other wild life.
Forest land
- includes the public forest, the permanent forest or forest reserves, and forest reservations.
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Alienable or disposable lands

-refers to lands on a public domain that have not been the subject of the present system of the
classifications and are not declared needed for forest purposes by the government.
Did you know?

The Philippine forest covers 5.4 million hectares or equivalent to 18% of the countrys total land
area. This was down from more than a half of the countrys land area of registered forest cover in
1950.
Types of forest
*dipterocarp species
- the dominant tree in this type is the internationally known Philippine mahogany, a group of
commercial woods that are light red to reddish in collor.
- Other included species are the lauan, tanguile, mayapis, yakal , apitong and guijo.
Molave forest
AKA: mulawin forests
- molave forest are composed of molave stands and are found in regions with distinct dry
limestone ridges.
- other important species of this type are narra, tindalo, ipil, akle, and bamuyao.
Pine forest
AKA: saleng forest
-pine forests are found in mountain regions of Northern Luzon.
-they provide turpentine for paint manufacture as well as long fibers good in making strong
cement bags.
Mangrove Forests
AKA: bakawan forests
-these forests are found in tidal flats on the mouths of streams and in shores of sheltered bays.
--other important species of this type are bakawan, busain, pototan, langaral, and tangal.
Mossy types
AKA: protection forest
- trees under this type are dwarfed, and their stems and branches are usually blanketed with
moss.
-principal species are lokinal and igem
Forest resources Forest conservation Forest protection
Forest resources
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A. Timber resources
Timber o standing tree is the most valuable product of the forests. They are either made
into lumber or veneer, or manufactured into plywood, wallboard pulp and paper and
furniture.
B. Minor forest product resources
Besides timber, there is an abundance of various kings of minor forest products of
considerable economic value. These include rattan, resin, Manila elemi and bamboo.
C. Recreation, wildlife and water resources
Inspite of being one of the wildest collection of plants and animals in a per area basis of
the Philippines, compelled by deficient information, poor protected area planning system,
exploitation of land, weak enforcement of policies and laws, overpopulation, and poverty,
this biodiversity has been seriously threatened and many of its endemic species became
highly endangered.
Forest Conservation
Forest Conservation refers to the effective management, wise utilization, and

development of forest resources.
Forest preservation; Forest conservation, cutting, gathering and removing of forest
product are allowed provided that these are done in such manner that the volume of
annual harvest does not exceed the annual increment or growth of the forest.
How to conserve forest?
A. Design certain areas as forest reserves

B. Controlled cutting of trees this allows for only certain mature trees to be logged
C. A massive reforestation program that is replanting trees in areas that were once
forested areas
D. Education campaign to sensitize people of the importance of forests
E. Strict and severe penalties for illegal lumbering
Forest Protection
These includes all activities intended to prevent forest destruction.

