8.

5 Blending and Ratio Controls FT

Stream A

SP
C. H. KIM, E. J. FARMER (1970, 1985) B. G. LIPTK (1995) FFIC
FFY
W. GARCA-GABN (2005)

FT
Stream B
Flow sheet symbol

Type of System: A. Analog mechanical

B. Analog pneumatic
C. Analog electronic
D. Digital blending

Features Available: All designs are available with indicating, recording, or remote blend ratio adjustment
features. In the case of digital systems, signal conversion is usually required

Ratio Adjustment Ranges: Linear Square Root

A. 0.1 to 3.0 0.5 to 1.7
B. 0 to 3.0 0 to 1.7
C. 0.3 to 3.0 0.6 to 1.7
D. 0.001 to 1.999

Precision (% Full Scale): Inaccuracy Repeatability

A. 2% 0.5%
B. 1% 0.25%
C. 0.5% 0.25%
D. 0.25% or better 0.1%

Controller Cost Ranges: A. $1500 to $2500

B. $2000 to $3000
C. $2000 to $4000
D. $5000 for stand-alone unit on per ow stream basis (can also be software in
DCS system)

Partial List of Suppliers: Action Instruments (www.actionio.com)

Analogic Corp. (www.analogic.com)
Athena Controls Inc. (www.athenacontrols.com)
Barber-Colman Industrial Instruments (www.barber-colman.com)
Barton www.barton-instruments.com/index2.php
Bristol Babcock www.bristolbabcock.com
Dwyer Instruments Inc. www.dwyer-inst.com
Emerson Process Management www.emersonprocess.com
Fisher Controls International, Inc. (www.sher.com)
Foxboro-Invensys (www.foxboro.com)
Honeywell Automation and Control (www.honeywell.com/acs/index.jsp)
ICS Triplex (www.icstriplex.com)
ISE, Inc. (www.instserv.com/prod01.htm)
Jumo Process Control. Inc. (www.jumousa.com)
Love Controls Corp. (www.love-controls.com)
Matricon Inc. (www.matricon.com)
Omega Engineering Inc. (www.omega.com)
Hanin Corp. (www.pneutronics.com)
Partlow Process Instruments (www.partlow. com)
Powers Process Controls (http://www.powerscontrols.com/)
Robertshaw IDP, an Invensys Co. (www.robertshawindustrial.com)
Samson AG (www.samson.de/pdf_en/_ek16_ re.htm)

1558

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1559

Siemens Energy & Automation (www.sea.siemens.com)

Smar International (www.smar.com/products/technology.asp)
Spence Engineering Company, Inc. (www.spenceengineering.com/Handbook/index.htm)
Thermo Electric Co., Inc. (www.thermo-electric-direct.com)
Thermosystems (www.thermosystems.it)
Toshiba International Corp. (www.tic.toshiba.com)
Triplett Corp. (www.triplett.com)
United Electric Controls (www.ueonline.com)
Watlow (www.watlow.com)
Westinghouse Process Control (www.westinghousepc.com)
Wilkerson Instrument Co. (www.wici.com)
Yokogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com)

INTRODUCTION systems will be described to show the operating principles

involved. A brief discussion of scaling procedures will be
In addition to this section, blending and ratio control is also showed. Future trends on blending systems are illustrated, and
discussed in other sections of this handbook. Section 2.23 some journals and papers with a practical point of view are
covers the theory of ratio control, while Section 2.12 dis- available in the References. Finally, conclusions are presented.
cusses the interaction and decoupling in blending systems.
Section 2.25 covers the relative gain aspects of ratio controls
and also covers distribution control among a number of BLENDING METHODS
destinations.
Blending control is applied when the control objective is Automatic, continuous, in-line blending systems provide
to mix two or more ows to achieve a specic composition. control of gases, liquids, and solids in predetermined propor-
Ratio control keeps the proportion between two or more tions at a desired total blend ow rate. Typical applications
variables, often ows, at the desired set point. Blending con- of blending and ratio control include maintaining a stoichi-
trols are required in the production of solvents, paints, reactor ometric ratio of reactants to a reactor, keeping the air/fuel
feeds, foams, fertilizers, soaps, and liquid cleaners in the ratio to a boiler of furnace, and holding a reux ratio for a
chemical industry. In the petroleum industry it is used in the distillation column at the optimum value. The blending sys-
production of gasoline, asphalt, lube and fuel oils, and dis- tems consist of ow transmitters (to detect controlled vari-
tillates. In the food industry, in the making of wine, beer, ables), ratio relays (to set proportions), and controllers (to
candy, soap, ice cream mix, and cake mix. In the construction complete the closed-loop control).
industry, in the making of cement, wire insulation, and asbes- A two-stream blending system is illustrated in Figure 8.5a.
tos products. Another example of ratio control is the control The component A ow controller is set by the total blend
of the air/fuel ratio in a boiler or a furnace. ow controller, and the component B ow is ratioed to A.
These applications provide the processor with economic
advantages by controlling the consumption of materials
System
(costly components and additives can be blended more pre- shutdown
cisely) and by reducing investment in oor space and batch FCV-A controls
Component A
tanks (costly blend tanks are eliminated). Through using con-
tinuous systems, the time lags resulting from batch methods FT FQIS Preset
are eliminated, productivity is increased, personnel needs are totalizer
reduced, and inventory can be in the form of component base FIC Set FIC
stocks rather than as partially blended or nished products. FY
A C
Blending systems give technical advantages by accurately X
Ratio FY
controlling the quality of the product and by providing the setter
exibility to blend a variety of nished products with mini- Set
mum time required to change from one product to another. FIC
FY FY
This control approach achieves continuous control of the B
ow of each component with xed ratios around components,
so that when the streams are combined to form the nished FT FT Blended
blend at a xed throughput rate, the composition of the n- Component B product
ished product is within specications. FCV-B
In this section, blending systems will be described from
the standpoint of control techniques. Analog and digital blend- FIG. 8.5a
ing systems will be studied. A number of typical blending Analog rate blending of two components.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1560 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

