The Ritual Use of Brugmansia Species in Traditional Andean Medicine in Northern Peru

Author(s): Vincenzo De Feo

Source: Economic Botany, Vol. 58, Supplement (Winter, 2004), pp. S221-S229
Published by: Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden Press
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 THE RITUAL USE OF BRUGMANSIA SPECIES IN TRADITIONAL
ANDEAN MEDICINE IN NORTHERN PERU1

VINCENZO DE FEO

De Feo, Vincenzo (Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Universita degli Studi di Salerno,

Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano, Salerno, Italy; e-mail defeo@unisa.it). THE RITUAL USE
OF BRUGMANSIA SPECIES IN TRADITIONAL ANDEAN MEDICINE iN NORTHERN PERU. Economic Botany
58(Supplement):S221-S229, 2004. This paper reports the use of Brugmansia species (Solana-
ceae) in traditional practices of shamans (curanderos) of Northern Peruvian Andes. The field
study permitted the classification of a number of species and/or their hybrids used for both
curative and psychotropic activities. There is evidence of a folk systematics in this genus that
constitutes a very important phenomenon for its therapeutic-divinatory, phytotherapeutical, and
ritual (in initiation and black magic rites) uses.

Key Words: Ethnobotany; traditional Andean medicine; Brugmansia.

Since ancient times humans have utilized
plants not only as food sources, but also as part
of their ritual and healing practices. In most pre-
literate cultures, along with medicinal plants, a
central role in therapeutic rites is played by
"magical plants," most of which are represented
by hallucinogenic species. The use of these
plants is socially accepted and often there is a
close relationship between the supernatural and
the altered states of consciousness produced by
hallucinogenic plants. These species, in fact, are
seen as intermediaries between the human world
and that of supernatural forces. It was hypothe-
sized that psychoactive plants have been respon-
sible for the origin of the concept of the sacred
(Furst 1972; La Barre 1972). For these reasons,
the knowledge and the practice of using plants
for healing rituals assumed a special character-
istic: often it is secretly kept and conveyed by
shamans, priests and other religious figures, who
are very knowledgeable about herbs and who
combine their botanical, phytotherapeutical and
toxicological knowledge with religious elements
and rituals based on magic, superstition and an-
cestral beliefs (De Feo 1992). Several objectives
of the rituals are centred on psychoactive spe-
cies. Sacramental practices imply the intention
of establishing contact with the sacred to pro-
duce ecstasy. Divinatory rituals are carried out
' Received 06 December 2003; accepted 01 Febru-
ary 2004.
quickly to enable the shaman to detect the origin
and treatment of a disorder or the whereabouts
of a missing object or person. Finally, in the
context of magic and sorcery, there are rituals
for the purpose of inflicting harm, purification,
and exorcism, which involves the internal or ex-
ternal use of plants (Diaz 1979).
In rural communities of the Northern Peruvian
Andes the shaman (curandero) assumes a pivotal
role; he is considered an intermediate between
our world and the world of spiritual forces and
is an expert on medicinal, harmful and psycho-
tropic species used to awaken religious spirits or
to gain altered states of mind (De Feo 2003).
The Andean shamans associate the action of
these plants with a supernatural depersonaliza-
tion or dissociation of body and spirit. This con-
ception has been reported for other cultures
(McLaughlin 1973).
Reported in this study are the plants used by
the curanderos of the Northern Peruvian Andes
in a high-altitude lake area that stretches from the
city of Ayabaca (about 2900 m above sea-level)
to Lake Prieta. It is important to emphasize that
this area is a sacred zone, claimed to be very
effective for therapeutic-magic rituals, due to the
presence of particularly strong spiritual forces
(De Feo 1992, 2003; De Feo et al. 2002).
The most important psychoactive plants in
traditional practices of the Northern Peruvian
Andes are the cacti Trichocereus pachanoi Britt.
et Rose and T peruvianus Britt. et Rose (San

Economic Botany 58(Supplement) pp. S221-S229. 2004

? 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

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 S222 ECONOMIC
Pedro). These cacti contain mescaline (Agurell
1969; Poisson 1969) and other phenethylamine
derivatives (Shulgin 1979; Smith 1977). The use
of San Pedro cactus has been fairly well docu-
mented in the scientific literature on Andean
shamanism in Northern Peru (De Feo 2003; Po-
lia 1988).