Afforestation
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was
no previous tree cover.
Reforestation
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Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally (by natural seeding,
coppice, or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting).
Forest licensing
The license, lease, or permit specifies the type and the volume or amount of allowable
forest products that can be gathered from the forest.
Protection of wildlife
The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure that nature will be around for future
generations to enjoy and also to recognize the importance of wildlife and wilderness for
humans and other species alike.
Kaingin management
Kaingeros are upland farmers who do not have lands of their own. Their only means of
livelihood is farming. These poor kaingeros are allowed to stay in the forest provided
they do not make any new, clearing aside from the kaingin assigned to them.
Forest Fires
A forest fire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the
countryside or rural area.
Causes of Forest Fires
Dry season
Escape Fires from kaingin excursionists
Lightning strikes
Flora diversity of the forest
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How does forest fires burn?
There are three elements that are required for a forest fire to burn: Heat, Oxygen, and Fuel. This
is the so-called "fire triangle". Without all three of these elements, the fire will go out.
Furthermore, the fire will spread in the direction of the most abundant supply of the three
elements, while its rate of combustion is usually limited by one of the three elements. Once the
fire enters the combustion stage, there are three main types of classifications for the fire. A
smoldering fire is one that emits smoke but no flame and is rarely self-sustained. A fire is
classified as flaming combustion when flames are present. Charcoal can be formed in the
absence of oxygen with this type of fire. Glowing combustion is a later stage of the fire and is
characterized by a slower rate of combustion and blue flame.
Types of Forest Fires
Forest fires can also be classified by what part of the forest they burn in:
Ground fires occur on the ground, often below the leaves. Surface Fires occur on the surface of
the forest up to 1.3 meters high. Crown fires are the most dangerous fires and can spread the
fastest. They occur in the tops of the trees. They can be: (a) dependent upon surface fires to burn
the crowns, (b) active in which they occur at the same rate as surface fires, or (c) the most
destructive, independent, where fire can "jump" from crown to crown.
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Fighting Forest Fires
Ground fires are often best controlled by digging trenches in the soil layer.
Portable water backpacks and firebreaks are often the most effective methods at
controlling surface fires.
If a fire escalates to a crown fire, aerial support is used to suppress the fire with fire
retardant chemicals and/or water. However, these fires are often very dangerous and
human life always comes first in fire-fighting; sometimes these fires are just allowed to
burn until they run out of dry fuel.
Impact to Man and Environment of Forest Destruction
Ecological Impact
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the displacement of upper layer of soil, one form of soil degradation.
The erosion of soil is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are
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water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil erosion may
be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing
a serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop
production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks.
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 1040 times the
rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-
site" and "off-site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and
(on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil
layers. In some cases, the eventual end result is desertification.
Human Activities that stimulate Soil Erosion:
Intensive agriculture
Deforestation
Roads
Anthropogenic climate change
Urban sprawl
Economic Impact
-Employment
There are professionals that are dependent in logging, lumbering, and plywood
and veneer manufacturing.
Social Impact
-Migration
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Influxes have changed the demographic and social structures of the established
communities in the deforested areas.
Political Impact
Arising Environmental Concerns
The mass media has been erring forestry officials, cases of illegal logging,
smuggling, etc., which indirectly persuades the government to discuss courses of action that must
be taken.
Flash flood
It is the rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It
may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm,
or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.
Types of Floods
A. Coastal Flood - occurs when normally dry, low-lying land is flooded by seawater. The extent
of coastal flooding is a function of the elevation inland flood waters penetrate which is controlled
by the topography of the coastal land exposed to flooding.
B. Flash Flood in Arroyo - An arroyo, also called a wash, is a dry creek, stream
bed or gulch that temporarily or seasonally fills and flows after sufficient rain.[1] Flash
floods are common in arroyos following thunderstorms. Flash flooding in an arroyo can occur in
less than a minute, with enough power to wash away sections of pavement.
C. River flood Floods are natural events. They mainly happen when the river catchment, (that
is the area of the land that feeds water into the river and the streams that flow into the main river)
receives greater than usual amounts of water (for example through rainfall or melting snow).
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D. Urban Flood - Urban flooding is specific in the fact that the cause is a lack of drainage in an
urban area. As there is little open soil that can be used for water storage nearly all the
precipitation needs to be transport to surface water or the sewage system.
Questions
1. It is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area.
a. Forest Fire
b. Camp Fire
c. Lightning strike in any combustible material
d. Combustion due to solar heat
2. It is a cause of forest fire that is due to natural phenomenon.

a. Winter
b. Dry season
c. Autumn
d. Spring
3. It is the result of kaingin excursion in the forest.

a. Exit fire
b. Escape fire
c. Entry fire
d. Cease fire
4. It is a cause of forest that occurs during a bad weather.

a. Solar Strike
b. Thunder Strike
c. Lightning Strike
d. Hail Strike
5. It is a forest fire that occurs at the ground.

a. Crown Fire
b. Surface Fire
c. None of the Above
d. Ground Fire
6. It is a forest fire that burns the trunks and braches of the trees.
a. Crown Fire
b. Surface Fire
d. Ground Fire
7. It is a forest fire that burns the leaves of the trees and it is the most dangerous and destructive
type.
a. Crown Fire
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b. Surface Fire
d. Ground Fire
8. It is a method of fighting forest fires, specifically exterminating crown fires.
a. Moral Support
b. Financial Support
c. Aerial Support
d. Emergency Response
9. It is a method of fighting forest fires, specifically, exterminating ground fires.

a. Hole
b. Underpass
c. Trench
d. Overpass
10. It is a method of fighting forest fires, specifically, exterminating surface fires.

a. Bucket of water
b. Fire hose
c. Spring water
d. Portable water packs
11. ______o standing tree is the most valuable product of the forests.
a. Bamboo c. Cotton
b. Timber d. Resin
12. ____________ refers to the effective management, wise utilization, and development of forest resources.
a. Forest Conservation c. Forest Management
b. Forest Protection d. Forest Destruction
13. These includes all activities intended to prevent forest destruction.
a. Forest Conservation c. Forest Management
b. Forest Protection d. Forest Destruction
14. __________ is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no previous tree
cover.
a. Afforestation c. Forest Licensing
b. Reforestation d. Protection of Wildlife
15. __________is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally or artificially.