System Flow A
Component A shutdown
controls FT
(flow = F2) A
Ratio setting
Set
(K)
FT FY FIC point LIC
X
F2 FIC Set FY FQIS Preset A A
A totalizer
Ratio
Ratio X set point
F1 = F2 + F3 setters FY AIC
X
F3 FIC Set FY
B
Blended
F1
Component B FT FIC FT product FY FIC
C (flow = F1) B B
(flow = F3)

FIG. 8.5b FT
B
Both components can be directly ratioed to the total flow in an
analog blending system. Flow B

It is also possible to have both blending components
ratioed to the total blend ow, as shown in Figure 8.5b. In
either case, the blending system maintains the blending ratio
as well as the total ow rate. Incorporation of a preset total-
izer with automatic system shutdown facilities provides
batching capability, as well.
In both of these control congurations the total-ow con-
troller is the cascade master, while the cascade slaves are the
individual ow controllers. The only difference is that in
Figure 8.5b the slaves are congured in parallel, while in
Figure 8.5a they are in series. These control congurations
can be further simplied by, for example, eliminating FIC-A
in Figure 8.5a and allowing FIC-C to manipulate FCV-A
directly. Because the time constants of the master and slave
loops are similar in these cascade congurations, it is often
necessary to detune the master (FIC-C), because otherwise
it might change the set points of the slaves faster than they
can respond to these changes.
FIG. 8.5c
The level controller LIC manipulates the flow rate of A, while the
composition controller AIC manipulates the A/B flow ratio.
It is also possible to automatically control not only the
total ow rate but also the composition of the blended
stream. When composition control is also required
(Figure 8.5c), it is recommended to let the total-ow master
control the larger of the two streams and let composition set
the set point of the smaller of the two streams. If the two
blended streams are close to each other, such control systems
will interact, and a change in one of the cascade loops will
upset the other.
Such interactions can be decoupled by replacing the ow-
based slave controllers (FIC-A and FIC-B) with slave con-
trollers whose measurements have been modied as shown in
Figure 8.5d. If total ow is the master of the slave that mea-
sures (A + B), while composition is the master of the slave
that measures A/(A + B), the interaction will be eliminated.

b1 = c 1

m1(s)
+ +
r1(s) F11(s) G11(s) c1(s)
+ + +
p

F12(s) = 1 G12(s)

m1(s) F21(s)= a G21(s)

Q
m2(s)
+ + +
r2(s) F22(s) G22(s) c2(s)
+ +
b2 = c2

FIG. 8.5d
A generalization of a two-variable control system, which provides noninteracting control.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1561

Many of the commercially available blending systems Reference

provide such accessories as ow alarm indications, system oscillator
shutdown features, temperature compensation circuitries, Component A
scalers for conversion of transmitted signals to easily under- Bidirectional FQT
stood engineering units, pacing controls to slow down or shut Scaler digital
FQIC
controllers
down automatically, and manual or automatic adjustment of
FY
blend rate and ratio. All of these systems share one type or FQT
X
another of a ratioing mechanism. The methods of blending FY FQT FY FQIC
will be examined here. The working principles of compo-
nents will be detailed in the latter part of this section. FQT
X
FY FQT FY

Rate Blending FQT Scaler

The blending system shown in Figure 8.5a is commonly found
in the chemical industry for blending gas or liquid ows. A
typical example is the manufacture of hydrochloric acid,
which is done at xed concentration and regulated ow rate
by the absorption of anhydrous hydrogen chloride gas in
water. The ow rate of hydrochloric acid from the absorption
tower is measured to set the water ow, thereby maintaining
the desired throughput, and the anhydrous hydrogen chloride
gas is ratioed to water ow to give constant concentration.
A system in which all the blend components are ratioed
to the total blend ow is illustrated in Figure 8.5b. A well-
known example of this application is in the continuous or
semicontinuous charging of a batch reactor, in which the
recipe is given to set only the ratios of each ingredient and
the total reactant charging rate. In the semicontinuous batch
operation, a preset totalizer is used to terminate the charging
operation when all ingredients have been charged. Numerous
streams can be blended by incorporation of additional ratio
devices and related controls.
Totalizing Blending
When totalized ows are ratioed, the integrated quantity of
each component (over a period) is controlled in a direct ratio
to the total quantity of the blended product. A schematic dia-
gram of a totalizing blending system is shown in Figure 8.5e.
System
shutdown
Component controls
A sent directly to nal shipping and storage containers. Multi-
FT
FQIC Set FY X FQIC
FQT
Blended
product
Bidirectional
Scaler FQIC digital
controller
Component B
FIG. 8.5f
Digital totalizing blending system.
This system provides more precise control over the amount of
each component than is possible with a rate-blending system.
In the rate-blending system corrections are made to the ratio
controller ow only after deviations have occurred (feedback
control) and without correction for errors that have already
occurred. In other words, the control system has no memory.
Totalizing the ows and comparing the totals ensures the pre-
cise percentage of each component in the total blend.
Digital techniques have also been applied to digital
blending systems, as shown in Figure 8.5f. Turbine meters
or other pulse-generating devices can be used to generate
digital ow signals. A bidirectional counter is used to inte-
grate the ow measurement and demand signals and to com-
pare them in order to generate a corrective control signal
whenever the counts in the bidirectional counter memory are
not zero.
The totalizing blending system (analog or digital) nds
use in continuous in-line blending of petroleum products,
such as gasoline and asphalts, in which long runs and batch-
ing operations require precise control of ingredients to ensure
in-spec blending and uniform end products. The accuracy of
this system allows for on-line blending of many petroleum,
chemical, food, and cement products, with the product being
component blending systems can be obtained by the addition
of more ow ratio controllers.

