EML 4905 Senior Design Project

A B.S. THESIS
PREPARED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SHELL ECO-MARATHON COMPETITION

Final Report

Bryan Quiceno
Pablo Salamea
Ryan Sampath

Advisor: Dr. Sabri Tosunoglu

March 23th, 2011

This B.S. thesis is written in partial fulfillment of the requirements in EML 4905.
The contents represent the opinion of the authors and not the Department of
Mechanical and Materials Engineering.
 Ethics Statement and Signatures

The work submitted in this project is solely prepared by a team consisting of Bryan Quiceno,
Pablo Salamea and Ryan Sampath and it is original. Excerpts from others work have been
clearly identified, their work acknowledged within the text and listed in the list of references. All
of the engineering drawings, computer programs, formulations, design work, prototype
development and testing reported in this document are also original and prepared by the same
team of students.

Bryan Quiceno Pablo Salamea Ryan Sampath

Team Leader Team Member Team Member

Dr. Sabri Tosunoglu

Faculty Advisor

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 Table of Contents
Ethics Statement and Signatures ..................................................................................................... 2
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 5
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 7
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 8
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 9
1.1 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Motivation ...................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Literature Survey ............................................................................................................ 12
1.3.1 Rules & Regulations: .............................................................................................. 12
1.3.2 Power Source .......................................................................................................... 24
1.3.3 Competitive Analysis .............................................................................................. 31
2 Project Objectives ................................................................................................................. 34
3 Conceptual Designs .............................................................................................................. 35
3.1 Observation of Winning 2010 European Team.............................................................. 35
3.2 Chassis............................................................................................................................ 36
3.3 Vehicle Shell .................................................................................................................. 37
3.4 Wheel and Brakes Configuration ................................................................................... 39
3.5 Steering........................................................................................................................... 41
4 Proposed Design ................................................................................................................... 42
4.1 Chassis Frame ................................................................................................................ 42
4.2 Body Shell ...................................................................................................................... 43
4.3 Wheel Configuration ...................................................................................................... 45
4.4 Power Source.................................................................................................................. 45
5 Project Management ............................................................................................................. 46
5.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................ 46
5.2 Organization of Work and Timeline .............................................................................. 46
6 Analysis and Structural Design............................................................................................. 50
6.1 Chassis Frame ................................................................................................................ 50
6.2 Body Shell ...................................................................................................................... 66
6.3 Steering........................................................................................................................... 69
6.4 Wheels/Tires/Brakes ...................................................................................................... 77
6.5 Power System ................................................................................................................. 85
7 Cost Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 89

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8 Prototype ............................................................................................................................... 92
8.1 Chassis Frame ................................................................................................................ 92
8.2 Body Shell ...................................................................................................................... 97
8.3 Brakes ........................................................................................................................... 105
8.4 Steering System ............................................................................................................ 106
8.5 Power System ............................................................................................................... 107
9 Testing................................................................................................................................. 111
9.1 Safety Harness Test ...................................................................................................... 111
9.2 Dimensions ................................................................................................................... 112
9.3 Braking System ............................................................................................................ 114
9.4 Turning Radius ............................................................................................................. 115
9.5 Emergency Evacuation................................................................................................. 115
9.6 Visibility ....................................................................................................................... 115
9.7 Power system and Chassis Structure ............................................................................ 116
9.8 Efficiency ..................................................................................................................... 117
10 Appendices.......................................................................................................................... 120
10.1 Appendix A............................................................................................................... 121
10.2 Appendix B ............................................................................................................... 140
10.3 Appendix C ............................................................................................................... 144
11 References ........................................................................................................................... 146

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 List of Figures

Figure 1: Various Power Types Used in Previous Competitions [18] .......................................... 24

Figure 2: Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell [1] .................................................................... 30
Figure 3: General Conpcept of Prototype Vehicle [11] ................................................................ 31
Figure 4: Chassis of teams Supmeca Paris Prototype Vehicle [17] ............................................ 32
Figure 5. Carbon Fiber Body Shell ............................................................................................... 33
Figure 6. Go kart steering system ................................................................................................. 33
Figure 7: Team Polyjoule's Prototype Vehicle [14]...................................................................... 35
Figure 8. Space Frame Design [23] .............................................................................................. 37
Figure 9. Streamlining Effect [4] .................................................................................................. 38
Figure 10: Illustration of Camber Angle [10] ............................................................................... 39
Figure 11: Sturmey Archer Front Gear Hub [15] ......................................................................... 40
Figure 12: Pit Arm Steering Design [5] ........................................................................................ 41
Figure 13. Four-Bar Steering Mechanism .................................................................................... 42
Figure 14: Shell front View. ......................................................................................................... 44
Figure 15: Shell top View. ............................................................................................................ 44
Figure 16: Shell Design ................................................................................................................ 45
Figure 17: Gantt Chart for Senior Design Project ........................................................................ 47
Figure 18. Chassis proposed concept and member identification................................................. 50
Figure 19. Two-dimensional analysis ........................................................................................... 51
Figure 20. Two-dimensional sections. (a) Front foot rest (b) Main Body (c) Power supply support
....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 21. Loading schematic, shear diagram, and moment diagram for tube 2. ......................... 55
Figure 22.Loading schematic, shear diagram, and moment diagram for tube 4. .......................... 56
Figure 23.Loading schematic, shear diagram, and moment diagram for tube 8. .......................... 57
Figure 24. Power supply support stress analysis .......................................................................... 59
Figure 25. Power supply support displacement analysis .............................................................. 59
Figure 26. Front feet support stress analysis................................................................................. 60
Figure 27. Front feet support displacement analysis .................................................................... 60
Figure 28. Front rollbar stress analysis ......................................................................................... 61
Figure 29. Front rollbar displacement analysis ............................................................................. 61
Figure 30. Main body stress analysis ............................................................................................ 62
Figure 31. Main body displacement analysis ................................................................................ 62
Figure 32. Power Supply sheet stress analysis.............................................................................. 63
Figure 33. Power supply sheet displacement analysis .................................................................. 63
Figure 34. Chair support sheet stress analysis .............................................................................. 64
Figure 35. Chair support sheet displacement analysis ................................................................. 64
Figure 36. Roll bar stress analysis ................................................................................................ 65
Figure 37. Roll bar displacement analysis .................................................................................... 65
Figure 38. Rectangular Prism Flow Simulation Results ............................................................... 66
Figure 39. Airfoil Profiles ............................................................................................................. 67
Figure 40. Body shell designs ....................................................................................................... 68
Figure 41. Body Shell Assembly .................................................................................................. 69
Figure 42: Ackermann Angle Illustration ..................................................................................... 70
Figure 43: Rack and Pinion Steering System ............................................................................... 72

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Figure 44: Steering Design 1 ........................................................................................................ 73
Figure 45: Final Steering Design .................................................................................................. 74
Figure 46: Stress Analysis of Spindle Assembly .......................................................................... 75
Figure 47: Displacement Analysis of Spindle Assembly ............................................................. 76
Figure 48: Strain Analysis on Spindle Assembly ......................................................................... 77
Figure 49. Tires Rolling Resistance (rouesartisanales)................................................................. 78
Figure 50. Brake pedal configuration ........................................................................................... 81
Figure 51. FBD: Force applied to the caliper brake...................................................................... 82
Figure 52. Meshing of the assembly: Plate- Spindle .................................................................... 83
Figure 53. Plate 1/8 in. thickness .................................................................................................. 83
Figure 54. Plate 1/16 in. thickness ................................................................................................ 84
Figure 55. Rolling resistance coefficient ...................................................................................... 87
Figure 56. Stick mockup ............................................................................................................... 92
Figure 57. Coping ......................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 58 Cutting Procedure ......................................................................................................... 94
Figure 59 Coping Procedure ......................................................................................................... 95
Figure 60. Tig vs. Mig Welding.................................................................................................... 96
Figure 61 Welding procedure ....................................................................................................... 96
Figure 62. Chassis Prototype ........................................................................................................ 97
Figure 63. SW skeleton model ...................................................................................................... 98
Figure 64 Plywood skeleton.......................................................................................................... 99
Figure 65 Body covered with foam ............................................................................................ 100
Figure 66. Fiberglass materials ................................................................................................... 101
Figure 67. Windows outlined...................................................................................................... 102
Figure 68 Body been covered with fiber glass............................................................................ 103
Figure 69. Pre-paint .................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 70. Painted Car ................................................................................................................ 104
Figure 71. Disk Brakes System................................................................................................... 105
Figure 72 Brakes installed .......................................................................................................... 106
Figure 73. Steering System prototype ......................................................................................... 107
Figure 74. Electric motor Kit (electricrider) ............................................................................... 109
Figure 75. Electric motor inside the wheel hub (electricrider) ................................................... 109
Figure 76. Harness Test .............................................................................................................. 111
Figure 77. Dimensions check...................................................................................................... 112
Figure 78.Weight Check ............................................................................................................. 113
Figure 79. Weight ....................................................................................................................... 113
Figure 80. Brake Test.................................................................................................................. 114
Figure 81. Turning Radius .......................................................................................................... 115
Figure 82. Visibility .................................................................................................................... 116
Figure 83. Vehicle in motion ...................................................................................................... 117
Figure 84. Trial 1 ........................................................................................................................ 118
Figure 85. Trial 2 ........................................................................................................................ 118
Figure 86. Trial 3 ........................................................................................................................ 119
Figure 87. Results ....................................................................................................................... 119

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 List of Tables

Table 1: Shell -Eco Marathon Prizes [21]..................................................................................... 25

Table 2: Characteristic of a Typical Solar Panel [16] ................................................................... 28
Table 3. Carbon Fiber Costs [6].................................................................................................... 36
Table 4. Aluminum Tubing Costs [12] ......................................................................................... 37
Table 5: Breakdown of Responsibilities among Team Members ................................................. 49
Table 6. Members experiencing pure tension/compression forces ............................................... 53
Table 7. Members undergoing bending, torsion, and axial loading.............................................. 53
Table 8. Flow simulation results ................................................................................................... 68

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Abstract

The main focus of this design project was to optimize the fuel efficiency of a prototype

vehicle. Following the rules and regulations of the Shell Eco-marathon competition, a prototype

vehicle was designed from scratch. Having weight, aerodynamics, and friction as our biggest

factors, three alternative concepts were analyzed. Using desired criteria a proposed design was

selected. The proposed concept was structurally designed using static and dynamic force

analysis. The final design was then analyzed and tested using CAD simulations and system

dynamics methods. Finally, a prototype was built and then tested to assure that the project

objectives were achieved. The end goal of the project was to be qualified to compete at the 2011

Shell Eco-marathon competition.

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1 Introduction
1.1 Problem Statement

The vast majority of transportation nowadays is powered by fossil fuels. Many scientists

have agreed that the use of these fossil fuels has caused global warming due to atmospheric

effects. Furthermore, due to the scarcity of fossil fuels it is estimated that in the next decade the

price of oil will increase to $350 per barrel (Oil Price to Reach US$ 350 in Near Future, 2007).

This does not include the external costs that come with the production of coil, oil and gas. These

externalities include the many miners killed in the line of duty or affected by the horrible side

effects such as black lung disease, as well as the ravaging of the environment with the coil

mining (Clean Energy, 2010).

In response to the negative effects of fossil fuel consumption, the present generation is

fighting to head in a different direction. A future is desired in which the energy used to power

vehicles is renewable and clean. Therefore, as a first step, engineers are aiming to design more

fuel efficient vehicles in which the least amount of energy is required to travel a certain distance.

This is exactly what the Shell Eco-marathon contest is about. It provides an arena in which fresh-

minded engineers can innovative in trying to develop solutions to the efficiency problem of

vehicles.

