IGCSEBIOLOGYSYLLABUSANSWERS

MadebyZahirSher

APRIL18,2016
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IGCSEBiologySyllabusAnswers

1Characteristicsandclassificationoflivingorganisms

Describethecharacteristicsoflivingorganismsbydefiningtheterms:
Movementisanactionbyanorganismorpartofanorganismcausingachangeofpositionorplace.

Respirationdescribesthechemicalreactionsincellsthatbreakdownnutrientmoleculesandreleaseenergyfor
metabolism.

Sensitivityistheabilitytodetectorsensestimuliintheinternalorexternalenvironmentandtomakeappropriate
responses.

Growthisapermanentincreaseinsizeanddrymassbyanincreaseincellnumberorcellsizeorboth.

Excretionistheremovalfromorganismsofthewasteproductsofmetabolism(chemicalreactionsincellsincluding
Respiration),toxicmaterialsandsubstancesinexcessofrequirements.

Nutritionisthetakinginofmaterialsforenergy,growthanddevelopment.Plantsrequirelight,carbondioxide,water
andions.Animalsneedorganiccompoundsandionsandusuallyneedwater.

Photosyntheticplantsarecalledautotrophsandareusuallythefirstorganismsinfoodchains.

Speciesisagroupoforganismsthatcanreproducetoproducefertileoffspring.

Binomialsystemisaninternationallyagreedsysteminwhichthescientificnameofanorganismismadeupoftwoparts
showingthegenusandthespecies

Statethatorganismscanbeclassifiedintogroupsbythefeaturesthattheyshare
Abiologistlooksforanaturalsystemofclassificationusingimportantfeatureswhicharesharedbyaslargeagroupas
possible.Birdsallhavewings,beaksandfeathers;thereisrarelyanydoubtaboutwhetheracreatureisabirdornot.In
othercasesitisnotsoeasy.Asaresult,biologistschangetheirideasfromtimetotimeabouthowlivingthingsshould
begrouped.Newgroupingsaresuggestedandoldonesabandoned.

Explainthatclassificationsystemsaimtoreflectevolutionaryrelationships
Byclassifyingorganismsitisalsopossibletounderstandevolutionaryrelationships.Vertebratesallhavethepresenceof
avertebralcolumn,alongwithaskullprotectingabrain,andapairofjaws(usuallywithteeth).Bystudyingtheanatomy
ofdifferentgroupsofvertebratesitispossibletogainaninsightintotheirevolution.

Explainthatclassificationistraditionallybasedonstudiesofmorphologyandanatomy
Classificationistraditionallybasedonstudiesofmorphology(thestudyoftheform,oroutwardappearance,of
organisms)andanatomy(thestudyoftheirinternalstructure,asrevealedbydissection).

Defineanddescribethebinomialsystem
Thebinomialsystemofnamingspeciesisaninternationallyagreedsysteminwhichthescientificnameofanorganismis
madeupoftwopartsshowingthegenusandthespecies.Binomialmeanstwonames;thefirstnamegivesthegenus
andthesecondgivesthespecies.Forexample,thestoatandweaselarebothinthegenusMustelabuttheyare
differentspecies;thestoatisMustelaermineaandtheweaselisMustelanivalis.Thenameofthegenus(thegeneric
name)isalwaysgivenacapitalletterandthenameofthespecies(thespecificname)alwaysstartswithasmallletter.
Frequently,thespecificnameisdescriptive,forexampleedulismeansedible,aquatilismeanslivinginwater,bulbosus
meanshavingabulb,serratusmeanshavingajagged(serrated)edge.

ExplainthatthesequencesofbasesinDNAandofaminoacidsinproteinsareusedasamoreaccurate
meansofclassificationandexplainthatorganismswhichshareamorerecentancestor(aremoreclosely
related)havebasesequencesinDNAthataremoresimilarthanthosethatshareonlyadistantancestor.
TheuseofDNAhasrevolutionizedtheprocessofclassification.Eukaryoticorganismscontainchromosomesmadeupof
stringsofgenes.ThechemicalwhichformsthesegenesiscalledDNA.TheDNAismadeupofasequenceofbases,
codingforaminoacidsand,therefore,proteins.Eachspecieshasadistinctnumberofchromosomesandaunique
sequenceofbasesinitsDNA,makingitidentifiableanddistinguishablefromotherspecies.Thishelpsparticularlywhen
differentspeciesareverysimilarmorphologically(inappearance)andanatomically(ininternalstructure).Theprocessof
biologicalclassificationcalledcladisticsinvolvesorganismsbeinggroupedtogetheraccordingtowhetherornotthey
haveoneormoreshareduniquecharacteristicsderivedfromthegroupslastcommonancestor,whicharenotpresent
inmoredistantancestors.Organismswhichshareamorerecentancestor(andare,therefore,morecloselyrelated)
haveDNAbasesequencesthataremoresimilarthanthosethatshareonlyadistantancestor.

Listthefeaturesinthecellsofalllivingorganisms,limitedtocytoplasm,cellmembraneandDNAas
geneticmaterial
Alllivingorganismshavecertainfeaturesincommon,includingthepresenceofcytoplasmandcellmembranes,andDNA
asgeneticmaterial.

Listthefeaturesinthecellsofalllivingorganisms,limitedtoribosomesforproteinsynthesisandenzymes
involvedinrespiration
Alllivingorganismsalsocontainribosomesinthecytoplasm,floatingfreelyorattachedtomembranescalledrough
endoplasmicreticulum(ER).Ribosomesareresponsibleforproteinsynthesis.

Listthemainfeaturesusedtoplaceallorganismsintooneofthefivekingdoms:Animal,Plant,Fungus,
Prokaryote,andProtoctist.

TheAnimalkingdom
Animalsaremulticellularorganismswhosecellshavenocellwallsorchloroplasts.Mostanimalsingestsolidfoodand
digestitinternally.

Arthropods
Thenamearthropodmeansjointedlimbs,andthisisafeaturecommontothemall.Theyalsohaveahard,firm
externalskeleton,calledacuticle,whichenclosestheirbodies.Theirbodiesaresegmentedand,betweenthesegments,
thereareflexiblejointswhichpermitmovement.Inmostarthropods,thesegmentsaregroupedtogethertoform
distinctregions,thehead,thoraxandabdomen.

1.Crustacea
Likeallarthropods,crustaceahaveanexoskeletonandjointedlegs.Theyalsohavetwopairsofantennaewhichare
sensitivetotouchandtochemicals,andtheyhavecompoundeyes.Compoundeyesaremadeupoftensorhundredsof
separatelenseswithlightsensitivecellsbeneath.Theyareabletoformacrudeimageandareverysensitiveto
movement.Typically,crustaceahaveapairofjointedlimbsoneachsegmentofthebody,butthoseonthehead
segmentsaremodifiedtoformantennaeorspecialisedmouthpartsforfeeding.

2.Insects
Insectshavesegmentedbodieswithafirmexoskeleton,threepairsofjointedlegs,compoundeyesand,typically,two
pairsofwings.Thesegmentsaregroupedintodistincthead,thoraxandabdomenregions.Insectsdifferfromcrustacea
inhavingwings,onlyonepairofantennaeandonlythreepairsoflegs.Therearenolimbsontheabdominalsegments.
Theinsectshaveverysuccessfullycolonisedtheland.Onereasonfortheirsuccessistherelativeimpermeabilityoftheir
cuticles,whichpreventsdesiccationeveninveryhot,dryclimates.

3.Arachnids
Theirbodiesaredividedintotworegions,thecephalothoraxandtheabdomen.Theyhavefourpairsoflimbsonthe
cephalothorax,twopedipalpsandtwochelicerae.Thepedipalpsareusedinreproduction;thecheliceraeareusedto
piercetheirpreyandparalyseitwithapoisonsecretedbyaglandatthebase.Thereareusuallyseveralpairsofsimple
eyes.

4.Myriapods
Theyhaveaheadandasegmentedbodywhichisnotobviouslydividedintothoraxandabdomen.Thereisapairoflegs
oneachbodysegmentbutinthemillipedetheabdominalsegmentsarefusedinpairsanditlooksasifithastwopairsof
legspersegment.Asthemyriapodgrows,additionalsegmentsareformed.Themyriapodshaveonepairofantennae
andsimpleeyes.

Vertebrates
Vertebratesareanimalswhichhaveavertebralcolumn.Thevertebralcolumnissometimescalledthespinalcolumnor
justthespineandconsistsofachainofcylindricalbones(vertebrae)joinedendtoend.Socalledwarmblooded
animals,forthemostpart,haveabodytemperaturehigherthanthatoftheirsurroundings.Themaindifference,
however,isthatthesetemperaturesarekeptmoreorlessconstantdespiteanyvariationinexternaltemperature.There
areinternalregulatorymechanisms(seeChapter14)whichkeepthebodytemperaturewithinnarrowlimits.Itisbetter
tousethetermspoikilothermic(variabletemperature)andhomoiothermic(constanttemperature).However,to
simplifytheterms,coldbloodedandwarmbloodedwillbereferredtointhissection.

1.Fish
Fisharepoikilothermic(coldblooded)vertebrates.Manyofthemhaveasmooth,streamlinedshapewhichoffers
minimalresistancetothewaterthroughwhichtheymove(seeFigure1.16).Theirbodiesarecoveredwithoverlapping
scalesandtheyhavefinswhichplayapartinmovement.Fishbreathebymeansoffilamentousgillswhichareprotected
byabonyplate,theoperculum.Fishreproducesexuallybutfertilisationusuallytakesplaceexternally;thefemalelays
eggsandthemaleshedsspermsonthemaftertheyhavebeenlaid.

2.Amphibia
Amphibiaarepoikilothermic(coldblooded)vertebrateswithfourlimbsandnoscales.Theclassincludesfrogs,toads
andnewts.Thename,amphibian,meansdoublelifeandreferstothefactthattheorganismspendspartofitslifein
waterandpartontheland.Infact,mostfrogs,toadsandnewtsspendmuchoftheirtimeontheland,inmoist
situations,andreturntopondsorotherwateronlytolayeggs.


Extensions(Differencebetweennewts,frogsandtoads)
Amphibiahavefourlimbs.Infrogsandtoads,thehindfeethaveawebofskinbetweenthetoes.Thisoffersalarge
surfaceareatothrustagainstthewaterwhentheanimalisswimming.Newtsswimbyawriggling,fishlikemovementof
theirbodiesandmakelessuseoftheirlimbsforswimming.Amphibiahavemoistskinswithagoodsupplyofcapillaries
whichcanexchangeoxygenandcarbondioxidewiththeairorwater.Theyalsohavelungswhichcanbeinflatedbya
kindofswallowingaction.Theydonothaveadiaphragmorribs.Frogsandtoadsmigratetopondswherethemalesand
femalespairup.Themaleclimbsonthefemalesbackandgripsfirmlywithhisfrontlegs.Whenthefemalelayseggs,
themalesimultaneouslyreleasesspermsoverthem.Fertilisation,therefore,isexternaleventhoughthefrogsarein
closecontactfortheevent.

3.Reptiles
Reptilesarelandlivingvertebrates.Theirskinsaredryandtheouterlayerofepidermisformsapatternofscales.This
dry,scalyskinresistswaterloss.Alsotheeggsofmostspecieshaveatough,parchmentlikeshell.Reptiles,therefore,
arenotrestrictedtodamphabitats,nordotheyneedwaterinwhichtobreed.Reptilesarepoikilothermic(cold
blooded)buttheycanregulatetheirtemperaturetosomeextent.Theydothisbybaskinginthesununtiltheirbodies
warmup.Whenreptileswarmup,theycanmoveaboutrapidlyinpursuitofinsectsandotherprey.

4.Birds
Birdsarehomoiothermic(warmblooded)vertebrates.Thevertebralcolumnintheneckisflexiblebuttherestofthe
vertebraearefusedtoformarigidstructure.Thisisprobablyanadaptationtoflight,asthepowerfulwingmusclesneed
arigidframetoworkagainst.Theepidermisovermostofthebodyproducesacoveringoffeathersbut,onthelegsand
toes,theepidermisformsscales.Thefeathersareofseveralkinds.Thefluffydownfeathersformaninsulatinglayer
closetotheskin;thecontourfeatherscoverthebodyandgivethebirditsshapeandcolouration;thelargequillfeathers
onthewingareessentialforflight.Birdshavefourlimbs,buttheforelimbsaremodifiedtoformwings.Thefeethave
fourtoeswithclawswhichhelpthebirdtoperch,scratchforseedsorcaptureprey,accordingtothespecies.Theupper
andlowerjawsareextendedtoformabeakwhichisusedforfeedinginvariousways.Inbirds,fertilisationisinternal
andthefemalelayshardshelledeggsinanestwheresheincubatesthem.

5.Mammals

Mammalsarehomoiothermic(warmblooded)vertebrateswithfourlimbs.Theydifferfrombirdsinhavinghairrather
thanfeathers.Unliketheothervertebratestheyhaveadiaphragmwhichplaysapartinbreathing.Theyalsohave
mammaryglandsandsuckletheiryoungonmilk.Humansaremammals.Allmammalsgivebirthtofullyformedyoung
insteadoflayingeggs.Theeggsarefertilizedinternallyandundergoaperiodofdevelopmentintheuterus.Ineither
case,theyoungstersfirstfoodisthemilkwhichitsucksfromthemothersteats.Themilkismadeinthemammary
glandsandcontainsallthenutrientsthattheoffspringneedforthefirstfewweeksormonths,dependingonthe
species.Astheyoungstersgetolder,theystarttofeedonthesamefoodastheparents.Inthecaseofcarnivores,the
parentsbringthefoodtotheyounguntiltheyareabletofendforthemselve.

Theplantkingdom
Itisusefultohaveanoverviewoftheclassificationoftheplantkingdom,althoughonlytwogroups(fernsandflowering
plants)willbetestedintheexamination.