X Optimizing Blending
FQIC Set FY FQIC
FQT
Almost the entire commercially available ratio relays and
FT FT Blended controllers are able to accept remote set points. Therefore,
Component product the blend ratios and total blend ow rates can be automati-
B cally adjusted by a process variable (output temperature,
output pressure, composition, and so on). Thus, an optimizing
FIG. 8.5e blending system has the added capability of automatically
Analog totalizing blending system. manipulating ratio settings or the total rate, or both, based

2006 by Bla Liptk

1562 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Stack SP Another application is reactor feed rate control of jack-

gases eted exothermic reactors, based on the heat transfer coef-
AT AIC cient and plant cooling capacity.

ANALOG BLENDING

TT The heart of the analog blending system is the mechanism

for ratio control. This is often a separate component, although
SP it may be housed with the controller. As shown in Figure 8.5a,
TIC SP a blending system can be constructed by ratio controlling the
SP FIC FIC blend components with the total blend ow. Thus, the total
X blend rate is controlled together with the individual blend
FY
ratios. With incorporation of a preset totalizer, system shut-
FT FT down can be initiated when batch blending is completed.
Air Fuel
The ratio control relationship is derived with reference
to the system shown in Figure 8.5b. It is assumed that C1 and
C2 are the ow constants for the ow-measuring orices.
FIG. 8.5g Then,
Control system where the air/fuel ratio is automatically adjusted to
control the CO concentration in the stack gas.
F1 = C1 P1 or P1 = ( F1 / C1 )2 8.5(1)
on certain optimal criteria. Following this optimizing blend-
ing application, some approaches are illustrated. and
The conventional air/fuel ratio control system is not ver-
satile enough to maintain the air/fuel ratio in the range of F2 = C2 P2 or P2 = ( F2 /C2 )2 8.5(2)
high conversion efciency at all operating conditions, espe-
cially in transient state or if the fuel characteristics change. where
Also, minimum pollution is desired in the stack gases. A ratio F1 = total ow rate
control based on an analysis of the stack gases in a furnace
F2 = component A ow rate
is shown in Figure 8.5g.
The control strategy adjusts the fuel/air ratio, optimizing P1 = output signal of total ow transmitter
CO percentage composition of the stack gases. Environmen- P2 = output signal of component A ow transmitter
tal and economical reasons require more complex congura-
tion than classic control ratio, because an incomplete com- If K is the desired ratio setting,
bustion results in the inefcient use of fuel and pollution. P2 = KP1 8.5(3)
Optimizing ratio control employs a feedback signal based on
the analyzer transmitter (AT), to regulate the fuel/air ratio. By substituting Equation 8.5(3) into Equation 8.5(2),
Thus, the temperature controller sets the reference value of
the fuel control loop. The reference value of air loop control F2 = C2 KP1 8.5(4)
is set not only by fuel ow value (like classic ratio control)
but also by CO analyzer information. This control approach and by substituting Equation 8.5(1) into Equation 8.5(4) and
optimizes the fuel/air ratio, avoiding atmosphere pollution simplifying,
and loss of energy.
A schematic of an optimizing blending system is shown
in Figure 8.5c, in which the blend analyzer is used to mea- F2 = (C1 / C2 )( K )( F1 ) 8.5(5)
sure composition and to adjust the ratio setting, while the
level in some downstream tank is used to set the total ow Using the same mathematical derivation, a ratioing sys-
rate. tem with linear input signals can be expressed as
A densitometer can be used to detect the solution con-
centration and to correct the ratio settings, avoiding set point F2 = (C1 / C2 )( K )( F1 ) 8.5(6)
deviations in the hydrochloric manufacturing process. A
chromatographic analysis or Reid vapor pressure measure- A graphical representation of Equation 8.5(6) is shown
ment of gasoline provides automatic adjustment of the blend- in Figure 8.5h, top, and the inverse-ratio controller charac-
ing ratio of components such as butane to give the proper teristic is illustrated on the bottom. From Equation 8.5(5) it
octane number. can be seen that the square root input signals from the

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1563

100 100

3.0
K=
80 80

1.0
2.0
1.0
Secondary flow (%)

Secondary flow (%)

=
K=
=

K
K
60 60
0.5
K=
40 40
0.5
K=
20 20
K = 0.1 Primary flow Primary flow
0 (%) 0 (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Secondary flow with minimum limit
(positive bias)

100
100

80
80
Secondary flow (%)

K=3

2.0
Secondary flow (%)
K
=

K=
60
1.

.0

60
0

1.0
=
K=

K
40 0.5
40
0.5
K=
20
K = 0.1 20
Primary flow
Primary flow
0 (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100
FIG. 8.5h Negative bias
Direct ratio relationship (top) and inverse ratio relationship FIG. 8.5i
(bottom). Biased ratio relationships.

