400

Evaluation of strength and set behavior of mortar

containing shotcrete set accelerators
Jincheol Kim, Jonghyun Ryu, and R.D. Hooton

Abstract: The influence of rapid-set accelerating admixtures on the setting behavior and early-age strength of a cement
matrix was investigated to evaluate the appropriateness of the specification and test methods for shotcrete set accelerators.
The results verified two different rapid setting behaviors according to the types of accelerator. The aluminate-base and the
calcium aluminate cement-base accelerators facilitate hydration by formation of a calcium aluminate solid solution,
whereas the alkali-free set accelerating agents present rapid setting time by the formation of ettringite. It was also found
that the Vicat test was more desirable than the Gillmore test as the standard for setting time evaluation. Additionally, the
cement mortar mixed with the aluminate-base and the calcium aluminate cement-base accelerators exhibited very fast de-
velopment of early-age compressive strength. However, most of the set accelerators, except for alkali-free accelerators,
failed to satisfy the specification because of greater than 40% compressive strength loss at 28 d.
Key words: rapid-set accelerating admixtures, alkali content, silicate base, aluminate base, calcium aluminate cement base,
alkali-free, setting time, strength ratio.
Resume : Linfluence dadjuvants accelerateurs de prise sur le comportement et la resistance precoce dune matrice de
ciment a ete examinee afin devaluer la pertinence des specifications et des methodes de mise a lepreuve des accelera-
teurs de prise du beton projete. Les resultats ont permis de verifier deux comportements differents de prise rapide selon
les types daccelerateurs. Les accelerateurs a base de ciment comportant de laluminate et de laluminate de calcium faci-
litent lhydratation par la formation dune solution solide daluminate de calcium, alors que les agents accelerateurs de
prise sans alcalis presentent un temps de prise rapide par la formation dettringite. Il a egalement ete trouve que lessai a
laiguille de Vicat etait meilleur que celui de Gillmore comme norme devaluation du temps de prise. De plus, le mortier
de ciment melange a des accelerateurs a base de ciment comportant de laluminate et de laluminate de calcium montre
le developpement tres rapide dune resistance en compression precoce. Toutefois, la plupart des accelerateurs de prise,
sauf les accelerateurs sans alcalis, nont pas rencontre les specifications en raison dune perte de resistance en compres-
sion de plus de 40 % a 28 jours.
Mots-cles : adjuvants accelerateurs de prise, contenu en alcalis, base de silicate, base daluminate, base ciment contenant
de laluminate de calcium, sans alcalis, temps de prise, coefficient des resistances.
[Traduit par la Redaction]

1. Introduction Rapid-set accelerating admixtures for shotcrete can be

Shotcrete is used to ensure the safety of tunnels during
and after construction, to prevent rocks from falling after
the excavation. Because of this urgent requirement, shotcrete
must incorporate rapid set accelerating agents (SAAs) to
accelerate the setting and hardening of the cement.
Received 28 February 2007. Revision accepted 14 September
2007. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
cjce.nrc.ca on 16 April 2008.
J. Kim.1 Materials and Environmental Research Division,
Highway and Transportation Technology Institute, Korea
Highway Corporation, 50-5 Sanchuck-ri, Dongtan-myun,
Hwasung-si, Kyunggi-do 445-812, Republic of Korea.
J. Ryu. Materials Research Division, GS E&C, 417-1,
Deokseong-ri, Idong-myeon, Cheoin-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-
do, 449-831, Republic of Korea.
R.D. Hooton. Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A4, Canada.
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 31 August 2008.
1Corresponding author (e-mail: jckim@ex.co.kr).
divided into five major groups in accordance with their
main chemical constitutents: silicate, carbonate, aluminate,
alkali-free, and calcium-aluminate cement (Prudencio 1998;
Prudencio et al. 1996). The silicate-based SAAs have be-
come obsolete because of the large loss of strength exhibited
at 7 and 28 d. The aluminate-based SAAs react with cement
minerals to exhibit very fast setting and hardening, and thus,
have been used widely. However, they also typically exhibit
a large loss of strength at 28 d.
The use of the inorganic salt-type set accelerators, which
has been favored traditionally, is dwindling because of con-
cerns, such as worker safety and environmental pollution.
Although the alkali-free SAAs hardly exhibit the effect of
strength loss compared with the large loss of strength caused
by the aforementioned inorganic salt-type set accelerators,
they are more expansive and exhibit slower setting and
strength gain in shotcrete. The main component of alkali-
free SAAs is aluminum sulfate, which reacts with the ceme-
nt to form ettringite. Despite this trade-off effect, the advan-
tages of using alkali-free SAAs, such as withstanding large
loss of strength, providing a viable solution to environmental
pollution, and improving workers safety, outweigh the dis-