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1.2 Motivation

The idea for this project was provided by Pradeep Shinde, a graduate student from the

Mechanical Engineering Department at Florida International University. Before selecting a

project topic, a criterion was developed to judge the different project proposals available. This

project matched the criterion more than any other project. First off, being able to build a

prototype was an important part of the criteria list. In order to develop a prototype, funding

would need to be available for the project. This project, in fact, had the funding available to build

a prototype at the conclusion of the theoretical design. Additionally, this project included

designing such things such as shafts, bearings, and gears which is an essential part of mechanical

engineering profession and, furthermore, has been part of the education curriculum at FIUs

School of Engineering. Finally, this project implemented the use of valuable tools such as

SolidWorks CAD software and programming for the analysis of aerodynamics as well as

structure stability and strength.

Furthermore, the Shell Eco-marathon is a very reputable, international competition where

college teams from all over the world participate. This provided an enormous opportunity for

students to experience working in teams, designing and optimizing mechanical and electrical

systems. As the first FIU engineering team to participate in this competition, the anxiousness to

start working on the design for the prototype was high. The fact that this would provide an

opportunity to represent FIU at an international stage served as a great motivator for the entirety

of the project.

Finally, the greatest motivation and reason to develop a prototype for this competition

was the theme of the competition itself. The purpose of the Shell Eco-marathon competition is to

develop the most fuel efficient and environmentally friendly prototype vehicle possible. The

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topic of environmentally friendly technology is one of crucial importance nowadays. Being able

to participate in a competition, and contribute to the development of a future environmentally

friendly vehicle was by far the greatest motivation to undertake this project.

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1.3 Literature Survey

The first step taken in this project was to do research on a variety of subjects to gather the

information required to be capable of designing the optimal product. The subjects researched

were divided into three areas. The first, and probably the most significant information obtained

were the rules and regulations of the Shell Eco-marathon contest. There are many teams that

enter the contest, design and build a prototype, only to find out when they get to the competition

that their vehicle has certain aspects of the design that violate regulations and thus they are

disqualified. Secondly, the contest offers many options to the type of power train that may be

used. Therefore, an extensive analysis was required of all the pros and cons of each of the power

train options. Finally, a competitive analysis was done of all the previous contest champion

teams. This information provided a lot of insight about the technology and concepts that would

contribute to a successful design.

1.3.1 Rules & Regulations:

Vehicle Design

Vehicle bodies must not include any external appendages that might be dangerous to

other team members; e.g. sharp points must have a radius of 5 cm or greater, alternatively

they should be made of foam or similar deformable material.

Dimensions

Maximum height < 100 cm

Maximum height at the top of drivers compartment < 1.25*max. track width

Track width > 50 cm

Wheel base > 100 cm

Maximum total vehicle width < 130 cm

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 Maximum total length < 350 cm

Maximum vehicle weight < 140 kg (without driver)

Identification

Space must be allotted on the vehicle for logos, official partner streamers and racing

numbers as follows.

o For each side and the front: a Shell logo, 20 x 20cm

o For each side and for the front: racing numbers, 20 x 26cm

o For each side on the lower part of the body: a partner streamer, 90 x 6cm

o A mandatory 10 cm space must be free on all four sides of the Shell logo.

Chassis / Monocoque Solidity

Teams must ensure that the vehicle chassis or monocoque is solid.

o A monocoque is a construction that supports structural load by using an objects

external skin as opposed to using a frame.

The vehicle must be equipped with an effective roll bar that extends 5cm around the

drivers helmet when seated in normal driving position with the safety belts fastened.

This roll bar must extend in width beyond the drivers shoulders when seated in normal

driving position with the safety belts fastened.

o It is permissible to either use a tubular or panel type roll bar. If a tubular roll bar is

used, it must be made of metal. A panel roll bar is the rigid partition separating

the cockpit from the engine compartment. Such a panel roll bar must be an

integral part of the vehicle chassis or integrated in a monocoque.

Any roll bar must be capable of withstanding a static load of 700N (~70kg) applied in a

vertical, horizontal or perpendicular direction, without deforming (i.e. in any direction).

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 The vehicle chassis or monocoque must be wide and long enough to protect the drivers

body in case of a frontal or lateral collision.

Visibility

Driver must have access to a direct arc of visibility(ahead, and to 90 on each side)

Use of optical devices is prohibited.

Movement of drivers head is allowed.

Rear-view mirror on each side of vehicle with a minimum surface area of 25cm2.

Visibility will be inspected by placing 60cm high blocks around the front of the car in a

semicircle with a radius of 5m.

Vehicle Access

Drivers, fully harnessed, must be able to vacate the vehicle in less than 10 seconds

without any assistance.

Fully closed vehicles must have an accessible interior and exterior release mechanism to

obtain access into or out of the cockpit.

Tape or adhesive prohibited for the latching mechanism of the door/cover.

Driver Position

The head-first driving position is prohibited.

Engine and Fuel System Isolation from the Driver

A permanent bulkhead must completely separate the vehicles propulsion and energy

storage systems from the drivers compartment.

o This means engines; fuel cells, fuel tanks, batteries, hydrogen cylinders, super

capacitors, etc. must be placed outside the drivers compartment behind the

bulkhead. The purpose of this bulkhead is that in the event of a fuel leak or fire, it

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 prevents liquids and/or flames and/or smoke reaching the driver. Therefore, it is

necessary to pay particular attention to avoid any gaps and holes between the

body and the bulkhead. It is recommended to seal gaps with materials such as

metal/aluminum sheeting or aluminum tape.

This bulkhead must be fire retardant material and construction.

In closed-top vehicles the bulkhead must effectively seal the drivers compartment from

the propulsion and fuel system.

In open vehicles the bulkhead must extend at least 5cm above the highest point of the

propulsion and fuel system or the drivers shoulders- whichever is the highest.

The bulkhead must prevent manual access to the engine/energy compartment by the

driver.

On-board Fire Extinguisher

ABC or BC type.

Minimum extinguishing capacity of 1kg(2lb)

Must be full and have a certificate of validity bearing the manufacturers number, the

date of manufacture, and the expiration date.

Plumbed-in extinguishers may be located in the engine compartment and must discharge

into the engine compartment. Triggering systems must be located within the cockpit and

be operable by the driver in his/her normal driving position.

Safety Belts

Drivers seat must consist of an effective safety harness having at least five mounting

points to maintain the driver in his/her seat.

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 Mounting point(s) for the crotch strap(s) must be below the drivers torso to prevent the

driver from slipping forward.

The 5 independent belts must be firmly attached to the vehicles main structure and be

fitted into a single buckle, specifically designed for this purpose.

Safety harness will be inspected by lifting the vehicle with the driver on board using the

safety harness for suspension.

The safety harness must withstand a force of at least 1.5 times the drivers weight.

Wheels, Axles and Wheel Hubs

All types of wheels are allowed.

Rims must be compatible with the dimensions of the selected tires in order to satisfy

safety standards.

o Wheels must be designed to support substantial lateral cornering forces.

o Wheel axles must be designed for cantilever loads.

Wheels located inside the vehicle must be isolated from the driver by a bulkhead.

Braking

Two independently activated brakes or braking systems required.

Each system consisting of a single command control, command transmission and

activators.

Indirect or electronic braking is not allowed.

One braking system must operate front wheel(s) and the other, the rear wheel(s).

Only two command controls in total are allowed.

Driver must be able to activate both braking systems simultaneously without removing

his/her hands from the steering wheel.

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 Braking systems will be inspected for effectiveness by placing the vehicle on an incline

with a 20 percent slope. Each system alone must keep the vehicle immobile.

The use of hydraulically controlled braking system is highly recommended.

o Cable operated systems are allowed as long as they are effective and pass the

brake test.

Exhaust System

Exhaust gases must be evacuated outside the vehicle body.

Exhaust pipes must not extend beyond the rear of the vehicle body.

All vehicles are expected to comply with reasonable environmental standards, e.g.

amount of smoke and odour emitted.

Sound Level

Sound level must not exceed 90dB when measured 4m away from the vehicle.

On-Board Electrical Energy

Maximum Voltage < 48V

Only one battery/ (source of electrical energy) per vehicle.

This on-board battery must operate all safety devices (e.g. horn, hydrogen sensor) for the

duration of the competition may also operate the starter motor, the ignition, the

instrumentation and electronic management systems. All other additional sources of

electricity are forbidden.

May need to install one joulemeter, to measure the quantity of energy provided by the

battery.

Batteries must be installed outside the driver compartment.

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 The following devices may be powered by additional batteries provided they use built-in

batteries: radio communication system, GPS, data loggers, driver ventilators.

If a Lithium Polymer battery is used, a Battery Monitoring System (BMS) must be

installed to control and protect the battery against risk of fire.

The following rules and regulations are categorized into the three electrical mobility options.

Due to the short time provided for the project, and the limited experience of the team, the

internal combustion engine will not be considered. Instead, the research scope has been narrowed

down to the three electrical mobility options: Hydrogen fuel cell, solar power, and battery-only

(plug-in) vehicles.

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Option A-Fuel Cell Powered Vehicles

Fuel System

Must be easily accessible for inspection and measurements.

Hydrogen Cylinders

Must use a compressed hydrogen cylinder, as provided by the Organisers during the

entire event. Only one cylinder may be fitted to a vehicle at any time.

o Exchange cylinder 7 x 16 (18cm x 41cm) weighing 15 lbs (7kg) at ~ 140 bar.

Ventilation

The vehicle body must allow for ventilation at the highest point of the fuel cell

compartment, providing an orifice with a minimum opening of 5 cm2.

Another 5 cm2 opening must be provided at the highest point of the driver compartment.

Hydrogen Detector

A hydrogen sensor must be installed in the fuel cell compartment, near the main

ventilation orifice mentioned above.

This hydrogen sensor must drive the emergency shutdown valve and erlay mentioned

below.

The trip level of the hydrogen sensor must be tuned to 25% of the LEL (Lower Explosive

Limit) of hydrogen, i.e. 1% of hydrogen in air.

A test will be carried out during the technical inspection.

The reset of the hydrogen detector, i.e. the hydrogen sensor and its electronics, must be

done manually via a switch located in the fuel cell compartment. This switch must not be

accessible by the pilot from the cockpit.

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 Emergency Shutdown Valve and Relay

The hydrogen supply circuit must be equipped with a solenoid emergency shutdown

valve. This valve must be normally closed in the absence of electricity.

Must be located immediately after the pressure regulator.

The pressure regulator must be connected directly to the H2 cylinder.

The power supply to the motor must be automatically cut off at the same time as the

above emergency shutdown valve is activated. This is to be achieved by a suitable fail-

safe relay.

The following three scenarios must activate the valve and relay:

o Hydrogen detection as explained above.

o Emergency push-button located on the outside of the vehicle. This button must

not be part of the detachable bodywork used to allow driver access.

o Through another emergency push-button located in the driver compartment.

Pipes and Connections of the Hydrogen Circuit

These components must be designed for hydrogen use. Team manager must be able to

present during the technical inspection the technical data sheets from the manufacturer of

these piping and connectors to show that they are suitable for hydrogen use.

If the pressure in the hydrogen circuit is higher than 1.5 bar absolute (0.5 bar gage) piping

must be made of steel and connectors must be screw type.

If the pressure in the hydrogen circuit is lower than 1.5 bar absolute flexible piping and

unscrewed connectors are accepted.

Purge Pipe

If a purge pipe is needed, its end must be located outside the vehicle.

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 Measurements and Equivalencies

The consumption of hydrogen is measured by an embedded flow meter.

The flow meter has to be purchased from the Organisers.

The display must be easy to read from outside the vehicle, when the vehicle body is

closed.

It must be inaccessible by the pilot in normal driving position.

Super Capacitors

If an electric storage device is part of the power-train, it must be of capacitor type,

referred to hereafter as Super Capacitor.

Voltage of capacitor will be checked before and after each run.

Voltage of the capacitor after the run must be at least equal to the voltage before the run.

If contrary, the capacitor will be re-charged by running the fuel cell until the voltage is

equal to the voltage before the run.

The additional time consumed charging the capacitor will be added to the recorded time

for the relevant run.