1.Ferns
Fernsarelandplantswithquitehighlydevelopedstructures.Theirstems,leavesandrootsareverysimilartothoseof
thefloweringplants.Thestemisusuallyentirelybelowgroundandtakestheformofastructurecalledarhizome.In
bracken,therhizomegrowshorizontallybelowground,sendingupleavesatintervals.Therootswhichgrowfromthe
rhizomearecalledadventitiousroots.Thisisthenamegiventoanyrootswhichgrowdirectlyfromthestemratherthan
fromotherroots.Thestemandleaveshavesievetubesandwaterconductingcellssimilartothoseinthexylemand
phloemofafloweringplant(seeChapter8).Forthisreason,thefernsandseedbearingplantsaresometimesreferred
toasvascularplants,becausetheyallhavevascularbundlesorvasculartissue.Fernsalsohavemulticellularrootswith
vasculartissue.Theleavesoffernsvaryfromonespeciestoanother,buttheyareallseveralcellsthick.Mostofthem
haveanupperandlowerepidermis,alayerofpalisadecellsandaspongymesophyllsimilartotheleavesofaflowering
plant.Fernsproducegametesbutnoseeds.Thezygotegivesrisetothefernplant,whichthenproducessinglecelled
sporesfromnumeroussporangia(sporecapsules)onitsleaves.Thesporangiaareformedonthelowersideoftheleaf
buttheirpositiondependsonthespeciesoffern.Thesporangiaareusuallyarrangedincompactgroups.

2.Floweringplants
Floweringplantsreproducebyseedswhichareformedinflowers.Theseedsareenclosedinanovary.Floweringplants
aredividedintotwosubclasses:monocotyledonsanddicotyledons.Monocotyledons(monocotsforshort),areflowering
plantswhichhaveonlyonecotyledonintheirseeds.Most,butnotall,monocotsalsohavelong,narrowleaves(e.g.
grasses,daffodils,andbluebells)withparallelleafveins.

Thedicotyledons(dicotsforshort),havetwocotyledonsintheirseeds.Theirleavesareusuallybroadandtheleafveins
formabranchingnetwork.

Thefungikingdom
Mostfungiaremadeupofthreadlikehyphae,ratherthancells,andtherearemanynucleidistributedthroughoutthe
cytoplasmintheirhyphae.Therearealsothelessobvious,butveryimportant,mouldfungiwhichgrowonstalebread,
cheese,fruitorotherfood.Manyofthemouldfungiliveinthesoilorindeadwood.Theyeastsaresinglecelledfungi
similartothemouldsinsomerespects.

TheProkaryotekingdom
Thesearethebacteriaandthebluegreenalgae.Theyconsistofsinglecellsbutdifferfromothersinglecelledorganisms
becausetheirchromosomesarenotorganizedintoanucleus.

Bacterialstructure
Bacteria(singular:bacterium)areverysmallorganismsconsistingofsinglecellsrarelymorethan0.01mminlength.
Theycanbeseenonlywiththehigherpowersofthemicroscope.Theircellwallsaremade,notofcellulose,butofa
complexmixtureofproteins,sugarsandlipids.Somebacteriahaveaslimecapsuleoutsidetheircellwall.Insidethecell
wallisthecytoplasm,whichmaycontaingranulesofglycogen,lipidandotherfoodreserves.

Eachbacterialcellcontainsasinglechromosome,consistingofacircularstrandofDNA(seeChapter4and
Chromosomes,genesandproteins.Thechromosomeisnotenclosedinanuclearmembranebutiscoileduptooccupy
partofthecell.

Individualbacteriamaybespherical,rodshapedorspiralandsomehavefilaments,calledflagella,projectingfrom
them.Theflagellacanflickandsomovethebacterialcellabout.


TheProtoctistkingdom
Thesearesinglecelled(unicellular)organismswhichhavetheirchromosomesenclosedinanuclearmembranetoform
anucleus.Someoftheprotoctista,e.g.Euglena,possesschloroplastsandmaketheirfoodbyphotosynthesis.These
protoctistaareoftenreferredtoasunicellularplantsorprotophyta.OrganismssuchasAmoebaandParameciumtake
inanddigestsolidfoodandthusresembleanimalsintheirfeeding.Theymaybecalledunicellularanimalsorprotozoa.
Amoebaisaprotozoanwhichmovesbyaflowingmovementofitscytoplasm.Itfeedsbypickingupbacteriaandother
microscopicorganismsasitgoes.Vorticellahasacontractilestalkandfeedsbycreatingacurrentofwaterwithitscilia.
Thecurrentbringsparticlesoffoodtothecell.EuglenaandChlamydomonashavechloroplastsintheircellsandfeed,
likeplants,byphotosynthesis.

Viruses
Therearemanydifferenttypesofvirusandtheyvaryintheirshapeandstructure.Allviruses,however,haveacentral
coreofRNAorDNA(seeChapter4)surroundedbyaproteincoat.Viruseshavenonucleus,cytoplasm,cellorganellesor
cellmembrane,thoughsomeformshaveamembraneoutsidetheirproteincoats.Virusparticles,therefore,arenot
cells.Theydonotfeed,respire,excreteorgrowanditisdebatablewhethertheycanbeclassedaslivingorganisms.
Virusesdoreproduce,butonlyinsidethecellsoflivingorganisms,usingmaterialsprovidedbythehostcell.Thenucleic
acidcoreisacoiledsinglestrandofRNA.Thecoatismadeupofregularlypackedproteinunitscalledcapsomereseach
containingmanyproteinmolecules.Theproteincoatiscalledacapsid.

2Organisationoftheorganism

Describeandcomparethestructureofaplantcellwithananimalcell,asseenunderalightmicroscope,
limitedtocellwall,nucleus,cytoplasm,chloroplasts,vacuolesandlocationofthecellmembrane


Statethefunctionsofthestructuresseenunderthelightmicroscopeintheplantcellandintheanimal
cell

Statethatthecytoplasmofallcellscontainsstructures,limitedtoribosomesonroughendoplasmic
reticulumandvesicles
Organellespresentincludetheroughendoplasmicreticulum,anetworkofflattenedcavitiessurroundedbya
membrane,whichlinkswiththenuclearmembrane.Themembraneholdsribosomes,givingitssurfacearough
appearance.Roughendoplasmicreticulumhasthefunctionofproducing,transportingandstoringproteins.Ribosomes
canalsobefoundfreeinthecytoplasm.Theybuildupthecellsproteins.

Alllivingorganismsalsocontainribosomesinthecytoplasm,floatingfreelyorattachedtomembranescalledrough
endoplasmicreticulum(ER).Ribosomesareresponsibleforproteinsynthesis

Statethatalmostallcells,exceptprokaryotes,havemitochondriaandroughendoplasmicreticulum,state
thataerobicrespirationoccursinmitochondriaandalsostatethatcellswithhighratesofmetabolism
requirelargenumbersofmitochondriatoprovidesufficientenergy.
Mitochondriaaretinyorganelles,whichmayappearslippershaped,circularorovalwhenviewedinsection.Inthree
dimensions,theymaybespherical,rodlikeorelongated.Theyhaveanoutermembraneandaninnermembranewith
manyinwardpointingfolds.Mitochondriaaremostnumerousinregionsofrapidchemicalactivityandareresponsible
forproducingenergyfromfoodsubstancesthroughtheprocessofaerobicrespiration.Notethatprokaryotesdonot
possessmitochondriaorroughendoplasmicreticulumintheircytoplasm.
Specialisedcells
Mostcells,whentheyhavefinisheddividingandgrowing,becomespecialised.Whencellsarespecialised:ltheydoone
particularjobltheydevelopadistinctshapelspecialkindsofchemicalchangetakeplaceintheircytoplasm.The
changesinshapeandthechemicalreactionsenablethecelltocarryoutitsspecialfunction.Redbloodcellsandroot
haircellsarejusttwoexamplesofspecialisedcells.

Thespecialisationofcellstocarryoutparticularfunctionsinanorganismissometimesreferredtoasdivisionoflabour
withintheorganism.

1.Ciliatedcells
Thesecellsformtheliningofthenoseandwindpipe,
andthetinycytoplasmichairs,calledcilia,areina
continualflickingmovementwhichcreatesastreamof
fluid(mucus)thatcarriesdustandbacteriathrough
thebronchiandtrachea,awayfromthelungs.

2.Roothaircells
Thesecellsabsorbwaterandmineralsaltsfromthesoil.Thehair
likeprojectiononeachcellpenetratesbetweenthesoilparticles
andoffersalargeabsorbingsurface.Thecellmembraneisableto
controlwhichdissolvedsubstancesenterthecell

3.Xylemvessels
Thesecellstransportmineralionsfromtherootstotheleaves.Asubstancecalled
ligninimpregnatesandthickensthecellwallsmakingthecellsverystrongand
impermeable.Thisgivesthestemstrength.Theligninformsdistinctivepatternsin
thevesselsspirals,laddershapes,reticulate(netlike)andpitted.Xylemvesselsare
madeupofaseriesoflongxylemcellsjoinedendtoend.Oncearegionoftheplant
hasstoppedgrowing,theendwallsofthecellsaredigestedawaytoforma
continuous,finetube.Theligninthickeningpreventsthefreepassageofwaterand
nutrients,sothecytoplasminthecellsdies.Effectively,thecellsformlong,thin,
strongstraws.

4.Palisademesophyllcells
Thesearefoundunderneaththeupperepidermisofplant
leaves.Theyarecolumnar(quitelong)andpackedwith
chloroplaststotraplightenergy.Theirfunctionistomake
foodfortheplantbyphotosynthesisusingcarbondioxide,
waterandlightenergy.

5.Nervecells
Thesecellsarespecialisedforconductingelectricalimpulses
alongthefiber,toandfromthebrainandspinalcord.Thefibers
areoftenverylongandconnectdistantpartsofthebodytothe
CNS,e.g.thefootandthespinalcolumn.Chemicalreactions
causetheimpulsestotravelalongthefiber.

6.Redbloodcells
Thesecellsaredistinctivebecausetheyhavenonucleuswhenmature.They
aretinydisclikecellswhichcontainaredpigmentcalledhaemoglobin.This
readilycombineswithoxygenandtheirfunctionisthetransportofoxygen
aroundthebody.

7.Spermcell
Spermcellsaremalesexcells.Thefrontofthecellisovalshapedand
containsanucleuswhichcarriesgeneticinformation.Thereisatip,calledan
acrosome,whichsecretesenzymestodigestthecellsaroundaneggandthe
eggmembrane.Behindthisisamidpiecewhichispackedwith
mitochondriatoprovideenergyformovement.Thetailmoveswithawhip
likeactionenablingthespermtoswim.Theirfunctionisreproduction,
achievedbyfertilisinganeggcell.

8.Eggcell
Eggcells(ova,singular:ovum)arelargerthanspermcells
andarespherical.Theyhavealargeamountofcytoplasm,
containingyolkdropletsmadeupofproteinandfat.The
nucleuscarriesgeneticinformation.Thefunctionoftheegg
cellisreproduction.

Definetissue
Agroupofcellswithsimilarstructures,workingtogethertoperformasharedfunction.

Defineorgan
Astructuremadeupofagroupoftissues,workingtogethertoperformspecificfunctions.

Defineorgansystem
Agroupoforganswithrelatedfunctions,workingtogethertoperformbodyfunctions.

3Movementinandoutofcells

Definediffusion
Thenetmovementofparticlesfromaregionoftheirhigherconcentrationtoaregionoftheirlowerconcentrationdown
aconcentrationgradient,asaresultoftheirrandommovement

Statethattheenergyfordiffusioncomesfromthekineticenergyofrandommovementofmoleculesand
ions
Theenergyfordiffusioncomesfromthekineticenergyofrandommovementofmoleculesandions.Thespeedwith
whichasubstancediffusesthroughacellwall/membranewilldependontemperatureandmanyotherconditionssuch
as:
1.Differenceinconcentrationinsideandoutsidethecell
2.Sizeofmolecules
3.Surfacearea

Describetheimportanceofdiffusionofgasesandsolutes
1.ForrespirationO2andCO2
2.Forphotosynthesisneedcarbondioxide
3.Transpirationwatervapour
4.Mineralionsuchasnitratesandmagnesiumitdiffusesthrough
theplantsroot
5.Inileum,vitaminssuchasvitaminBandCareabsorbedinthe
blood
6.Inthekidneys,somesolutesintherenalcapsule,suchasureaand
salts,passbackintothebloodstreambydiffusion.
7.Initially,glucoseisreabsorbedbydiffusion,butactivetransportis
alsoinvolved.
8.Dialysismachinesusediffusiontoremovesmallsolutes(urea,uric
acidandexcesssalts)fromtheblood.

Defineosmosis
Thenetmovementofwatermoleculesfromaregionofhigherwaterpotential(dilutesolution)toaregionoflower
waterpotential(concentratedsolution),throughapartiallypermeablemembrane

Explaintheeffectsonplanttissuesofimmersingtheminsolutionsofdifferentconcentrationsbyusingthe
termsturgid,turgorpressure,plasmolysisandflaccid.
Plantsdonotburstinpurewater.Plantcellsaresurroundedbya
cellwall.Thisisfullypermeable,whichmeansitwillletany
moleculesgothroughit.Aplantcellinpurewaterwilltakein
waterbyosmosisthroughitspartiallypermeablecellmembranein
thesamewayananimalcell.Asthewatergoesin,thecytoplasm
andthevacuolewillswell.

Thecellwallisstrongsoitpreventthecellfrombursting.Aplant
cellinthisstateisratherlikeablownuptyretightandfirm.Itis
saidtobeturgid.Thecytoplasmshrinks,andstopspushing
outwardsonthecellwall.Likeatyrewhensomeoftheairhasleakedout,thecellbecomesfloppy.Itissaidtobe
flaccid.Ifthecellbecomesflaccid,theplantlosesitsfirmnessandbegintowilt.

Whenthecytoplasmandvacuolekeepsshrinkingandthenthecytoplasmshrinksfurtherintothecenterofthecell,the
cellwallgetsleftbehind.Thecellmembrane,surroundingthecytoplasmtearsawayfromthecellwall.Acelllikethisis
calledplasmolysed.Plasmolysisusuallykillstheplantbecausethecellmembraneisdamagedasittearsawayfromthe
cellwall.

