MBC 2 PDF

Multimedia Network Lab.
Mobile Computing
Chapter 2: Wireless
Transmission
Prof. Sang-Jo Yoo
http://multinet.inha.ac.kr
http://multinet.inha.ac.kr The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,
Telecommunications, INHA University
http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Lab.
Contents
Frequencies for communications
Signals
Antennars
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Modulation
Spread spectrum technologies
Cell structure
The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Telecommunications, INHA University 2
Lab.
1. Frequencies for communication

twisted coax cable optical transmission
pair
1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency
Frequency and wave length:
= c/f wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f


Lab.
Frequencies for communication

LF (Low Frequency)
Penetrate water and can follow the earths surface: used by submarines
MF & HF (Medium and High Frequency)
Typical for transmission of radio stations
AM: 520kHz 1065.5kHz
SW (short wave): 5.9MHz 26.1MHz (amateur radio transmission)
FM: 87.5MHz - 108MHz
VHF & UHF
Analog TV: 174 230 MHz, 470 790 MHz
DAB: 223 230MHz, 1452 1472 MHz
Digital TV: 470 862 MHz
Analog mobile phone: 450 465MHz
Digital GSM: 890 960MHz, 1710 1880MHz
3G UMTS: 1900 1980MHz, 2020-2025MHz, 2110-2190MHz

Lab.
Frequencies for communication


Lab.
Frequencies for mobile communication

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
small antenna, focusing
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

Lab.
Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands
worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
E u ro p e USA Japan
C e llu la r G S M 4 5 0 -4 5 7 , 4 7 9 - AM PS, TDM A, CDM A PDC

Phones 4 8 6 /4 6 0 -4 6 7 ,4 8 9 - 8 2 4 -8 4 9 , 8 1 0 -8 2 6 ,
4 9 6 , 8 9 0 -9 1 5 /9 3 5 - 8 6 9 -8 9 4 9 4 0 -9 5 6 ,
960, TDM A, CDM A, G SM 1 4 2 9 -1 4 6 5 ,
1 7 1 0 -1 7 8 5 /1 8 0 5 - 1 8 5 0 -1 9 1 0 , 1 4 7 7 -1 5 1 3
1880 1 9 3 0 -1 9 9 0
U M T S (F D D ) 1 9 2 0 -
1 9 8 0 , 2 1 1 0 -2 1 9 0
U M T S (T D D ) 1 9 0 0 -
1 9 2 0 , 2 0 2 0 -2 0 2 5
C o rd le s s C T 1 + 8 8 5 -8 8 7 , 9 3 0 - P A C S 1 8 5 0 -1 9 1 0 , 1 9 3 0 - PHS
Phones 932 1990 1 8 9 5 -1 9 1 8
CT2 P A C S -U B 1 9 1 0 -1 9 3 0 JCT
8 6 4 -8 6 8 2 5 4 -3 8 0
DECT
1 8 8 0 -1 9 0 0
W ire le s s IE E E 8 0 2 .1 1 9 0 2 -9 2 8 IE E E 8 0 2 .1 1
LANs 2 4 0 0 -2 4 8 3 IE E E 8 0 2 .1 1 2 4 7 1 -2 4 9 7
H IP E R L A N 2 2 4 0 0 -2 4 8 3 5 1 5 0 -5 2 5 0
5 1 5 0 -5 3 5 0 , 5 4 7 0 - 5 1 5 0 -5 3 5 0 , 5 7 2 5 -5 8 2 5
5725
O th e rs R F -C o n tro l R F -C o n tro l R F -C o n tro l
27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868
868


Lab.
2. Signals
physical representation of data
function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)

Lab.
Fourier representation of periodic signals

It is possible to construct every periodic signal g by using only sine
and cosine functions.

1
g (t ) = c + an sin( 2nft ) + bn cos( 2nft )
2 n =1 n =1
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t )
1 1
0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)

Lab.
Signals
Different representations of signals
amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)
A [V] A [V] Q = M sin
t[s]
I= M cos
f [Hz]
Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission (in reality, limited)
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
Lab.
3. Antennas: isotropic radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of
wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
z
y z
y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator


Lab.
Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with
lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4 /2
Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z
simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
Lab.
Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile
phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y y z
directed
x z x antenna
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
z
z
sectorized
x
antenna
x : typically applied in
cellular systems
top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector


Lab.
Antennas: diversity
Grouping of 2 or more antennas
multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2
+ +
ground plane

Lab.
4. Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible sender
no communication
possible transmission
Interference range distance

signal may not be detection
detected interference
signal adds to the
background noise
cell


Lab.
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Straight line between a sender and a receiver: line-of-sight (LOS)
Free space loss: receiving power proportional to 1/d
(d = distance between sender and receiver) : inverse square law

1
Pr = Pt
d
Path loss and attenuation
The atmosphere heavily influences transmission over long distances
Air, rain, snow, fog, dust particles, smog, etc..
Rain can absorb much of the radiated energy.
Radio waves can also penetrate objects.
The lower the frequency, the better the penetration

Lab.
Signal propagation
Path loss formula
Gt Gr 2
PL(d ) = 10 log = 10 log
Pt
, free space
Pr (4 )2 d 2


Lab.
Signal propagation
Three fundamental propagation behaviors
Ground wave (< 2MHz)

Follow the earths surface and propagate long distances
Submarine communication or AM radio
Sky wave (2-30 MHz)

Reflected at the ionosphere, traveling around the world.
International broadcasts and amateur radio
Line-of-sight (> 30MHz)

The emitted waves follow a straight line of sight.
Mobile phone systems, satellite systems, cordless telephones, etc.