External Starter Battery

An external battery may be used to start the fuel cell, but must be unplugged as soon as

the vehicle starts to move.

Two connectors must be installed outside the vehicle to allow a quick connection and fuel

cell system start on the starting line.

Electrical Circuit/ Electronics

All electrical/electronic cases must be made of transparent material or at least have a

transparent top.

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 A fuse must be installed on the positive terminal of the fuel cell stack. Its melting current

(expressed in Amps) must be less than the active area (expressed in square centimeters)

of one cell of the stack. For instances, if the active surface of one cell of a 20 cell stack is

60 cm2, the melting current of the fuse must not exceed 60A.

On the super-capacitor, a fuse must be installed on the positive terminal of the super-

capacitors pack. Its melting current must be less than the electric current that corresponds

to an electric power of 300W for prototypes and 1000 W for Urban Concept vehicles,

assuming that the super-capacitors are completely charged. For instance, on a prototype,

if the super-capacitor pack has a maximum voltage of 15V, the fuse set point must not

exceed 300W/15V = 20A

Compressors, fans and coolers for the fuel cell system must be powered by the fuel cell

or super capacitor (not by the onboard battery)

Option B-Solar Powered Vehicles

Vehicle must be equipped with two joulemeters, one to measure the electric motor energy

consumption, the other one the solar panel energy production. Stickers, SOLAR

PANEL and MOTOR must identify the two joulemeters.

The joulemeters must be positioned so that their display is visible from outside the

vehicle.

The joulemeters must be inaccessible to the driver from his or her normal driving

position.

The electric current must not exceed 50 amperes permanent and 150 amperes peak.

The vehicles will go to the starting line with their batteries charged.

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Option C-Battery Only Powered Vehicles (Plug-Ins)

The drive-train in the Battery Only category is restricted to a maximum of one electric

storage device, electric motor(s), one control unit and the required connections.

Only Super Capacitors and Lithium Polymer batteries are permitted as electric storage

devices.

The entire drive train must be a easily accessible for inspection and measurements.

All vehicles must be equipped with one joulemeter to measure the electric motor energy

consumption.

The joulemeter display must be easily legible from outside the vehicle.

The electric current must not exceed 50 amperes permanent and 150 amperes peak.

The entire installation must be adequately fused.

The vehicles will go to the starting line with their batteries charged.

In addition to the preceding rules and regulations, there are requirements that need to be met

in order to be considered as successfully completing a run. Participants shall complete ten laps

around the track in order to have a complete run. Furthermore, the average speed of the vehicle

during the run shall be 15 mph. this average speed may be lowered at the discretion of the event

organizers.

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1.3.2 Power Source

The Shell Eco Marathon this year will allow any of the following Power sources:

Internal Combustion Engines. The different types of fuel will be provided by the

Organizer.

Hydrogen Power.

Solar Power.

Plug-in Electricity.

The results of the vehicles performance will be calculated according to the Power used. For

internal combustion engines the results will be expressed in [km/l], for the other three in

[km/kwh].

Figure 1: Various Power Types Used in Previous Competitions [18]

The selection of the power source for this project will be an essential part of the design

and it depends on several factors like the materials used in the vehicle, the weight of the driver

and taking into account that this is not a speed race. There are also some requirements that the

rules of the Shell-Eco Marathon impose, for example all the Power sources must have safety

devices and precise technical drawings of their systems, some of them have to be more detailed

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depending on the power train selected. It will be necessary to evaluate all these items in order to

select properly the power source and to have the less energy used to move the vehicle.

The prices available at the competition also vary depending on the type of the power train

is used. The following table shows the values of the different prices.

Table 1: Shell -Eco Marathon Prizes [21]

Prototypes UrbanConcept (UC)

By engine type

Shell Eco- Shell Eco-

(1)
1st prize: $5,000 1st prize: $5,000
Combustion marathon Grand marathon Grand
2nd prize: $2,500 2nd prize: $2,500
Prize Prize

Shell Hydrogen 1st prize: $1,500 Shell Hydrogen 1st prize: $1,500
Fuel cells(2)
Grand Prize 2nd prize: $1,000 Grand Prize 2nd prize: $1,000

1st Prize: $1,500 1st Prize: $1,500

E-Mobility(3) E-Mobility Award E-Mobility Award
2nd Prize: $1,000 2nd Prize: $1,000

Solar Power 1st Prize: $1,500 Solar Power 1st Prize: $1,500
Solar
Award 2nd Prize: $1,000 Award 2nd Prize: $1,000

By energy class

Gasoline Prize $1,000 UC Gasoline Prize $1,000

Diesel Prize $1,000 UC Diesel Prize $1,000

Alternative UC Alternative
$1,000 $1,000
Gasoline Prize Gasoline Prize

Alternative Diesel UC Alternative

$1,000 $1,000
Prize Diesel Prize

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Main characteristics of Different Power Sources

Internal Combustion Power:

This is the most common power used in the world for any kind of purpose, from vehicles

to industrial applications. In this competition the main objective is to use the less amount of fuel

with respect to the distance which is a great factor to take into account in order to select the

adequate engine. The Organizers will allow using any engine that could be able to work within a

specific list of fuels given by them. For the project, the selection of the engine has to be

according to the design of the whole car, and for this kind of power train there are no more

restrictions than the size and capacity of the engine.

Efficiencies in Internal Combustion Engines are not too high and it is important to

remember that the vehicle must have a high efficiency for the purpose of the competition that is

why this kind of power will not be analyzed for the project.

Plug-In Power:

This kind of power train uses a battery which can have a maximum voltage of 48 V

according to the competition rules, and an electric motor. There are different types of electric

motors but according to an investigation made by N Hashemia, the induction motors have been

known as the best candidate for the Electric Vehicle applications because they are robust, less

costly, and mature in technology and need less maintenance. However, it is demonstrated that in

terms of pollution and fuel consumption, the permanent magnet and the brushless DC motors

have more priorities such as less pollution, less fuel consumption and more power to volume

ratio which makes them attractive in the EV applications.(Hashemnia and Asaei)

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Solar Power:

The solar power can be used through solar cells which convert sunlight directly into

electricity. These cells are mainly composed of semiconducting materials. When sunlight is

absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks electrons loose from their atoms, allowing

the electrons to flow through the material to produce electricity. This is the Photovoltaic effect

which allows converting photons to electricity. Solar cells are typically combined into modules

that hold about 40 cells mounted in Photovoltaic arrays. Several connected arrays can provide

enough power for a household; for large electric utility or industrial applications, hundreds of

arrays can be interconnected to form a single, large Photovoltaic system. The performance of a

solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at turning sunlight into electricity. Only sunlight

of certain energies will work efficiently to create electricity, and much of it is reflected or

absorbed by the material that makes up the cell. Because of this, a typical commercial solar cell

has an efficiency of 15%-about one-sixth of the sunlight striking the cell generates electricity.

Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays are needed, and that means higher cost. (Renewable

Energy World)

In order to have an idea of the cost and energy that can be used from a typical solar panel,

the following table gives some information of a commercial available solar panels with length

and width appropriate for the projects purpose.

General Electric Solar Panel 173 Watt 25.1 Volt GEPV-173-SP $320.05

The GEPV-173 is a 54 single-crystal cells connected in series with a Peak power of 173 Watts at

25.1 Volts. This solar panel is designed for optimum use in residential and commercial grid-tied

applications

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 Table 2: Characteristic of a Typical Solar Panel [16]

Model GEPV-173-SP
Power (W) 173 Watts
Open Circuit Voltage (V) 32.2 Voc
Short Circuit Current (A) 7.5 Isc
Maximum Power Voltage (V) 25.1 Vmp
Maximum Power Current (A) 6.9 Imp
Length 38.4" (975mm)
Height 58.1" (1476mm)
Deep 1.4" (36mm)
Weight 40 lb (18.14kg)
Connector MC-3

Hydrogen Power:

It is known that Hydrogen is the simplest element in the nature because one atom of

hydrogen just consists of only one proton and one electron. This element doesn't occur naturally

as a gas on the Earth, it is always combined with other elements. It could be found also in

organic compounds like the hydrocarbons. Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons

through the application of heat. There is also a process called electrolysis in which an electrical

current is applied to separate water into its components of oxygen and hydrogen. Some algae and

bacteria, using sunlight as their energy source, even give off hydrogen under certain conditions.

Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure hydrogen produces almost no

pollution. (Renewable Energy World)

One important thing that is relevant about the hydrogen power is what the U.S

Department of Energy pronounces, Hydrogen is a clean energy carrier made from diverse

domestic resources such as renewable energy, nuclear energy, and fossil energy. Hydrogen in the

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long-term will simultaneously reduce dependence on foreign oil and emissions of greenhouse

gases and criteria pollutants. (U.S Department of Energy).

For power purposes there is a device known as Hydrogen Fuel cell, which is often

compared to batteries. Both convert the energy produced by a chemical reaction into usable

electric power. However, the fuel cell will produce electricity as long as the hydrogen is

supplied, never losing its charge. There are some types of fuel cells but the ones that have been

considered for the projects are, the PEMFE (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell) and the

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell.

The PEMFE uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity; water and heat are the by-

products of its operation. The production of the electricity occurs due to the electrochemical

process known as Redox. Fuel cells function by capitalizing on the movement of electrons that

takes place during the reaction. This is accomplished by routing the electron flow through a

circuit that will be used as power. The efficiency of this type of cell is about 80%, however they

usually operate at efficiencies between 30 and 60%. The following figure shows the components

of the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. (Brus and Hotek)

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 Figure 2: Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell [1]

There is also the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell. This one uses a ceramic electrolyte which has to

be hard and nonporous in order to eliminate the need for a catalyst. These fuel cells can use

common hydrocarbons fuels as the anode gas and oxygen as the cathode gas. They also have

high operating temperature when used in power plants. (Busby and Altork)

The differences between these two types of fuel cells are the ranges of operating

temperatures PEM (140 180 F), Solid Oxide (1200 F) and the size because the Solid Oxide cell

is more often used for industrial purposes. For the project and because of the conditions and rules

of the competition it would be better to use the PEMFE. They have a low operation temperature

and the space needed for the device would fit in the vehicle.

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1.3.3 Competitive Analysis

According to the Shell Eco Marathon 2011 Rules, we are allowed to either design a

prototype car using three or four wheels. However we have chosen to use three wheels, since it

would reduce the overall weight of the vehicle which would improve the speed, control and fuel

consumption of the prototype car. Another restriction with our design is that the track must be

less than 50cm, the wheel base must be less than 100cm and the overall length of the vehicle

must be less than 350cm.

Another design factor with chassis of the vehicle is that it must be long and wide enough

to protect the driver in a collision, and a roll bar must be welded to the chassis that extend 5cm

over the drivers head and also have some clearance between the drivers shoulders. The roll bar

must also be able to withstand a static load of 700 Newton. Below is a general picture of the

basic design of the prototype vehicle.

Figure 3: General Conpcept of Prototype Vehicle [11]

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 There are basically two materials that can be used for the construction of the frame and

chassis of the car, which include steel and extruded aluminum. However, from research, the

chassis of many of the prototype cars in this competition are made from aluminum since it the

lightest weight material. Below is a picture of the frame of such prototype vehicle that team

Supmeca Paris designed in 2007 to participate in the competition.

Figure 4: Chassis of teams Supmeca Paris Prototype Vehicle [17]

As far as the body shell of the vehicle goes, the most widely used materials are carbon

fiber and fiberglass. These two materials offer light weight properties while still providing

significant strength. However, alternatively, the body shell has been made up of different

materials such as card board and aluminum sheeting on a few prototype concepts. The most

popular material selected as far as windows go, is plexiglass. The variation exists, however, on

the method of installation as well as the thickness of the plexiglass. A popular method of

installation has been using ribets. Figure 5 below shows one of the vehicles which entered into

the competition two years ago. The material selected for the body shell of this vehicle is carbon

fiber.