Very few reports are available in the ethno-
botanical literature on other hallucinogenic
plants that are commonly used in association
with San Pedro cacti. Recently, we reported the
use of some hallucinogenic plants in magic-ther-
apeutic practices of Northern Peru (De Feo
2003). Among these the most important ap-
peared to be the use of species belonging to the
genus Brugmansia, known locally as mishas.
This paper focuses on the use of mishas for
therapeutical and divinatory purposes in the
provinces of Ayabaca and Huancabamba, De-
partment of Piura.
METHODS
This field study was carried out for two con-
secutive years in the Provinces of Ayabaca and
Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Northern
Peru, in a zone between 40 30"-5? 41" latitude S
and 800 1"-79? 20" longitude E. The altitude
ranged from 2000 to 3700 m above sea level.
Information was gathered through interviews
with curanderos and through participation in the
harvesting, preparation and administration of the
vegetal drug in therapy. Samples of Brugmansia
species utilized in traditional therapy were col-
lected for possible phytochemical and/or phar-
maceutical studies. A set of voucher herbarium
specimens (identified by initials and listed in pa-
rentheses following common names in this paper)
has been deposited in the Pharmaceutical Botany
Chair at the University of Salerno, Italy. Taxo-
nomic determinations were performed at the her-
barium of the Museo de Historia Natural, Lima.
RESULTS
Andean shamans in Northern Peru (Maestros
curanderos) use the word misha to refer to
plants belonging to the Solanaceous genus Brug-
mansia (but also to the Datura genus) utilized
in special rites. One of these mishas-floripon-
dio or huarhuar-was identified in 1959 by the
ethnobotanist C. Friedberg (1959) as Datura ar-
borea L., with no further specifications. Later, in
1961-1962, the same expert identified some
mishas as being Brugmansia spp. (Friedberg
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BOTANY [VOL. 58
1963) and suggested that there may be an ety-
mological link between the word misha and the
terms mits-kay or mets-kway, indicating a Brug-
mansia species used by the Inga-speaking Indi-
ans in the Sibundoy valley (Southern Colombia).
Another hypothesis is that the name misha, giv-
en to plants of the genus Brugmansia (and less
frequently of the genus Datura) by Andean cur-
anderos, probably comes from the Quechua. In
modem Quechua in Cajamarca, misha means
"variegated thing" (Quesada 1976). In contem-
porary shaman vocabulary, misha is also used
for the San Pedro cacti with twin-colored flow-
ers (red and white and white and purple), but is
also commonly used as a synonym for halluci-
nogenic plant (Polia 1987). The curandero is of-
ten called enmishado, to show that he is recep-
tive to the effects of mishas. In Huancabamba,
misha is also a grain of maize with dark blue or
reddish-brown stripes, and is considered a good-
luck talisman. The ma(z-misha is part of a very
old category of natural phenomena that, being
outside the general rule, such as twin parts, dou-
ble fruits, or larger than usual or strange-shaped
stones, etc., is considered to have a spiritual
power. Also according to Friedberg (1959,
1963), the word floripondio was used to desig-
nate Brugmansia species. It is, however, very
old and goes back to the time of the Spanish
Conquest. Bemabe Cobo (1653) used floripon-
dio to describe B. suaveolens: "This flower is
the biggest of all those produced by trees and
bushes, is beautiful to look at and is white; it is
a palm in length and five points bend back from
the very wide mouth ... Their fragrance is so
strong and intense that the must be sniffed from
afar rather than from near at hand and only one
of these flowers in a room perfumes so much as
to be irritating and usually produces a headache
... Everyone, Spaniards and Indians included,
calls (this plant) floripondio" (Polia 1988).
The curanderos on Northern Peru use Brug-
mansia species for the following purposes:
1. Therapeutic-divinatory. For this purpose
leaves and flowers are used alone or with San
Pedro cactus.
2. Phytotherapeutical. In this case the Brugman-
sia leaves are applied in various ways to the
parts of the body affected.
3. Initiation rites. The juice, obtained by
squashing particularly powerful wild Brug-
mansia species, is administered during spe-
2004] DE FEO: RITUAL USE OF BRUGMANSIA S223
cial initiation ceremonies, but only to sha-
mans chosen on the grounds of psychophys-
ical characteristics.