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16. __________ specifies the type and the volume or amount of allowable forest products that can be gathered
from the forest.
17. ___________ ensures that nature will be around for future generations to enjoy and also to recognize the
importance of wildlife and wilderness for humans and other species alike.
18. ____________ are upland farmers who do not have lands of their own. Their only means of livelihood is
farming. These poor farmers are allowed to stay in the forest provided they do not make any new, clearing aside
from the kaingin assigned to them.
a. Farmers c. Kaingeros
b. Police d. Tourists
19. Which is not a natural way of reforestation?
a. Coppice c. Direct seeding
b. Natural seeding d. none of the above
20. Forest preservation; Forest conservation, cutting, gathering and removing of forest product are allowed
provided that these are done in such manner that the _______ of annual harvest does not exceed the annual
increment or growth of the forest.
a. length c. weight
b. area d. volume
21. These are low growing woody plants. _____ grow in bushes. Their stems rise from a common base from the
ground. Their branches spread throughout the length of their stem.
a. Scrubs
b. Herbs
c. Grasses
d. Orchids
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22. _____ are seed plants. They do not develop woody tissues. Their stems are soft and juicy. _____live only for
one season. After their seed have ripened, they die.
a. Scrubs
b. Herbs
c. Grasses
d. Orchids
23. _____have long, narrow leaves and rounded, hollow stems. ______ are used as food by browsing animals. In
the rural areas, some _____ are used as roofing material and as a cure for some ailments.
a. Scrubs
b. Herbs
c. Grasses
d. Orchids
24._____ are called aristocrats of the woodland. They are air plants that live and grow by attaching themselves
to the stems and branches of tall trees. Most _____ have colorful flowers. Aside from their beautiful flowers,
orchids are also sources of substances used in making perfumes.
a. Scrubs
b. Herbs
c. Grasses
d. Orchids
_____
25. climb tall trees by means of their tendrils, while others just creep on the ground. Certain kinds of _____ are
useful on high prices in the market.
a. Vines
b. Mosses
c. Algae
d. Fungi
26._____ are found in moist places in the forest, especially on the soil, or on top of stones and rocks, and barks of
trees. They contain chlorophyll, which enables them to manufacture their own food. They act as moisture
absorbers and help in soil building.
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a. Vines
b. Mosses
c. Algae
d. Fungi
27.______ are simple plants that grow mostly in water. They form slimy growths on wet rocks, on surfaces of
pools, seas, and riverbanks.
a. Vines
b. Mosses
c. Algae
d. Fungi
28._____are plant like organisms with an entirely different way of life process compared with plants. They are not
plants nor animals. _____ are parasitic, living on dead or decaying organic matter, many _____ are also small that
they can only be seen in a microscope
a. Vines
b. Mosses
c. Algae
d. Fungi
29. _______are plants that are made up of an alga and a fungus living together as a single unit. the fungus obtains
its food from the alga, while the alga in turn gets its moisture from the fungus. The existence of the alga and fungi
in _______ is an example of a symbiotic relationship.
a. Lichen
b. Mosses
c. Algae
d. Fungi
30. One of the main reasons of deforestation.
a. Cutting of Trees
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b. Forest Fires
c. Afforestation
d. Reforestation
31. Means the felling and clearing of forest cover or tree plantations to accommodate agricultural, industrial or
urban use.
a. deforestation
b. foresting
c. clearing
32. A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse
effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants.
a. Global Warming
b. Earth Hotness
c. Toxicity
33.A human activity that is related to illegal logging, but this one, after cutting down trees they also burn them for
"uling" or charcoal.
a. Smoke Belching
b. Kaingin
c. Carbonizing
34. Lowlanders who migrate to uplands in search of land to own.
a. NPA
b. Squatters
c. Greaters
35. Any person who cuts, gathers, and removes timber from the forest, either for personal or commercial use
without permit or license from the government.
a. Illegal loggers
b. Bad Cutters
c. Illegal Cutters
36. They often burn a portion of forest to attract wild animals that feed on ashes. Also when theyre establishing
their camps.
a. Hunters
b. Trapper
c. Predator
37. Adult or larval insects that strips all the leaves from a tree or shrub.
a. Defoliators
b. Stripper
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c. Leaves Remover
38. A category of worms or bugs that will completely devour the entire green leafy part of a plant leaving only the
rib structure of the leaf.
a. Leaf Chewers
b. Skeletonizers
c. Leaf Miners
39. They are considered as bark borers.
a. Cambium Miners
b. Gall Makers
c. Sap suckers
40. A horticultural disease or condition, caused by a number of different pathogens that kill or weaken seeds or
seedlings before or after they germinate.
a. Damping Off
b. Root Rots
c. Blights
41.It is the rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes, and basins.
a. Flash Flood
b. Thunderstorm
c. Hurricane
d. Tropical Storm
42. Occurs when normally dry, low-lying land is flooded by seawater.

a. River flood
b. Flash flood in Arroyo
c. Coastal Flood
d. Urban Flood
43. It is the other term for Arroyo.

a. Flood
b. Wash
c. Coastal Flood
d. River Flood
44. The result of lack of drainage in an urban area.