Figure 8.5j illustrates that each pen assembly spindle

owmeters can be used as in Figure 8.5f, with the ratio ow connects to one of the proportioning mechanism input levers
control circuit based on a linear relationship. The only mod- through an adjustable link. Each input lever positions an
ication is the square root calibration of the ratio setting dial
and of the indicating dials.
The ratio setting dial is graduated and calibrated as the
square root of the linear ratio. Most ratio control mechanisms Spindle
provide for bias adjustments to change the basic character-
istics shown in Figure 8.5h, to meet various process require- Rack and pinion
ments. Figure 8.5i shows some of these biased relationships Connecting link from
primary receiver
in which the secondary ow has a preset minimum value or
is kept at zero until the primary ow reaches some value. Connecting link from
controlled receiver
(secondary)
Mechanical Ratio Control
Ratio beam
The mechanical ratio control system consists of a proportion-
ing mechanism, pneumatic or electronic ow signal receivers, Primary line
and a case-mounted controller. The adjusting system resets input lever
the control point at a preset ratio by means of an adjustable Internal crank arm
mechanical linkage. The receivers are linked to a pen assem- Ratio selector dial
bly, and output motion from the pen assembly operates the Controlled line input lever
Controller connecting link
proportioning mechanism. Subsequent output motion from
the proportioning mechanism positions the input lever of the FIG. 8.5j
pneumatic controller. Ratio proportioning mechanism.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1564 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
internal crank arm assembly and raises or lowers one end of
the ratio beam. In turn, the link from the ratio beam connects
to the input lever of the controller. The overall result is that
controller output pressure changes whenever a receiver
moves an input lever.
For remote adjustment of ratio set point, the manual set
ratio mechanism can be replaced by a pneumatic receiver. In
that case an external 315 PSIG (0.21.0 bar) set-point signal
is used to position the receiver in proportion with the desired
ratio. The ratio proportioning mechanism is precalibrated at
the factory for the specic application, and all that is normally
required is to check before use that the match marks are
aligned and that the recorder pens and the transmitting meters
are synchronized.
Lubrication is seldom required, but the mechanism
should be periodically inspected, cleaned, and checked so
that the proportioning mechanism operates frictionlessly.
An output inaccuracy of 2% full scale can be obtained.
Rangeability of this type of proportioning mechanism is
approximately 40:1.
Pneumatic Ratio Control
The pneumatic ratio controllers contain no friction-producing
mechanical links. The ratio relay modies the input signal
by means of the pneumatic circuit illustrated in Figure 8.5k.
The primary variable signal is tubed through a xed
restriction (FO) into an adjustable area restriction. If the
variable restriction valve is closed, the signal is not modied.
This condition represents 100% ratio, because the controlled
variable signal (the set point of the secondary ow controller)
must equal the primary variable signal for the control circuit
to be satised.
If the adjustable area restriction is opened, the pressure
between the two restrictions will drop until the ow through
the xed area restriction equals the ow through the adjust-
able area restriction. Thus, the pressure is modied as a
function of the opening of the adjustable area restriction. By
Primary flow
FT
FIC
Set at
PCV 3 PSIG
(0.2 bar)
Ratio FO
delay Vent
Fixed Variable
Booster FY restriction
restriction
relay
FIC
FT
Secondary flow
FIG. 8.5k
Pneumatic ratio relay.
2006 by Bla Liptk
calibrating the adjustable restriction in terms of percentage
ratio, one can set the relay for any desired ratio within its
limits.
A booster relay should be used to ensure rapid transmis-
sion of the modied signal from the ratio relay to the con-
troller. For applications in which the secondary variable set
point will always be less than 100% of the primary, a 1:1
booster relay is recommended. In other cases a 2:1 or higher
booster may be used.
The pneumatic set ratio circuit is identical to the manual
set ratio relay, except that the adjustable restriction opening
is set by a pneumatic diaphragm motor. This allows for con-
tinuous automatic adjustment of the ratio in accordance with
a pneumatic signal received from a quality controller or other
optimizing device (Figure 8.5c). Incorporation of reset in the
quality controller is recommended to eliminate the necessity
for vernier adjustments to obtain the exact ratio and to com-
pensate for the linearity limitations of the ratio unit.
The ratio relay should be calibrated at a specic ratio
setting under actual operating conditions, even though the
ratio setting is to be changed with operating conditions, to
obtain maximum system accuracy. The accuracy (secondary
ow set point) of 1% of full scale can be expected. Signal
rangeabilities of 50:1 can be obtained, but system rangeabil-
ity is determined by the owmeters used. Most pneumatic
ratio control systems are not designed to operate below 20%
of full-scale ow with square root signals or below 10% of
full-scale ow with linear signals.
Electronic Ratio Control
Electronic ratio control systems operate on the Wheatstone
bridge principle, shown in Figure 8.5l.
The bridge is said to be in a null, or balanced, condition
when the ratios of resistance are such that Rc /R1 = Rf /R2, and
no potential difference exists between points A and B. If
the ratio Rc /R1 changes, then Rf /R2 must also change by a
like amount and in the same direction in order to maintain a
null, or balanced, condition.
Figure 8.5m illustrates the operating principle of a
Wheatstone bridge control system. Here, the xed resistors,
or bridge arms, are replaced by potentiometers so that the
ratios previously mentioned are easily varied. Assuming an
initial balance, an increase or decrease in the setting of the
command potentiometer (primary) causes an error signal to
R1 R2
Reference
A B
voltage
Rc Rf
FIG. 8.5l
The Wheatstone bridge.
 8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1565