4. Illness. Given their strong and dangerous ef-
fects, Brugmansia species are only very rare-
ly administered to sick people orally or in
other ways.
5. Black magic. Brugmansias are used to bring
out "damage by mouth." In this case massive
doses often produce irreversible damage.
Here we report the circumstances and instruc-
tions for the use of a number of mishas that we
documented in the provinces of Ayabaca and
Huancabamba during our field work. The inter-
views have been transcribed and contain de-
scriptions of relevant therapeutic and ritual pre-
scriptions.
MISHA TORO CURANDERA OR
FLORIPONDIO OR HUAHUAR
Brugmansia sanguinea (R. et P.) D. Don
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/22; DF/P/88/30.
This plant is used externally (toxic internally)
to relieve pain, especially in cases of arthritic
inflammations and cramps. The ground leaves
are wetted with alcohol or perfume and applied
to the affected area overnight. Following this ap-
plication, one must stay on a five-day diet with-
out fats or meat. In addition, during this period,
the patient should stay out of water (keep dry).
The pulverized leaves are used as a vulnerary
on sores and wounds. The tincture of leaves is
claimed to have hallucinogenic effects when ab-
sorbed through the nasal mucous. The plant is
also used during ritualistic ceremonies to help in
divination.
"Brugmansia sanguinea is used to cure rheu-
matism and skin rash. When combined with
wine, agua florida and agua cananga (per-
fumes), it is used to induce dreaming (infusion).
Before going to sleep, two leaves of the misha
are tied in a cross on the nape of the neck and
forehead with a handkerchief. Upon awakening,
one drinks the juice of white maize mixed in
cold water with lime, sugar and honey. Fire is
avoided for five days, and a dieta de alino is
followed, that is, mutton or chicken only, with
no onions or red peppers. You mustn't drink al-
ochol or see water. It's only to be used at night.
You mustn't mal dormir (sleep badly) after-
wards, that is, have sexual relation with a wom-
an. You can lose your senses (trastornarse) or
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the effect can stop. Seeing water breaks the ef-
fect and may cause mental distress. Many vi-
sions appear, such as dreams about many lost
people and things, often identifying their loca-
tions. Since the flower is the force of the plant,
it should be put in sweet white wine and sipped
(singar) once through each nostril. While the
plant is being gathered, it should be sprinkled
(se escupe) with white sugar, wild honey and
lime."
This misha is very helpful to "see": "You see
a person with a good heart and one with an evil
heart." By having its leaves tied in the shape of
a cross on the forehead and nape, the plant is
also used para aclarar, that is "to clear" the
mind, which in jargon means "allows the vi-
sion." In the vision the spirit of the plant man-
ifested itself as a bull (toro).
It is said that in gathering this plant, the hands
must be free of onion, garlic, pig lard, salt, al-
cohol and red pepper. The best period for gath-
ering is when the plant is in flower and during
the full moon. The infusion of the plant must
not be taken orally.
MIsHA RASTRERA
Brugmansia insignis (Barb.Rodr.) Lockwood,
hybrid
Herbarium voucher DFIP/88/27
The whole or shredded leaves of this plant are
used to relieve pain in cases of traumatic or
rheumatic suffering. Because of its toxicity the
plant should not be taken internally, but its effect
may be interrupted by an antidote, the arranque.
The name of this plant is associated with ras-
trear and rastreo, literally "to follow footsteps,"
a method of divination and shaman diagnosis of
diseases using psychotropic substances. "It is
used to rastrear illnesses and lost things and to
foresee (predestinar) what will happen. The
leaves are left to ferment in white wine for two
days, after which one must drink a small glass-
ful. The forehead, head, and nape of the neck
are rubbed with the leaves from the infusion.
One follows the same dieta as that for the misha
toro. It is drunk at night, followed by drinking
arranque in the morning. A weak person is giv-
en only one leaf; a stronger person is given one
and half leaves. The leaves are rubbed (on the
head), tied on with a handkerchief, while drink-
ing the small glass and sipping through the nos-
tril (singar). The plant has the same kind of
leaves as the misha toro, but they are thinner,
 S224 ECONOMIC
with red, pink and white flowers. The plant must
be sprinkled with sugar and wild honey before
the leaves are gathered."