a. Urban Flood
b. Flash Flood
c. Flood in Arroyo
d. Wash
45. Where does Urban Flood occur?

a. Province
b. Urban Area
c. Rural Area
d. Arroyo
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46. Most common cause of Flash flood

a. Lack of drainage
b.Thunderstorm
c. Meltwater
d. Snow
47. Occurs in areas that lie on the coast of the sea, ocean, or other large body of water.
a. Flood in Arroyo
b. Urban Flood
c. River Flood
d. Coastal Flood
48. Type of Flash flood that occurs in areas near the river.
a. Urban Flood
b. River Flood
c. Coastal Flood
d. Flood in Arroyo
49. How long before a Flash flood in Arroyo occur?

a. Less than a minute
b. After an hour
c. After 30 minutes
d. After 12 hours of rain
50. How many flash floods were discussed in this Seminar?

a. 3
b. 0
c. 2
d. 4
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Answers
1. A 26. B
2. B 27. C
3. B 28. D
4. C 29. A
5. D 30. A AND B
6. B 31. A
7. A 32. A
8. C 33. B
9. C 34. B
10. D 35. A
11. B 36. A
12. A 37. A
13. B 38. B
14. A 39. A
15. B 40. A
16. C 41. A.
17. D 42. C
18. C 43. B
19. C 44. A
20. D 45. B
21. A 46.A
22. B 47. D
23. C 48. B
24. D 49. A
25. A 50. D
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MARINE LIFE AND AQUATIC RESOURCES
Submitted by:
Nathan James Batalon

Jethro Tapalla
Jan Michael Seda
Gian Grent Maghanoy
Evhanwill Dela Cruz
BSME 4-3
Submitted to:
Engr. Rustom Gersin
October 2017
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PROTECTING OUR MARINE AND AQUATIC RESOURCES

&
IMPORTANCE OF MARINE LIFE
Marine conservation is the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas.
Marine conservation
focuses on limiting human-caused damage to marine ecosystems, restoring

damaged marine ecosystems, and preserving vulnerable species of the marine life.
*Aquatic resource
In general, refers to elements of a natural aquatic resource (e.g. strains, species,

populations, stocks, assemblages) which can be legally caught by fishing.
It may sometimes be taken as including also the habitat of such resources.
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
- is an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of

Agriculture responsible for the development, improvement, management and conservation of
the Philippine fisheries and aquatic resources.
WAYS TO PROTECT OUR MARINE AND AQUATIC

RESOURCES
MAKE SAFE, SUSTAINABLE SEAFOOD CHOICES
Global fish populations are rapidly being depleted due to demand, loss of habitat, and
unsustainable fishing practices. When shopping or dining out, help reduce the demand for
overexploited species by choosing seafood that is both healthful and sustainable.
Use Fewer Plastic Products

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carry a reusable water bottle, store food in nondisposable containers, other reusable bag
when shopping, and recycle whenever possible.
Don't Purchase Items That Exploit Marine Life

Certain products contribute to the harming of fragile coral reefs and marine populations.
Avoid purchasing items such as coral jewelry, tortoiseshell hair accessories (made from
hawksbill turtles), and shark products.
Educate Yourself About Oceans and Marine Life

All life on Earth is connected to the ocean and its inhabitants. The more you learn about
the issues facing this vital system, the more youll want to help ensure its healththen share that
knowledge to educate and inspire others.
IMPORTANCE OF MARINE LIFE

WHY PROTECT OUR OCEANS?
Because the oceans are the largest ecosystems on Earth, they are the Earths largest life
support systems. To survive and prosper, we all need healthy oceans.
Oceans generate half of the oxygen people breathe. At any given moment, more
than 97% of the worlds water resides in oceans.
Oceans provide a sixth of the animal protein people eat. Theyre the most
promising source of new medicines to combat cancer, pain and bacterial
diseases. Living oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reduce
the impact of climate change
Threat to Marine Biological Diversity

Pollution - Introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the
marine environment resulting in deleterious effects of such nature as to endanger human
health, harm to living resources and ecosystems, hinder marine activities
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Over Exploitation - Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living

resources to levels that cannot sustain viable populations.
Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation - A process that describes the

emergences of discontinuities (fragmentation) or the loss (destruction) of the environment
inhabited by an organism.
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Global Climate Change - change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns

when that change lasts for an extended period of time (decades to millions of years)
Destructive and Illegal Fishing
Fish and other aquatic animals are very sensitive to these chemicals. Most of them
reduce their swimming abilities. Many fishing techniques can be destructive if used
inappropriately, but some practices are particularly likely to result in irreversible damage. These
practices are mostly, though not always, illegal. Where they are illegal, they are often
inadequately enforced. Destructive Fishing Practices and Bycatch. As fish stocks decrease,
fishing methods become increasingly extreme. Destructive fishing practices devastate the marine
environment and include bottom trawling, bycatch, the use of poison and explosives and ghost
fishing.
Blast Fishing
Dynamite or blast fishing is done easily and cheaply with dynamite or homemade bombs
made from locally available materials. Fish are killed by the shock from the blast and are then
skimmed from the surface or collected from the bottom. The explosions indiscriminately kill
large numbers of fish and other marine organisms in the vicinity and can damage or destroy the
physical environment. Explosions are particularly harmfulBottom trawling[edit]
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Bottom Trawling
Bottom trawling is trawling (towing a trawl, which is a fishing net) along the sea floor. It
is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic
trawling and demersal trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean
and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the benthic zone. Bottom trawling targets both
bottom-living fish (groundfish) and semi-pelagic species such as cod, squid, shrimp, and
rockfish.
Bottom fishing has operated for over a century on heavily fished grounds such as the
North Sea and Grand Banks. While overfishing has long been recognised as causing major
ecological changes to the fish community on the Grand Banks, concern has been raised more
recently about the damage which benthic trawling inflicts upon seabed communities.[2] A
species of particular concern is the slow growing, deep water coral Lophelia pertusa. This
species is home to a diverse community of deep sea organisms, but is easily damaged by fishing
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gear. On 17 November 2004, the United Nations General Assembly urged nations to consider
temporary bans on high seas bottom trawling.[3]
Cyanide Fishing
Cyanide fishing is a method of collecting live fish mainly for use in aquariums, which
involves spraying a sodium cyanide mixture into the desired fish's habitat in order to stun the
fish. The practice hurts not only the target population, but also many other marine organisms,
including coral and thus coral reefs.
Recent studies have shown that the combination of cyanide use and stress of post capture
handling results in mortality of up to 75% of the organisms within less than 48 hours of capture.
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With such high mortality numbers, a greater number of fish must be caught in order to offset post
catch death.
Muroami
Muroami is a destructive artisan fishing method employed on coral reefs .An encircling
net is used with pounding devices, such as large stones fitted on ropes that are pounded onto the
coral reefs. They can also consist of large heavy blocks of cement suspended above the sea by a
crane fitted to the vessel. The pounding devices are repeatedly lowered into the area encircled by
the net, smashing the coral into small fragments in order to scare the fish out of their coral
refuges. The "crushing" effect on the coral heads has been described as having long-lasting and
practically totally destructive effects.
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EFFECTS OF DESTRUCTIVE AND ILLEGAL FISHING
NATURE
1. Destruction of the coral reefs.
Once a fisherman throws a dynamite to the sea there is a great possibility that they might
hit a coral reef. Coral reefs serves as a breeding place and gives protection to the baby fish. So, if
the remaining coral reefs are destroyed we might encounter a seafood shortage and some
fishermen might lose their jobs.
2. More endangered marine species.
In the past years we have lots of fishes in our seas but because of this illegal activities many
fishes are now endangered. Because most of the coral reefs in our country are destroyed, fish
loses the place where they could reproduce. We will definitely lose a lot in our resources if this
kind of activity will continue in the next years.
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3. Sea creatures
Fish and other aquatic animals are very sensitive to these chemicals. Most of them reduce
their swimming abilities.
Other effects includes delayed mortality and altered growth patterns.
HUMAN
1. Toxic to the human body
Some of the chemicals used in making dynamites are not good for the human health. Thats
why the government doesnt allow this kind of fishing method because their coulod still be small
traces of those chemicals which could cause some health problem to our body.
2. Loss of jobs
For the past years we could observe that there are lots of fishes in our seas. But today the
number of fishes caught by the fishermen become less. So, if this method would not be stop,
then, lots of fishermen might lose their jobs and this could add up to the problems our country is
facing today.
Marine Pollution
Marine Pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the entry into
the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural, and residential waste, noise, or the
spread of invasive organisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from land. Air pollution
is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean. Land and air
pollution have proven to be harmful to marine life and its habitats.
Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have devastating effects.
While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil,
are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.
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Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events.
Acidification
The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more
acidic. The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but there are
concerns that structures made of calcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution,
affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds
containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the
ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects
including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal
populations.
The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used
as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen-
depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.
Plastic Debris
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean.
Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic a component that has been rapidly accumulating
since the end of World War II. The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as 100,000,000
tonnes (98,000,000 long tons; 110,000,000 short tons).
Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings, and other forms of plastic waste which finish up in the
ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries. Aquatic life can be threatened through
entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion. Fishing nets, usually made of plastic, can be left or lost
in the ocean by fishermen.
Toxins
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate
rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent
toxins are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, and radioactive waste. Heavy
metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or
poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, and cadmium.
Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process
called bioaccumulation.
Underwater Noise
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Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships,
oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more
rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such
as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic
information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness. Between
1950 and 1975, ambient noise at one location in the Pacific Ocean increased by about
ten decibels
Red Tide
Red tide is a phenomenon caused by algal blooms during which algae become so numerous that
they discolor coastal waters (hence the name "red tide"). The algal bloom may also deplete
oxygen in the waters and/or release toxins that may cause illness in humans and other animals.
Causes
Major factors influencing red tide events include warm ocean surface temperatures, low salinity,
high nutrient content, calm seas, and rain followed by sunny days during the summer months
(NOAA). In addition, algae related to red tide can spread or be carried long distances by winds,
currents, storms, or ships.
Root Causes of Why Marine Life is at Risk