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 35: 400407 (2008) doi:10.1139/L07-115 # 2008 NRC Canada
Kim et al.
advantages; and the current trend in Europe and Southeast
Asia is to increase their use (Ahn et al. 2001).
The calcium aluminate cement-based set accelerator has a
market share of about 90% in Japan. This dominant market
share can be explained by their need for fast setting time
and the capacity to withstand groundwater infiltration from
many places during tunnel construction.
Although various SAAs for shotcrete are being developed
and applied accordingly, there is hardly any development
with respect to the specification and test methods used to
evaluate the quality and performance of SAAs for shotcrete.
Thus, this paper reviews the quality specification and per-
formance evaluation methods for SAAs for shotcrete in sev-
eral countries. Based on this review, the setting behavior and
strength characteristics of cement paste and mortar with
SAAs are investigated.
2. Quality specification for rapid-set
accelerating admixtures
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
standard C1141 (ASTM 2006c) is a comprehensive quality
specification for shotcrete admixtures and includes setting
time for the cement paste with the SAAs and allowed con-
tent of chloride ion. The quality specification of the Korea
Tunneling Association (KTA) (KTA 1997) also sets guide-
lines similar to that of ASTM, and the guideline set forth
by both the Japanese Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE)
(JSCE 1984, 1986) and the Korea Concrete Institute (KCI)
standard SC 102 (KCI 2003) specify compressive strength
and setting time of cement mortar by penetration resistance.
Additionally, the European standard EN 9345 (BS 2001)
and European Federation for Specialist Products and Appli-
cations in Structures (EFNARC) specify requirements that
include those for setting time using the Vicat needle, relative
density, and solids content (EFNARC 1996). Tables 1 and 2
summarize the specification for setting time and compres-
sive strength requirements of these specifications for SAAs
in shotcrete.
The Vicat needle final set time of 1 h, used in the EF-
NARC specification (EFNARC 1996), is deemed to be too
loose for evaluation of the performance of SAAs. In addi-
tion, a review of the compressive strength measurement
methods reveal that the KCI and the JSCE use mortar cubes,
which are cast in the laboratory, as the test specimens. How-
ever, the Korean Highway Corporation (KHC) (KHC 2004)
and the EFNARC tests for compressive strength of the shot-
crete use cores that are cast in situ. Nevertheless, the quality
specification suggested by the KHC to measure the com-
pressive strength of core specimens at 1 d has been subject
to much discussion with respect to its effectiveness.
3. Experimental overview
3.1. Materials
Ordinary Portland type I cement (similar to that specified
by ASTM standard C150 (ASTM 2004a)) was used, and
river sand of fineness modulus of 2.95, was used as the fine
aggregate in the saturated, surface-dry state. Liquid silicate-
base [sodium silicate (SI)], aluminate-base [sodium aluminate,
(AL)], alkali-free [aluminum sulfate (AF)], and calcium
401
aluminate cement-base (CM) admixtures were used as the
SAAs for shotcretes in this study.
3.2. Experiment method
3.2.1. Density, residues, and pH
The specific gravity (relative density) of liquid SAAs was
measured by a hydrometer method in accordance with
ASTM D1298 (ASTM 2005b). The average of three read-
ings from the values indicated on a hydrometer was taken
as the relative density of the liquid SAAs which was poured
into a 500 mL graduated cylinder.
The residue created after oven drying, at 105 3 8C for
24 0.25 h, was computed using the following equation
after measuring the dried mass of 4 mL of each set acceler-
ator:
Residue by oven drying % by mass
mass of dried residue