Other curanderos strengthen the solvent ef-
fect of the wine on the active agents in the
leaves by adding sugar cane alcohol.
This strengthened plant is "used to enhance
dreaming by the curandero. The leaves are ar-
ranged in the shape of a cross and tied on the
forehead or the nape of the neck. After twenty-
four hours the effect is broken (se arranca) like
the other mishas. It's used separately from the
San Pedro, which is taken by itself. This misha
has white flowers. The tree grows up to three
metres. The fruit is long and smooth as a cu-
cumber. The best months to gather it are when
it blooms, as the plant is stronger. It is gathered
with the full moon and early in the morning be-
fore sunrise. It's used to find lost things."
MISHA GALGA
Brugmansia aurea Lagerheim
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/28
The leaves, applied externally on aching body
parts, are claimed to relieve pains. The plant is
also used to treat headaches, by absorption of
the tincture (made of two flowers and one leaf
in 1 liter of alcohol) through the nasal mucous
and at the same time by rubbing the head and
limbs with the same preparation. The plant is
considered one of most potent mishas. Because
of its claimed high toxicity, the plant is rarely
used.
In Spanish galgo is a hunting dog (from the
old German galgr). We had surmised that galga
had something to do with a "hunting dog," giv-
en that the latter follows the scent of its prey,
just as the plant allowed the curandero to ras-
trear. Another hypothesis is that the name had
nothing to do with a dog. It may be derived,
therefore, from the Quechua jalka-"a cold high
mountain area"-given that some mishas cannot
be cultivated and have to be gathered in moun-
tainous places where they grow in the wild, and
also acquire greater magical properties because
of their barren surroundings.
"It is used particularly for aches in the bones.
It can be used with timolina (a disinfectant made
from essence of thyme), agua florida, and al-
cohol, depending on the illness. The leaves are
kept in an infusion and then tied with a bandage
to the affected part of the body. The misha, toro
curandera, is used mainly for treating the sick,
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BOTANY [VOL. 58
but misha galga is used for black magic pur-
poses (para la hecizerfa), by sprinkling it with
other plants such as rue and pronouncing the
name of a person (the victim). For dreaming,
only one leaf is tied to the forehead and used
for rastreo. When gathering the herbs, they are
offered, (because) the plants hear man and trem-
ble. When they are offered they no longer do
any harm (to those gathering them)."
The plant is also useful in divination: "to see
one ties two leaves in a cross to the forehead
and the nape of the neck, always with aguaflor-
ida and agua cananga. You drink San Pedro (de-
coction) and that is when you tie the leaves. The
plant has white, yellow, gold and purple flowers,
hence, misha (variegated). After using it you
drink arranque and follow the same diet as for
misha toro."
"In Huancabamba some curanderos compare
huarhuar (Datura sp.) with misha, but it isn't
the same thing. The flower colour is a whitish
yellow, melon color. While it is used like misha
curandera, the therapeutical content of the galga
is faster. This plant changes into a hunting dog
(perro galgo)."
MISHA OCULTADORA
Brugmansia sp.
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/39
"There is only one kind of flower but with
different colors. This is the first plant to reply to
all the questions you ask. You drink two (mac-
erated) leaves in water from the Black Lagoon,
leaving it to infuse for forty-three hours. You
drink a little from a glass in the evening. It is
called ocultadora because it hides the truth from
liars. To see, you tie the leaves in a cross. You
follow the same diet for three days as with the
other mishas without looking at fire. In the
morning you drink white maize (one of the parts
of the arranque). You can pick it from six in the
evening on. You must plant it and let it get used
to the place so that it does what you want. The
plant defends the house and people, but attacks
anyone offending it. To gather it you make of-
ferings of wine, honey, lime and sugar and you
say to it: 'Respect all that I ask you'."
MISHA COLAMBO (SNAKE)
Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Bercht. et Presl
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/29
The leaves, whole or shredded or sometimes
mixed with tobacco leaves (Tabaco = Nicotiana
 2004] DE FEO: RITUAL USE OF BRUGMANSIA S225
tabacum L.; Tabaco cimarron = Nicotiana pan-
iculata L.), are used as a vulnerary for sores,
ulcers and wounds that wont heal. The leaf de-
coction is used externally for poultices as an
anti-inflammatory on traumatized body parts.