There are 5 basic reasons why life in the sea is at risk!
1.) There are too many people.

Ocean Acidification - There is evidence to suggest that human activities have
caused the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to rise dramatically. This
impacts on the marine environment as the worlds oceans currently absorb as much
as one-third of all CO2emissions in our atmosphere. This absorption of CO2 causes
the pH to decrease, resulting in the seawater becoming more acidic.
Eutrophication - is the result of a particular type of marine pollution. It is caused
by the release of excess nutrients into coastal areas via streams and rivers. These
nutrients come from fertilizers used in intensive farming practices on land.
2.) We consume too much

Over-fishing is affecting life in the sea, With more than half the worlds
population now living within 100 kilometers of the coast, its not surprising that
our activities are taking their toll. Human impacts have increased along with our
rapid population growth, substantial developments in technology and significant
changes in land use.
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Fisheries - Humans living near the coast have probably always used the ocean as
a source of food. However, with advances in fishing equipment, larger ships and
new tracking technologies, many fish stocks around the world have reduced
significantly.
3.) Our constitutions degrade, rather than conserve biodiversity

Management decisions are being delayed by a lack of sufficient data for a good
understanding of the countrys coastal and marine ecosystems. There is a lot of
ongoing research on land-based ecosystems, but not enough research on marine
ecosystems. Marine biodiversity research is expensive, and we do not have
enough trained people to do the research.
4.) We do not have the knowledge we need.

There are people that are largely unaware of the biodiversity crisis. This is often
due to lack of education. In children, it may also be caused by a removal from
nature that has accompanied the shift to a technology-dependent world. This
removal may result from the emergence of a technology-dependent lifestyle.
There are also those who understand the effects that biodiversity loss has on
everyday life, but do not know what they can do to remedy the problem.
There are also people who are aware of the biodiversity crisis but do not believe
it presents a real problem.
5.) We do not value nature enough.

Human waste and sewage water that has been partially treated or untreated goes
into the ocean. This is called garbage dumping and is one of the worlds leading
causes of ocean pollution.There are also those who understand the effects that
biodiversity loss has on everyday life, but do not know what they can do to
remedy the problem.
Other reasons for marine pollution are the dumping of industrial waste. These
products contain toxins including mercury, PCBs, PAHs, and radioactive
material, all of which pollute the ocean.
Cargo ships both accidentally and deliberately discharge crude oil into the ocean.
As far as ocean pollution goes, this is one of the primary causes.
P a g e | 165
Marine Protected Species/Endangered Marine Species
Marine Species
Refers to the plants, animals and other organisms that live in the salt water of the sea or
ocean, or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. At a fundamental level, marine life helps
determine the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms produce much of the oxygen we
breathe. Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms
even help create new land.
The marine environment may contain over 80% of worlds plant and animal species. In
recent years, many bioactive compounds have been extracted from various marine animals like
tunicates, sponges, soft corals, sea hares, nudibranchs, bryozoans, sea slugs and marine
organisms.
Marine Protected Species

Not all marine wildlife are protected by the law. The law only protects marine wildlife that are
generally classified as threatened. Threatened species are species with a conservation status
ranging from VU (Vulnerable), EN (Endangered), to CR (Critically Endangered). It is therefore
important to know what species is concerned, and if it has a threatened conservation status.
Heres a list of marine wildlife species and their IUCN conservation status:
Species Conservation Status
Marine Mammals (Whales, Dolphins, Dugong)
Balaenoptera physalus (fin whale) EN
Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) VU
Lagenodelphis hosei (Frasers dolphin) VU
CR (Malampaya Sound
Orcaella brevirostris (Irrawaddy dolphin) subpopulation)
EN (Philippine Population)
Stenalla longirostris (spinner dolphin) VU