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 Figure 5. Carbon Fiber Body Shell

Other observations made from the competitive analysis is that the steering system

installed in most vehicles is usually a similar system to those used on go karts, consisting of tie

rods and spindles as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Go kart steering system

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2 Project Objectives

The main objective of this design project is to develop and build a highly fuel efficient

prototype vehicle that is capable of producing approximately 800 miles per gallon of fuel (mpg)

at the Shell Eco-marathon Competition. The bar has been set at 800 mpg due to our limited

budget of $7000 USD, also considering the build time and time needed to order parts within a

period of three and a half months. We plan to set certain parameters such as; accomplishing the

said miles per gallon, a maximum velocity of 20 mph, and a very light weight chassis space

frame less than 100 kg. The overall objective of the project is to design, build and test a

prototype vehicle that will pass inspection at the 2011 Shell Eco-Marathon Competition and will

successfully complete one trial at the event.

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3 Conceptual Designs
3.1 Observation of Winning 2010 European Team

The main goal is to design a prototype vehicle that can produce maximum miles per gallon

(mpg) of fuel, and so far Team Polyjoule of France has shattered the records with an amazing

11516 mpg in the Shell Eco Marathon Europe 2010 competition. Their main items that allowed

them to produce such mileage include;

The use of hydrogen fuel cells.

The material of the entire shell of the vehicle was carbon fiber.

The entire weight of the vehicle without the propulsion system was 23kg.

Wheelbase consisted of 2 wheels in front and one at the rear.

According to the competition prizes, the team with a internal combustion engine that produces

the best mpg wins a greater cash prize compared to teams that use hydrogen fuel cells. However,

that is not the concern of Team J, its the greatest mpg. Below is a picture of their prototype

vehicle.

Figure 7: Team Polyjoule's Prototype Vehicle [14]

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3.2 Chassis

Apart from Team Polyjoule, a monocoque chassis design is commonly used because it is

basically a one piece structure and has great impact strength, space efficiency, and the outer

structure of the car serves as the structural support. However, there are some disadvantages since

the manufacturing of a monocoque is much more complicated and costly. Table 3 shows the cost

per yard ratio of carbon fiber material.

Table 3. Carbon Fiber Costs [6]

Another type of chassis is the space frame design which consists of metal or aluminum tubes

welded together in the sections that the concentrated forces act on the chassis. This concept is

shown in Figure 6. The advantage of this design is that it is much lighter than a monocoque

structure and can withstand greater bending stresses and strains. The costs of the aluminum

tubing which would be used in this frame are shown in Table 4.

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 Figure 8. Space Frame Design [23]

Table 4. Aluminum Tubing Costs [12]

The pricing of the aluminum tubing is around the same as the carbon fiber, however, a lot

less tubing length is needed than carbon fiber and the manufacturing costs of the space frame are

less complicated and expensive.

3.3 Vehicle Shell

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) seems to be the most common used material for the

shell of some prototype vehicles because of its incredible strength to weight ratio, however the

cost is much higher than sheet aluminum or sheet metal. For this design, the team has analyzed

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the cost that satisfies the budget and time for ordering the material, and the skills needed to

fabricate such structure with a given material.

The basic concept for the shell design will be that of a streamline body, which follows the

pattern of an elongated tear drop, since its aerodynamic shape reduces the drag force

significantly which improves the fuel consumption and it helps in maintaining the stability of the

vehicle. The effectiveness of this concept is illustrated in Figure 7. Additionally, the shell design

can have a peripheral design similar to an airplane airfoil in order to seek lift. However,

alternatively, the peripheral design can have the shape of a vehicle peripheral design which seeks

to obtain a downward force in order to increase traction between the tires and the road.

Figure 9. Streamlining Effect [4]

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3.4 Wheel and Brakes Configuration

In our design we plan to mount the motor at the rear of the vehicle so that it reduces the

weight in the front compartment of the car. Another important design factor is the placement of

the wheels, such that where ever it is placed, it must provide the best stability and handling of the

vehicle. The best design involves two wheels at the front of the car that can be steered and one

wheel to the rear thats powered. 20 BMX rims and tires would be best suited for this

competition due to its light weight since they are aluminum and this design was used by Team

Baldos of Lule University of Technology.

To reduce the drag of the vehicle the both front wheels would be inclined with a camber

angle of about 5 to 10 degrees, rather than being straight upright. This improves the cornering of

the vehicle and allows forces to be transmitted through the vertical plane of the tire rather than

through the shear force across the tire (Adams, 1993). Refer to picture below.

Figure 10: Illustration of Camber Angle [10]

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 These tires then need to be mounted on a hub that would be able to accommodate such

forces, therefore a tricycle hub would be an ideal part that can be used, such as Sturmey Archer

hub with a built in break drum such as the XL-FDD gear hub (Sturmey Archer). This hub can

also be used for the rear wheel.

Figure 11: Sturmey Archer Front Gear Hub [15]

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3.5 Steering

A steering enables the movement and displacement of the front wheels of a vehicle. The

Pit arm steering, shown below, is regularly used for urban vehicles but is time consuming and

relatively expensive. Its components include, a steering wheel connected to a steering column via

a steering box, which drives the pitarm. The pitarm is directly connected to the track rod which is

connected to the tie rod, which makes the wheels turn left or right and these are connected to the

steering arms.

Figure 12: Pit Arm Steering Design [5]

Another option for the steering which was a lot more applicable to the design was that of

a go kart steering system. This system is known as the four-bar steering system and is design for

vehicles of similar scale to those entered into the Shell Eco-Marathon Competition. Figure 13

illustrates the basic components needed for a four-bar steering mechanism.

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 Figure 13. Four-Bar Steering Mechanism

4 Proposed Design

4.1 Chassis Frame

The design of the Structure will be based on the loads of the different components of the

vehicle. The team will design a frame which would optimize the size of the material with respect

to the loads applied; in this case the material will be aluminum tubes. The aluminum is a material

lighter than the steel and it supports higher loads and stresses than the monocoque of carbon

fiber. This material is easy to obtain in many different sizes which enable a wide range of

possibilities to the design. The team will have to choose the best option among the different sizes

with the help of the simulation Software.

Another great advantage of this material is that the cost is not high. The team also has the

machines needed to weld the different parts, for this reason the construction of the frame will be

made by the team members and it will not add more cost to the project.

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4.2 Body Shell

The design of body shell of the vehicle is based on a shape which has the less aerodynamic

resistance. The dimensions of the shell are limited by the design of the chassis and the size of the

driver. Another important concern is the visibility which has to have an arc of 90 degrees to each

side of the vehicle for this reason the team tried to reach this objective without affecting the

aerodynamic properties.

There are many different options for the material of the shell, but fiberglass has been

selected for this design because of the relation of cost and weight.

According to Fibre Glast, the cost of the Carbon Fiber is $44.95 each yard, and its relation

of mass and area is 5.7 oz/sq yd. This twill weave fabric offers the cosmetic appearance so

desirable on modern composite parts. But don't just use it for looks, this fabric is highly form-

able and slightly stronger than the plain weave . There is also a material called Kevlar that costs

$39.95 each yard and its relation of mass and area is. 5.0 oz/sq yd. This Kevlar fabric provides

the improved cosmetics and drapability of a twill weave. This material is ideal for impact

resistant applications requiring the lightweight and high strength properties of Kevlar. Finally

the fiberglass has less strength per unit of mass but its cost per yard is only $5.95. Mat can be

used alone or in conjunction with fiberglass fabrics or woven roving in larger fabrications. The

resins used with these materials have similar properties (Fibre Glast).

For the project, the shell will not have to support high loads, it will only give the

appearance of the vehicle and offer the aerodynamic shape, for these reasons, fiber glass will be

the best selection. In order to build the shell, a procedure using a mold made of plywood will be

necessary in order to obtain the shape required.

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 The following figures represent the Design of the shell. Some simulations will be

performed in order to determine the aerodynamics effects of the design before proceeding to

build it.

Figure 14: Shell front View.

Figure 15: Shell top View.

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 Figure 16: Shell Design

4.3 Wheel Configuration

The vehicle will have a wheel configuration with two wheels at the front part in order to

have better maneuverability and reduce the complexity of the steering system. There will be just

one wheel at the rear part which will be the one powered. This configuration is optimal because

it provides stability and also concurs with the disposition of the other parts of the vehicle.

All three wheels are configured inside of the body shell in order to minimize drag. There

will be two similar brake systems, one for the front wheels and one for the rear wheel but they

will be totally independent. These systems will be from a bicycle, which support similar loads to

the ones required for the vehicle and the installation will be in the same way that is done for the

bicycles.

4.4 Power Source

For the power system the selection of a fully electric system was made. This was the first

competition for which this category was established. The selection of the electric category allows

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for a simpler design- a battery and an electric motor will be sufficed. This was a very important

part of the vehicle and for this reason the decision took into account as much criteria as possible.

Among this criteria appear: the cost, the weight, the size and the amount of power that the device

could produce. A great part of the power system design was to minimize the transmission losses

as much as possible.

5 Project Management

5.1 Overview

This senior design project has to be completed within two academic semesters; therefore

project management is an important aspect in the design process. Team J consists of three

members and all cannot focus on only one element in the project, therefore, specializations were

assessed for each person tasks were assigned. It was also ensure that the various tasks appointed

to each member are equally divided to prevent any conflicts which my delay the design process.

Lastly, communication is the most significant factor in any project, hence we have built a

website to allow easy access for only the team members to upload, receive updates and shares

comments concerning the project.

5.2 Organization of Work and Timeline

The initial parts of this project was the intensive research for the literary survey, to ensure

that the proposed design does not use other patented designs and verifying that the device is

worth purchasing. Also the different chassis and aerodynamic structures of the Shell Prototype

vehicle were examined to choose the best design.

Arriving with different conceptual designs was the most important and challenging part of

the project. Each member produced a concept and then all ideas were examined closely to choose

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the best for the proposed concept. The majority of the time spent in the proposed design was due

to the many changes since the Mechanical Engineering PhD Student Advisor; Shinde Pradeep

had to approve it before pursuing any further.

The senior design course allows a period of approximately seven and one half months to

complete the design of the Shell Prototype vehicle which basically involves mechanical

calculations, allow time for trial and errors, and prototyping. Since this part of the project is only

25% completed the Gantt chart also shows a projected timeline for the completion of this course.

Hence a detailed Gantt chart below illustrates the project management schedule for the duration

of the senior design course.

Figure 17: Gantt Chart for Senior Design Project

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 The table below shows the percentage of participation in our senior design project of each

team member.

Page | 48
 Table 5: Breakdown of Responsibilities among Team Members

Bryan Quiceno/ Pablo Salamea/ Ryan Sampath/

% % %

Analytical and Structural Analysis 35 30 35

Solidworks Simulation 60 20 20
Research and Testing 20 60 20
25% Report 33 33 33
Poster Design 33 33 33
Purchasing Materials 10 70 20
Buliding and Testing Prototype 33 33 33
Final Report 33 33 33
Final Presentation 33 33 33

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6 Analysis and Structural Design

6.1 Chassis Frame

The first component designed was the chassis of the vehicle. This component was designed first

due to the time required and the fact that it was one of the two main aspects of this project. The

goal was to design a simple, lightweight, and strong chassis that would withstand the applicable

loads that would be present during the competition. These loads include the driver, power

system, and safety loads. Figure 15 shows the initial concept of the proposed chassis and labels

each member with a number. Symmetrical members are coded with the same number.

Figure 18. Chassis proposed concept and member identification

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The assumed static loads on the vehicle are as follows:

Driver: 80kg

Power System: 20kg

The rest of the components weight was assumed negligible for the initial analysis. The braking

system, for instance, in its totality weighs less than 1kg all together. The initial analysis of the

chassis was done by hand and the chassis structure was simplified to a two-dimensional

structure. The two-dimensional free body diagram is illustrated in Figure 19. Two-dimensional

analysis.