Explaintheimportanceofwaterpotentialandosmosisintheuptakeofwaterbyplantsandonanimal
cellsandtissues
1.Plants
Aplantcellwiththevacuolepushingoutonthecellwallissaidtobeturgidandthevacuoleisexertingturgorpressure
ontheinelasticcellwall.Ifallthecellsinaleafandstemareturgid,thestemwillbefirmanduprightandtheleavesheld
outstraight.Ifthevacuoleslosewaterforanyreason,thecellswilllosetheirturgorandbecomeflaccid.Ifaplanthas
flaccidcells,theleaveswillbelimpandthestemwilldroop.Aplantwhichloseswatertothisextentissaidtobe
wilting.

Roothaircellsareincontactwithwatertrappedbetweensoilparticles.Whenthewaterpotentialofthecellsapislower
thanthatofthesoilwater,thewaterwillenterthecellsbyosmosisprovidingtheplantwiththewateritneeds.

2.Animalcellsandtissues
Itisvitalthatthefluidwhichbathescellsinanimals,suchastissuefluidorbloodplasma,hasthesamewaterpotential
asthecellcontents.Thispreventsanynetflowofwaterintooroutofthecells.Ifthebathingfluidhasahigherwater
potential(aweakerconcentration)thanthecells,waterwillmoveintothecellsbyosmosiscausingthemtoswellup.As
animalcellshavenocellwallandthemembranehaslittlestrength,waterwouldcontinuetoenterandthecellswill
eventuallyburst.

Theyavoidburstingbypossessingacontractilevacuole.Thiscollectsthewaterasitentersthecellandperiodically
releasesitthroughthecellmembrane,effectivelybalingthecellout.

Explainhowplantsaresupportedbytheturgorpressurewithincells,intermsofwaterpressureacting
againstaninelasticcellwall
Whenplantcellshaveabsorbedmaximumamountofwaterbyosmosis,theybecomeveryrigidduetothepressure
outwardsonthecellwall.Theendisthatthestemsandleavesaresupported.Whennopressureofwaterispressing
outwardsonthecellwall,atthispointtheplantbecomeslimpandwilts.

Defineactivetransport
Themovementofparticlesthroughacellmembranefromaregionoflowerconcentrationtoaregionofhigher
concentrationusingenergyfromrespiration.

Discusstheimportanceofactivetransportasaprocessformovementacrossmembranes
Ifdiffusionweretheonlymethodbywhichacellcouldtakeinsubstances,itwouldhavenocontroloverwhatwentinor
out.Anythingthatwasmoreconcentratedoutsidewoulddiffuseintothecellwhetheritwasharmfulornot.Substances
whichthecellneededwoulddiffuseoutassoonastheirconcentrationinsidethecellroseabovethatoutsideit.Thecell
membrane,however,hasagreatdealofcontroloverthesubstanceswhichenterandleavethecell.Forexample:ion
uptakebyroothairsanduptakeofglucosebyepithelialcellsofvilliandkidneytubules.

Explainhowproteinmoleculesmoveparticlesacrossamembraneduringactivetransport
Thecarriermoleculesareproteinmolecules.Theyareresponsiblefortransportingsubstancesacrossthemembrane
duringactivetransport.

Firstthemoleculeorioncombineswithacarrierprotein.Energyfromrespirationenablesthecarrierproteintochange
itsshapetocarrytheionormoleculetotheinsideofthemembrane.Themoleculeorionisreleasedtotheinsideofthe
membraneandthecarrierproteinrevertstoitsoriginalshape

4Biologicalmolecules

Listthechemicalelementsthatmakeup:
carbohydrates
fats
proteins

Describetheuseof:
iodinesolutiontotestforstarch
Benedictssolutiontotestforreducingsugars
biurettestforproteins
ethanolemulsiontestforfatsandoils
DCPIPtestforvitaminC

Testfor: Solutionused Procedure Finalresult

Halffillatesttubewith
Apositiveresultforstarch
foodextractyouwishto
isiftheiodinesolution
Starch Iodinesolution testforstarch.
turnstoblueblackfrom
Add2/3dropsofiodine
yellowbrown
solution

Putaknownvalueofthe
extractyouwishtotestfor
reducingsugarsandplacea
Apositivetestforreducing
beakeronaheatproof
Reducingsugars Benedictssolution sugarsisifsolutionturns
mat.Thenhalffillthe
red
beakerwithboilingwater
andthesamevolumeof
benedictssolution
Apositivetestforproteins
Halffillatesttubewith isifthebiuretsolution
foodextractyouwishto turnspurple/lilacfromblue
Proteins Biurettest
testforproteins.Add5/6 color.
ofbiuretsolution Safety:TakecareasNaOH
iscorrosive
Chopuporgrindasmall
amountofmaterialyou
wishtotestforfats.Put
Awhiteemulsionthat
theextractintoacleantest
lookscloudywhite/milk
Fatsandoils Ethanolemulsion tubeandaddenough
colorisapositivetestfor
ethanoltocoveritand
fats.
thenputastopperand
shakeitandadddistilled
waterthenshakeitagain
Grindorchopasmall
amountandputitintoa
testtube.Addasimilar
amountofdistilledwater
andstirwithglassrod.One
dropatatime,toatest DecolourisationofDCPIP
VitaminC DCPIPtest tubecontainingalightblue showsthatavitaminCis
solutionofDCPIP.Ifthe probablypresent.
extractisacidthecolour
willchangefromblueto
red.Continuetoaddmore
andseeifthecolour
disappearsaltogether
Explainthatdifferentsequencesofaminoacidsgivedifferentshapestoproteinmolecules

Proteinmoleculesaremadeupoflongchainsofsimplerchemicalscalledaminoacids.Thereareabout20different
aminoacidsinanimalproteins,includingalanine,leucine,valine,glutamine,cysteine,glycineandlysine.(Noneedof
rememberingthesenames).Eachtypeofproteinhasitsaminoacidsarrangedinaparticularsequence.Thechainof
aminoacidsinaproteintakesupaparticularshapeasaresultofcrosslinkages.

Relatetheshapeandstructureofproteinmoleculestotheirfunction,limitedtotheactivesiteofenzymes
andthebindingsiteofantibodies.

1.Enzymes
Theshapeofaproteinmoleculehasaveryimportanteffectonitsreactionswithsubstances,asexplainedinEnzymes.
Forexample,theshapeofanenzymemoleculecreatesanactivesite,whichhasacomplementaryshapetothe
substratemoleculeonwhichitacts.Thismakesenzymesveryspecificintheiraction.

2.Antibodies
Antibodiesareproteinsproducedbywhitebloodcellscalledlymphocytes.Eachantibodyhasabindingsite,whichcan
lockontopathogenssuchasbacteria.Thisdestroysthepathogendirectly,ormarksitsothatitcanbedetectedbyother
whitebloodcellscalledphagocytes.Eachpathogenhasantigensonitssurfacethatareaparticularshape,sospecific
antibodieswithcomplementaryshapestotheantigenareneeded.

DescribethestructureofDNAas:
twostrandscoiledtogethertoformadoublehelix
eachstrandcontainschemicalscalledbases
crosslinksbetweenthestrandsareformedbypairsofbases
thebasesalwayspairupinthesameway:AwithT,andCwithG(fullnamesarenotrequired)

ADNAmoleculeismadeupoflongchainsofnucleotides,formedintotwostrands.Anucleotideisa5carbonsugar
moleculejoinedtoaphosphategroupandanorganicbase.InDNAthesugarisdeoxyriboseandtheorganicbaseis
eitheradenine(A),thymine(T),cytosine(C)orguanine(G).Thenucleotidesarejoinedbytheirphosphategroupstoform
alongchain,oftenthousandsofnucleotideslong.

Thephosphateandsugarmoleculesarethesameallthewaydownthechainbutthebasesmaybeanyoneofthefour
listedabove.TheDNAinachromosomeconsistsoftwostrands(chainsofnucleotides)heldtogetherbychemicalbonds
betweenthebases.ThesizeofthemoleculesensuresthatA(adenine)alwayspairswithT(thymine)andC(cytosine)
pairswithG(guanine).Thedouble
strandistwistedtoformahelix(likea
twistedropeladderwiththebase
pairsrepresentingtherungs)

Note:forexampurposes,itisonly
necessarytobeablestatetheletters,
notthenamesofthesebases.

Describetherolesofwaterasasolventinorganismswithrespecttodigestion,excretionandtransport

1.Excretion
Waterplaysanimportantroleinexcretioninanimals.Itactsasapowerfulsolventforexcretorymaterials,suchas
nitrogenousmoleculeslikeurea,aswellassalts,spenthormonesanddrugs.Thewaterhasadilutingeffect,reducing
thetoxicityoftheexcretorymaterials.

2.Digestion
Inanimals,waterhelpstobreakdownanddissolvefoodmolecules(seeChemicaldigestioninChapter7).

3.Transport
Bloodismadeupofcellsandaliquidcalledplasma.Thisplasmais92%waterandactsasatransportmediumformany
dissolvedsubstances,suchascarbondioxide,urea,digestedfoodandhormones.Bloodcellsarecarriedaroundthe
bodyintheplasma.

Note:Waterisimportantasasolvent

5Enzymes

Catalystisasubstancethatincreasestherateofachemicalreactionandisnotchangedbythereaction
Enzymesisaproteinthatfunctionasbiologicalcatalysts

Describewhyenzymesareimportantinalllivingorganismsintermsofreactionspeednecessaryto
sustainlife
Enzymesoperatebyloweringtheactivationenergyofthereactionbyprovidingalternatepathwayforthereaction.This
savestheenergyrequiredtoovercomethehighactivationenergylevelsandalsoincreasestheratesofthereactions.
Withouttheheightenedrateofreactions,thehumanbody(oranimalbodies)willnotbeabletocarryoutthechemical
reactionsatafastenoughratetosustainlife.Itisestimatedthatenzymesspeedupbodilyreactionsbyabout1million
timesascomparedtobodywithoutenzymes.Hence,enzymesenableoursurvivalbyincreasingtherateofreactions.

Explainenzymeactionwithreferencetotheactivesite,enzymesubstratecomplex,substrateandproduct
Thesubstancepresentatthebeginningofreactioniscalledsubstrateandthesubstancewhichismadebythereaction
iscalledtheproduct.[Example:AmylasehasadentthatiscalledActiveSite.Thishasashapecomplementarytothe
shapeofpartofastarchmolecule.Thestarchfitsintotheactivesiteofamylaseforminganenzymesubstratecomplex.
Whenthestarchmoleculefitsintotheactivesite,theenzymebreaksitapart.]

Explainthespecificityofenzymesintermsofthecomplementaryshapeandfitoftheactivesitewiththe
substrate
Eachenzymehasanactivesitethatfitsexactlyitssubstrate.Meaningthateachenzymecanonlyactona
particularkindofsubstrate.[Example:Amylasecannotbreakdownproteinmolecules,becauseitdoesnotfit
intheactivesite.

Explaintheeffectofchangesintemperatureonenzymeactivityintermsofkineticenergy,shapeandfit,
frequencyofeffectivecollisionsanddenaturation
Reactionsoccurfasterinhighertemperaturesbecausethemoleculeshavemorekineticenergy.Theymove
aroundfasterandbumpintoeachothermorefrequently,meaningthatanenzymeathightemperatureis
morelikelytobumpintosubstratemoreoftenthanatlowertemperature.Aftertheoptimumtemperature,
theenzymesstartgettingdamagedandlosetheirshape.Theactivesitenolongerfitsperfectlywiththe
substrate.Theenzymeisdenaturedanditcannolongercatalysethereaction.

ExplaintheeffectofchangesinpHonenzymeactivityintermsofshapeandfitanddenaturation
OptimumpHinmostenzymesispH7(neutral).IfthepHbecomestooacidicoralkaline,theenzymegets
denatured.Meaningthattheactivesitenolongerfitsthesubstrateandnoreactionwillbecatalyzed.

6Plantnutrition

Photosynthesisistheprocessbywhichplantsmanufacturecarbohydratesfromrawmaterialsusingenergyfromlight
Limitingfactorissomethingpresentintheenvironmentinsuchshortsupplythatitrestrictslifeprocesses

Explainthatchlorophylltransferslightenergyintochemicalenergyinmolecules,forthesynthesisof
carbohydrates
Whensunlightfallsonchlorophyll,someofthelightisabsorbed.Chlorophyllmoleculethenreleasesenergytomake
CO2combinewithH2Osointhisprocesslightenergyconvertedtochemicalenergyandisstoredintheformof
carbohydrates

Outlinethesubsequentuseandstorageofthecarbohydratesmadeinphotosynthesis
Use:
Usedforrespirationtoreleaseenergy.
Cellulosewhichstrengthensthecellwall
Proteinssuchasenzymesandchlorophyll

Storage:
Glucoseisasimplesugar.Itissolubleinwaterandcanbequitereactivesubstance.Therefore,glucoseisnota
goodstoragemoleculebecausefirstlyofitbeingareactivemightgetinvolvedinchemicalreactionswhereitis
notwanted.Secondly,itwoulddissolveinwaterandthewaterconcentrationincellwillbedecreased(since
therewillbelowerwaterconcentrationoutsideofcell,thewaterdiffusesout)andthecellwillbedamaged.
Theglucoseisthereforeconvertedtocarbohydrates(starch)toformalargemoleculeanditisnotreactive.It
canbemadeintogranulesandstoredinsidechloroplast.

Investigatethenecessityforchlorophyll,lightandcarbondioxideforphotosynthesis,usingappropriate
controls
1.Chlorophyllisnecessaryforphotosynthesis
Process
Takeapottedplantwithvariegated(greenandwhite)leaves.
Destarchtheplantbykeepingitincompletedarknessforabout
48hours.
Exposetheplanttothesunlightforafewdays.
Testoneoftheleavesforstarchwithiodinesolution.