P a g e | 166
Physeter catodon (sperm whale) VU
Dugong dugon (dugong) CR
Marine Turtles
Chelonia mydas (green turtle) EN
Caretta caretta (loggerhead turtle) EN
Eretmochelys imbricata (hawksbill turtle) CR
Lepidochelys olivacea (olive ridley turtle) EN
Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback turtle) EN
Fishes
Manta birostris (manta ray) VU
Rhincodon typus (whale shark) VU
Carcharhinus longimanus (oceanic whitetip VU

shark)
Sphyrna lewini (scalloped hammerhead shark) EN
Sphyrna mokarran (great hammerhead shark) EN
Sphyrna zigaena (smooth hammerhead shark) VU
Manta alfredi (reef manta ray) VU
*Note that there are 29 species of marine mammals, 5 species of marine turtles and more
than 200 species of sharks and rays in the Philippines. This list only shows ones that are
categorized.
Penalties range from 6 months to 12 years with fines ranging from Php10,000
P1,000,000 depending on the status of the population of the threatened species:
P a g e | 167
Critically endangered species [CR] facing extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in
the immediate future
Endangered species [EN] not critically endangered but whose survival in the wild is
unlikely if the causal factors continue operating
Vulnerable species [VU] not critically endangered nor endangered but is under threat from
adverse factors throughout their range and likely to move to the endangered category in the
near future
Endangered Marine Species

The world is gifted with a unique variety of sea creatures. But what if these animals are gone?
Marine species are one of the largest group of species that make up the worlds biodiversity.
Recently, there are over hundreds of new marine species discovered in the country making the
Philippines as the center of the center of marine biodiversity.
Despite that good news, the world has been continuously changing and the first to be affected is
the habitat of animals. Scientists may have discovered new ones but others have already become
endangered, meaning there is only a small number left, or in the worst case, extinct, where there
is no any living member.
TOP 10 MOST ENDANGERED MARINE ANIMALS

10. The Sockeye Salmon
The Sockeye Salmon is the third most common salmon species in the Pacific Ocean. It is
an anadromous species which means it migrates from the sea to freshwater in order to spawn. They
lay eggs in the river and return back to the sea. This breeding process makes it difficult to culture
salmon as they both need the river and the sea. Today, these salmons are threatened species because
they are sought after for their raw meat, served as sashimi. But little do we know, their life cycle
becomes shortened once they are caught because they wont be able to get a chance to lay millions
of eggs for continuous reproduction of their breed.
9. Borneo Shark
P a g e | 168
For every shark that kills a human, we kill 20 million in return every year,
We always have that mental image of shark killing humans, a misconception perpetuated by
popular culture, particularly by the shark attack movie Jaws. Yan added that we kill even more
sharks than they do us. What for? Poachers hunt them and create curio items made from shark
jaws. They also hunt for shark fins and shark meat to trade in the market.
The Borneo shark has been listed by the International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as
endangered. These river sharks are the rarest of all sharks because they only inhabit misty rivers.
They are so rare that people can only catch them once every 10 years.
8. The Giant Clam/Taklobo
Giant clam is the largest living bivalve mollusk which is locally known as taclobo. It can
be found on the shores of the Philippines. These clams can grow for as long as 4 feet and can weigh
for as heavy as 200 kilograms.
Unfortunately, the growing number of giant clams has stopped, making it an addition to the list of
endangered marine animals. Since the barter trade, the giant clams are being poached and harvested
as food or curio items currently, the giant clams are still being sold and served as appetizers and
turned into decorations.
7. The Manatee
Manatee is a big sea creature like a sea elephant or sea cow? Its an important symbol of
the state of Florida.
The Florida manatees are like elephants because of their slow movements due to their body size.
They are also related to the dugong because of their appearance but the main difference can be
found in their tails. A dugong has a cresent-shaped tail while a manatee has a circular one.
What threatens these precious creatures? The manatees live in warm areas like the waters of
Florida. But due to climate change, water temperature fluctuates in these waters and this affect the
manatees because they can only live in warm temperatures. Another threat is the presence of boats.
Boat propellers can injure the manatees as these creatures move so slow and might not be able to
avoid incoming boats.
6. Whale Sharks
P a g e | 169
The whale sharks are discovered in 1828 off the coast of South Africa. They are named as
such because they possess the size of a whale. The whale shark or more locally known as butanding
is considered as the biggest fish and shark in the world.
The sad truth is although it is already considered as endangered, poachers are still hunting them
for their fins and meat to be sold in the black market.
5. Green Sea Turtle
Green sea turtles are named as such because of the green layer of fats underneath their
shells. Also, they only eat sea grass and sea weeds.
The threat among green sea turtles is the global trade in sea turtle meat and turtle products. For
instance, some are being caught and killed at a very young age and will be dried and varnished to
serve as curio items. These turtles are also a favorite dish worldwide. The shells are very price and
there has been a lot of poaching. Its a very serious issue in Palawan and down towards Tubbataha
Reef. This needs to be protected.
4. Napoleon Wrasse
Napoleon wrasse or humphead wrasse, locally known as mameng, is an enormous, colorful