Figure 19. Two-dimensional analysis

The free body diagram shown in Figure 19 was used to solve for the reaction forces at the wheel

supports. The following static calculations were part of the derivation.

R1+R2 = 98.1N + 686.7N + 294.3N = 1,079.1N

-98.1(0.498) + 686.7(0.5774) + 294.3(1.3024) = R2(1.4464)

RESULTS:

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 R2 = 505.4N & R1 = 573.7N

The next step was to resolve and simplify the two-dimensional analysis into different sections of

the chassis in order to derive the forces acted on each member. The two-dimensional analysis

was divided into the front section, which provides support for the drivers feet, the main body,

and the rear power train support, all of which are shown in Figure 17.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20. Two-dimensional sections. (a) Front foot rest (b) Main Body (c) Power supply support

The front and rear sections of the two-dimensional chassis were assumed to be that of a

cantilever loading in order to derive the required inner and outer dimensions of tubes 1 and 11.

The main body on the other hand, was assumes to be a truss structure made of several members.

Although members are actually joined together by means of bolted or welded connections, it is

customary to assume that the members are pinned together; therefore, the forces acting at each

end of a member reduce to a single force and no couple (25). The equations and calculations

derived in each of the two-dimensional sections are provided in Appendix A. The results for

forces induced in each member are provided in Table 6 and 7, and are categorized into members

undergoing purely tension/compression forces and does undergoing a combination of bending,

torsion and tension, respectively.

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Table 6. Members experiencing pure tension/compression forces

Tube # Fmax
3 -237.3
5 -264.5
6 403.3
7 228.7
12 203.4
13 -403.3

Table 7. Members undergoing bending, torsion, and axial loading

Tube # Moment(Nm) Torque(Nm) Shear(N) Axial Load(N)

1 22.07 7.98 73.58 0
2 35.9 55.2 201.8 212.4
4 43.93 0 402 0
8 13.7 0 195.8 0
11 24.6 8.05 45.2 18.9

With forces determined, the next step was to derive the optimal dimensions required in order for

members of the chassis to be safe to a desired degree. For this analysis the factor of safety was

selected to be 2. The members experiencing tension/compression forces were designed first. The

following calculations show the process used to solve for the optimal diameter and thickness

selection for these tubes.

(1)

Where, SF = Factor of Safety

max = Maximum stress in member

y = Yield strength of material ( Aluminum 6061 T6)

(2)

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 Where, Amin = Minimum cross-sectional area of tube required

Fmax = Maximum force in member

Additionally, an expression for minimal moment of inertia must be calculated in order to design

the members to be safe from buckling.

2
= (3)
2

Therefore,

2
(4)
2

Where, Fcr = Critical buckling force

E = material modulus of elasticity

L = length of tube

I = moment of inertia of cross-section

Once the minimal required cross-sectional area and moment of inertia was calculated for each of

the tension/compression tubes, the table included in Appendix B was used to determine which of

the market available dimensions was most suitable.

In the case of the tubes experiencing tension/compression as well as bending and torsion, the

design process is a little more extended. First, the critical sections must be found in each tube

where the moment, torsion, and axial load are the greatest. For tube 1 and 11 this was done by

hand as derived in Appendix A. However, for tube 2,4, and 8 the use of MDSolids was required

to determine the critical sections of each of these tubes. The results for MDSolids are displayed

below in Figures 18, 19, and 20.

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Figure 21. Loading schematic, shear diagram, and moment diagram for tube 2.

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Figure 22.Loading schematic, shear diagram, and moment diagram for tube 4.

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Figure 23.Loading schematic, shear diagram, and moment diagram for tube 8.

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With the values of all the forces, bending and torsion exerted on each tube, the Von Mises stress

can be calculated for each tube corresponding to each of the market available dimensions. These

Von Mises stresses are included in Appendix B. The following equation is used to determine the

maximum allowed Von Mises stress.

Where, = Von Mises stress

Therefore, since all tubing is of the same material and are being designed with the safe factor of

safety, the maximum allowed Von Mises stress for all of these tubes is 137.5 MPa. Furthermore,

Appendix B can be used to determine the optimal dimensions for tubes 1,2,4,8, and 11 by

comparing the induced Von Mises stress found in Appendix B to the maximum allowed Von

Mises stress.

The tubes designed by the simplified two-dimensional analysis served as a great starting point to

the modeling of a three-dimensional chassis. The three-dimensional model was built using

SolidWorks CAD software. Additionally, the software used allowed the chassis to undergo stress

simulations, with the applicable load assumed earlier.

Initially, the chassis was going to be analyzed as a whole, however, the capabilities of the

software was limited and the analysis of too many thin elements affected the meshing

capabilities of the software. Therefore, different sections of the chassis were analyzed with

equivalent loading pattern that would be experienced in the actual chassis.

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Section 1-(Power Supply Support- tube 1)

This section consist of tube 1, which is assumed to be fixed at the chassis connection side and

loaded in a cantilever fashion. The optimized tube 1 member analysis is shown below in Figure

21 and 22.

Figure 24. Power supply support stress analysis

Figure 25. Power supply support displacement analysis

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Section 2(Front foot support- tube 11 & 6)

For this analysis the ends of tube 6 were fixed and the appropriate loading was applied on the

foot rest area.

Figure 26. Front feet support stress analysis

Figure 27. Front feet support displacement analysis

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 Section 3(Front rollbar section-tube 6, 12, & 13)

This section was analyzed in order to derive the required diameter dimensions of the relevant

tubes. For a more accurate analysis, the force and moments produced by tube 11 were transferred

onto tube 6. Furthermore, the torque induced by the weight of the driver is also included. The

reaction force R1 calculated earlier was also included in this simulation.

Figure 28. Front rollbar stress analysis

Figure 29. Front rollbar displacement analysis

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 Section 4(Main body -2,3,5, & 7)

The components designed by the results in this simulation were 2, 3, 5, and 7 as mentioned in the

section title. The forces and moments produced by the first three sections are taken into account

as well as the drivers weight.

Figure 30. Main body stress analysis

Figure 31. Main body displacement analysis

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 Section 5(Power supply support sheet)

The power supply components will be assembled on top of two aluminum sheets that will each

go mounted on top of two of the tube 1 members. The following analysis assumes the sides of

the sheet to be fixed, representing the welding of the sheet to the members. The load applied is

half of the total power supply system, since the components will be distributed over two separate

sheets.

Figure 32. Power Supply sheet stress analysis

Figure 33. Power supply sheet displacement analysis

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 Section 6(Chair support sheet)

The driver will have a cushioned chair to rest against when inside the vehicle. The cushioned

chair will be supported by another two aluminum sheets. The following analysis results shows

the stress induced in the aluminum sheet.

Figure 34. Chair support sheet stress analysis

Figure 35. Chair support sheet displacement analysis

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 Rollbar Collision

After the static loading was simulated, further simulations are required to verify the safety of the

chassis in different scenarios. One of these scenarios is a collision test. The most important

section of the chassis during collision is the roll bar of the vehicle. Figures 33 and 34 illustrate

the stress and displacement results of the optimized roll bar. A compressive force of 700 N is

applied in the normal directions.

Figure 36. Roll bar stress analysis

Figure 37. Roll bar displacement analysis

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The results for the SolidWorks simulations of the chassis are clearly displayed. The desired

results for the simulations included having less than 10 mm in overall deflection and obtaining a

factor of safety equal to 2 or higher. The results demonstrate that this goal was achieved and

therefore the design was ready for construction.

6.2 Body Shell

The design procedure for the body shell was restricted in size by the design of the chassis as well

as the size of the driver. Before beginning any actual designing of a shell, the question existed as

to whether the shape of the shell would have a significant impact on drag at such low velocities.

Therefore, a baseline was formed by constructing a rectangular prism using SolidWorks with the

required dimensions for the shell. The shell underwent a flow simulation using a velocity of 25

mph. The results for the simulation showed that the corresponding drag for such a scenario

would be 33.78N. Figure 38 illustrates the aerodynamic profile of the rectangular prism

analyzed.

Figure 38. Rectangular Prism Flow Simulation Results

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Next, the shell was modified using one of the widely used airfoil profiles. Figure 38 shows a

selection of popular airfoil profiles. The Clark Y profile was selected as part of the shell design

because its flat bottom provided more applicability to the desired setting.

The body shell was constructed by using the Clark Y profile as the side view of the shell and

extruding the shape to the required width. This second design allowed the drag of the shell to

drop down to 17.73N, almost half of the rectangular prism.

Figure 39. Airfoil Profiles

This iterative procedure of modification and simulation was repeated for several designs of the

shell. Figure 39 shows some of the shell designs analyzed during the process. A total of twelve

shapes were analyzed and the results are organized in Table 8. The design in f) is the final

selection of the shell. Although the drag is a little higher than e), calculations showed that due to

the lighter weight of f) the total energy consumed would be less.

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 Figure 40. Body shell designs

Table 8. Flow simulation results

Shape Drag (N)

Rectangular Prism 33.78
Clark Original 17.73
Clark Cut Sides 11.59
Clark Rounded 10.57
Clark Cut Back 7.91
Clark Cut Back (smooth) 8.76
Modified Body Shell 7.17
Modified Body Shell 2 6.22
Modified Body Shell 5 7.13
Modified Body Shell final 2 7.69
Modified Body Shell final 3 8.17
Pablo Body Shell 6.26

The next step in the body shell design was to accommodate for windows, doors, and side

mirrors. Figure 40 shows the completed design of the body shell.

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 Figure 41. Body Shell Assembly

6.3 Steering

The steering of a vehicle is the most important component for control and motion. The basic

steering components include;

Steering Wheel

Steering Shaft

Steering System (i.e. Pit Arm Types, Rack and Pinion )

Track Rods

Tie Rods

Steering Arms

The Ackermann Steering Principle

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This principle describes the relation applied to two or four wheel vehicles that allows the precise

turning angle of the steering wheels during the motion of the vehicle around a corner or curve.

This principle illustrates (as shown below) that the path taken by the front wheels of the vehicle

travel a shorter radius from the center of the curve compared to the rear wheels (RCTEK

Information & Resources for the Model Car Racer). Hence the front wheels of a vehicle is

designed with a camber angle, that is, a very small angle of tile of the wheels towards the

centerline of the vehicle to reduce stress on the tie rod and assist in accurate cornering.

Figure 42: Ackermann Angle Illustration

Shell Steering Rules

Turning Radius

The turning radius of the vehicle must be sufficient enough to allow safe overtaking and must

also allow safe cornering of the vehicle.

Vehicle Steering and Handling

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Must be precise without excessive undue delay or play and indirect steering is allowed only if

there is adequate backup and fail safe measures incorporated in the design.

Steering Ratio

Steering ratio is the ratio of angle turned by the steering vs. the angle of deflection of the front

wheels. Therefore for our design, we plan to use a steering ratio of 1:1 as used in racing cars

since the vehicle is very small and a greater deflection is needed in the front wheels to allow

easier overtaking and a faster wheel response.

Turning Radius

Turning radius is the radius of the circle made by the outer wheels of the vehicle when the

steering is fully locked to the right or left. Below is the formula that was used to calculate the

turning radius for the vehicle;

= +
2 sin ( )

Steering System Designs

There are many different steering systems; however we have narrowed our search for the best

possible design to two systems which include; the rack and pinion system, and the four bar

steering.

Rack and Pinion

The principle of a rack and pinion steering system basically to translate the rotational movement

of the steering wheel and steering column to the linear movement of the steering arms to turn the

front wheels to the right or left. Below is an illustration of this system.

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 Figure 43: Rack and Pinion Steering System

Some advantages of this system are:

Very light weight

Inexpensive

Does not occupy too much space

Rapid steering response

The disadvantages of the rack and pinion steering system in our design would be the complexity

of putting it together since we do not have the experience with that system.