The vapors of this decoction are used as a vag-
inal antiseptic in cases of dysmenhorrea and
white secretions. The plant is claimed to be toxic
if ingested.
The colambo is a kind of non-poisonous
snake which, when attacked, whips its tail.
"This misha is used for bathing and rubbing cu-
res (limpias) for sores, swellings and non-scar-
ring wounds, but also for inhalations and vaginal
ablutions with leaves in hot water. It is boiled
until the water turns green and the vapor is used
for the vagina. It is also used for women who
have had a cold in the womb (white secretions
are held to be the effect of a "cold"). For rub-
bing it is used with Timolina, alcohol and vin-
egar. Leaves are tied on swellings that are pain-
ful and don't ripen. The same happens with
wounds, but tobacco is added. You must never
drink it. The tree is four metres high. It is the
tallest misha. Like the galga, the flower is white.
The fruit is like a cucumber, with a smooth thin
green skin. It is used macerated in alcohol. The
seeds are small and black, like aji (Capsicum
annuum L.) seeds. When the flower wilts the
seeds take the shape of the colambo. It changes
into a colambo at twelve at night: if you go and
take a leaf and you'll take the head of a snake.
They are custodian plants (cuidadoras). At sow-
ing time the soil is mixed with tobacco, alcohol
and the blood of some animals, and a spell is
cast (se encanta) with perfumes, saying that if
someone goes to gather it, the plant will let him,
but it will give the person a stomach-ache. Be-
fore gathering it, I bathe myself, otherwise I get
a headache. After using the misha, an antidote
must be drunk (se arranca)."
MISHA OSO (BEAR)
Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerheim
Herbarium voucher DFIP/88/32
The fresh leaves or their alcoholic tincture are
used as a vulnerary and to cure pimples and oth-
er skin eruptions. It is claimed to be toxic if
ingested and is considered the strongest misha.
The leaves, whole or shredded, are also valued
externally, by applying them to aching areas, in
cases of rheumatic inflammations or other trau-
mas.
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"It has this name because when the flower
wilts the seeds form the head of a bear. The
flowers are the same (as the previous plant), but
the colors are yellow, white and red. The seeds
are arranged like those of the aji rojoto (a va-
riety of Capsicum annuum L.) and the fruit is
like those of the aji rojoto. When the illness is
complicated, it is combined with leaves from the
seven mishas and is rubbed on (limpias). They
are used for white secretions or bleeding by va-
porizing it and doing ablutions. Five leaves to
one litre of water are boiled for half an hour to
an hour. It can also be a custodian plant. It
guards by making a bear appear beneath the tree
and the bear is seen when you drink San Pedro
(decoction). After using it you must drink arr-
anque."
MISHA LEON (PUMA)
Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerheim
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/32
The fresh leaves or their alcoholic tincture are
used as a vulnerary and to cure pimples and oth-
er skin eruptions. The leaves, whole or shredded,
are also valued externally, by applying them to
aching areas, in cases of rheumatic inflamma-
tions or other traumas.
"The flower is light brown like chocolate. It
is a small plant, about two metres high. Because
it is the strongest, it is used for serious illnesses,
healing any sore or wound. It's tied on to the
affected part of the body, or rubbed, or the juice
squeezed onto the wound with Timolina and al-
cohol. Afterwards the effect is interrupted (se
arranca). It is also used to treat swellings or
when nerves get numb. The macerated plant
with alcohol is also rubbed on in the morning
and in the evening. The flower is the shape of a
puma's tail. It changes into a puma."
MISHA CURANDERA
Brugmansia candida (Pers.) Safford, hybrid
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/26
Using fresh leaves and the tincture, the plant
is valued as an analgesic against traumatic or
rheumatic pains. The fresh leaves are placed on
the aching part of the body for eight days,
changing them every so often to keep the heated
part moist. (When dry, the leaves lose most of
their curative properties.) The tincture is also
used to relieve headaches by absorption through
the nasal mucous and simultaneously rubbing
the head and limbs with the same preparation;
 S226 ECONOMIC
these administrations are to be repeated three
times a day for three consecutive days.