Observations
Areaswithpreviouslygreenpatchestestpositive(turnblue
black).
Areaswithpreviouslypaleyellowpatchestestnegative(remainbrown).

2.Lightisessentialforphotosynthesis
Process
Takeapottedplant.
Destarchtheplantbykeepingitincompletedarknessforabout48hours.
Testoneofitleavesforstarch,tocheckthatisdoesnotcontainany.
Fixaleafofthisplantinbetweentwostripsofathickpaperonleaf.
Placetheplantinlightforafewdays.
Removethecoverfromtheleafandtestitforstarch.

Observations
Positivestarchtestwillbeobtainedonlyintheportionoftheleafexposedtolightand
negativetestinpartswithpaperstrip.

3.Carbondioxideisessentialforphotosynthesis
Process
Taketwodestarchedpottedplants.
Coverboththeplantswithbelljarsandlabel
themasAandB.
InsideSetupA,keepNaHCO3(sodium
bicarbonate).ItproducesCO2.
InsideSetupB,keepNaOH(Sodiumhydroxide).
ItabsorbsCO2.
Keepboththesetupsinthesunlightatleastfor
6hours.
Performthestarchtestonbothoftheplants.

Observations
LeaffromtheplantinwhichNaHCO3hasbeenplacedgivespositivetest.
LeaffromtheplantinwhichNaOHhasbeenkeptgivenegativetest.

Conclusion
PlantinSetupAgetsCO2whereasplantinSetupBdoesnotgetCO2.
ItmeansCO2ismustforphotosynthesis.

Investigateanddescribetheeffectsofvaryinglightintensity,carbondioxideconcentrationand
temperatureontherateofphotosynthesis,e.g.insubmergedaquaticplants
1.Investigationsneedcontrols
Controlplant(orleave)hasallsubstancesitneeds.
Testplantlacksonesubstance(light/chlorophyll/CO2)

2.Plantsmustbedestarched
Itisveryimportantthattheleavesyouaretestingshouldnothaveanystarchinthematthebeginningofthe
experiment.
So,firstofall,youmustdestarchtheplants.Leavetheminthedarkfor48hours.Theplantsuseupallstores
ofstarchinitsleaves.

3.StarchtestwithIodinesolution
Afterafewhours,carryoutthestarchtestonbothplants:Iodinesolutionisused;ablueblackcolouronthe
leaveispositive.
Boiltheleafinwaterfor30second.Thiskillthecellsintheleafbreakdownthe
membraneiodinesolutiongetsthroughcellmembranetoreachstarchinsidethe
chloroplastsandreactwiththem.

Boiltheleafinalcohol(ethanol)inawaterbath:Thegreencolouroftheleafandthe
browniodinesolutioncanlookblacktogether,soyouneedtoremovechlorophyllby
dissolvingitoutwithalcohol.Leaveituntilallthechlorophyllhascomeoutoftheleaf.

Rinsetheleafinwater:Boilingtheleafinethanolmakesitbrittle,thewatersoftens
it.
Spreadtheleafoutonawhitetileeasytoseetheresult.
Addiodinesolutiontotheleafandblueblackcolourispositive,starchispresent.

Identifyandexplainthelimitingfactorsofphotosynthesisindifferentenvironmentalconditions
Temperature:

Ifitgetstoocold,therateofphotosynthesiswilldecrease.Plantscannotphotosynthesiseifitgetstoohot.In
practice,anyoneofthesefactorscouldlimittherateofphotosynthesis.Afteritsoptimumtemperature,the
rateofphotosynthesiswilleventuallydecreaseandstopbecauseenzymesgetdenatured.

LightIntensity:

Withoutenoughlight,aplantcannotphotosynthesiseveryquickly,evenifthereisplentyofwaterandcarbon
dioxide.Increasingthelightintensitywillboostthespeedofphotosynthesis.Afteritreachesitsmaximum
lightintensitylevel,therateofphotosynthesiswillbeconstantandlightisnotlimitingfactor.

CarbonDioxideConcentration:

Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Even if there is plenty of
light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is insufficient carbon dioxide. After it reaches its maximum point
of photosynthesizing, the rate of photosynthesiswill be constant and carbon dioxide is not a limiting factor.

Describetheuseofcarbondioxideenrichment,optimumlightandoptimumtemperaturesinglasshouses
intemperateandtropicalcountries
TropicalCountries:
Intropicalcountries,thetemperatureandthelightintensitymaybetoohigh.Bothofthesecanbereducedby
shadingtheplantsfromdirectsunlight.Wecanuseclosedglasshousewithwindowsthatcanbeopenedtolet
hotairescapeorgrowtallerplantsnearbyorprovideasimpleroofoverthecropplants

Temperature:
Ifthetemperatureistoocold,thecropscanbegrowninsideaheatedglasshouse.Thetemperaturein
glasshouseiskeptoptimumleveltoencouragethecroptogrowfast,strongandproducealargeyieldoffruit
thatripensquickly.

Usehydrogencarbonateindicatorsolutiontoinvestigatetheeffectofgasexchangeofanaquaticplant
keptinthelightandinthedark
Hydrogencarbonateindicatorisusedtoshowcarbondioxideconcentrationinsolution.Thetableshowsthe
colourthattheindicatorturnsatdifferentlevelsofcarbondioxideconcentration.
Concentration Indicator turns
Highest Yellow
Higher Orange
Atmosphericlevel Red
Low Magenta
Lowest Purple

Aleafisplacedinastopperedboilingtubecontainingsomehydrogencarbonateindicatorsolution.Theeffect
oflightintensitycanthenbeinvestigated.

Identifychloroplasts,cuticle,guardcellsandstomata,upperandlowerepidermis,palisademesophyll,
spongymesophyll,vascularbundles,xylemandphloeminleavesofadicotyledonousplant

Explainhowtheinternalstructureofaleafisadaptedforphotosynthesis

Explaintheeffectsofnitrateionandmagnesiumiondeficiencyonplantgrowth
Nitrateiondeficiency
Shorterplant/Reducedgrowth
Upperleavespalegreenandbottomleavesyellow
Stemisthinner
Rootissmaller

Magnesiumiondeficiency
Lowerleavespalegreenandyellow
Upperleavespalerthannormal

7Humannutrition

Balanceddietisadietcontainingsomeofeachofthedifferenttypesofnutrients,inasuitablequantityand
proportions.
Ingestion:thetakingofsubstances,e.g.foodanddrink,intothebodythroughthemouth

Explainhowage,genderandactivityaffectthedietaryneedsofhumansincludingduringpregnancyand
whilstbreastfeeding
Dietaryrequirementsdependonyourage,sexandactivity;
Theamountofenergyneededisprovidedbyourcarbohydrateandfatintake;
Generally,malesusemoreenergythanfemales;
Andgenerallytheenergydemandincreasesaswegetolderuntilwestopgrowing;
Someonedoingphysicalworkwilluseupmoreenergythananofficeworker;
Whilechildrenaregrowingtheyneedmoreproteinperkilogramofbodyweightthanadultsdo;
Pregnantwomenneedextranutrientsforthedevelopmentofthefetus.

Describetheeffectsofmalnutritioninrelationtostarvation,constipation,coronaryheartdisease,obesity
andscurvy
Disease Causeofmalnutrition Symptomsandconsequences
Toomuchfood Heartdisease,strokes,diabetes
Obesity (carbohydrate,fator Extraweightcancauseproblemwithjoints
protein) (knees)
Fatdepositsbuildupontheinsideofarteries
makingthemstifferandnarrower.Ifoncoronary
Toomuchsaturatedfat
arteriesthatsupplyblood,musclesrunshortof
Coronaryheartdisease (causeshighcholesterol
oxygenanddontworkproperly.Depositsalso
levelsintheblood)
causebloodclotandcauseheartattack
Higherchanceofheartdisease
Toolittlefood(e.g.
Starvation Weightloss,organdamage,death
intensefearofgaining
(e.g.inanorexianervosa) (depression,loneliness,insecurity)
weight)
Constipation Lackoffibre Unabletodefecate,pain
Listtheprincipalsourcesof,anddescribethedietaryimportanceof:andExplainthecausesandeffectsof
vitaminDandirondeficiencies

Explainthecausesandeffectsofproteinenergymalnutrition,e.g.kwashiorkorandmarasmus
Kwashiorkor
Cause:Wrongproportionofnutrients;toomuchcarbohydratesandlackofprotein
Effect:Underweightfortheage

Marasmus
Cause:Notenoughproteinandenergyinthediet
Effect:Lowbodyweightandemaciated(abnormallythinorweak)

Mechanicaldigestionisthebreakdownoffoodintosmallerpieceswithoutchemicalchangetothefood
molecules
Chemicaldigestionisthebreakdownoflarge,insolublemoleculesintosmall,solublemolecules
Absorptionisthemovementofsmallfoodmoleculesandionsthroughthewalloftheintestineintotheblood
Assimilationisthemovementofdigestedfoodmoleculesintothecellsofthebodywheretheyareused,
becomingpartofthecells
Egestionisthepassingoutoffoodthathasnotbeendigestedorabsorbed,asfaeces,throughtheanus
Describediarrhoeaasthelossofwateryfaeces
Diarrhoeaisthelossofwateryfeaces.Ithappenswhennotenoughwaterisabsorbedfromthefeaces.

Outlinethetreatmentofdiarrhoeausingoralrehydrationtherapy
Givingadrinkcontainingwaterwithasmallamountofsaltandsugardissolvedinit,orgreencoconutwater,
ordrinkmadefromyoghurtandsalt

Describecholeraasadiseasecausedbyabacterium
Choleraiscausedbyabacterium

Explainthatthecholerabacteriumproducesatoxinthatcausessecretionofchlorideionsintothesmall
intestine,causingosmoticmovementofwaterintothegut,causingdiarrhoea,dehydrationandlossofsalts
fromblood
Thecholerabacteriumlivesandbreedsinthesmallintestine.Thebacteriaproducetoxin(poison)that
stimulatesthecellsliningtheintestinetosecretechlorideionsinthelumenofsmallintestine.Thisincrease
theconcentrationofthefluidinthelumen,loweringthewaterpotential.Whenthewaterpotentialbecomes
lowerthanthebloodflowingthroughvesselsinthewallsoftheintestine,watermovesoutofthebloodand
intothelumenbyosmosis.Lotsofwaterinthecanalcausesdiarrhoea.

Identifythemainregionsofthealimentarycanalandassociatedorgans,limitedtomouth,salivaryglands,
oesophagus,stomach,smallintestine(duodenumandileum),pancreas,liver,gallbladderandlarge
intestine(colon,rectum,anus)

Describethefunctionsoftheregionsofthealimentarycanallistedabove,inrelationtoingestion,
digestion,absorption,assimilationandegestionoffood
Region Functions
Foodisingestedhere;mechanicaldigestionbycutting,chewingandgrindingofteeth;
Mouth Salivaaddedcontainsamylasetodigeststarch.
Oesophagus Bolusesoffoodpassthroughbyperistalsis,frommouthtostomach.
Gastricjuiceaddedcontainsproteasetodigestproteinandhydrochloricacidto
Stomach
maintainpH2andkillbacteria.
Receivespancreaticjuicecontainingprotease,lipaseandamylase.Juicealsocontains
Duodenum
sodiumhydrogencarbonatewhichneutralizesacidfromthestomachgivingpHof8.
Pancreas Secretespancreaticjuiceintotheduodenum.
Makesbile,whichisstoredingallbladder;bilecontainssaltsthatemulsifyfats;
Liver
digestedfoodisassimilatedhere,e.g.glucoseisstoredasglycogen.
Epithelialliningsecretesenzymeswhichbreakdownmaltoseandpeptides;contains
Ileum
villiwhichincreasethesurfaceareaforabsorptionofdigestedfood.
Colon Mainfunctionisreabsorptionofwaterfromundigestedfood
Rectum Storesfaecesuntilitisegested
Anus Thishassphinctermusclestocontrolwhenfaecesisegestedfromthebody

Identifythetypesofhumanteethanddescribetheirstructureandfunctions

Typeofteeth Structure Function

Incisor(4ineachjaw) Chiselshaped(sharpedge) Bitingoffpiecesoffood

Slightlymorepointedthanincisors Similarfunctiontoincisorsandalsohelpsin
Canine(2ineachjaw) tearingfleshincarnivores

Premolar(4ineachjaw) Have2pointedcusps;have12roots ChewingandGrindingfood

Molar(6ineachjaw) Have45cusps;have23roots. ChewingandGrindingfood

Describethestructureofhumanteeth,limitedtoenamel,dentine,pulp,nervesandcement,aswellasthe
gums
Sectionofanincisortooth Description
Partembeddedinthegumcalledroot

Partwhichcanbeseeniscalledcrown
coveredwithenamel.

Enamelhardestsubstancemadebyanimals
butcanbedissolvedbyacids.

Underenamelisdentinewhichcontains
livingcytoplasm;dentineishard.

Middleofthetoothispulpcavitycontaining
nerveandbloodvesselswhichsupply
dentinewithfoodandoxygen.

Rootiscoveredwithcement;ithasfibres
growingoutofitwhichattachthetoothto
thejawbone,butallowslightmovement
whenbitingorchewing.

Statethecausesofdentaldecayintermsofacoatingofbacteriaandfoodonteeth,thebacteriarespiring
sugarsinthefood,producingacidwhichdissolvestheenamelanddentine
Bacteriaarepresentonthesurfaceofourteeth.Fooddepositsandbacteriaformalayercalledplaque.
Bacteriaontheplaquefeedonsugars,producingacid.Thisaciddissolvesenamel,formingahole.Dentine
underneaththeenamelissofteritdissolvesmorerapidly.Iftheholereachesthepulpcavity,bacterial
infectioncangettothenerve.Thisresultsintoothacheandpossibly,anabscess(aninfectioninthejaw).