Four Bar Steering

This system was chosen for the design since it is very simple since it does not include any gears

or tracks; it consists of two tie rods connected to the spindle arm of a spindle that rotates about a

vertical shaft, which is also connected to the steering column. Welded on the steering column are

two pieces of metals that the tie rod ends are connected to, so that when the steering turns, it

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moves the tie rods left or right hence moving the wheels. Two bushing welded to two vertical

aluminum members allow the steering to turn smoothly.

There were many changes to the steering system of the vehicle. Firstly, one design

involved using one tie rod (24) connected to both ends of the spindle arms and the other tie rod

(11) connected to only one spindle arm, attached to the steering column as shown below.

However, it was advised by many go kart fabricators to use individual tie rods connected to the

left and right spindle arms (as seen in the other picture)to reduce the stress and deflection on the

longer tie rod connected from one tie rod to the other.

Figure 44: Steering Design 1

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 Figure 45: Final Steering Design

The material of the spindle brackets are made of thick Aluminum 6061-T-6 and are welded to

the chassis. It was decided to fabricate the spindle brackets and spindle from aluminum instead

of using standard steel brackets and spindle because the overall objective was to reduce as much

weight as possible. Also, modularity of the design was considered for easy maintenance of the

spindle, bushings and axel.

Finite Element Stress analysis using Solidworks 2010 was performed on the spindle system,

where the loads of 300N simulated of the spindle and bracket assembly include, static weight,

torque of 2.51N.m caused by turning, and an extra force (100N) that might be produced by any

bump or pot holes in the road.

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 Figure 46: Stress Analysis of Spindle Assembly

The figure above illustrates the maximum stress that the spindle assembly can withstand is

between 110.6 N/m2 to 30000 N/m2. The red arrow show the location the load (300N) is applied

to determine the maximum bearing stress.

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 Figure 47: Displacement Analysis of Spindle Assembly

The figure above illustrates that at the top corner of the spindle bracket, a maximum deflection of

2.511mm shown in red occurs when the maximum force (300N) is applied on the axel shown by

the red arrow. The axel, shown in blue, shows that there is almost no deflection. The spindle

itself, which is partly green, experiences a deflection between 1.045 to 1.863mm.

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 Figure 48: Strain Analysis on Spindle Assembly

The figure above illustrates that the strain produced on the spindle assemble is quite insignificant

since its value is roughly 8.764e-010.

6.4 Wheels/Tires/Brakes

Before designing the configuration of the brake system, the team had to specify the

characteristics of the wheels and the steering system.

The tires were a very important part of the vehicle that the team had to choose wisely. According

to the article Quality Influence on Fuel Consumption for Motor Vehicles, the tires are

responsible for 20% consumption of fuel in cars, and also that the tires low pressure can also

determine the consumption increase. (Mihon). For these reasons a deep research was made in

order to obtain the best performance of the vehicle.

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 The dimensions of the wheels selected were:

Diameter 26 inches.

Thickness 1.5 inch.

This decision was made because it was proved that this type of wheels had less rolling

resistance. The following picture helped to determine that the widder wheel would give the lesser

rolling resistance because its shape had less active area of sidewall and the deflection amount

was low.

Figure 49. Tires Rolling Resistance (rouesartisanales)

Another important fact that determined the size of the wheel was the rolling resistance force

equation.

Nc
F=
r

where

F : Rolling resistance force.

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c : Rolling resistance coefficient.

N : Normal force.

r : Wheel radius.

This equation showed that the relationship between the diameter (radius) and the rolling

resistance force had an inverse relation, so in order to obtain a smaller force, it was needed a

bigger diameter.

With these two things in mind, the team decided to find the wheels and tires with the bigger

diameter and thickness available in the market.

Due to the configuration of the chassis and steering system, the team decided to use disc

brakes for the front part of the vehicle and a common caliper brake for the rear part.

For the front part, the reason of using disc brakes was because of the fact that the discs, in

general, were always attached to the wheel itself, which allowed to design a simple and light-

weight connection. Also in this case, if the caliper brakes had been used, it could have needed an

additional structure to sustain the caliper which could have added more weight and complexity to

the steering system.

In order to attach the brakes to the steering system, two plates were designed and welded to the

spindle of the steering system, one at each side. These plates were made of steel and they had

two holes, separated 54mm, in which the caliper was attached.

The discs had a diameter of 160 mm, which was the smallest size available in the market. This

size was chosen in order to minimize the size of the spindle in which the plate and the caliper

were attached.

The activation of these front brakes was through a pedal, which was made of aluminum as well

as the chassis.

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Design

At the beginning the team planned to use the regular bicycle caliper brakes in all the

wheels but a problem was found when trying to figure out the way of attaching that type of

brakes in the front wheels. After making some research, the disc brakes were found as a good

option because these brakes were attached easily without requiring any other complex structure.

There was the necessity of a small plate to attach the brake to the spindle. This plate was

thought to be made of aluminum since the spindle was made of aluminum as well; this plate also

needed to be made of aluminum in order to be welded properly.

The plate had two holes in which the disk brake caliper is held. This plate was 1/8 [in]

thick at the beginning but after performing some simulations in SolidWorks, it was found that a

plate of 1/16 [in] could have been used. This fact contributed with the idea of reducing as much

as possible the total weight of the vehicle.

According to the rules, both brake systems could be activated by a hand control or by a

pedal, as long as both hands were always at the steering system. For this reason, it was decided

to activate the front brakes with a pedal and the rear one with a lever attached to the steering

wheel. The pedal was designed in order to be attached to the chassis. This pedal was made of

two parts, one piece of aluminum sheet and one piece of aluminum L-shape 1x1x5 [in]. the

thickness of both parts was 1/8 [in].

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 Figure 50. Brake pedal configuration

This picture shows the way of activating the pedal. A base of aluminum was welded to

the chassis in order to be the support of the spring which allowed the pedal to recover its initial

position. The rod is also made of aluminum; it was welded to the chassis as well.

Optimization Process

In order to perform an optimization process there was necessary to obtain values of the

forces that could be applied to the designed plate. In this case the team used the data simulating

the testing situation which will be made at the competition for the brakes. The weight used was

the half of the total weight of the vehicle and the driver because it was supposed to be balanced

for the two font tires. The other data came from the dimensions of the tire and the disc.

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 Figure 51. FBD: Force applied to the caliper brake

mgx = sin 11.5 * mg

mgx = 0.199 * 70kg
mgx = 13.95kg

Fx = 0
mgx = FR + FB
FR + FB = 13.95kg

FMo = 0
FR * 13" = FB * 3.15"

FR = 0.2422 FB
13.95kg = 1.2422 FB

FB = 11.234kg = 110.168 N

With this value obtained, a simulation was performed in the model of SolidWorks. The

force was applied in a direction tangent to the rotation of the disc, and this force acted on the

holes of the plate which held the brakes.

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 Figure 52. Meshing of the assembly: Plate- Spindle

This picture shows the model of the spindle and the plate with a certain mesh and the loads

applied.

Figure 53. Plate 1/8 in. thickness

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The picture above shows the stresses that were obtained for the model. It was found that the part

was strong enough to support the force applied and for this reason the design of the plate was

changed, making the thickness half of the original.

Figure 54. Plate 1/16 in. thickness

This picture also shows the stresses obtained. In this case the thickness of the plate was

reduced and the results indicated that the plate could be even thinner but the team decided to use

this dimensions because a thinner plate could have given problems when welding. The resulting

simulation results show an overall factor of safety over 15.

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6.5 Power System

The power system was another major component that was selected for optimal efficiency.

However, unlike other components the system was not designed from scratch. Instead, a number

of criteria was kept in mind when researching different power system kits. It had been decided

that a brushless DC motor would be best due to the fact that there is no contact between the

moving parts, which allows it to provide optimal efficiency. Additionally, a new technology

called hub motor was selected as being most fit for this project because it eliminated the need for

a transmission system by having the shaft of the motor act as the axle of the wheel, and this was

good for two reasons; first, it increased efficiency of the system by getting rid of the friction

losses associated with the transmission, and second it cut down the design/build time for the

prototyping phase.

The final criteria which was decided was the power output requirement of the system.

This was determined by a set of calculations using the already determined design specs. Another

tool provided by the SolidWorks software is the ability to calculate the total weight of the

prototype vehicle. With knowledge of the weight as well as the drag force and the other forces

acting on the vehicle, estimates were derived as to the expected efficiency of the prototype

concept as well as the power requirements. Below is a free body diagram (FBD) of the vehicle,

which shows the forces acting on the vehicle.

FBD
FRR
FD Vehicle FT
FDT

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Where, FT = Thrust Force from motor

FD = Drag Force from air

FRR = Rolling Resistance from tires

FDT = Drive Train friction losses

The summation of these forces equals a net force, which is equal to the mass of the

prototype vehicle times the acceleration. This summation provides the following formula:

FNET = FT - FRR FD - FDT

When the prototype vehicle reaches a desired constant velocity, the net force on the

vehicle becomes equal to zero which changes the value of thrust force required by the motor.

The desired acceleration of the vehicle is to be 1.00 m/s, selected arbitrarily. Thus, with

the acceleration and with the calculated weight in kg, the net force on the vehicle can be

determined. The rolling resistance can be assumed to be equal to 0.0025 times the weight of the

vehicle in Newtons as shown in Figure 51(24). The drive train resistance in turn, can be assumed

to be equal to 4% of the thrust force, and finally the drag force is acquired from the flow

simulation results. Therefore, the only unknown is the thrust force which can be calculated from

the equation above.

Page | 86
Figure 55. Rolling resistance coefficient

Given the equations above and applying the data specific to this design, resulted in an

accelerating thrust force required of 167.1N and a constant velocity thrust force required of

6.89N. Given a maximum thrust force of 167.1 N and a design top speed of 17mph, the resultant

power requirement for the motor was derived by the following equation. And assuming a motor

efficiency of 90 percent, the power rating required was equal to 1.41 kW

Motor Power = Max. Thrust x Top Speed / Motor efficiency

With the different thrust forces in mind, the energy calculation is extremely dependent on

the way the prototype vehicle is driven. For the following calculations, the vehicle is assumed to

start from rest and constantly accelerate at 1.00 m/s until reaching a velocity of 7.60 m/s (17

mph). Then a constant velocity is held, and on the four corners of the track, the vehicle

decelerates to 5.36m/s (12 mph) in a distance of five meters, and then accelerates back to 7.60

m/s (17 mph). The course at the competition is .6 miles long and rules require for the completion

of ten laps, a total of 6 miles.

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The energy calculations are broken down into two parts, the acceleration scenarios of the race

and the constant velocity parts of the race. The total distance that the vehicle undergoes

acceleration is represented by the following kinematic formula:

X1 = V2/(2a)+40[(V2-Vo2)/(2a)]

The first term represents the distance required to accelerate from 0 to 7.60 m/s at the begin of the

race, and the second term represents the distance required to accelerate from 5.36m/s to 7.60 m/s

at the corners of the race, a total of 40 times. The total distance that the vehicle undergoes

constant velocity can in turn be represented in the following manner:

X2 = 6*1,609,344 X1 5*40

The first term represents the total distance of the, and the third term represents the distance

assumed to decelerate from 7.60 m/s to 5.36m/s at the corners of the race, a total of 40 times.

Assuming that thrust force provided by the motor is constant when accelerating and when going

at a constant velocity, the total energy required to complete the course can be determined by the

following equation:

W = FT1*X1 + FT2*X2

Where, FT1 = accelerating thrust force

FT2 = constant velocity thrust force

The resultant energy consumption for our vehicle was estimated to be 183.4 kJ.