"Its fruit is like that of the passionflower
(granadilla). The flower is dark yellow, appear-
ing in May. It is kept in bottles of alcohol for a
week, one leaf and broken twigs. The leaves are
tied on for pain. It is not used dry. After a few
hours the effect is interrupted (se arranca). Al-
though dangerous to drink, it can be sipped
through the nose from the palm of the hand and
rubbed onto the head for headaches and whis-
tling ears. Kept in a well-sealed large bottle with
a leaf and alcohol, the leaves are applied for
three nights. Misha curandera changes into a
snake (vibora)."
MISHA DEL INGA "OF THE INCA"
Brugmansia versicolor Lagerheim
Herbarium voucher DF/P/88/34
This is the only misha taken internally. One
cup of the tincture is prescribed as a sedative
and general analgesic at bedtime. It is claimed
to have hallucinogenic properties; therefore, its
effect has to be stopped in the morning by the
"arranque." The whole plant or the shredded
leaves are applied locally, in cases of muscular
pains of traumatic or rheumatic origin.
"It's used for pains in the muscles and you
go on a lot of diets after taking it: no cigarettes,
no looking at fires, etc. You put a leaf in wine
or otherwise a leaf with two flowers. The bottle
must be transparent and you bury it for eight
days. It's better to do it with the full moon. It's
like misha rastrera. You make an offering of
white sugar sprinkling it from a long way off by
mouth and also a good perfume. If you concen-
trate, the misha reveals what you ask. You see
colours: green, yellow and orange. It's like
watching television. If you call someone by
name he will appear (in the vision). You see if
a person is good or bad. To find out if a person
treats himself with herbs or medicine you can
ask virtue (virtud: the powers or spirit of the
plant). You drink it at night. Around six in the
morning you grind a white rose in water, white
maize powder and sugar, and you must not
smoke or see fire."
DISCUSSION
Data collected on the ritual and therapeutic
uses of mishas in Andean traditional medicine
show the existence of a folk taxonomy of the
genus Brugmansia. The people of this region
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BOTANY [VOL. 58
know the various species of Brugmansia, their
morphology, and their physiological activities.
In their folk systematics, the shamans associate
the potency of each misha with names and vir-
tues of animals (bear, lion, snake, hunting dog,
bull) that best feature the myths of pre-Colom-
bian cultures, and/or with therapeutic/magic
properties (rastrera, from rastreo = to see
things lost in space and in time; curandera, from
curo = to treat ailments). It is important to note
that, due to the strong toxic properties of mishas,
their use is reserved only for curandero. Gen-
erally, the mishas are therapeutically used as
topic anti-inflammatories and anti-rheumatics,
but their major use is "to dream" (induce hal-
lucinations). Moreover, the leaves of Brugman-
sia species are tied on the forehead "para ver"
(to see). The obtention of altered states of con-
sciousness is often obtained by topical applica-
tion of the leaves of mishas; in recent literature
it is possible to find such effects following trans-
dermal applications of tropane alkaloids (Wil-
kinson 1987; Ziskind 1998). It is interesting to
note that in the European Middle Ages, the
witches used Solanaceae species, rubbing these
plants on their broomsticks before climbing
upon them, thus achieving in their peculiar way
a sensation of flight.
The uses of mishas, both for psychotropic and
therapeutic purposes, are undoubtedly due to the
active principles of Brugmansias. In fact, the
chemistry of this genus is primarily composed
of active tropane alkaloids including scopol-
amine, atropine, aposcopolamine, hyosciamine,
apoatropine, tropine, meteloidine, and over
twenty others (Evans 1979). Tropane alkaloids
are muscarinic antagonists that block neuro-
transmission across muscarinic cholinergic re-
ceptors. When administered internally in toxic
doses, tropane alkaloids at first stimulate but
eventually depress the central nervous system,
giving rise to hallucinations, incoherent speech,
delirium and convulsions, followed by stupor
and coma. They paralyze muscles and secretory
glands to the effect of stimulation of post-gan-
glionic, cholinergic nerve fibres. It is this action
that causes dryness of throat and mouth. Atro-
pine applied locally causes a slight paralysis of
the sensor nerves, thus easing pain. This action
probably relates to the frequent use of leaves in
treating rheumatism (Brown and Taylor 2001).