Feedback
(secondary) Ratio-
potentiometer setting
potentiometer R3
+
Reference
Command R1 A B R2
+
voltage
R1 A B R2
Command
Reference
(primary) Rc Rf
(primary) Error Feedback
voltage Error (secondary)
potentiometer Rc detector Rf
amplifier signal

Mechanical load FIG. 8.5o

(output signal) Electronic ratio circuit.
Drive
motor

FIG. 8.5m In this example the feedback signal is a measurement of

Wheatstone bridge operation.
appear at the input of a servo amplier, which supplies power
to the driven load.
The direction of movement is dependent upon the polar-
ity (or phase) of the error signal. The brush arm of the
feedback potentiometer is mechanically geared to the driven
load (secondary) and thus rotates until Rf /R2 = Rc /R1. At this
point a null again exists (error signal equals zero), and posi-
tioning ceases. The actual position of each pot wiper,
expressed as a fraction of its total possible travel, may be
written
Rc Rf
and
Rc + R1 R f + R2
At null, Rc/(R2 + R1) = Rf /(Rf + R2). This is shown graph-
ically in Figure 8.5n for a 0100% movement of the command.
actual movement or displacement, but when used in a ow
ratio application, the feedback signal will be related to the
secondary set point, and the command becomes the primary
(wild) ow variable signal. Introduction of a xed resistance
in series with the command pot causes a change in the slope
of the characteristic curve in Figure 8.5n.
By making this additional resistance a potentiometer, as
shown in Figure 8.5o, one can limit the full-range travel of
the feedback pot and of the driven load (secondary) to any
desired degree for a 0100% movement of the command.
In Figure 8.5o the feedback pot position at null will be
Rf Rc Rc
= = K1 8.5(8)
R f + R2 Rc + R1 + R3 Rc + R1
8.5(7)
where K1 = (Rc + R1)/(Rc + R1 + R3). The slope of the char-
acteristic curve in Figure 8.5p is K1, and its value is dependent
upon the setting of R3, which is usually calibrated to represent
K1, the ratio setting.

100
100

80
0
.0
Feedback or secondary (%)

80 1.
=2

=
(secondary) (%)

K1
1
K

60
[Rf /(Rf + R2)]

Feedback

60
.5
=0
K1
40 40
0.4
K1=
20 20

0 0
20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Command or primary (%) Command
[Rc/(Rc + R1)] (primary) (%)

FIG. 8.5n FIG. 8.5p

Command-to-feedback relationship. Command-to-feedback relationships.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1566 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
Electronic ratio control provides fast, accurate, and
adjustable ratios between input and output signals. Accuracy
of 0.5% of span is attainable.
Care should be exercised to provide a constant supply
voltage and frequency. A change of 10% from the nominal
voltage will cause a zero shift of as much as 0.5% of input
value, and a change of 10 Hz over the range of 4763 Hz
will cause a zero shift of 0.25% of input value.
RATIO DIAL SETTING
The setting of the ratio relay is a function of the ranges of
the transmitters. If the transmitters are measuring over the
same range and in identical units, the graduations on the ratio
dial represent the exact ratio between the primary and sec-
ondary ows. However, where maximum capacities and pri-
mary meter measurement units differ, the ratio selector dial-
setting must be calculated for each ratio desired.
Commercially available ratio control units are graduated
to handle signals of the same characteristics (either linear or
square root) and of the same units. The following equation
is used to calculate ratio dial settings:
( Fpm )
ratio dial setting = ( R)
( Fsm )
where
Fp = ow rate through primary
Fs = ow rate through secondary
Fpm = maximum capacity of primary ow transmitter
Fsm = maximum capacity of secondary ow transmitter
R = desired ratio of Fs /Fp
If Fpm is 50 GPM (189 1/m) and Fsm is 25 GPM (95 1/m),
and it is desired to maintain the secondary at exactly 25% of
the primary ow, then the ratio dial setting is (50/25)(0.25) =
50%. In selecting the ratio dial settings, one should keep in
mind the rangeability limitations of the ow transmitters.
(See Chapter 2, Process Measurement and Analysis.)
SCALING PROCEDURES
At this point a brief discussion of scaling in general may be
helpful. Scaling is required not only in blending or ratio
systems but in all control systems where calculations must
be based on normalized (0100%) transmitted signals, which
represent different engineering quantities. The discussion on
scaling here will consider the nature of traditional pneumatic
relays (multiplying and dividing) in addition to analog elec-
tronic or DCS systems and will provide two examples.
The rst example will be the scaling of a multiplier relay
used in mass ow calculations, while the second example
will describe the scaling of two relays (a multiplying one and
2006 by Bla Liptk
a subtracting one), which are combined together to make a
heat transfer calculation.
Multiplying and Dividing
Pneumatic multipliers typically have only two inputs, but
several adjustable coefcients are available to facilitate scal-
ing. The general formula for a multiplier is
A = a + f (B b)[C(1 c) + c] 8.5(10)
Coefcients a, b, and c are bias or zero adjustments for the
three signals, f is the gain of the device with both inputs at
100%, and 1 c is the span of the C input. The formula for
a divider is found by solving Equation 8.5(10) for signal B:
Aa
B=b+ 8.5(11)
f [C (1 c) + c]
Each instrument in a computing system, including indi-
cators, recorders, and transmitters, should be calibrated
against a common standard where possible. The most reliable
standard to use is a mercury column, accurate to 0.1% of
the 315 PSIG (0.21.0 bar) range.
8.5(9)
Calibrating multipliers and dividers is particularly pains-
taking because the adjustments must be made in a specic
order. Referring to Equation 8.5(10) for a multiplier:
1. Zero adjustment a must be made with signals B and
C at zero.
2. Zero adjustment b must be made with signal B at
zero and C at 100%.
3. Zero adjustment c must be made with signal B at
100% and signal C at zero.
4. Span adjustment 1 c must be made with B at some
specied intermediate value and C at 100%.
A similar procedure must be followed with dividers.
After all components are calibrated individually, the sys-
tem must be calibrated as a whole, to offset systematic (non-
statistical) errors. Almost any of the adjustments can be used
to calibrate the system at a single operating point, but the
wrong choice may cause a greater error at some other point.
So, the accuracy of the system should be evaluated at
several sets of conditions to determine which of the available
adjustments would minimize the average error for all sets.
Often more than one coefcient may require adjustment.
Scaling a Multiplier
Consider the example where a gas owmeter requires com-
pensation for absolute pressure:
W = k hP 8.5(12)
 8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1567