Describethepropercareofteethintermsofdietandregularbrushing
Avoidsugaryfood,especiallybetweenmeals,sobacteriacannotmakeacid
Cleanteethregularlytoremoveplaque(afluoridetoothpastehardenstoothenamel);
Usedentalflossoratoothpicktoremovepiecesoffoodandplaquetrappedbetweenteeth;
Visitadentistregularlysoanytoothdecayistreatedearlyandanystubbornplaqueisremoved
Useantibacterialmouthwash
Eatfoodscontainingcalcium/phosphate/vitaminD/vitaminC
Rinsemouthwithwateraftereating

Statethesignificanceofchemicaldigestioninthealimentarycanalinproducingsmall,solublemolecules
thatcanbeabsorbed
Chemicaldigestioninvolvesbreakingdownlarge,insolublemoleculesintosmall,solubleones;
Enzymesspeeduptheprocess;
Enzymesworkefficientlyatbodytemperature(370C)andatasuitablepH;
Small,watersolublemoleculesoffoodareeasilyabsorbedintothebloodcapillariesintheintestine.

Statethefunctionsofenzymesasfollows:
amylasebreaksdownstarchtosimplersugars
proteasebreaksdownproteintoaminoacids
lipasebreaksdownfatstofattyacidsandglycerol

Describethedigestionofstarchinthealimentarycanal:
amylaseissecretedintothealimentarycanalandbreaksdownstarchtomaltose
maltoseisbrokendownbymaltasetoglucoseonthemembranesoftheepitheliumliningthesmallintestine

Statewhere,inthealimentarycanal,amylase,proteaseandlipasearesecretedandstatethefunctionsof
atypicalamylase,proteaseandlipase,listingthesubstrateandendproducts.
Siteofaction Specialconditions Substrate Endproducts
Maltose,glucose;
Amylase Mouth,duodenum Slightlyalkaline Starch
simplesugars
Stomach, Acidinstomach,alkalinein
Protease Protein Aminoacids
duodenum duodenum
Fattyacidsand
Lipase Duodenum alkaline fat
glycerol

Describepepsinandtrypsinastwoproteaseenzymesthatfunctionindifferentpartsofthealimentary
canal:
Pepsininthestomach:
Pepsindigestsproteinsbybreakingthemdownintopolypeptides.

Trypsininthesmallintestine:
Breaksdownproteinstopolypeptides.

Explainthefunctionsofthehydrochloricacidingastricjuice,limitedtothelowpH:
denaturingenzymesinharmfulmicroorganismsinfood
givingtheoptimumpHforpepsinactivity

Outlinetheroleofbileinneutralisingtheacidicmixtureoffoodandgastricjuicesenteringtheduodenum
fromthestomach,toprovideasuitablepHforenzymeaction
Bileisalkaline,wateryliquidthathelpstoneutralizetheacidicmixturefromthestomach.Ifthemixturestays
acidic,theenzymewillbedenaturedandnoreactionwilloccur.Asweknowenzymesworkbestatneutral
condition.

Outlinetheroleofbileinemulsifyingfatstoincreasethesurfaceareaforthechemicaldigestionoffatto
fattyacidsandglycerolbylipase
Bileismadeintheliver,storedingallbladderandthenflowsalongbileductintoduodenum;
Biledoesnotcontainanyenzymes;
Bilehelpstodigestfatbybreakingthelargedropsoffatintoverysmallones;
Thismakesiteasierforlipasetodigestthem;
Thisiscalledemulsification(akindofmechanicaldigestion)andisdonebybilesalts.

Identifythesmallintestineastheregionfortheabsorptionofdigestedfood
Mostcarbohydrateshavebeenbrokendowntosimplesugars,proteinstoaminoacids,andfatstofattyacids
andglycerol.Thesebrokendownmoleculesaresmallenoughtopassthroughthewallofthesmallintestine
andintotheblood.Thefeaturesofsmallintestineisespeciallyadaptedtoallowabsorptiontotakeplacevery
efficiently.
Feature Howthishelpsabsorptiontakeplace
Itisverylong,about5minanadulthuman Thisgivesplentyoftimefordigestiontobe
completed,andfordigestedfoodtobeabsorbedas
itslowlypassesthrough.
Ithasvilli.Eachvillusiscoveredwithcellswhich Thisgivestheinnersurfaceofthesmallintestinea
haveevensmallerprojectionsonthem,called verylargesurfacearea.
microvilli Thelargerthesurfacearea,thefasterthenutrients
canbeabsorbed.
Villicontainsbloodcapillaries Monosaccharides,aminoacids,water,mineralsand
vitamins,andsomefats,passintoblood,tobetaken
totheliverandthenroundthebody
Villicontainslacteals,whicharepartofthe Fatsareabsorbedintothelacteals
lymphaticsystem.
Villihavewallsonlyonecellthick Thedigestednutrientscaneasilycrossthewallto
reachthebloodcapillariesandlacteal.

Explainthesignificanceofvilliandmicrovilliinincreasingtheinternalsurfaceareaofthesmallintestine
Toprovidelargesurfaceareatoincrease/maximizeabsorptionbydiffusionoractivetransport

Describethestructureofavillus

Describetherolesofcapillariesandlactealsinvilli
(TableAbove)

Statethatwaterisabsorbedinboththesmallintestineandthecolon,butthatmostabsorptionofwater
happensinthesmallintestine
Smallintestineislongerthancolon(largeintestine)
Smallintestinehasvillisandmicrovillistoallowmoreabsorption

8TransportinPlants

Statethefunctionsofxylemandphloem
Xylem:
Totransportwater/mineralsalts/namedsalts/ionsfromrootstoleaves.
Toprovidestructuralsupport
Transpiration

Phloem:
Transportaminoacids/sugars/sucrose/organicmaterialsfromleavestostorageareaorplaceofuse
Translocation

Identifythepositionofxylemandphloemasseeninsectionsofroots,stemsandleaves,limitedtonon
woodydicotyledonousplants

Identifyroothaircells,asseenunderthelightmicroscope,andstatetheirfunctions

Function:
Increasesthesurfaceareaoftherootforabsorptionofwaterandmineralions.
Providesanchoragefortheplant










Explainthatthelargesurfaceareaofroothairsandroothaircellsincreasestherateoftheabsorptionof
waterbyosmosisandionsbyactivetransport
RootHairs
Eachroothairisalongepidermalcell;thisincreasesthesurfaceareaforabsorption;
Roothairsarelong&thinandsocanpenetratebetweenthesmallestsoilparticlesforabsorption

RootHairCells
Largesurfaceareatomaximizeabsorption
Membranewithproteinsforactivetransport(ofions)
Vacuolewithhighconcentrationofsalts/sugars/solutestogivelowwaterpotential
Thincellwallsprovideshortdistancefordiffusion
Moremitochondriatoprovideenergyforactivetransport

Statethepathwaytakenbywaterthroughroot,stemandleafasroothaircell,rootcortexcells,xylem
andmesophyllcells
RoothaircellsRootcortexcellsxylemofrootxylemofstemxylemofleafmesophyllcells

Investigate,usingasuitablestain,thepathwayofwaterthroughtheabovegroundpartsofaplant

Transpirationisthelossofwatervapourfromplantleavesbyevaporationofwateratthesurfacesofthe
mesophyllcellsfollowedbydiffusionofwatervapourthroughthestomata

Explainhowwatervapourlossisrelatedtothelargesurfaceareaofcellsurfaces,interconnectingair
spacesandstomata
Transpirationisthelossofwatervapourfromtheleaf;
Waterinthemesophyllcellsformathinlayerontheirsurfaces;
Thewaterevaporatesintotheairspacesinthespongymesophyll;
Thiscreatesahighconcentrationofwatermoleculesintheairspaces.
Watervapourdiffusesoutoftheleafintothesurroundingair,throughthestomata,bydiffusion.

Explainthemechanismbywhichwatermovesupwardsinthexylemintermsofatranspirationpullthat
drawsupacolumnofwatermolecules,heldtogetherbycohesion
Mechanismofwateruptake
1. Waterentersroothaircellsbyosmosis(asthewaterpotentialinthesoilsurroundingtherootishigher
thaninthecell);
2. Asthewaterentersthecell,itswaterpotentialbecomeshigherthaninthecellnexttoit,e.g.inthe
cortex;
3. Sothewatermovesbyosmosis,intothenextcell;
4. Thisprocessisrepeateduntilwaterreachesthexylem.

Mechanismofwatermovementthroughaplant
1. Transpirationcontinuouslyremoveswaterfromtheleaf;
2. Thuswaterisconstantlybeingtakenfromthetopofthexylemvessels,tosupplythecellsintheleaves;
3. Thisreducestheeffectivepressureatthetopofthexylemvessels;
4. Thiscreatesatranspirationstreamorpull,pullingwaterup;
5. Watermoleculeshaveastrongtendencytosticktogether.Thisiscalledcohesion;
6. Whenthewaterispulledupthexylemvessels,thewholecolumnofwaterstaystogether;
7. Rootsalsoproducearootpressure,forcingwaterupthexylemvessels.

Explainhowandwhywiltingoccurs
Youngplantstemsandleavesrelyontheircellsbeingturgidtokeepthemrigid.Iftheamountofwaterlost
fromtheleavesofaplantismorethantheamounttakenintotherootstheplantwillhaveawater
shortagecellsbecomeflaccid(soft)andwillnolongerpressagainsteachotherStemsandleaveslose
theirrigidity,andwilt.

Why?
Topreventhugewaterlosesthroughtranspiration

Describetheeffectsofvariationoftemperature,humidityandlightintensityontranspirationrate.
FACTOR
Increaseintemperature
Increaseinairmovemente.g.wind
Decreaseinhumidity
Increaseinlightintensity
EXPLANATION
Increasesthekineticenergyofthewatermolecules,sotheydiffusefaster
Removeswatermoleculesastheypassoutoftheleaf,maintainingasteep
concentrationgradientfordiffusion
Resultsinlowerconcentrationofwatermoleculesoutsidetheleaf,makinga
steeperconcentrationgradientfordiffusion
Stomataopentoallowgasexchangeforphotosynthesis,sowatervapourcan
diffuseoutoftheleaf

Translocationmovementofsucroseandaminoacidsinphloem,fromregionsofproductionorofstorageto
regionsofuseforrespirationorgrowth

Explainthatsomepartsofaplantmayactasasourceandasinkatdifferenttimesduringthelifeofa
plant
'Source'isthepartofaplantwheresubstancesareproduced(e.g.leavesforsucrose,aminoacids)orenter
theplant.
'Sink'referstothepartoftheplantwherethesubstratecanbestored(e.g.rootsorstemforstarch).

Examples:
Sources:LeavessucroseisproducedhereRoothairsNitratesareabsorbedhere.
Sinks:Roots/StemsstarchisstoredhereRoottipsaminoacidsarestoredhere.

1. Duringthesummer,theleavesphotosynthesiseandsendsucrosedown
intoundergroundstems.Here,swellingscalledtubersdevelop.Thecellsin
theroottuberschangethesucrosetostarchandstoreit.

2. Inwinter,theleavesdie.Nothingisleftofthepotatoplantabovegroundjustthe
stemtubersbeneaththesoil.

3. Inspring,theybegintogrownewshootsandleaves.Thestarchinthetubers
ischangedbacktothesucrose,andtransportedinthephloemtothe
growingstemsandleaves.Thiswillcontinueuntiltheleavesareabove
groundandphotosynthesise.

Soinsummer,theleavesaresourcesandthegrowingstemtubersaresinks.
Inspring,thestemtubersaresourcesandthegrowingleavesaresinks.

9TransportinAnimals

Describethecirculatorysystemasasystemofbloodvesselswithapumpandvalvestoensureoneway
flowofblood
Themaintransportsystemofallmammalsisthebloodsystem,alsoknownasthecirculatorysystem;
Itisanetworkoftubes,calledbloodvessels;
Apump,theheart,keepsbloodflowingthroughthevessels;
Valvesintheheartandveinspreventbackflowofblood.

Describethesinglecirculationofafish
ASingleCirculatorySystemisasimpleloopinwhichbloodflows:HeartGills
BodyHeart
Fishhaveasinglecirculatorysystem
Fisharenotasactiveasotheranimals,sotheirsinglecirculatorysystemis
sufficientfortheirneeds,whilemoreactiveanimalslikemammalsneeda
doublecirculatorysystem.

Describethedoublecirculationofamammal
Beginningatthelungs,bloodflowsintothelefthandsideofthe
heart,andthenouttotherestofthebody.Itisbroughtbacktothe
rightsideoftheheart,beforegoingbacktothelungsagain.

Bloodpassesthroughthehearttwiceforeachcomplete
circulationofthebody;
Therightsideoftheheartcollectsdeoxygenatedbloodfromthe
bodyandpumpsittothelungs;
Thusthereisalowpressurecirculationinthelungs;
Theleftsidecollectsoxygenatedbloodfromthelungsand
pumpsittothebody;
Thusthereisahighpressurecirculationtothebodytissues.
Thedoublecirculatorysystemhelpstomaintainbloodpressure,
makingcirculationefficient.


Explaintheadvantagesofadoublecirculation
Oxygenatedbloodiskeptseparatefromdeoxygenatedblood.Theseptumintheheartensuresthis
completeseparation.Oxygenatedbloodflowsthroughtheleftsideoftheheartwhiledeoxygenatedblood
flowsthroughtheright.
Thebloodpressureinthesystemiccirculationiskepthigherthanthatinthepulmonarycirculation.The
leftventricle,withathickerwall,pumpsbloodunderhigherpressuretothebodyanddeliversoxygenated
bloodeffectivelytoallpartsofthebody.Therightventriclehasathinnerwallandpumpsbloodtothe
lungsunderlowerpressure,therebyavoidinganylungdamage.