Solanaceae have been used as intoxicants since
ancient times. Their alkaloids were the major ac-
 2004] DE FEO: RITUAL USE OF BRUGMANSIA S227
tive components of the ointments of witches, of
medieval anesthetic, and modem poison for
murder. The hallucinations and illusions pro-
voked could explain the use of these plants in
fortune-telling and religious rituals (Muller
1998).
The use of mishas is strictly reserved for cur-
anderos, due to their strong "hot" properties
and the idea that Brugmansias are bad or dan-
gerous. Only in particular cases do the curan-
dero add mishas to the San Pedro decoction, in
order to enhance its hallucinogenic effects. The
vast majority of mishas, both those used for vi-
sionary purposes and those used for therapeuti-
cal purposes, traditionally involve a dieta. This
consists in abstaining from certain foods as in-
dicated in transcribed interviews. In the case of
mishas used for divinatory purposes, the dieta
includes abstaining from sex, even when it has
not been explicitly mentioned.
The plants are administered in different sol-
vents. For mishas toro curandera, rastrera and
del Inga, the solvent is usually wine; mishas gal-
ga, leon and curandera use cane alcohol; and
for mishas ocultadora, colambo, and oso, water
is prescribed.
It is worth pointing out that with some mis-
has-toro curandera, rastrera, galga and ocul-
tadora-external use is prescribed for divinato-
ry purposes and the leaves are tied to the fore-
head or nape of the neck. Except for galga, for
which only external use is prescribed along with
the San Pedro decoction, other mishas used for
visions are applied both externally and swal-
lowed. Three mishas (toro curandera, rastrera,
curandera) are taken through the nostrils, a
method also used for tobacco (Polia 1988).
An antidote, or arranque, is used to interrupt
the effects of mishas. It is the same substance
that is used to "cut" the effect of the San Pedro
before sunrise, as it is believed that light is very
harmful for anyone under the influence of psy-
chotropic substances. In its richest version, the
arranque is made up of powdered white maize,
white sugar, lime juice, wild honey, petals of
wild flowers (roses and carnations), and drops
of eau de cologne and spring water. In addition
to being drunk, the arranque is often sprinkled
on the hands, solar plexus and nape of the neck.
All of the ingredients used to prepare the arr-
anque are of a "cold" kind, and thus serve to
neutralise the "hot" or "very hot" properties of
mishas. In fact, in the Andean folk medicine of
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northern Peru, medicinal plants are divided into
two groups: plants with "hot virtues" and plants
with "cold virtues." Following this division, a
distinction is also made between infirmities
which are either "hot" or "cold." "Hot infir-
mities" are claimed to be cured by "cold"
plants and a "cold" vegetarian diet, while "cold
infirmities" are claimed to be cured by "hot"
plants and foods. Mishas and other plants that
produce hallucinations are unanimously classi-
fied as "hot" plants (De Feo 2003). This clas-
sification is supported by available literature. In
fact, Bristol (1969) and Girault (1984) reported
Brugmansias as hot species.
Comparing our data with previous available
literature, some interesting observations are pos-
sible. The earliest description of a narcotic drink
prepared with Brugmansia sanguinea in Peru
was given by Tschudi (1846). The plant was
called huaca and the drink was used to establish
contact with the spirits of ancestors. Huaca
stands for everything that had "power" and
therefore manifests the presence of a spirit. In
1900, Humboldt and Bonpland reported the use
of a narcotic drink known as tonga by priests in
the Temple of the Sun of Sogamoza to the North
of Bogota in Colombia (Lockwood 1979).
The folk and ritual uses of two Brugmansia
species (B. insignis and B. suaveolens) have
been documented in several zones of the Ama-
zonic forest (Bianchi and Samorini 1993; Ca-
bieses Molina 1990; Hunziker 1979; Lockwood
1979; McKenna, Luna and Towers 1986; Rivier
and Lindgren 1972; Schultes 1979; Schultes and
Hofmann 1973). The Jivaros of the Upper Am-
azon basin in Eastem Ecuador use Brugmansia
in adolescent initiation rites. After a ritual wash-
ing in sacred waterfalls, the young Jivaros are
sent off into the forest to observe periods of
varying lengths of ritual solitude and fasting.