Page | 88
7 Cost Analysis

The budget for this project is detailed as follows:

Chassis Frame:
Tubing Total Length = 45 [ft] approx.
Aluminum 6061 from the Metals Depot (www.metalsdepot.com)
$111.36
Welding Labor (8 hours x $25)
$300.00
Subtotal $411.36

Body Shell:
6 Lb. Polyisocyanurate Foam Sheets 1" x 4ft x 2ft (set of 4) x 2 sets
$350.00
0.125" x 24" x 48" Clear Cast Acrylic Paper Masked Sheet x 4 units
$122.20
Fiber glass Continuous Strand Mat (3yd Package)x 3 units
$74.85
Polyester Molding Resin Gallon (9 lbs)
$49.95
Acetone Gallon (7 lbs)
$19.95
Brushes and other supplies
$10.00
Manufacturing Cost
$500.00
Subtotal $1126.95

Power System:
Motor, batteries, cables. $1000.00

Page | 89
Brake System:
AVID BRAKE DISC AVID ELIXIR 5 FTw/LVR/160 x 2
$262.4
Pedals
$20.00
Shimano Deore FH-M525, 32 Hole hub, cassette body, Disc hub x 2
$87.36
Tires, Kenda 20x1-3/4, S-7, Street, Black Tire x 3
$40.89
Subtotal $410.65

Steering System:
Steering Wheel
$60.00
Steering Key
$1.23
3/8 Steel Rod
$13.00
5/8HollowShaft
$28.44
BronzeBushings
$5.50
TieRodPlate
$33.68
TieRods
$6.60
TieRodBrackets
$28.35
SteeringSpindleArms
$84.68

Page | 90
 2 bolt
$0.76
Nut For 2 bolt
$0.36
4 bolt
$2.89
Nut For 4 bolt
$1.24
Subtotal $266.73

Travel Expenses:
Flight (for 6 plus vehicle)
$2500.00
PrototypeVehicleShipping
$500.00
Subtotal $3000

Estimated Total Project Costs: $6,215.69

Page | 91
8 Prototype

8.1 Chassis Frame

Before construction of the actual aluminum chassis prototype, a scale mock-up was

formed using in round wood sticks selected from Joann Fabrics. The mock-up allowed for the

verification that the dimensions of the tubes selected would adequately accommodate to the

person that will be driving the prototype vehicle. The mock-up gave a better idea of the actual

chassis and then the team decided to go with that model. Figure 56 shows the mock-up of the

chassis.

Figure 56. Stick mockup

Initially it was desired to acquire all materials locally in order to save money on shipping as well

as time, if for any reason something needed to be returned. After going to several local material

Page | 92
stores, the team was not able to find Aluminum 6061 T6 tubing with the appropriate dimensions

and for this reason it was necessary to order them online. Fortunately, Onlinemetals.com had the

material required in a variety of shapes and sizes. Using the SolidWorks models of the chassis,

the required dimensions for aluminum tubing and sheets were ordered.

In order for individual tubes to be welded together it was necessary to prepare the tubes by

cutting and coping to the required lengths and angles. Figure 57 illustrates the art of coping,

which is basically creating the appropriate notching on tubes in order to have a flush fit with

other tubing.

Figure 57. Coping

In order to produce straight and rough cuts on the tubing material a horizontal band saw machine

was used, which is illustrated in Figure 58.

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Figure 58 Cutting Procedure

The final precision cutting and coping was done using a milling machine. This provided a better

finish as well, leaving cut surfaces smooth and shiny. This machinery is illustrated in Figure 59.

Page | 94
Figure 59 Coping Procedure

Other equipment necessary in the cutting and coping phase of the chassis construction was levels

in order to insure that cuts were at 90 degree angles, and measuring tape to insure dimension

accuracy.

Once all the tubes were cut and coped, the welding procedure was performed by a

professional welder. The tubes were positioned into place one at a time by the team members

while the welder used a method known as tig welding in order to bond individual tube together.

The application calls for tig welding since this method of welding as additional material to the

bonding joint providing more strength. Figure 60 gives an example of the difference between Tig

and Mig Welding, the two most popular methods of welding. It is evident that in Mig Welding

the two components being welded together are heated and melted together into one part, while in

Tig welding additional material is melted using wire and introduced into the boding joint. After

finishing the welding procedure it was necessary to clean and smooth the edges of the structure.

Page | 95
Figure 60. Tig vs. Mig Welding

Figure 61 Welding procedure

Page | 96
The welding procedure was made in Eddy Iron Works, where any type of welding procedures

could be performed. Additional welding was performed by Jay, an individual contractor. The

chassis was completed in one weeks time, which involved about 60 man hours of labor,

including welding. The finish product is illustrated in Figure 62.

Figure 62. Chassis Prototype

8.2 Body Shell

The body shell was constructed out of fiberglass material and acrylic windows were

assembled onto it. A very classic technique was used for the molding of the body shell. The

technique involves constructing a skeleton of the body shell using sections of plywood. Then on

top of this skeleton molding, sheets of Polyisocyanurate insulation foam (4 x 8) are used to

form a foam molding of what the body shell should look like. Finally, glass fiber mats and resin

are combined to form the final and outer layer of fiberglass that will be the body shell.

Page | 97
This construction procedure of the shell took longer than the chassis. A total of four weeks and

around 200 man hours were required in order to complete the shell. Everything began with the

selection of the appropriate materials and suppliers.

The materials were bought and the procedure involved the following steps:

1._ Plywood Skeleton

The SolidWorks model of the shell was used and manipulated in order to construct the

skeleton model that was required for the prototype construction. Figure 63 shows the model

developed on SolidWorks in order develop a precise prototype.

Figure 63. SW skeleton model

The individual sections of the skeleton were printed to scale and then traced onto pieces of

plywood. The plywood sections were put together with L-brackets and screws to form the

skeleton. The screws were used in order to allow the easy disassembling of the skeleton once the

shell was finished.

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Figure 64 Plywood skeleton.

This skeleton was used as a support for the rest of the materials used for the shell. It is evident

from the images above that the procedure at this point was yielding very comparable results to

the model designed.

2._ Foam cover

The whole plywood skeleton was covered with polyisocyanurate foam (commonly used

for roof insulation). This material was flexible enough that it mimicked the required curvature of

the design, yet it was rigid enough that sanding of the material was possible in order to form the

ideal finished shape. The sheets of foam were cut into desired panels by using a box cutter. The

individual panels of foam were glued to the plywood skeleton using gel contact cement.

Additionally, the gaps left between the connections of individual panels was filled using

expandable foam spray. Once the whole body was covered with foam panels and spray, the

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shape was finalized by sanding the mold. Figure 65 demonstrates the final foam mold. The

orange colored material is the expandable foam which was used to fill in the gaps between the

foam panels.

Figure 65 Body covered with foam

One issue confronted during this phase was gluing the foam panels onto the skeleton. The

contact cement used took several hours to effectively dry and provide a tough grasp of the foam.

The solution developed for this problem was to apply the contact cement to each foam panel one

at a time. Then place the individual foam panel onto its position, and use tape to hold the panel

down while the cement dried overnight. The properties of the foam panels selected are available

in Appendix C.

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3._Fiber Glass application

This part of the process required the application of fiberglass mat and polyester resin. These

materials are shown in Figure 66.

Figure 66. Fiberglass materials

In this part of the process, covering the entire body with fiberglass was not necessary. In order to

reduce the material wasted for fiberglass, the windows of the body shell were outlined using sand

paper. Additionally, this indented surface would provide a great assembling connection for the

windows to be a attached flushed to the side of the body shell. Figure 67 shows the final image

of the foam mold with the windows sanded in.

Page | 101
Figure 67. Windows outlined

Due to the short time allotted to work with polyester resin, the fiberglass process is done section

by section. Before application of the polyester resin, a hardener additive is mixed in with

polyester resin as directed by the manufacturer. Then, a layer of resin was applied to the area

being worked followed by a layer of glass fiber mat. Then the piece of fiber glass cloth was

followed by another layer of resin in the whole outside surface. In order to provide better

strength and rigidity to the shell it is recommended to follow this procedure until two layers of

glass fiber mat have been applied and are sandwiched in between a layer of resin. This phase of

the body construction proved to be the most burdensome since the resin mix would tend to get

hard rather quickly. Also, the chemical reaction that the resin undergoes in order to harden

creates a lot of heat which would cause a burning sensation when in contact with skin.

Page | 102
Figure 68 Body been covered with fiber glass

Figure 68 provides the final image of the body shell covered in fiberglass. This procedure took

several days because the resin needed enough time to get dry and also the team had to sand the

surface once the procedure had been finished. This procedure also included taking out the

plywood skeleton through the bottom of the molding and applying one layer of fiberglass to the

inside of the body shell for additional rigidity.

4._ Painting

The procedure that proved to be the most labor intensive was definitely the painting

phase. However, the painting was not so much the problem. This intense part was the preparation

for painting. First of all, the whole body was covered with a thin layer of Bondo Body Filler.

Once dried, the body was sanded down to a very smooth and dimple-free finish. This part alone

accounts for about 25 man hours. Once the sanding was completed, the windows were cutout.

Figure 69 shows the body shell right before the painting stage.

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Figure 69. Pre-paint

For the actual paint job, car paint was utilized. Two coats of primer were applied to the inside

and outside of the vehicle. This was followed by two coats of white car paint just on the outside

part of the body shell. The final product is illustrated in Figure 70.

Figure 70. Painted Car

Page | 104
8.3 Brakes

For the rear and front part, a common disk/caliper bike brake was used. In this case, the

configuration of the chassis allowed attaching this type of brake. A common bicycle lever was

used in order to activate these breaks. Figure 71 demonstrate the disk/caliper braking system

used.

Figure 71. Disk Brakes System

For the brake system and wheels, the team did not have to go through any manufacturing

process because all the parts needed were bought and installed to the main structure. The wheels,

tires, and brakes were all acquired in a kit provided by Z-bikes in Ft. Lauderdale. The only parts

that required designing were the plates used to support the brake calipers.

The calipers for the front side were attached to steel plates that were welded to the

spindles of the car. The unique problem found during this part was the necessity of precision in

the dimensions because the disc had to be just in the middle of the pads of the caliper.

For the rear side the caliper plate was attached to an aluminum fork designed to accommodate

for the rear wheel axle.

Page | 105
 The braking handles were actually assembled as foot pedals in order to provide more

comfort to the driver. The space on the steering wheel is limited and already accommodates for

the throttle and horn, therefore, braking handles would be more practical if operated with the

feet. For this, small pieces of tube was welded to the front tubes perpendicularly in order to slip

the handles into place. Figure 72 shows the finished installation of the disks brakes and calipers.

Figure 72 Brakes installed

8.4 Steering System

The steering system for the prototype was acquired from GoKartParts.com. As mentioned

before, spindles as well as spindle brackets were designed from scratch, however, due to time

and money restraints the spindles could not be manufactured and were instead bought off the

shelf. The system was that of a four-bar system. The only part modified was the spindle brackets.

The design of the chassis was developed with flanges assembled to accommodate for the

Page | 106
spindles provided. This would reduce the weight of the entire steering system. Figure 73 includes

all of the components that form part of the steering system.

Figure 73. Steering System prototype

8.5 Power System

The power system was without a doubt the most essential component of the design. After

the initial research phase the power selection was changed from Hydrogen Fuel cell to Electric

plug-in due to the cost and complexity of the Hydrogen system.

Page | 107
 The Plug in power system consisted on an electric motor (brushless DC), a controller,

Lithium Phosphate batteries and a set of circuits that connect the battery to the motor. Initially,

the idea was to used a direct drive system in which the power from the motor would be

transmitted to the rear wheel through the use of a chain and a designed set of sprockets.

During the research many options were analyzed, a very light battery was found which

was really important for the purposes of the vehicle. As the research continued the team was able

to find an electric motor that was designed for electrical bikes. This was a hub motor, which

meant that unlike conventional motors, the shaft of this motor was fixed and acted as the axle of

the rear wheel, while the motor itself spun around. For this reason the team decided to use this

motor because it allowed reducing the loss of energy due to the transmission system. This motor

also had the connection for the battery already made and it reduced the time of manufacturing.