Theheartisapump,madeofmuscle,whichmovesbloodaroundthebody;
Themuscleisconstantlyactiveandcoronaryarteriestoprovideitwithoxygenandglucose;
Theleftandrightsideoftheheartiscompletelyseparatedfromeachotherbyaseptum;
RIGHTsidereceivesdeoxygenatedbloodfromthebodyandpumpsittothelungsforoxygenation;
LEFTsidereceivesoxygenatedbloodfromthelungsandpumpsittothebody;
Therearefourchamberstwoatriaandtwoventricles;
Therightatrium(RA)receivesbloodfromvenacavaandtheleftatrium(LA)frompulmonaryvein.
Bothatriathensqueezethebloodintotheventricles;
ThetricuspidvalveallowbloodtoflowfromRAtorightventricleandthebicuspidvalveallowbloodto
flowfromLAtoleftventriclepreventingbackflow;
Therightandleftventriclesthensqueezethebloodintoarteries;
Rightventricle(RV)pumpsbloodintothepulmonaryartery&theleftventricle(LV)intotheaorta;
Thesemilunarvalvesallowbloodtomoveintothearteriesandpreventbackflow
ThewalloftheLVismuchthickerthantheRVbecauseitneedstobuildupenoughpressuretosendthe
bloodtoallthemainorgans(notjusttothelungs).
Thusthebloodintheaortahasamuchhigherpressurethaninthepulmonaryartery.

Explaintheeffectofphysicalactivityontheheartrate
Heartbeatsabout70timesaminute,moreifyouareyounger;
Theratebecomeslowerthefitteryouare;
Duringexercisetheheartrateincreasestosupplythemuscleswithmoreoxygenandglucose;
Theseareneededtoallowthemusclestorespireaerobically,sotheyhavesufficientenergytocontract;
Regularexerciseisneededtokeeptheheartmuscleingoodtone;
Thisresultsintheheartbeingmoreefficientinmaintainingbloodpressureandreducestheriskofcoronary
heartdisease.

AfterExercise:
Oxygendebtsinceoxygennotsuppliedfastenoughfromhearttomuscles
Removalofexcesscarbondioxide
Anaerobicrespirationinmusclesproducelacticacidthatbuildsupinmuscleandnotcarriedawayfast
enoughinbloodlowersbloodpHwhichmakespersonfeeltiredandthemusclecannotcontractanymore.
Lacticacidisbrokendownandconvertedtoglucose

DuringExercise:
Increaseinenergydemandinmuscleforcontraction(ofmuscle)
Increaseinrespirationinmuscle
Increaseinbloodflowsuppliesmoreoxygenforaerobicrespiration/moreglucose/morefattyacids
Increaseinbloodflowremovescarbondioxideandlacticacidfromanaerobicrespiration

Discusstherolesofdietandexerciseinthepreventionofcoronaryheartdisease
TakingcareofyourdietalsodecreasestheriskofgettingCHD.Havingadietwithwiderangeoffoodand
eatingfoodwithlowsaturatedfatwillhelptoreduceCHD.Fastfoodsalsocontainlotsofsaturatedfatand
moderationofthesetypesoffoodcanhelpreduceriskofCHD.
Regularexerciseisverybeneficialonmanypartsofbody,includingtheheart.Exercisepreventsexcessive
weightgainanddecreasesbloodpressure.

Describewaysinwhichcoronaryheartdiseasemaybetreated,limitedtodrugtreatmentwithaspirinand
surgery(stents,angioplastyandbypass)
Treatment1:
Givedrugtothepatientlikestatins,andalsootherdrugsthathelptolowerthebloodpressure,ortodecrease
theriskofbloodclotsbygivingaspirin.

Treatment2:
1. Doingsurgeryisthepatientssecondchoice.Theblockedorseverelydamagedcoronaryarterywillbe
replacedwithalengthofbloodvesseltakenfromanotherpartofthebody.Thisiscalledcoronarybypass
operation.
2. Insertlittlemeshtubecalledstentinsidethearterytokeepitopen
3. Usetinyballoonthatisinsertedintothecollapsedarteryandtheninflateitusingwater.Thispushesthe
arteryopen.Theballoonisthenremoved.Thisiscalledangioplasty

Describecoronaryheartdiseaseintermsoftheblockageofcoronaryarteriesandstatethepossiblerisk
factorsasdiet,stress,smoking,geneticpredisposition,ageandgender
1. Coronaryarteriessupplyblood(nutrientsandoxygen)totheheartmuscles.
2. Ifacoronaryarterygetsblocked(e.g.byabloodclot),thecardiacmusclerunsshortofoxygen;
3. Blockageofthecoronaryarteriesiscalledcoronaryarterydisease;
4. Thecardiacmusclecannotrespire,soitcannotobtainenergytocontract;
5. Theheartthereforestopsbeating;thisiscalledaheartattackorcardiacarrest.

Age:
RiskofdevelopingCHDincreasesasyougetolder

Stress:
Somestressandexcitementisgoodforyou.However,ifyourstressislongtermitincreasestheriskof
developingCHD.
Prevention:Avoidsevereorlongtermstress

Gender:
MenaremorelikelytodevelopCHDthanwoman

Diet:
Adietwithhighinsalt,saturatedfatorcholesterolincreasesthechanceofCHD.
Prevention:Eatwidevarietyoffood;OilsfromplantandfishcanhelptopreventCHD

Smoking:
Componentsofcigarettesmoke(nicotine)causedamagetothecirculatorysystem.
Prevention:Stopsmoking

Geneticpredisposition:
SomepeoplehavegenesthathadCHDintheirfamilybeforethatcouldincreasetheriskofyouhavingCHD.
Preventing:Liveahealthylifestyle

Describethefunctioningoftheheartintermsofthecontractionofmusclesoftheatriaandventriclesand
theactionofthevalves
Heartbeatsasthecardiacmusclesinitswallscontractandrelax;
Whentheycontract,heartbecomessmaller,squeezingbloodout.Thisiscalledsystole;
Whentheyrelax,theheartbecomeslarger,allowingbloodtoflowintotheatriaandventricles.Thisis
calleddiastole;
Therateatwhichheartbeatsiscontrolledbyapatchofmuscleintherightatriumcalledpacemaker;
Thepacemakersendselectricalsignalsthroughthewallsoftheheart,whichmakethemusclecontract;
Betweenatriaandventriclesareatrioventricularvalves(bicuspidonleft&tricuspidonright);
Whentheventriclescontract,thesevalvesstopbloodflowingbackintoatria;
Astheventriclescontract,thebloodpushesthesemilunarvalvesupwards;
Thetendonsattachedtothemstopthemfromgoinguptoofar.

Describethestructureandfunctionsofarteries,veinsandcapillariesandhowtheyareadapted

Blood
Structure Howstructureisrelatedtofunction
vessel
1.Thick,toughwallwithmuscles 1.Thickwallstowithstandandmaintainbloodpressure(prevents
andelastictissue, bursting).
Artery 2.Narrowlumen 2.Narrowlumenmaintainshighbloodpressure.
3.Valvesabsent 3.Highpressurepreventsbackflowofblood.
4.Foldedendotheliumallowsarterytostretch
1.Thinwallwithlessmuscles 1.Thinwallsallowmusclestoexertpressureontheveins.
andelastictissue 2.Widelumenallowsgreatvolumeofbloodtopassorreduces
Vein
2.Largelumen resistancetobloodflow.
3.Valvespresent 3.Valvespreventbackflowofblood.
1.Permeablewall(onecell 1.Onecellthickwallallowsdiffusionofmaterialsbetweencapillary
thick)withnomuscleand andsurroundingtissues.
Capillary elastictissue Poresinthewallallowwhitebloodcellstoexit.
2.Lumenapproximatelyone 2.Narrowlumenallowsbloodcellstopassthroughslowlyand
redbloodcellwide increasesoxygendiffusionfromredbloodcell.

Namethemainbloodvesselsinheart,lungsandkidney:
Organ To From
Heart Venacavaandpulmonaryvein Pulmonaryarteryandaorta
Lungs Pulmonaryartery Pulmonaryvein
Liver Hepaticportalvein&hepaticartery Hepaticvein
Kidney Renalartery Renalvein

Outlinethelymphaticsystemintermsoflymphaticvesselsandlymphnodes

Describethefunctionofthelymphaticsysteminthecirculationofbodyfluidsandtheprotectionofthe
bodyfrominfection
Circulation:
Tissuefluidisafluidsurroundingthecellsofatissue.Itisleaked
plasmaPlasmafromthebloodcapillariesmovetothetissuethrough
gapsinthewallsandbecometissuefluid.Tissuefluidplayan
importantroleinsubstanceexchangebetweenbloodandcells.It
suppliescellswithO2andnutrientsandtakesawaywasteproducts
includingCO2.Attheendofthecapillarybed,thetissuefluidleaks
backintotheblood,andbecomesplasmaagain,butnotallofit.A
littleofitisabsorbedbythelymphaticvesselandbecomeslymph.The
lymphaticvesseltakesthelymphtothebloodstreambysecreting
theminaveinneartheheart,calledsubclavianvein.Thelymphinthe
lymphaticvesselsaremovedalongbythesqueezeofmusclesagainst
thevessel,justlikesomeveins.Thereturnoftissuefluidtotheblood
intheformoflymphfluidpreventsfluidbuiltupinthetissue.












Protection:
Thelymphaticsystemisanimportantcomponentoftheimmunesystem,whichfightsinfection.Onegroupof
whitebloodcells,thelymphocytes,aremadeinlymphglandssuchasthetonsils,adenoidsandspleen.The
glandsbecomemoreactiveduringaninfectionbecausetheyareproducingandreleasinglargenumbersof
lymphocytes.Thelymphocytescanliveandmultiplyinthelymphaticsystem,wheretheyattackanddestroy
foreignorganisms.Lymphoidtissuescatteredthroughoutthebodyfiltersoutpathogens,otherforeignmatter
andcellulardebrisinbodyfluids.

Listandidentifythecomponentsofbloodasredbloodcells,whitebloodcells,plateletsandplasmaand
theirfunctions

Componentsofblood Function
Redbloodcells Redduetohemoglobinwhichcarriesoxygenandtransportsittothetissues.
Whitebloodcells Fightsinfectionbyphagocytosisandantibodyproduction.
Platelets Causesbloodclotting.
Plasma Transportofbloodcells,ions,solublenutrients,hormones&carbondioxide.

Identifylymphocyteandphagocytewhitebloodcells,asseenunderthelightmicroscope,onprepared
slidesandindiagramsandphotomicrographs

Statethefunctionsoflymphocytesandphagocytes:
Phagocytes:
Bacteriaisingestedintothevacuoleanddigestedandbrokendownbyenzymes

Lymphocytes:
Attachtobacteriaandcausethemtosticktogetherandstopthemspreading
Helpphagocytesengulfthem

Describetheprocessofclottingastheconversionoffibrinogentofibrintoformamesh
Plateletsstimulateclotting.Thrombinconvertssolublefibrinogenisconvertedintoinsolublefibrinwhich
formsamesh.Meshtrapsredbloodcellsandplateletsanddriestoformascab.Thispreventslossofblood
andpreventsinfection

10Diseasesandimmunity

Pathogenisadiseasecausingorganism
Transmissiblediseaseisadiseaseinwhichthepathogencanbepassedfromonehosttoanother
Activeimmunityisdefenceagainstapathogenbyantibodyproductioninthebody

Antibodieslockontoantigensleadingtodirectdestructionofpathogens,ormarkingofpathogensfor
destructionbyphagocytes

Thebodyhasdefences:
mechanicalbarriers,limitedtoskinandhairsinthenose
chemicalbarriers,limitedtomucusandstomachacid
cells,limitedtophagocytosisandantibodyproductionbywhitebloodcells
whichcanbeenhancedbyvaccination

Memorycellsarenotproducedinpassiveimmunity

Thepathogenforatransmissiblediseasemaybetransmittedeitherthroughdirectcontact,e.g.throughblood
orotherbodyfluids,orindirectly,e.g.fromcontaminatedsurfacesorfood,fromanimals,orfromtheair

Somediseasesarecausedbytheimmunesystemtargetinganddestroyingbodycells,limitedtoType1
diabetes.Thecellsofthepancreasdonotproduceenoughinsulin.Whenthepersoneatsanddigestsfoodthe
bloodsugarlevelrises.Treatmentiswithdiet,monitoringbloodsugarlevelandinjectionsofinsulin.

Explainhoweachpathogenhasitsownantigens,whichhavespecificshapes,sospecificantibodieswhich
fitthespecificshapesoftheantigensareneeded
Pathogenshavemarkersontheirsurfacemembranescalledantigens
Antibodiessticktotheseantigensanddestroythepathogen.ormarkingthemforphagocytestoactonthem.

Explainthatactiveimmunityisgainedafteraninfectionbyapathogen,orbyvaccination
Apersonhasactiveimmunitytoadiseaseiftheyhavemadetheirownantibodiesandmemorycellsthat
protectagainstit.Thesememorycellscanlastformanyyears.Youcandevelopactiveimmunitybyhaving
diseaseandgettingoveritorbeingvaccinatedwithweakenedpathogens.

Explaintheprocessofvaccination(harmlesspathogengivenwhichhasantigens,antigenstriggeran
immuneresponsebylymphocyteswhichproduceantibodies,memorycellsareproducedthatgivelong
termimmunity):
Avaccinecontainsweakenedordeadvirusesorbacteriathatnormallycausedisease.Thesepathogenshave
thesameantigensasthenormalonesbuttheyarentabletocausedisease.Thesepathogensareinjectedinto
thebodyandrecognizedbythelymphocytesthatcanmakeantibodiesthatwilllockontotheirantigens.These
lymphocytesmultiplyandproduceantibodies(likearealinfection).Theywillalsomakememorycellswhich
giveslongtermimmunity.

Explaintheroleofvaccinationincontrollingthespreadofdiseases
Vaccinesimmunizediseasescausedbypathogens.Vaccineisadeadvirusorbacteriathatstimulate
lymphocytestoproduceantibodiesandbeimmunetothatparticulardisease.Sothenexttimethedisease
comes,itwillbekilledbeforespreading

Explaintheimportanceofhygienicfoodpreparation,goodpersonalhygiene,wastedisposalandsewage
treatmentincontrollingthespreadofdisease
HygienicFood

Personalhygiene
Meanskeepingyourbodyclean.Thiscanreducetheriskofgetting,orpassingontransmissiblediseases.The
skinmakesoilthathelpstokeepitsuppleandwaterproof.Iftheskinisnotwashedregularly,thisoilcanbuild
updirtfromthingsthatwehavetouched.Whenwearehot,sweatisproducedandifthesweat,oilanddirt
staysontheskinforlong,itprovidesbreedinggroundforbacteria.