100
mass of sample
The pH of the liquid SAAs was measured using a glass
electrode with a temperature compensating circuit in accord-
ance with ASTM E70 (ASTM 1997).
3.2.2. Equivalent alkali content
The alkali content (Na2O and K2O) in the SAAs was
measured by an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
spectrometer (ICP), and the equivalent alkali content
(Na2Oeq) was computed by the following equation (ACI
1990):
Na2 Oeq % Na2 O 0:658 K2 O
3.2.3. Time of setting
(1) Gillmore needle The time of setting using the Gill-
more apparatus is determined when a pat of cement
paste bears, without appreciable indentation, the initial
(113.4 0.5 g) and final (453 0.5 g) Gillmore needles
in accordance with ASTM C1398 (ASTM 1998).
(2) Vicat needle There are two types of Vicat needle
used to determine the setting time of cement paste or
mortar. The diameter of Vicat needle is specified as
1 mm in each specification. However, the needle in the
British standard BS EN1963 (BS 2005) for determining
the final setting time of cement paste uses another type
as shown in Fig. 1. Table 3 summarizes the character-
istics of the Vicat apparatus used in each standard speci-
fication.
(3) Penetration resistance The times of initial and final
setting using the Proctor penetrometer specified by the
JSCE (1986) and the KCI (2003) were determined as
the elapsed time after initial contact of water and SAAs
when the penetration resistance has reached 3.5 and
27.6 MPa, respectively [similar to the method specified
in ASTM C403 (ASTM 2006b)].
# 2008 NRC Canada
402 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

Table 1. Specifications for the setting time of cement mixtures with set accelerating agents.

Setting time (min)

Classifications WC ratio SC ratio Initial Final Test methods
Mortar
JSCE D 102 (JSCE 1986) 0.5 3 5 15 Penetration resistance
ITA (1992) 310 930 Penetration resistance
Paste
KTA (1997) 15 1220 Gillmore needle
ASTM C1141 (ASTM 2006c) 0.240.30 13 12 Gillmore needle
EFNARC (1996) 0.35 10 60 Vicat needle
Note: WC, watercement; SC, sandcement.

Table 2. Specification for compressive strength of shotcrete and mortar with set accelerating agents.

Compressive strength
Specifications 12 h 1d 28 d 90 d Specimen
JSCE D 102 (JSCE 1986) 1 MPa 9 MPa 75% of control mix Mortar cubea
KTA (1997) 10 MPa 18 MPa Core from shotcrete
KHC (2004) 10 MPa 20 MPa Core from shotcrete
EFNARC (1996) 75% of control mix Test mix at 28 d Core from shotcrete
a
Dimensions 5 cm  5 cm  5 cm

Fig. 1. Final setting neddle for Vicat apparatus (BS 2005). All di- the cement-based accelerator, sand, cement, and accelerator
mensions in millimetres. Dia., diameter. were previously blended then mixed with water for 10 s.
. Postmixed method: the prescribed amount of accelerator
was quickly added to the cement paste, which was already
manufactured according to ASTM C305, then additional
mixing was performed for 10 s.

4. Results and analysis

3.2.4. Mixing methods
For the setting time test, cement paste was prepared as
follows:
. Pre-mixed method: liquid-type accelerator, such as silicate-
base, aluminate-base or alkali-free, was pre-mixed with
water, then cement paste was manufactured for 30 s
according to ASTM C305 (ASTM 2006a). In the case of
4.1. Quality assesment
Table 4 summarizes the average and standard deviation of
the measurements taken for the relative density (specific
gravity) and residue by oven drying of 13 types of liquid
SAAs provided by six companies. It shows that the relative
density and residue of aluminate-base SAAs were slightly
higher than those of silicate-base SAAs. According to EF-
NARC (1996), which sets a limit on allowed change in the
relative density, residue by oven drying, pH, etc. of the
liquid SAAs, the quality of SAAs, which was initially pro-
vided by the manufacturers, is considered not to have
changed if the standard deviation is 0.03 or 0.02 for the rel-
ative density above 1.10 or less. Also, it can be assumed
that the quality has not changed if the standard deviation is
below 5% for a set accelerating agent (SAA) with a residue
content of 20% or greater.
Table 4 shows the relative density and residue content,
including standard deviation, of the silicate- and aluminate-
base SAAs. The standard deviation of relative density and
residue content of silicate-base SAAs were 0.0093 and 0.84,
respectively, showing very little difference among the prod-
ucts of the six companies. Thus, it was found that there was
hardly any deviation in the quality of the products manu-
factured by the six companies.
Table 5 shows the alkali content measurement of liquid
SAAs. It indicates that the silicate-based SAAs being meas-
ured belong to the liquid sodium silicate type III as specified
# 2008 NRC Canada
Kim et al. 403