where W is the mass ow, h is the orice differential pressure,

and P is the absolute pressure. The orice and differential TABLE 8.5q
Heat Exchanger Operating Conditions
range are selected so that 100% differential equals 100% ow
at the normal operating pressure. With this in mind, scaling Signal Variable Range Normal Value
requires knowing only the normal pressure and the range of
B F 0100 gpm 60 gpm
the pressure transmitter. 3 3
(00.38 m /m) (0.23 m /m)
Let the normal pressure be 64.7 psia and the transmitter
range be 075 PSIG with a base of 14.7 psia. Compensation A T2 2575F (3.923.9C) 50F (10C)
requires that the multiplier exhibit a gain of 1.00 at the normal C T1 050F (1810C) 30F (1.1C)
pressure. The absolute pressure range is 14.789.7 psia; E Q 060,000 BTU/hr 48,000 BTU/hr
therefore, (017,400 W) (13,920 W)

P = 14.7 + 75C 8.5(13)

Coefcient k includes liquid density and specic heat,
Here, signal C represents the pressure input to the mul- but it can be calculated from the normal operating conditions
tiplier. Then, the compensating factor determined at the nor- given in Table 8.5q.
mal pressure is

Q 48, 000
P
= 0.227 + 1.160C 8.5(14) k= = = 40 8.5(18)
64.7 F (T1 T2 ) 60 (50 30)

To conform with Equation 8.5(10), the maximum value of

Next, the normalizing equations are written, relating sig-
the compensating factor is extracted as f = 89.7/64.7 = 1.387:
nals A, B, C, and E to the variables in Equation 8.5(17):

P Q = 60,000E 8.5(19)
= 1.387 (0.836C + 0.164) 8.5(15) F = 100B 8.5(20)
64.7
T2 = 25 + 50A 8.5(21)
T1 = 50C 8.5(22)
Then, the scaled equation for the multiplier is
A = 1.38B(0.836C + 0.164) 8.5(16) Note that when signal A is 0, T2 is actually 25F, and
when signal A is 100% (1.0), T2 is 75F.
where A is the multiplier output and B and C are the orice Substituting the normalized equation into Equation 8.5(17)
differential and pressure inputs, respectively. A square-root yields
extractor following the multiplier completes the calculation.
60,000E = (100B)40(25 + 50A 50C) 8.5(23)
Scaling a Heat-Transfer Calculation
Solving for E,
A simple yet highly effective procedure to be followed when
scaling is: E = 3.33B(0.5 + A C) 8.5(24)

Equation 8.5(24) must be solved by a subtractor and

1. Write the equation to be solved, including all conver-
multiplier in combination, as shown in Figure 8.5r.
sion factors, with all signals given in the units in which
Because it is solved in two operations, Equation 8.5(24)
they are to be measured or displayed.
must be separated into two pieces. Let the intermediate vari-
2. Relate each input and output signal (having a range
able be identied as D:
of 01.0) to the range of each variable, by a set of
normalizing equations. D = 0.55 + A C 8.5(25)
3. Substitute the normalizing equations into the original E = 3.33BD 8.5(26)
equation and solve for the output signal.

As an example, apply this procedure to the calculation X

+
of the rate of heat transfer, Q, to a liquid cooling medium. T2 FY FY Q
A D E
The liquid is owing at rate F, with an inlet temperature T1 C B
and a higher outlet temperature T2. The conditions are given
in Table 8.5q. T1 F
The equation to be solved is
FIG. 8.5r
Q = Fk(T2 T1) 8.5(17) Scaling a heat-transfer calculation.

2006 by Bla Liptk

1568 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

The entire factor 3.33 in the equation is shown applied If simple characteristics are assumed for the transfer
to the multiplier. This is not altogether necessary; for exam- functions in the block diagram, the overall system transfer
ple, the subtractor could have a gain of 2.0 and the multiplier function for set-point disturbances can be expressed as:
a gain of 1.67. In that case:
T (s + 1) Ti (s + 1)
D = 1.0 + 2.0(A C) Fs = RFp s
8.5(27)
p
T ( s + 1) (TiTs / Kc )s + Ti (1/ Kc + 1)(s + 1)
2