Lab.
Signal propagation
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
Objects can absorb some of the signals power.
Helps transmitting signals as soon as no LOS exists.
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
If the size of an obstacle is in the order of the wavelength or less.
diffraction at edges
It is very difficult to predict the precise strength of signals.
shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction


Lab.
Real world example

Lab.
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver
due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
Lead to the most severe radio impairment: multi-path propagation
Signals arrive at the receiver at different times: delay spread
Typical values for delay spread: 3 us 12 us
GSM can tolerate up to 16 us (5km path difference): equalizer
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver


Lab.
Multipath propagation
Effects of the delay spread on the signals
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The higher the symbol rate to be transmitted, the worse the effects of ISI
will be.
ISI limits the bandwidth of a radio channel.
Compensation at the receiver
Sender first transmit a training sequence (known by the receiver).
Receiver knows the delay pattern, and programs an equalizer.
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

Lab.
Effects of mobility
The situation (delay spread) is even worse if receiver/sender moves.
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
Additional changes in power long term

fading
distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)
t
short term fading


Lab.
5. Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (si)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)
Goal: multiple use of a shared medium

How several users can share a medium with minimum or no
interference.
with maximum medium utilization.

Lab.
Space division multiplexing

The channel k1, k2, k3 can be channels ki
mapped onto the three spaces k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
s1 to s3 which clearly separate
channels and prevent the c
interference ranges from t c
overlapping. t
Guard space is needed.
s1
f
s2
space division multiplexing f
used with TDM, SDM, and Interference range c
CDM t
s3
f


Lab.
Frequency division multiplexing

Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination necessary k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
between sender and receiver c
works also for analog signals f
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly t
inflexible
guard spaces
to avoid frequency band overlapping (adjacent channel interference)

Lab.
Time division multiplexing

A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Co-channel interference
If two transmissions which use the same frequency spectrum overlap in
time.
In cellular, the interference between signals from co-channel cells.
Advantages:
only one carrier in the k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
medium at any time
throughput high even c
for many users f
Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
t
necessary
to avoid co-channel interference


Lab.
Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
better protection against
tapping k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
protection against frequency
selective interference c
higher data rates compared to f
code multiplex
but: precise coordination
required

Lab.
Code division multiplexing

Each channel has a unique code (language)
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient (code space is huge) c
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping
Disadvantages: f
more complex signal regeneration
Precise power control is required.
Implemented using spread spectrum
technology t


Lab.
6. Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation of analog modulation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
frequency division multiplexing
medium characteristics
path loss, penetration , reflection, scattering, diffraction depend on the
wavelength of the signal
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)

Lab.
Modulation and demodulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver
radio
carrier


Lab.
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
1 0 1
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference t
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): 1 0 1

needs larger bandwidth
Receiver uses bandpass filters
and comparator (to compare the
signal levels of the filter output). t
less susceptible to errors
Phase Shift Keying (PSK): 1 0 1

Receiver must synchronize in frequency
and phase with the transmitter
with phase local loop (PLL). t
more complex
robust against interference

Lab.
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

Special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
Sudden changes in phase cause high frequencies
undesired side-effect
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
equivalent to offset QPSK
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter
GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM


Lab.
Example of MSK
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data
bit
even bits even 0101
odd 0011
odd bits
signal hnnh
value - - ++
low
frequency
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
high -: inverted signal
frequency
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!

Lab.
Advanced Phase Shift Keying

Q
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

bit value 0: sine wave I
1 0
bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency 10 Q 11
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying): I
2 bits coded as one symbol
symbol determines shift of sine wave 00 01
from the reference signal
needs less bandwidth compared to A
BPSK
more complex
t
Incoming signal has to be compared
with the reference signal.
11 10 00 01


Lab.
Advanced Phase Shift Keying

Often also transmission of relative, not absolute phase shift:
DQPSK - Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
Phase shift relative to the phase of the previous two bits (not to a
reference signal)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

combines amplitude and phase modulation
It is possible to code n bits using one symbol Q
2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK 0010
0001
Bit error rate increases with n. 0011 0000
16 QAM (4 bits per symbol)
3 different amplitudes and 12 angles a I
used in standard 9600 bit/s modems 1000