Table 3. Characteristics of Vicat needles according to specifica- Another reason why these alkaline substances are po-
tions. tentially detrimental to concrete is because they can bring
about the excessive expansion of concrete due to the alkali
Penetration depth (mm)
aggregate reaction.
Rod weight Initial Final However, there is no quality standard governing the alkali
Specification with needle (g) set set content in either SAAs or shotcrete. EFNARC (1996) states
Paste vaguely that the alkali content should not be above the
ASTM C191 300 25 No appreciable manufacturers stated maximum value, and it is explained
(ASTM 2004b) indentation that inorganic salt-type SAAs have been used frequently un-
BS EN1963 300 36 0.5 til now. However, British standard 5328-1 (BS 1997) speci-
(BS 2005) fies a maximum of 3.0 kg of total alkalis that can be present
Mortar in 1 m3 of concrete containing alkali-reactive aggregate
ASTM C807 400 10 Not specified (Neville 1996). Thus, it is deemed that there should be re-
(ASTM 2005a) search on the types of feasible SAAs and the determination
BS EN480-2 1000 36 2.5 of optimum usage dose, through such additional experiments
(BS 2006) as the evaluation of alkaliaggregate reaction by the main
components of SAAs and the amount of the admixtures.
Table 4. Average and standard deviation (SD) of density and
percentage residue content of the set accelerating agents. 4.2. Time of setting

Average and SD 4.2.1. Setting time by Gillmore needle

Relative Residue No. of As previously mentioned, although most specifications
Type density content (%) pH companies specify the time of setting, there are great discrepancies
Silicate 1.397 44.39 11.1 6 with respect to the testing method used and limits specified.
base 0.0093 0.84 Table 6 summarizes the time of setting for cement paste
Aluminate 1.528 47.97 11.7 7 with SAAs by the Gillmore needle test.
base 0.0268 2.06 The watercement ratio used was 0.28, as determined
from the normal consistency of the cement paste without
SAAs. Table 6 shows that aluminate-base and calcium
Table 5. Total alkali content supplied for the set accelerat- aluminate cement-base SAAs exhibited very fast setting
ing agents. behavior regardless of the mixing method. In the case of
the silicate-base SAAs mixed simultaneously with water,
Na2O K2O Na2Oeq No. of
Type (%) (%) (%) companies the initial and final setting times were 38 min and 3 h
26 min, respectively. However, when the cement paste was
Silicate base 8.80 0.018 8.81 6
prepared prior to the addition of the SAAs (post-mixed
Aluminate base 20.64 0.014 20.61 7
method), the setting time became about 10 times faster at
Alkali-free 0.06 0.06 2
about 5 and 19 min for the initial and final setting time,
Cement base 14.00 0.200 14.14 1
respectively.
According to Yonekura et al. (2000), liquid sodium sili-
by ASTM D3400 (ASTM 2000), based on the measured val- cate has the molecular structure shown in Fig. 2. The reac-
ues of Na2O and the relative density. Moreover, it was tion mechanism is such that the Na+ ion at the end of the
found that the majority of the alkaline component of the molecule reacts in an ion exchange with Ca2+ to cause rapid
SAAs was sodium. setting. When the Na+ ion is removed from the sodium sili-
Additionally, the alkali-free SAAs showed a very low cate molecule, a polymerization occurs between Si-OH to
value for an equivalent alkali content of 0.06%. The alkali form a three-dimensional network, and the structure begins
content in the shotcrete caused by the SAA is normally to stiffen. In other words, it is not the silicate-base SAAs
very high. Based on the unit cement weight of 480 kg/m3 in that promote the cement hydration, but it is the setting of
shotcrete for highway tunneling in the specification of the the SAA structure itself that makes it stiffen. Thus, although
KHC (2004), the equivalent alkali content of 12% silicate- the post-mixed method of adding SAAs to cement paste
base, 5% aluminate-base, 5% calcium aluminate cement- results in an active ion exchange with the already formed
base accelerators (as recommended by each manufacturer) Ca2+ ion, the pre-mixed method results in a delay of setting
would be 5.07, 5.14, and 3.39 kg/m3 of shotcrete, respec- due to the simultaneous reactions of cement hydration and
tively. ion exchange within the SAA.
The reason for this high alkali content in the traditionally Although the alkali-free SAAs exhibited different behav-
used inorganic salt-type SAAs (silicate-base and aluminate- ior than the silicate-base SAAs, their main components vary
base) is because these SAAs contain high Na2O to acceler- a great deal, and it is deemed that additional experiments
ate the setting after shooting, and to obtain rapid strength with various materials are needed to delineate the difference
gain at an early age. If the Na2O in the SAAs is high, the in the time of setting by the mixing method.
strength increases rapidly at an early age, but it eventually Figure 3 summarizes the x-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns
results in decreased strength compared with shotcrete that for the cement paste with SAA added after 3 h of hydration
does not contain these alkaline components. to show the influence of SAAs on cement hydration. The
# 2008 NRC Canada
404 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