E = 1.67BD 8.5(28)
8.5(29)
This tends to improve the accuracy of the calculation but where
increases the danger of saturating the subtractor. Whenever Tp = lag of primary ow measuring element
more than one device is used in this way, each operation Ts = lag of secondary ow measuring element
should be tested for saturation with reasonable combinations Ti = integral time of controller
of inputs. In this example, a combination of 75F for T2 and Kc = controller gain
0F for T1 would not be reasonable.
As can be seen from Equation 8.5(29), the best regulation
of the controlled secondary variable (with primary variable
changes) can be obtained when the lags Tp, Ts, and Ti are
RATIO CONTROLLER TUNING minimum and the controller gain Kc is maximum, without
creating instability. This statement is true not only for ratio
A block diagram of a simple ratio control system is shown loops but for feedback loops of all types.
in Figure 8.5s. In the ratio control system, the set point of
the secondary controller is directly related to the output of the DIGITAL BLENDING SYSTEM
primary ow transmitter. As the primary ow changes, the
secondary controller assumes a new set point to maintain the The application of digital techniques to ratioing and blending
desired ratio. may result in the total elimination of control system errors.
This system continuously compares the total accumulated
ows from each additive line with the total accumulated
signal from a master oscillator. If there is a difference
Primary between these two values the corresponding control valve is
flow (Fp) repositioned to correct the deviation.
An overall digital blending system is illustrated in
FT Figure 8.5t. The ow of each component is digitized by a
FIC turbine or displacement-type owmeter or by an analog-to-
FY
X Set pulse generator, producing a pulse train whose frequency is
proportional to ow rate. A standardizer is used to scale the
FIC
transmitter output frequency to a common reference basis,
Secondary FT such as 1000 pulses per gallon (265 pulses per liter). This
flow (Fs)
frequency is compared with a reference frequency produced
Fp by a numerically controlled frequency generator, which is
A commonly referred to as a binary multiplier.
The inputs to the multiplier consist of a numerical quan-
R d
r Gd tity and a pulse frequency, and the output is a new pulse train
Comparator + e + + Fs
Gc m Gv Gp whose frequency is the product of the two inputs. The mul-
b tiplier produces two reference frequencies proportional to the
Gh
manually set numerical ratio settings of K and (1 K).
A = Input element. Gd = Disturbance or load Each digitized ow rate is compared with its correspond-
b = Feedback variable. transfer function. ing demand signal generated by the ratio set module (binary
d = Disturbance or load Gh = Feedback sensor transfer multiplier). This comparison is performed by a bidirectional
variable. function. binary counter. The bidirectional counter counts in the pos-
e = Error (deviation) signal. Gp = Process transfer function.
itive direction on pulses from one input and in the negative
Fp = Primary flow. Gv = Control valve transfer function.
m = Manipulated variable.
direction on pulses from the other input.
Fs = Secondary flow.
Gc = Controller transfer r = Reference (set-point) input. The set-point pulses produce add pulses, and the mea-
function. R = Desired ratio. surement pulses produce subtract pulses. Hence, if the
ow-generated pulses equal the demand pulses, the algebraic
FIG. 8.5s sum is zero and no change will occur in the binary memory,
Ratio control loop. and no corrective action is taken.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1569

Ratio setting (K) Ratio setting (IK)

Binary Binary
Totalizer Totalizer
multiplier multiplier
Kfm(I + )

(IK)fm(1+ )

Anti- Anti-
Standardizer Standardizer
coincidence coincidence

fm (I + )
Bidirectional Bidirectional
counter counter

D/A and D/A and

Component amplifier amplifier Component
A B
fm
Binary
multiplier

Variable
Bidirectional
frequency
counter
oscillator

Anti- fm
coincidence
fb
Totalizer
Standardizer

Blended Preset System

product total shutdown

FIG. 8.5t
Schematic diagram of a two-element digital blending system.

Should the rate from one input exceed that from the other,
an error count will accumulate in the memory, causing the
valve-control logic to generate a proportional correction. This
correction signal, after conversion and amplication, positions
the control valve. Thus, the quantitatively controlled ow rates
of the blend components are maintained at the prescribed ratio.
For applications requiring precise control of total ow
rate as well as of the blend ratios, a further digital control
loop is provided, as shown in Figure 8.5t. Here a variable
frequency oscillator is manually set so that its frequency is
proportional to the desired total blend ow rate. This refer-
ence signal ( fm ), together with the signal generated by the
actual total blended ow rate ( fb ), is synchronized by anti-
coincidence logic and accumulated in a bidirectional binary
counter. The instantaneous counts (accumulation) of this
counter are a measure of the difference between the total
number of pulses generated by the reference oscillator and
by the owmeter, respectively. Thus,
= fm fb 8.5(30)
where
= instantaneous error accumulation in bidirectional
counter
fm = reference oscillator frequency
fb = total blend owmeter-generated frequency
This instantaneous error () serves as the numerical input
into a binary multiplier whose input frequency is fm. There-
fore, the multiplier output frequency is fm. This output is
then mixed with fm in such a manner as to avoid time coin-
cidence, and it thereby yields a pulse train having the average
frequency of fm(1 + ). Thus, if the blend operation produces
a ow rate that is less than the sum of the constituent ow
rates, or if the blend output ow rate must be controlled while
the blend ratios are kept constant, then the error term ()
provides the necessary augmentation to the total ow rate
reference frequency. The frequency input to the ratio setting
binary multipliers is fm(1 + ), and the resulting ratio demand
outputs are
Kfm(1 + ) and (1 K)fm(1 + ) 8.5(31)
for the two-component blending system.
This principle can also be used automatically to slow
down the total blend ow rate, by substitution of the master
demand frequency ( fm ) with a component ow frequency as
an input to the master bidirectional counter. This feature is
useful when one component may fall behind at start-up, when
a strainer is plugged, or when a pump cannot meet the ow
requirements.
When this occurs, the component controller takes over
the pacing from the master demand unit if a predetermined