Lab.
Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T
stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Q
Example: 64QAM
good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception: 10
resolve only QPSK portion I
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
00
LP uses remaining 4 bit
000010 010101


Lab.
Multi-carrier modulation
MCM splits the high bit rate stream into many lower bit rate streams.
Higher bit rates are more vulnerable to ISI.
Each stream sent using an independent carrier frequency (orthogonal).
IEEE 802.11a = 48 sub-carriers
Efficient IFFT structure at transmitter

Reverse structure (with FFT) at receiver
Subcarrier orthogonality must be preserved
X0 x0
Add cyclic
R bps QAM
Serial
prefix and
Modulator
To IFFT Parallel D/A x
Parallel
To Serial
Converter XN-1 xN-1 Convert
cos(2fct)

Lab.
7. Spread spectrum technology

Spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code.
protection against narrow band interference
Frequency dependent narrow band fading can wipe out narrow band
signals for duration of the interference.
power interference spread power signal

signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver
f f
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Lab.
Effects of spreading and interference
dP/df dP/df
user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df
iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver

Lab.
Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality
1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal
channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1
spread frequency
spectrum


Lab.
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping
sequence)
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the
signal
Advantages tb
reduces frequency selective user data

fading
in cellular networks 0 1 XOR
terminals can use the tc
same frequency range chipping
base station detects each station sequence
with an unique PN code. 01101010110101 =
Disadvantages resulting
precise power control necessary signal
Wireless LAN (802.11) 01101011001010

use 11 chips per bit tb: bit period tc: chip period
10110111000 (Barker code) s (spreading factor)=tb/tc

Lab.

spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator
chipping radio
sequence carrier
transmitter
correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision
radio chipping
carrier sequence
receiver


Lab.

Synchronization
The sender and receiver have to be precisely synchronized.
Multi-path propagation
several paths with different delays.
rake receiver
uses n correlators for the n strongest paths.
Each correlator is synchronized to the transmitter plus
the delay on that specific path.
The output of the correlators are then combined and fed into the decision
unit.

Lab.
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

Discrete changes of carrier frequency
sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence
Two versions
Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit
better overcoming the narrow band interference
Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect (security)
Bluetooth
1600 hops per second, 79 hop carriers spaced with 1MHz in 2.4 GHz ISM band.


Lab.

tb
user data
0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1
td t
f
f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1
tb: bit period td: dwell time

Lab.

narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator
frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter
narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator
hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver


Lab.
8. Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain
transmission area (cell)
tens of meters: buildings
hundreds of meters: cities
tens of kilometers : countryside
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station

Advantages of cell structures:
higher capacity, higher number of users : frequency reuse
small cells: higher capacity (many base stations)
less transmission power needed : important for mobile stations
more robust, decentralized
base station and mobile stations deal with local interference (short distance)
Problems:
fixed network needed for the base stations
antennars, switches, location registers, etc..
handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
frequency planning : interference with other cells
Frequencies have to be distributed carefully.

Lab.
Frequency planning
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base
stations
Two possible models for minimal interference
Clusters: all cells within a cluster use disjointed set of frequencies.
Standard model using 7 frequencies:
Sectorized antennas
f3 f3 f3 f2 f3 f7
f2 f2 f5 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f2 f2
f4 f6 f5 f1 f f1 f f1 f
f3 f3 f1 f4 3 h 3 h 3
h 2 h 2
f2 f2 f2 f3 f7 f1 g2 1 h3 g2 1 h3 g2
f1 f1 g1 g1 g1
f2 f3 g3 g3 g3
f3 f3 f3 f6 f5 f2
3 cell cluster 7 cell cluster

3 cell cluster
with 3 sector antennas


Lab.
Frequency planning
Fixed frequency assignment: FCA (fixed channel allocations)
certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
problem: different traffic load in different cells
Dynamic frequency assignment: BCA (borrowing channel

allocations)
base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies
already used in neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements

Lab.
Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load
Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
carefull power control
If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells


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Multimedia Network Lab.

Prof. Sang-Jo Yoo

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

1. Frequencies for communication

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Frequencies for communication

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Frequencies for communication

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Frequencies for mobile communication

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Frequencies and regulations

C e llu la r G S M 4 5 0 -4 5 7 , 4 7 9 - AM PS, TDM A, CDM A PDC

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Fourier representation of periodic signals

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

A [V] A [V] Q = M sin

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

3. Antennas: isotropic radiator

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Antennas: simple dipoles

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

Antennas: directed and sectorized

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

4. Signal propagation ranges

Interference range distance

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Path loss formula

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Ground wave (< 2MHz)

Sky wave (2-30 MHz)

Line-of-sight (> 30MHz)

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Real world example

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Additional changes in power long term

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

http://multinet.inha.ac.kr Multimedia Network Lab.

Goal: multiple use of a shared medium

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications,

Space division multiplexing