Table 6. Setting time of cement paste with set accelerating agents (SAAs) by Gillmore
needle test.

Setting time (h:min:s)

Pre-mixed method Post-mixed method
Type of SAAs Dosage (%) Initial set Final set Initial set Final set
Silicate base 12 00:37:57 3:26:05 00:04:45 00:19:00
Aluminate base 5 00:01:55 0:08:24 00:03:10 00:10:00
Alkali-free 5 00:01:12 0:07:54 00:16:30 01:30:40
Cement base 5 00:02:25 0:10:49 00:03:38 00:06:30

Fig. 2. Molecular structure of silicate. Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction pattern of cement paste with various set
accelerating agents.

XRD pattern for the silicate-base SAAs is similar to that of

the plain cement paste, so the effect on cement hydration is
not clear.
The XRD pattern for the aluminate-base SAAs exhibited
the formation of a calcium aluminate solid solution as
shown by the 108 2 y peak owing to the initial hydration of
C3A and a plentiful supply of aluminate. Since the main
component of alkali-free SAAs is aluminum sulfate, it is
known to react with the cement to form a large quantity of
ettringite (Paglia et al. 2001), and Fig. 3 shows a strong
etrringite peak at 8.98 2y.
Generally, the main component of cement-base SAAs is
C12A7 or C11A3F, and after mixing it is hardening rapidly
while forming a large quantity of calcium aluminate hydrate.
The formation of calcium aluminate solid solution was ob-
served at 108 as shown in Fig. 3.

4.2.2. Setting time by Vicat needle

Whereas ASTM C1398 (ASTM 1998) specifies the exper-
imental procedure for Gillmore needles with respect to the
evaluation of SAAs for shotcrete, EFNARC (1996) specifies
the time of setting based on Vicat needle tests. Moreover,
there is a significant difference in the experimental appara-
tus and method.
Table 7 lists the time of setting for the cement paste using
the Vicat apparatus for the various types of SAAs. The SAAs
were added after the cement paste was prepared. It was
found that the difference in the setting time by the differ-
ent test methods was hardly noticeable except for the
alkali-free base SAAs.
The initial setting time for the cement paste with alkali-
free SAAs did not differ between the two test methods, but,
due to the difference in the determination of the final setting
time, the BS EN196-3 (BS 2005) test method resulted in a
delay of over 20 min compared with ASTM C191 (ASTM
2004b).
In addition, EFNARC (1996) and the BS EN 4802 (BS
2006) specifications use the Vicat needle when a hydration
control admixture is being used. Although ASTM C807
(ASTM 2005a) does not apply to the quality evaluation of
SAAs for shotcrete, it specifies a method to measure the set-
ting time of cement mortar by using a modified Vicat needle
test. The difference between these two methods is that the
mass of the rod with the needle is 400 g in ASTM C807
and 1000 g in BS EN 4802. The ASTM standard also
specifies the setting time as the timeto a penetration depth
of 10 mm, whereas the BS EN standard specifies the initial
and final setting time to be the time to penetration depths of
36 and 2.5 mm, respectively.
Figure 4 and Table 8 summarize the results of setting
time measurements of cement mortar with SAAs (water to
cement ratio of 0.485 and sand to cement ratio of 2.45).
From the figure, it can be seen that the penetration depth of
the cement mortar decreased exponentially with elapsed
time and that aluminate-base and cement-base SAAs, which
exhibit rapid setting, showed hardly any difference in the
time to setting due to the different masses of the rod with
needle (i.e., by the experimental method).
However, the alkali-free SAAs, which exhibit a slower
time of setting, were influnced greatly by the mass of the
# 2008 NRC Canada
Kim et al. 405