WasteDisposal
Animalsforageforfoodinwasteandbacteriabreedinthere.Someoftherubbishinthelandfillsiteisrotten
bydecomposers(bacteria).Thisproducesagascalledmethanewhichcancauseexplosionifbuildup.Using
pipescanallowmethanetoescape.

SewageTreatment
Sewageismostlywaterbutcontainsothersubstancestoo.(urine,faces,toiletpaper,etc).Sewagethatisrun
intoriversorseabeforebeingtreatedcanharmtheenvironmentandpeople.Rawsewagecontainsmany
bacteriaandothermicroorganisms,somewhicharelikelytobepathogens.Ifpeoplegetcontactwithraw
sewagecangetill.Poliomyelitisandcholeraaretwoseriousdiseasescausedbysewage.Treatingthesewage
canpreventthese.

Explainthatpassiveimmunityisshorttermdefenceagainstapathogenbyantibodiesacquiredfrom
anotherindividual,e.g.mothertoinfant
Passiveimmunitylastsforashorttimebecausetheantibodieseventuallybreakdown.Nolymphocyteshave
beenstimulatedtomakeclonesandthebodyhasntmadememorycells.Antibodiesarepassedfrommother
tobabythroughbreastfeedingoracrosstheplacentaduringpregnancy.

Explaintheimportanceofpassiveimmunityforbreastfedinfants
Immunesystemofthebabyhasnotbeendevelopedyetsothemothersantibodiescanprotectitagainstany
diseasessheisimmuneto.

Describetheimmunesystemintermsofantibodyproduction,tissuerejectionandphagocytosis.
Theimmunesystemisthebodysdefenceagainstdiseaseandforeignbodies.Therearetwomaintypesofwhite
bloodcellslymphocytes&phagocytes:

Antibodyproduction:

Allcellshaveproteinsontheirsurfacecalledantigens;
Lymphocytesrecognizeforeignantigensfromforeigncells(suchasbacteria)andmakeantibodiestothem;
Adifferentantibodyisproducedforeachantigen;
Antibodiesmakebacteriaclumptogetherinpreparationforactionbyphagocytesorneutralizethetoxinsproduced
bythebacteria;

Tissuerejection:

Transplantsinvolvereplacingadamagedorganwithadonororgan;
Howeverlymphocytesdetecttheforeignantigensofthedonororganandmakeantibodiestoit;
Thedonororganisrejectedasantibodiesfighttheforeigntissue;
Topreventthishappening:
o Thedonororganneedstobeasimilartissuetypetothepatiente.g.fromacloserelative;
o Immunosuppressivedrugsareused,whichswitchoffthebodysimmuneresponse;
Howeverthedrawbackofthisdrugisthatthepatientneedstobekeptinisolationastheyareattheriskofdying
fromanydiseasetheyareexposedto.

Phagocytosis:

Phagocyteshavetheabilitytomoveoutofcapillariestothesiteofinfection;
Theythenengulf(ingest)theinfectingpathogenandkillthembydigestingthem.Aprocesscalledphagocytosis.

11Gasexchangeinhumans

Listthefeaturesofgasexchangesurfacesinhumans,limitedtolargesurfacearea,thinsurface,good
bloodsupplyandgoodventilationwithair
Wallofthealveolusisthin(asinglelayerofcells)toallowgasestodiffuseacrossthemquickly;
Theyaremoisttopreventthecellsfromdryingandtoallowgasestodissolve;
Theyhavealargesurfacearea,sothatalotofgascandiffuseacrossatthesametime;
Theyhaveahighconcentrationgradientmaintainedbythemovementofair&blood.

Statethefunctionsofthecartilageinthetrachea
Toconnectbonestogether
Providesmoothsurfacesenablingtissuetoslideeasily
Epiglottisclosestracheaandstopfoodgoingdownthetracheawhenyouswallow
Allowsribstoswingupanddown

Nameandidentifythelungs,diaphragm,ribs,internalandintercostalmuscles,larynx,trachea,bronchi,
bronchioles,alveoliandassociatedcapillaries

Explaintheroleoftheribs,theinternalandexternalintercostalmusclesandthediaphragminproducing
volumeandpressurechangesinthethoraxleadingtotheventilationofthelungs
Breathingin:
1. Externalintercostalmusclescontract
2. Internalintercostalmusclesrelax
3. Ribsliftupwards
4. Diaphragmcontractsandflattens
5. Volumeofthoraxincreases
6. Pressureinthoraxdecreases
7. Airflowsindownapressuregradient

Breathingout:
1. Externalintercostalmusclesrelax
2. Internalintercostalmusclescontract
3. Ribsfallin
4. Diaphragmrelaxesandgoesbackintoitsdomedshape

Explainthedifferencesincompositionbetweeninspiredandexpiredair
Gas Inspiredair% Expiredair% Explanation
Nitrogen 79 79 Notusedorproducedbybodyprocesses
Oxygen 21 16 Usedupintheprocessofrespiration
Carbondioxide 0.04 4 Producedintheprocessofrespiration
Watervapour Variable Saturated Producedintheprocessofrespiration,moisture
evaporatesfromthesurfaceofthealveoli
Temperature Variable Alwayswarm Airiswarmedasitpassesthroughtherespiratory
passages.

Uselimewaterasatestforcarbondioxidetoinvestigatethedifferencesincompositionbetweeninspired
andexpiredair
ApparatusNeeded:
RubberTubing
TestTube

Experiment:
Therubbertubingmustbesterilizedbeforeyouuseit.Donotbloworsuckhardwhendoingthisexperiment,
justbreathegently.Useeitherlimewaterorhydrogencarbonateindicatorsolutionforthisexperiment.
LimewaterchangesfromcleartocloudywhenCO2dissolvesinitand
hydrogencarbonatefromredtoyellow.
1. Setuptheapparatusasshowinthediagram
2. Breatheinandoutgentlyusingtherubbertubing.Keepdoing
thisuntilonetheliquidsintubechangescolour

Explainthelinkbetweenphysicalactivityandrateanddepthofbreathingintermsoftheincreased
carbondioxideconcentrationintheblood,detectedbythebrain,causinganincreasedrateofbreathing
*tidalvolume:amountofairduringnormal,relaxedbreathing
vitalcapacity;maximumamountofairbreathedinoroutinonebreath

Duringnormalbreathing:
depth(tidalvolume):0.5L
rate:12breaths/minute

Duringexercise:
depth:5L(dependingonage,sex,size&fitnessofperson)
rate:over20breaths/minute

Thetotallungvolumeisgreaterthanvitalcapacity(someairalwaysremainsinthelungs).Ifnot,alveoliwall
wouldsticktogether,thelungwouldcollapse.

Linkbetweenphysicalactivityandrateanddepthofbreathing
whenyourun,musclesinyourlegsuseupalotofenergy.
cellsinthemusclesneedalotofO2veryquickly.
theycombineO2+glucoseasfastastheycan,toreleaseenergyformuscleconstruction>alotofO2is
needed
youbreathdeeperandfastertogetmoreO2intoyourblood.
yourheartbeastfastertogetO2tothelegmusclesasquicklyaspossible.
alimitisreachedtheheartandthelungcannotsupplyO2tothemusclesanyfaster.
someextraenergy(notmuch)isproducedbyanaerobicrespiration:someglucoseisbrokendownwithout
combingwithO2:
Glucose>lacticacid+energy.
CO2andlacticacidconcentrationintissueandintheblood>bloodpH
Brainsensesthechange>nerveimpulsessenttothediaphragmandtheintercostalmuscles,stimulating
themtocontractharderandmoreoften>fasteranddeeperbreathing.

PastPaperAnswer:
requiresmoreoxygen
oxygendebt
lacticacidproducedduringexerciseasaresultofanaerobicrespiration
notenoughoxygensupplied,tomuscles(duringrunning)
lacticacidlowerspHofblood
highconcentrationofcarbondioxideinblood
fromaerobicrespiration
(carbondioxide)detectedby,brain/receptors
(carbondioxide)stimulateshighventilationrate
(carbondioxide)increasesdepthofbreathing
lacticacidis,brokendown/respired/convertedtoglucose
ref.tohomeostasis(increaseintemperaturerevertbacktonormal)
Explaintheroleofgobletcells,mucusandciliatedcellsinprotectingthegasexchangesystemfrom
pathogensandparticles
Gobletcellsproducemucuswhichtrapsdirt/particles.Ciliabeats(createwavemotion)tomovefluidout
oftheairway.Thisreducestheriskofpathogensenteringthelungs
Mucusalsoprotectsthelining

12Respiration

Respiration:Thechemicalreactionsthatbreakdownnutrientmoleculesinlivingcellstoreleaseenergy
Aerobicrespirationisthechemicalreactionsincellsthatuseoxygentobreakdownnutrientmoleculesto
releaseenergy
BalancedChemicalEquation:C6H12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O
WordEquation:Glucose+OxygenCarbondioxide+Water

Anaerobicrespirationasthechemicalreactionsincellsthatbreakdownnutrientmoleculestoreleaseenergy
withoutusingoxygen
WordEquation(Exercise):GlucoseLacticacid
WordEquation(Yeast):GlucoseAlcohol+Carbondioxide
BalancedChemicalEquation(Yeast):C6H12O62C2H5OH+2CO

Respirationinvolvestheactionofenzymesincells

Statetheusesofenergyinthebodyofhumans
Musclecontraction
Proteinsynthesis
Celldivision
Growth
Thepassageofnerveimpulses
Maintenanceofaconstantbodytemperature

Respirationinvolvestheactionofenzymesincells

Investigatetheeffectoftemperatureontherateofrespirationofgerminatingseeds


Investigatetheuptakeofoxygenbyrespiringorganisms,suchasarthropodsandgerminatingseeds
ApparatusNeeded:
Capillarytube
Beaker/Container
Ruler
RubberStoppers

Sodalimecontainschemicalsthatabsorbcarbondioxide.Itsimportantnottoletanyanimalstouchthesoda
limeasitcouldharmthem.Astheseedsrespire,theywillproducecarbondioxidewhichisabsorbedbysoda
lime(orpelletsofsodiumhydroxide).Thevolumeofairintheflaskdecreasesasoxygenisusedup.
Consequently,thecolouredwaterinthe1mlpipetterises(oildrop).Afteradjustingthepressurechangesin
thevolumeofairintheflask,therateofoxygenuptakecanbemeasured

Experiment:
1. Setupbothpiecesofapparatusasshowninthediagrams.Youcanuseanysmalllivingorganisms
(maggots)orgerminatingseedsinapparatusB.Makesurethattheconnectionsbetweenthecapillary
tubes,rubberstoppersandcontainsarecompletelyairtight.
2. Diptheendofthecapillarytubeofeachsetofapparatusintooil.Youshouldfindthatasmalldropofoil
goesintothecapillarytube.
3. Recordtheinitialpositionoftheoildropineachapparatus.Thencontinuetorecordthisatregular
intervalsuntilyoufeelthatyouhaveenoughreadings.
4. Plotalinegraphofyourresultsforbothsetsofapparatus.Drawbothlinesononesetofaxes.

Statethatanaerobicrespirationreleasesmuchlessenergyperglucosemoleculethanaerobicrespiration
Aerobicrespiration Anaerobicrespiration
Usesoxygen Doesnotuseoxygen
Noalcoholorlacticacidmade Alcohol(inyeastandplants)orlacticacid(inanimals)
ismade
Largeamountofenergyreleasedfromeach Muchlessenergyreleasedfromeachmoleculeof
moleculeofglucose glucose
Carbondioxidemade Carbondioxideismadebyyeastandplants,butnot
byanimals

Statethatlacticacidbuildsupinmusclesandbloodduringvigorousexercisecausinganoxygendebt
1. Notenoughoxygenissuppliedtomuscles
2. Oxygendebt
3. Anaerobicrespirationoccursandlacticacidisproduced
4. Lacticacidbuildsupinmuscles

Outlinehowtheoxygendebtisremovedduringrecovery,limitedto:
aerobicrespirationoflacticacidintheliver
continuation,afterexercise,offastheartratetotransportlacticacidinbloodfrommusclestotheliver
continuation,afterexercise,ofdeeperbreathingsupplyingoxygenforaerobicrespirationoflacticacid

13Excretioninhumans

Deaminationistheremovalofthenitrogencontainingpartofaminoacidstoformurea
Ureaisformedintheliverfromexcessaminoacids
Carbondioxideisexcretedthroughthelungs
Kidneysexcreteureaandexcesswaterandsalts

Explainthatthevolumeandconcentrationofurineproducedisaffectedbywaterintake,temperatureand
exercise
Thekidneysadjusttheamountofurinethattheyproduce,accordingtotheneedsofyourbody.Ifyourbodyis
shortofwaterbecauseyouhavebeendoingexerciseintheheat,andhavelostlotsofwaterbysweating.The
kidneyproducessmallvolumeofconcentratedurine(lesswater).Ifyourbodycontainstoomuchwater(too
muchwaterintake),yourkidneysproducelargevolumeofdiluteurine,whichhelpstogetridofexcesswater.