tropical marine fish found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific Ocean. It is considered one of
the big boys of coral reefs because of its size.
The most Ive seen is 1.2 meters. Sadly, this breed of fish is endangered as it is considered a
luxury fish in Asia. The mameng was once eaten only by royalty. Currently, the major consumers
of this fish are China, Singapore, and Malaysia. It is also being imported illegally from the
Philippines. The mameng is favored by many because it is considered to bring luck with its green
and red colors.
3. Reef Manta Ray
The reef manta ray is the largest of all rays in the world. It can grow for as huge as 10 feet
wide. Unlike sting rays, manta rays do not attack and so are not dangerous to humans.
Under R.A. 8550, the Philippine Fisheries Code, the manta ray has already been declared
endangered but people are still catching them for food. There are only less than 70% of manta rays
left in world.
2. Fin Whale
The fin whale is the second largest mammal in the world. It is long, sleek, and has a v-
shaped head.
P a g e | 170
The threat that decreases the number of fin whales is explained by Doc Nielsen (Veterinarian),
Usually, ang fin whale ay nandoon sa malalamig na karagatan at dahil sa laki nila nagkakaroon
ng mga aksidente. Bumubunggo sila sa mga barko dahil sa laki nila.
Another reason that endangers this species is that despite the bans and restrictions, commercial
whaling is still the biggest threat to their existence.
1. Bluefin Tuna
The bluefin tuna is the largest of the tuna species. Did you know that its also called red
tuna because of the color of its flesh? Its red because its rich in oxygen. Tuna meat is very red
they have what you call myoglobin which makes their blood far more oxygenated than normal
blood.
While according to Doc Nielsen, Malalaking tuna ito. First-class type of tuna that the Japanese
like for sashimi.
Bluefin tuna is also considered as a luxury fish and is listed in the Guinness book of records as the
worlds most expensive tuna. This year in Tokyo, Japan, the most expensive bluefin tuna was
bought for $37,500.

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Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Mechanical Engineering Department

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in Environmental Engineering

Engr. Rustom Gersin

o according to level of organization

How are relations similar & different in similar/different

Biotic Factors Biotic factors are the living

They are sorted into three groups:

Terms used to describe natural groups of individuals in ecological studies

Community is an assemblage or association of populations of

Community Ecology is the study of the interactions between

Patch.--Landscapes are composed of a mosaic of patches (Urban et al. 1987).

heterogeneity, or upper threshold of heterogeneity, to which an organism responds

1. Habitat Corridor Linear landscape element that provides for survivorship,

2. Facilitated Movement Corridor Linear landscape element that provides for

3. Barrier or Filter Corridor Linear landscape element that prohibits (i.e.,

4. Source of Abiotic and Biotic Effects on the Surrounding Matrix Linear

Most of the attention and debate has focused on facilitated movement

Matrix A landscape is composed typically of several types of landscape

disturbance patches embedded within; whereas, at a coarser scale, agricultural

It is important to understand how measures of landscape pattern are

Systems Ecology is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study, development and

Ecological analysis of CO2 in

Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of

Evolutionary ecology lies at the intersection of ecology and evolutionary biology. It

A biome is NOT an ecosystem. You

Hot and dry Desert

Hot DesertSonoranS.W. USA,

Semi Arid Deserts

arid- (of land or a climate) having

Ex. sagebrush of Utah, Montana and

Coastal Deserts Desert of

Coastal Deserts is a desert that is more

Ex. Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru

January is the coldest month, and

This includes all water bodies on the earths surface.

It is a type of aquatic biome that is

It is a type of aquatic biome that is

Ex. Amazon river in Brazil.

PARTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Challenged for resources (water, nutrients, mate, etc.)

When an organism captures and feeds on other organisms.

It is a feature that is common in population because it provides some improved function.

It is in which both species benefit one another.

- is the transport and transformation of chemicals in ecosystems.

TYPES OF BIOCHEMICAL CYCLE:

- A type of biochemical cycle which happens in the atmosphere.

Ex. Respiration, Combustion

- A type of biochemical cycle which is land based.

Naturally-Occuring Carbon exist in the form of:

Oxygen Exists in:

Atmosphere (Approx. 20.8%)

Earths Crust (46.6%)

CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE DIAGRAM

Photosynthesis (78% by phytoplankton, 20% by plants)

The Nitrogen Cycle

GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & Plastic)

or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes

observed with ice at or below freezing or moth crystals (napthalene or paradichlorobenzene), is

In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapo

31. It is cycle undergone by important substances so that it will be utilized by every

A. Multiple Choice 37. B