During their isolation in the forest, the initiates
imbibe an infusion of tobacco leaves to see a
"spirit of the vision" (arutam), usually in ani-
mal form. If fasting and tobacco are not enough
to establish contact with the arutam, a prepara-
tion of B. suaveolens macerated in water known
as maikua is administered (Harner 1972). Brug-
mansia, mixed with maize beer (chicha) and to-
bacco leaves, was administered by Colombian
Chibchas to drug slaves and wives before they
were buried alive with their dead lords (Lock-
wood 1979). Amongst some of western Ama-
zonian Indians of Ecuador, some Brugmansia
 S228 ECONOMIC
species (probably B. candida and B. sanguinea)
are valued as a correctional measure for children
(Schultes 1979).
In Andean zones, the ritual use of B. sangui-
nea and B. aurea was reported in the Sibundoy
Valley, Colombia.
Schultes (1955, 1963a,b, 1970, 1972a,b,c,d,
1979) cited six species of Brugmansia diffused
in the Andean highlands from Colombia to
Chile, while only B. suaveolens is distributed in
the warmer lowlands. The same author reported
an extreme atrophied form of a tree-datura,
called Methysticodendron amesianum. Vegeta-
tively it is extraordinarily atrophied, reduced to
the very narrowly ligulate, marginally irregular
leaves. If it be an atrophied tree-datura, its flow-
ers are so altered as to make it impossible to
assign it to any known species.
Bristol (1966, 1969) recognized three species
of Brugmansia (B. candida, B. sanguinea, B.
suaveolens) and a number of cultivars of three
species, used equally for medicinal and for psy-
chotropic preparation by the Sibundoy Indians.
The uses were related to their psychotropic, poi-
soning, and vermifuge activities (internally), and
antirheumatic, suppurant in treatment of com-
mon cold (topically). The shamans (kamsa) use
these psychotropic species to obtain a "vision"
for divinatory-diagnostic purposes, but the same
plant is also used for black magic. Significantly,
the Colombian shamans consider the Brugman-
sia genus to be very "hot," similarly the Peru-
vian Andean shamans consider mishas to be hot
(calidas) plants. In Sibundoy, Brugmansia use is
not restricted to the shaman; few Indians, how-
ever, enjoy the hallucinations that are usually ex-
perienced. These are often described as visions
of numerous large and poisonous snakes which
the Sibundoy Indians fear.
Later, Lockwood (1973, 1976, 1979) re-
viewed previous literature, citing five species of
Brugmansia and a number of hybrids and cul-
tivars. This author emphasized that disturbed vi-
sions produced by Datura ingestion are inter-
preted as spirit visitations, enabling the shaman
to diagnose disease, discover theories, and
prophecy the future.
All Brugmansias used in the Andean zone ap-
pear to be cultigens and their ritual use has been
documented in Mochica, Moche and Nazca ce-
ramics (Cabieses Molina 1990). The plants show
great variability in their morphology and cause
some difficulties in their identification, due to
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BOTANY [VOL. 58
the fact that Brugmansia trees cross-breed very
easily. On the other hand curanderos search for
specimens with larger or stronger leaves (Bristol
1969; Friedberg 1963; Lockwood 1979; Schul-
tes 1979). The rarer cultivars are owned by and
cultivated in magical gardens of curanderos.
The idea that Brugmansias are bad or danger-
ous is still prevalent among many peoples in
South America, due probably to its former wide-
spread association with witchcraft and the belief
that sleeping in the shade of B. sanguinea would
induce insanity (Lockwood 1979).
Our data show that, still today, Brugmansia
species represent a very important part of ritual-
therapeutic practices in Northern Peruvian An-
des, for both their medicinal and psychotropic
properties. It is sometimes difficult to separate
these two properties in a shamanistic religion
where there is a characteristic emphasis on mag-
ic and the supernatural as causes of illnesses.
Solanaceous plants have played major roles in
the development of many cultures and civiliza-
tions, particularly in the Americas. In primitive
societies of the Americas, man has utilized many
of the valuable properties of Solanaceous spe-
cies. No aspect of their use, however, has more
deeply fascinated the American Indians than
their mind-altering activities (Schultes 1979).
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