As seen in Figure 73 the power kit acquired included a throttle as well as a speedometer. This kit

was supplied by the personal at ElectricRider.com. The battery was a 36V20Ah LiFePO4

(Lithium Iron Phosphate) type and the supplier was Golden Motors USA.

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Figure 74. Electric motor Kit (electricrider)

Figure 75. Electric motor inside the wheel hub (electricrider)

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Figure 74 shows the motor assembled onto the chassis. The chassis was designed with space

allocated for the battery on the left side and the controller on the right. The electrical connections

were also plugged in and placed in the chassis.

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9 Testing

A lot of the testing that the prototype underwent was part of the inspection required at the Shell

Eco-Marathon Competition. The following tests were administered by Shell personnel. If

inspection was not passed a team was required to modify and make nay required changes in

order to pass inspection. Only then could a prototype be allowed to run on the track.

9.1 Safety Harness Test

The first test that was required was the inspection of the safety belt harness assembly. This test

consisted of lifting the entire vehicle by using the safety harness. As shown in Figure 75 a force

sensor was attached to the suspension belt and the vehicle would be swiftly lifted until the force

meter read a value 1.5 times the drivers weight.

Figure 76. Harness Test

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9.2 Dimensions

Next, the regulated dimensions and weight of the vehicle itself was inspected. First the vehicle

was brought through the contraption shown in Figure 76 in order to verify that it meant the

required dimensions. Then, the vehicle was placed on the scale shown in Figure 77 in order to

check the qualified weight of the vehicle by itself. The vehicle was weighed in at 167 lbs as

verified in Figure 78.

Figure 77. Dimensions check

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Figure 78.Weight Check

Figure 79. Weight

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9.3 Braking System

The braking system was tested by rolling the vehicle onto a 20% slope with the driver inside.

The driver would then be instructed to apply both brakes in order to sustain the vehicle on the

ramp. Then, each individual brake must be able to sustain the vehicle on the ramp as well. In the

initial inspection, the braking test was failed, however, after adjusting the brakes and tightening

the cables the inspection was passed.

Figure 80. Brake Test

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9.4 Turning Radius

Next the turning radius of the vehicle was examined by the use of an indoor course and a path

way formed by a set of cones. Figure 80 gives the details as to the setup of the cones. Drivers

were asked to turn on their vehicles and drive around the cones in the illustrated manner.

Figure 81. Turning Radius

9.5 Emergency Evacuation

Additionally, the evacuation time of the driver was tested in case of emergency. The driver was

timed exiting the vehicle from the buckled in position. The maximum time allotted to exit was 10

seconds. The recorded time for the evacuation was 9.9 seconds.

9.6 Visibility

Visibility was another major concern for the competition organizers. The vehicles side view

mirrors were analyzed by an inspector. The test consisted of the inspector checking certain points

around the vehicle and seeing if the driver could see how many fingers he/she was holding up.

Figure 81 shows the process of the visibility check.

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Figure 82. Visibility

9.7 Power system and Chassis Structure

Finally, the most important test of all was whether the power system was working and whether

or not the chassis was going to resist the loading-which included the weight of the driver and the

power system, as well as the dynamic forces associated with accelerating the vehicle and

cornering. This testing was provided by test driving the vehicle. The vehicle was run about 10

miles before leaving to the competition. Additionally, the vehicle traveled another 30 miles while

at the competition itself. During the entire competition, no major structural or technical

difficulties occurred with the vehicle. Additionally, a top speed of 18mph was recorded using the

speedometer provided by Electric Rider. The results of this test were extremely positive.

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Figure 83. Vehicle in motion

9.8 Efficiency

Finally, the most important result for the testing of the vehicle was the efficiency of the vehicle

in its entirety. The efficiency of the vehicle was tested by measuring the total amount of energy

consumed in order for the vehicle to complete the total 6 mile course. The energy consumed was

measured by a joule meter which was connected in parallel between the battery and the

controller. Figure 84 shows that the best recorded energy read was 301,192 Joules. This was

equivalent to an efficiency of 72 miles/kWh.

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Figure 84. Trial 1

Figure 85. Trial 2

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Figure 86. Trial 3

The standings for the competition are shown in Figure 87. A total of 12 teams were registered for

the Electric plug-in category, however, not all vehicles were able to run, either because they

never passed inspection or because they never made it to the competition.

Figure 87. Results

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10 Conclusion & Recommendations

Being able to participate in the 2011 Shell Eco-Marathon Competition offered a great experience

to the entire team. However, one lesson learned is that the scale of the project is one that

demands many resources in labor, money and time. This project could not have been

accomplished without the recruitment of some external members to the team. These members

include Stephanie George and Pradeep Shinde. These members were key in the selection and

acquiring process of the power system and wheels. Therefore, as part of future recommendations,

we suggest that the appropriate size in team members be at minimum five fully available and

involved persons. As far as the design goes, we definitely brought a lot of additional knowledge

from having participated in the competition. It is recommended that in order to have a

competitive advantage, a total vehicle weight of 100 pounds or less must be designed.

Additionally, the aerodynamic properties of the shell are essential and a fully enclosed shell with

all wheels in the interior of the shell serve for best results. Finally, a lot of the weight can be

reduced by manufacturing the steering system from scratch using aluminum.

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11 Appendices

11.1 Appendix A

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11.2 Appendix B

Circular- Tension/Compression Only

Stock # Ro (m) Ri (m) Area (m2) I (m4)
1 0.00318 0.00159 2.38E-05 7.48E-11
5 0.00397 0.00232 3.26E-05 1.72E-10
A 0.00476 0.00387 2.41E-05 2.27E-10
6 0.00476 0.00329 3.73E-05 3.12E-10
7 0.00476 0.00311 4.08E-05 3.30E-10
8 0.00556 0.00467 2.86E-05 3.76E-10
9 0.00556 0.00391 4.91E-05 5.66E-10
C 0.00635 0.00476 5.54E-05 8.73E-10
13 0.00635 0.00424 7.02E-05 1.02E-09
D 0.00635 0.00330 9.24E-05 1.18E-09
14 0.00635 0.00318 9.50E-05 1.20E-09
16 0.00794 0.00646 6.67E-05 1.75E-09
17 0.00794 0.00629 7.38E-05 1.89E-09
18 0.00794 0.00476 1.27E-04 2.71E-09
E 0.00953 0.00794 8.71E-05 3.35E-09
22 0.00953 0.00742 1.12E-04 4.09E-09
F 0.00953 0.00635 1.58E-04 5.19E-09
23 0.01111 0.00987 8.20E-05 4.53E-09
24 0.01111 0.00964 9.60E-05 5.20E-09
G 0.01111 0.00946 1.07E-04 5.68E-09
25 0.01111 0.00806 1.84E-04 8.65E-09
H 0.01270 0.01111 1.19E-04 8.47E-09
29 0.01270 0.01059 1.54E-04 1.05E-08
30 0.01270 0.01029 1.74E-04 1.16E-08
I 0.01270 0.00953 2.22E-04 1.40E-08
J 0.01270 0.00635 3.80E-04 1.92E-08

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Square- Tension/Compression Only
Stock Area
# Length(m) Thickness(m) (m2) I (m4)
7.06E- 1.48E-
K 0.01270 0.00159 05 09
1.11E- 5.68E-
L 0.01905 0.00159 04 09
2.02E- 8.81E-
M 0.01905 0.00318 04 09
1.51E- 1.44E-
N 0.02540 0.00159 04 08
2.82E- 2.37E-
O 0.02540 0.00318 04 08

Circular- Tension and Bending

Stock # Von Mises (Pipe1 (MPa)) Von Mises (Pipe2 (MPa)) Von Mises (Pipe4 (MPa))
1 1387.8 3595.2 2636.2
5 753.8 1954.3 1432.0
A 685.5 1779.5 1302.1
6 499.1 1295.0 948.0
7 471.4 1223.0 895.4
8 483.5 1256.2 918.4
9 321.1 833.9 610.0
C 237.9 618.3 451.9
13 203.1 527.5 385.7
D 175.5 455.5 333.3
14 173.5 450.4 329.5
16 148.7 387.0 282.4
17 137.3 357.4 260.8
18 95.7 248.7 181.7
E 93.1 242.7 176.8
22 76.2 198.6 144.7
F 60.1 156.4 114.1
23 80.2 209.6 152.4
24 69.9 182.7 132.9
G 64.0 167.0 121.5
25 42.0 109.5 79.8
H 49.1 128.4 93.2
29 39.4 103.0 74.8
30 35.7 93.3 67.8
I 29.7 77.7 56.5
J 21.7 56.5 41.2

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Circular- Tension and Bending cont
Stock # Von Mises (Pipe8(MPa)) Von Mises (Pipe11 (MPa)) Buckling Critical(Pipe 11)
1 822.1 1535.5 103630.2
5 446.6 834.2 36035.0
A 406.1 758.9 22765.8
6 295.6 552.5 16572.4
7 279.2 521.8 15652.6
8 286.4 535.4 11800.8
9 190.2 355.6 7836.7
C 140.9 263.5 4446.4
13 120.3 224.9 3794.7
D 103.9 194.3 3278.1
14 102.8 192.1 3240.9
16 88.1 164.8 1779.3
17 81.3 152.1 1643.0
18 56.7 106.0 1144.5
E 55.1 103.2 774.0
22 45.1 84.5 633.6
F 35.6 66.6 499.2
23 47.5 89.0 490.6
24 41.4 77.6 427.6
G 37.9 71.0 391.0
25 24.9 46.6 256.6
H 29.1 54.5 229.8
29 23.3 43.7 184.4
30 21.1 39.6 167.1
I 17.6 33.0 139.2
J 12.8 24.0 101.4

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Square- Tension and Bending
Stock # Von Mises (Pipe1 (Pa)) Von Mises (Pipe2 (Pa)) Von Mises (Pipe4 (Pa))
K 280.29 727.12 532.41
L 109.65 285.1 208.28
M 70.75 183.8 134.38
N 57.88 150.8 109.94
O 35.04 91.2 66.55

Square- Tension and Bending cont

Stock # Von Mises (Pipe8(Pa)) Von Mises (Pipe11 (Pa))
K 166.04 310.25
L 64.96 121.46
M 41.91 78.34
N 34.29 64.16
O 20.75 38.83

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11.3 Appendix C

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12 References

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Technology Teacher Mar. 2010: 20+. Academic OneFile. Web. 10 Nov. 2010.

2. Busby, Joe R., and Linh Nguyen Altork. "Hydrogen fuel cells: part of the solution:

hydrogen fuel cells are projected to become a major contributor of energy while reducing

the use of fossil fuels." Technology and Engineering Teacher Oct. 2010: 22+. Academic

OneFile. Web. 10 Nov. 2010.

3. Hashemnia, N and B Asaei. Comparative study of using different electric motors in the

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4. http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0094b.shtml

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r/carbon_and_kevlar.html?gclid=CMGI-s6fx6UCFQ2e7Qoda2zJYg

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nexa-1200.html

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14. http://www.polyjoule.org

15. http://www.sturmey-archer.com/products/hubs/cid/2/id/48

16. http://www.sunelec.com

17. http://www.supmeca.fr/eleves/Shell/index.php?p=prototype/chassis

18. http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ss

19. Renewable Energy World. <http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/tech/hydrogen>.

20. Schlapbach, Louis. "Hydrogen-fuelled vehicles: hydrogen is hailed as a non-polluting

synthetic fuel that could replace oil, especially for transport applications. The technology

to make this a reality--particularly hydrogen-storage materials--has been a long time

coming, but the first commercial vehicles might now be only a few years away." Nature

460.7257 (2009): 809+. Academic OneFile. Web. 11 Nov. 2010.

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<http://www.shell.com/home/content/ecomarathon/americas/for_participants>.

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23. Wakeham, Keith J. "Introduction to Chassis Design." Memorial University of

Newfoundland and Labrador. Jan. 2009.

24. Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_resistance.

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