Table 7. Setting time of cement paste with set accelerating agents Table 8. Setting time of cement mortar with set accelerating
using Vicat needle test. agents measured using Vicat needle test.

Setting time (min:s) Setting time (min:s)

ASTM C191 BS EN 196-3 BS EN 4802
(ASTM 2004b) (BS 2005) (BS 2006)
Initial Final ASTM C807
Classification set set Initial set Final set Classification (ASTM 2005a) Initial set Final set
Silicate base 5:38 7:38 1:02 9:32 Silicate base 39:33 10:42 28:56
Aluminate 3:40 4:55 3:36 5:05 Aluminate base 15:19 13:48 18:13
base Alkali-free 30:15 106:00 176:40
Alkali-free 11:13 16:46 10:33 39:45 Cement base 6:30 0:35 5:15
Cement base 3:58 4:33 not mea- not mea-
surable surable
Fig. 5. Setting time of cement mortar with set accelerating agents
by penetration resistance. CM, cement base; AF, alkali free; AL,
Fig. 4. Setting time of cement mortar with set accelerating agents aluminate base; SI, silicate base.
by Vicat needle. BS, BS EN 480-2 standard (BS 2006); ASTM
standard C807 (ASTM 2005a); SI, silicate base; AL, aluminate
base; CM, cement base.