2006 by Bla Liptk

1570 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
error has been accumulated and adjusts the total ow rate to
a value that the component can maintain. An alarm and auto-
matic shutdown logic circuitry can also be incorporated to
signal alarm conditions or automatically shut down the sys-
tem if any of the components fall below their preset minimum
rates.
The total blended product requirement may be preset on
a totalizer to initiate batch shutdown. Analyzers or optimizers
can be added to adjust automatically the blend ratios or the
total blend ow rate as required.
The inaccuracy of the overall control system can exceed
0.25%, with repeatability of better than 0.1%. The blend
ratio setting can cover a range from 0.001 to 1.999, using
four-digit thumbwheels. In a digital blending system, the
dynamic response is limited only by the control valve stroke
speeds, because the control system itself has practically no
dead time.
TRENDS IN BLENDING SYSTEMS
High accuracy and optimal quality with easy recipe changes
are the capabilities of microprocessor-based blending con-
trols (Figure 8.5u). Nowadays, advanced control strategies
are being applied to accurately compute and to track the target
blending percentages and to obtain the quality of the products
and exibility to blend a variety of nal products.
The following sections in this volume cover some of the
more advanced control strategies that can be considered in
FIG. 8.5u
Microprocessor-based blending or ratio controller. (Courtesy of
Foxboro Co.)
2006 by Bla Liptk
optimizing blending systems: expert systems (Section 2.8),
neural networks for process modeling (Section 2.18), hierar-
chical control (Section 2.11), genetic algorithms
(Section 2.10), fuzzy logic control (Section 2.31) have been
used in pilot plants and in some industrial processes to achieve
these objectives.
Application Examples
It is difcult to maintain constant product quality in coal
preparation plants, because the properties of the raw coal
supplies are highly variable. A fuzzy logic ash monitor can
be used in a coal blending control system to stabilize the
quality of the blend. Ash monitor has been used to achieve
optimal blending of the coal supply. This approach allows
coal loading for different clients having diverse requirements
1
regarding the blending quality.
An integrated approach to planning and coordinating the
short-term scheduling of multiproduct blending with nonlin-
ear recipe optimization can be achieved by hierarchical con-
trol. The resulting blending recipes and production volumes
are provided as goals for scheduling level. The planning and
scheduling approach is capable of switching between differ-
ent recipes to obtain a high efciency in solving industrial
2
blending problems.
When ratio control is done in software, it usually is
5
resident in the user layer or Layer 8. Ratio is a relatively
simple function block to provide the multiply function. It
is used in blending and other processes to establish one
operator or recipe set value as a master, and to slave many
different set point values based on the master.
In blending, a master ow is set as a constant with other
ows proportional to the master ow. A ratio block would
be congured in front of each set point of the ow control
loops for each blended ingredient. As the master ow is
changed, each ingredient ow will then be changed in con-
stant ratio to the master ow.
An expert control strategy using neural networks, math-
ematical models, and rule models is applied to the coal blend-
ing process in an iron and steel plant. The complex model is
constructed by using statistical data and empirical knowledge
of the process and by forward-chaining and model-based
reasoning. The predictions of the coal blend and coke quality
are used to accurately compute the blending percentages.
Target percentages are achieved by a distributed control tech-
3
nique employing PI control algorithms.
Using traditional blending control, the desired ratio may
be kept during a steady-state operation; however, during tran-
sients this ratio is hard to maintain. This is a serious problem,
because blending control is applied to the process where the
ows and blending ratios change frequently.
A blend control station that improves the ratio control
performance during transients is applied in a paper mill pro-
cess. The purpose of the controlled process is to add hydro-
sulte to the pulp ow to bleach it. The goal is to keep the

ratio between the pulp ow and the hydrosulte ow con-
stant. The control structure utilizes adaptive techniques to
adjust on-line parameters based on the actual values of the
pulp and hydrosulte ows. In the adaptive blend station, no
4
extra parameter tuning is required.
CONCLUSIONS
In this section blending and ratio methods have been
explained. In addition, methods of applying scaling proce-
dures to blending and ratio systems been described. The
industrial control congurations for rate blending, totalizing
blending, and optimized blending have been shown.
Whether the blending system is designed by a user or is
a package purchased from a manufacturer, the measuring and
transmitting devices should be matched against the selected
blending system in accuracy, rangeability, and exibility. It
is inconsistent to install an accurate digital blending system
with low-accuracy sensors.
Also, the time lags in the ow measuring elements have
a decisive role in the blending systems, because a good
dynamic performance requires that the time constant of the
transmitter be small. In-line blending systems have special
importance when there is no downstream tank to accumulate
and mix the blended product, because in such cases the blend
composition must be maintained all the time. Advanced
blending systems can economically improve the quality of
the product and can provide exibility to blend a variety of
products.
References
1. Cierpisz, S., and Heyduk, S., A Simulation Study of Coal Blending
Control Using a Fuzzy Logic Ash Monitor, Control Engineering Prac-
tice, 10, 2002, 449456.
2. Glismann, K., and Gruhn, G., Short-Term Scheduling and Recipe
Optimization of Blending Processes, Computers and Chemical Engi-
neering, 35, 2001, 627634.
3. Wu, M., Nakano, M., and She, J., A Model-Based Expert Control
Strategy Using Neural Networks for the Coal Blending Process in an
Iron and Steel Plant, Expert Systems with Applications, 16, 1999,
271281.
4. Hgglund, T., The Blend Station: A New Ratio Control Structure,
Control Engineering Practice, 9, 2001, 12151220.
5. SP50.8 Committee, ISA TR50.02 Process Control User Layer,
Research Triangle Park, NC: ISA, 2000.
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