cratic reaction characteristics of silicate-base SAAs, as dis-

rod with needle. Especially, when the BS EN 4802 stand-
ard with the bigger mass was chosen, it resulted in a delay
of the final setting time of about three h.
4.2.3. Penetration resistance
As another method of choice to measure the time of set-
ting for cement mortar with SAAs, the JSCE (1984, 1986)
and the KCI SC102 (KCI 2003) use the Proctor penetration
resistance [similar to ASTM C403 (ASTM 2006b)]. The
time of setting by these specifications showed the initial
and final setting times to be within 5 and 15 min, respec-
tively.
Figure 5 illustrates the penetration resistance of cement
mortar as a function of elapsed time by the type of SAA.
The mortar specimen was prepared such that the water
cement ratio and the sandcement ratio were 0.50 and 3.0,
respectively.
The figure shows that the calcium aluminate cement-
base SAAs resulted in a very fast final setting time of
5 min. The aluminate-base and alkali-free SAAs exhibited
a slower time of setting with initial and final setting times
of 5 and 50 min, respectively, for the former, and 7 and
15 min, respectively, for the latter. However, the silicate-
base SAAs resulted in a very slow time of setting with
the initial and final setting time of about 80 and 500 min,
respectively. This is construed to be caused by the idiosyn-
cussed earlier.
4.3. Compressive strength
It is difficult to represent the quality of shotcrete in labo-
ratory experiments. Thus, most specifications deal with the
measurement of 1 d core strengths of shotcrete, as shown in
Table 2. The JSCE (1986) standard specifies the strength of
a cement mortar specimen, which is prepared in the labo-
ratory, to be at least 1.0 MPa at 12 h and 8.8 MPa at 1 d,
as a reference guideline in selecting the SAA. The EFNARC
(1996) standard also specifies the core strength of shotcrete
at 28 d and 91 d as the standard for quality management.
Figure 6 summarizes the compressive strength of mortars
prepared at a watercement ratio of 0.5 and a sandcement
ratio of 3.0 according to the JSCE standard. The figure
shows that the aluminate-base and the calcium aluminate
cement-base SAAs met the JSCE specification requirements.
Although the silicate-base SAAs exhibited a very low
strength at 12 h, similar to the plain cement mortar, their
compressive strength reached 9 MPa in 1 d to meet the
specification requirement.
The alkali-free SAAs showed a compressive strength of
only 0.3 MPa at 3 d, which was even lower than the strength
of the plain mortar, but their strength increased to about
29 MPa at 7 d, even surpassing the compressive strength of
mortars made with other SAAs.
# 2008 NRC Canada
406
Fig. 6. Early-age strength of cement mortar with set accelerating
agents.
Fig. 7. Compressive strength ratio of cement mortar with set accel-
erating agents (SAAs). SI, silicate base; AL, aluminate base; AF,
alkali-free; CM, cement base.
Both the JSCE and EFNARC standards require the com-
pressive strength of mortar with SAAs at 28 d to be at least
75% of the strength of the control mortar. Figure 7 com-
pares the compressive strength ratios at 28 d. Whereas the
compressive strength ratio of the mortar with alkali-free
SAAs was about 85%, the compressive strength ratio of
mortar with other SAAs was only about 50%~65%. This in-
dicates that the strength reduction of the cement mortar is
rather severe with the addition of SAAs.
Gebler et al. (1992) offered the following explanation as
to why compressive strength decreased with the addition of
high-alkaline SAAs. They reported that the strength dropped
considerably by 28 d because either the normal hydration
was hindered as the result of an increased quantity of solu-
ble NaOH in the cement matrix by the reaction of the alka-
line substance and Ca(OH)2, or as the consequence of the
induced precipitation of aluminatesilicate gel that was
formed by the reaction with the aluminate component in the
cement.
Nevertheless, it is conceivable that the method for speci-
men preparation will influence the strength greatly, as can
be inferred from the fact that the cement-base SAAs with a
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008
fast setting time begins to already harden during the pre-
paration of the mortar specimen for the measurement of the
compressive strength. Thus, there is a need for follow-up
research to delineate the interrelation of specimens being
prepared in a laboratory and shotcrete specimens being pre-
pared at the construction site.
5. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the experi-
mental results of this study:
(1) The total alkali content in shotcrete because of the addi-
tion of SAAs was such that the inorganic salt-type and
calcium aluminate cement-base SAAs exhibited alkali
contents of at least 5 and 3.4 kg/m3, respectively, thus
surpassing the maximum alloweable alkali content of
3.0 kg/m3 required to prevent alkaliaggregate reaction,
if a reactive aggregate is used. Although the usage of in-
organic salt-type SAAs has been very frequent, until
now, there is a need for the investigation of potential al-
kaliaggregate reaction with respect to the type and
quantity of SAA used.
(2) Silicate-base SAAs exhibited large differences in the
time of setting depending on the time of there addition.
This point can be explained by the fact that they tend to
harden in an alkaline environment rather than promoting
the hydration of the cement. Additionally, the rapid-set
accelerating mechanism of other SAAs was elucidated
as follows. The aluminate-base and cement-base SAAs
formed calcium aluminate solid solution, and the alkali-
free SAAs helped in promoting the hydration by the for-
mation of ettringite.
(3) It is found to be more rational to use the Vicat needle
test, which measures the depth of penetration, rather
than Gillmore needle test as the qualitative evaluation
method for set time. Especially, the final setting needle
as specified by BS EN196-3 (BS 2005) appears to pro-
vide a more accurate method for evaluating the final set-
ting time.
(4) The evaluation of the time of setting for cement mortar
by the modified Vicat apparatus and penetration resistance
did not reveal any noticeable differences with respect
to the mass of the rod with needle for the aluminate-
base and calcium aluminate cement-base SAAs. How-
ever, care is required for the case of slow setting times
because the idiosyncratic characteristics of the test setup
greatly affect the measured setting times.
(5) The compressive strength development of cement mor-
tars with SAAs was very fast at early ages for the cases
of aluminate-base and calcium aluminate cement-base
SAAs. However, the compressive strengths at 28 d rela-
tive to control mortars revealed a strength loss of at least
40%~50% for the specimens made with silicate-base and
aluminate-base SAAs. Thus, they do not satisfy all of the
SAA specifications. Future research is required to estab-
lish an appropriate quality specification through the
analysis of the interrelation between laboratory experi-
mental results and shotcrete field test results.
# 2008 NRC Canada
Kim et al.
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# 2008 NRC Canada