Identifyondrawings,diagramsandimages,theureters,bladderandurethra


Describetheroleoftheliverintheassimilationofaminoacidsbyconvertingthemtoproteins,including
plasmaproteins,e.g.fibrinogen

Whenyouingestproteins,digestiveenzymes(instomach,duodenum,andileum)breakthemdowninto
aminoacids.Theaminoacidsareabsorbedintothebloodcapillariesinthevilli.Thebloodcapillariesalljoinup
tothehepaticportalvein,whichtakestheabsorbedfoodtotheliver.Theliverallowssomeoftheaminoacids
tocarryonintheblood,tootherpartsofyourbodybutifyouhaveexcessamount(morethanyouneed)
someshouldberemoved.Itiswastefultoexcreteextraaminoacidssincetheycontainsenergythatmayneed
tobeusedforlater.Soenzymesintheliverspliteachaminoacidmoleculeandthepartwhichcontainsenergy
isconvertedandstoredascarbohydrates.Therestwhichcontainsnitrogenisturnedintourea.(Deamination).

Explaintheneedforexcretion,limitedtotoxicityofureaandcarbondioxide
Alllivingcellshavemetabolicreactionsgoinginsidethem.Metabolicreactionsoftenproducesubstancesthat
thecellsdontneed.Ifthesesubstancesareallowedtoremainincells,itmightbecomepoisonousortoxic.
RespirationforexampledoesnotonlyproduceenergybutCO2andwater.Animasmightneedthewaterand
theenergybutnottheCO2(wasteproduct).CO2isexcretedfromthelungs,gillsorothergasexchange
surfaces.Ifallowedtostay,itwouldharmthecells.

Outlinethestructureofthekidney,limitedtothecortex,medullaandureter

Outlinethestructureandfunctioningofakidneytubule,the
roleoftheglomerulusinthefiltrationfromthebloodofwater,
glucose,ureaandsaltsandtheroleofthetubuleinthe
reabsorptionofalloftheglucose,mostofthewaterandsome
saltsbackintotheblood,leadingtotheconcentrationofureain
theurineaswellaslossofexcesswaterandsalts(detailsofthese
processesarenotrequired)
Filtration:
Bloodisbroughttotherenalcapsuleinabranchoftherenal
artery.Smallmolecules,includingwaterandmostofthethings
dissolvedinits,aresqueezedoutofthebloodintotherenal
capsule.

Therearethousandsofrenalcapsulesinthecortexofeachkidney.
Eachoneisshapedlikeacup.Ithasatangleofbloodcapillaries,
calledaglomerulus,inthemiddle.Thebloodvesselsbringing
bloodtoeachglomerulusisquitewide,buttheonetakingblood
awayisnarrow.Thismeansthatthebloodintheglomerulus
cannotgetawayeasily.Quiteahighpressurebuildsup,squeezing
thebloodintheglomerulusagainstthecapillarywalls.

Thesewallshavesmallholesinthem.Sodothewallsoftherenalcapsules.Anymoleculessmallenoughtogo
throughtheseholeswillbesqueezedthrough,intothespaceintherenalcapsule.

Onlysmallmoleculescangothrough.Theseincludewater,salt,glucoseandurea.Mostproteinmoleculesare
toobig,sotheystayintheblood,alongwiththebloodcells.
Reabsorption:
Thefluidintherenalcapsuleisasolutionofglucose,saltsandurea
dissolvedinwater.Someofthesubstancesinthisfluidareneededby
thebody.Alloftheglucose,someofthewaterandsomeofthesalts
needtobekeptintheblood.

Wrappedaroundeachkidneytubulearebloodcapillaries.Useful
substancesfromthefluidinthekidneytubulearereabsorbed,andpass
backintothebloodinthesecapillaries.

Theremainingfluidcontinuesonitswayalongthetubule.Bythetimeit
getstothecollectingduct,itismostlywater,withureaandsalts
dissolvedinits.Itiscalledurine.Thekidneysareextremelyefficientat
reabsorbingwater.Over99%ofthewaterenteringthetubulesis
reabsorbed.

Therelativeamountofwaterreabsorbeddependsonthestateofhydrationofthebody(howmuchwaterisin
theblood),andiscontrolledbysecretionofthehormoneADH.
Onahotday:wesweatmoretocooldownthebodyneedstoconservewaterproduceasmall
amountofconcentratedurine.
Onacoldday:littlesweatisbeingproducedwetendtoproducealargervolumeofdiluteurine.

Filteredbloodreturnstothevenacava(mainvein)viaarenalvein.Theurineformedinthekidneypasses
downaureterintothebladder,whereitisstored.Asphinctermusclecontrolsthereleaseofurinethrough
urethra.

Explaindialysisintermsofsaltbalance,themaintenanceofglucoseconcentrationandtheremovalof
urea
Dialysismembraneispartiallypermeablesominerals/salts/ions/ureamovebydiffusionfromhigh
concentrationtolowconcentrationgradient
Watermovesbyosmosisfromhighwaterpotentialtolowerwaterpotentialacrossmembrane.
Proteins/bloodcellstoolargetomoveacrossmembrane
Glucoseisnotremovedbydialysate(sameconcentration)
Dialysatecontainsglucosesoglucose/sugardiffusesuntilbloodisatcorrectconcentration
Freshdialysatemaintainsaconcentrationgradient

Concentrationofsubstanceswhenbloodentersthedialysismachine
urea(concentration)decreases
water(content)increases/decreases
salt(concentration),decreases

Describetheuseofdialysisinkidneymachines


















Provideliquidconditionstoallowsubstancetransfer
Maintaintheconcentrationgradientsoonlyureaandlittlesaltwilldiffuseoutwhilenotallowingglucose
andothervaluablesubstancestobediffusedout.

Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofkidneytransplants,comparedwithdialysis
Advantages
Personnolongerneedsregulardialysis
Dialysisistiring,discomforting,takesalongtimeandfailseventually
Betterqualityoflife
Moreefficientcontrolofcompositionofblood
Canhavewiderdiet
Economicbenefit

Disadvantages
Needimmunosuppressant
Riskofdeathorinfectionduringoraftertheoperation
Rejectionofkidney
Findingacompatibledonor
Expensiveoperation
Transplantationisnotacceptedbysomereligions

14Coordinationandresponse

Synapseisajunctionbetweentwoneurones
Senseorgansaregroupsofreceptorcellsrespondingtospecificstimuli:light,sound,touch,temperatureand
chemicals

Describethehumannervoussystemintermsof:thecentralnervoussystemconsistingofbrainandspinal
cord;theperipheralnervoussystem;coordinationandregulationofbodyfunctions
Thehumannervoussystemismadeoftwoparts:centralnervoussystem(CNS)andperipheralnervous
system(PNS);
CNSbrainandspinalcord,whichhavetheroleofcoordination;
PNSnerves,whichconnectallpartsofthebodytotheCNS;
SenseorgansarelinkedtothePNS;theycontaingroupsofreceptorcells;
Whenexposedtoastimulustheygenerateanelectricalimpulse,whichpassesalongperipheralnervesto
theCNS,triggeringaresponse.
Peripheralnervescontainsensoryandmotorneurons;
Sensoryneuronstransmitnerveimpulsesfromsenseorganstothecentralnervoussystem;
MotorneuronstransmitnerveimpulsesfromtheCNStoeffectors(musclesorglands)
Neuronsarecoveredwithamyelinsheath,whichinsulatesthemtomaketransmissionoftheimpulse
moreefficient;
Relayneuronspickupmessagesfromotherneuronsandpassthemontootherneurons.
Thecytoplasm(mainlyaxonanddendron)iselongatedtotransmittheimpulseforlongdistances.

Identifymotor(effector),relay(connector)andsensoryneuronesfromdiagrams

Describeasimplereflexarcintermsofreceptor,sensoryneurone,relayneurone,motorneuronesand
effector
Describeareflexactionasameansofautomaticallyandrapidlyintegratingandcoordinatingstimuliwith
theresponsesofeffectors(musclesandglands)

Areflexarcdescribesthepathwayofanelectricalimpulseinresponsetoastimulus;
Indiagramabove,thestimulusisapinstickinginthefinger;
Theresponseisthewithdrawalofthearmduetocontractionofthebiceps;
Relayneuronsarefoundinthespinalcord,connectingsensoryneuronstomotorneurons;
Neuronsdonotconnectdirectlywitheachother:thereisagapcalledasynapse.

Thesequenceofeventsis:
Stimulus(sharppininfinger)

Receptor(painreceptorsinskin)

Coordinator(spinalcord)

Effector(bicepsmuscle)

Response(bicepsmusclecontracts,handiswithdrawnfrompin
COMPARISONOFMOTORANDSENSORYNEURON

Structure Sensoryneuron Motorneuron

1.Cellbody Nearendoftheneuron,just Atstartofneuron,insidethe
outsidethespinalcord spinalcord
2.Dendrites Presentattheendofneuron Attachedtocellbodyandinside
thespinalcord
3.Axon(takesimpulses Veryshortstretchintospinalcord Verylong,stretchesfromspinal
awayfromcellbody) cordintoamuscle
4.Dendron Verylongstretchestoareceptor None

1. Receptorsdetectsheat/stimulus
2. Electricalimpulsesaregeneratedbyskinreceptorthattravelstospinalcordalongsensoryneuroneswithin
spinalnerve
3. Relayneurone
4. Motorneuronesnerveimpulsessenttoeffector(biceps/muscle)
5. Bicepscontracts

Distinguishbetweenvoluntaryandinvoluntaryactions
Voluntaryactioninvolves(brainin)decisionmaking/conscious
Involuntaryactiondoesn'trequirethinking
Voluntaryactionisslowandinvoluntaryactionisfast
Voluntaryactionisnotautomaticandinvoluntaryactionisautomatic
Voluntaryactioncanbelearned
Voluntaryactioncangivedifferentresponsestosamestimulus
Involuntaryactiongivesameresponsetosamestimuliallthetime

Describethestructureofasynapse,includingthepresenceofneurotransmittercontainingvesicles,the
synapticcleftandneurotransmitterreceptormolecules

Describehowanimpulsetriggersthereleaseofaneurotransmitterfromvesiclesintothesynapticgapand
howtheneurotransmitterdiffusesacrosstobindwithreceptormolecules,inthemembraneoftheneurone
afterthesynapticgap,causingtheimpulsetocontinue
Whenanimpulsearrivesalongtheaxonofthesensoryneurone,itcausesthesevesiclestomovetothecell
membraneandemptytheircontentsintothesynapticcleft.Theneurotransmitterquicklydiffusesacrossthe
tinygap,andattachestoreceptormoleculesinthecellmembraneoftherelayneurone.Thiscanhappen
becausetheshapeoftheneurotransmittermoleculesiscomplementarytotheshapeofthereceptor
molecules.Thebindingoftheneurotransmitterwiththereceptorstriggersanerveimpulseintherelay
neurone.Thisimpulsesweepsalongtherelayneurone,untilitreachesthenextsynapse.Here,asimilar
processoccurstotransmittheimpulsetothemotorneurone.

Statethatinareflexarcthesynapsesensurethatimpulsestravelinonedirectiononly
Synapsesactlikeonewayvalves.Thereisonlyneurotransmitterononesideofthesynapse,sotheimpulses
canonlygoacrossfromthatside.Synapsesensurethatnerveimpulsesonlytravelinonedirection.

Statethatmanydrugs,e.g.heroinactuponsynapses

Identifythestructuresoftheeye,limitedtocornea,iris,pupil,lens,retina,opticnerveandblindspot

Describethefunctionofeachpartoftheeye
Partoftheeye Function
Fovea Anareaoftheretinacontainingahighconcentrationofcones,wherelightis
usuallyfocusedandcoloursaredetected
Blindspot Partoftheretinainfrontoftheopticnervethatlacksrodsorcones
Opticnerve Transmitselectricalimpulsesfromtheretinatothebrain
Conjunctiva Atransparent,sensitivelayeronthesurfaceofthecornea
Sclera Atough,whitelayerthatprotectstheeyeball
Choroid Producesablackpigmenttopreventreflectionoflightinsidetheeye
Retina Alightsensitivelayermadeofrodsandcones
Ciliarybody Aringofmusclethatcontrolstheshapeofthelenstoallowfocusing
Suspensory Attachesthelenstotheciliarybody,sothelensisheldinplace
ligament
Cornea Atransparentlayeratthefrontoftheeyethatrefractsthelightenteringtohelp
tofocusit
Iris Acolouredringofcircularandradialmusclethatcontrolsthesizeofthepupil
Lens Atransparent,convex,flexible,jellylikestructurethatrefractslighttofocusit
Pupil Aholeinthecentreoftheiristhatcontrolstheamountoflightreachingthe
retina
Rods Sensitivetodimlight,donotrespondtocolour
Cones Functionwhenthelightisbright,abletodistinguishbetweendifferentcolours
oflight

Explainthepupilreflexintermsoflightintensityandantagonisticactionofcircularandradialmusclesin
theiris

Thisreflexactionchangesthesizeofthepupiltocontroltheamountoflightenteringtheeye
Inbrightlight:
Retinadetectsthebrightnessoflightenteringtheeye;
Animpulsepassestothebrainalongsensoryneuronsandtravelsbacktothemusclesoftheirisalong
motorneurons,triggeringaresponse:
Circularmusclescontract;radialmusclesrelax;soirisgetsbigger
Pupilconstricts(getssmaller)solesslightfallsontheretina(topreventdamage).

Indimlight:
Retinadetectsthebrightnessoflightenteringtheeye;
Animpulsepassestothebrainalongsensoryneuronsandtravelsbacktothemusclesoftheirisalong
motorneurons,triggeringaresponse:
Radialmusclescontract;circularmusclesrelax;soirisgetssmaller
Pupilsizeisincreased(dilated)toallowasmuchlightaspossibletoentertheeye;

Explainaccommodationtoviewnearanddistantobjectsintermsofthecontractionandrelaxationofthe
ciliarymuscles,tensioninthesuspensoryligaments,shapeofthelensandrefractionoflight

Tofocusonadistantobject
Slightlydivergingraysoflightentertheeye
Ciliarymusclesrelax
Suspensoryligamentsarepulledtight
Lensbecomesthin
Thethinlensbendsthelightraysslightly
Tofocusonanearbyobject
Greatlydivergingraysentertheeye
Ciliarymusclescontract
Suspensoryligamentsslacken(loosen)
Lensgetfatter
Thethicklensbendsthelightraysgreatly
Statethedistributionofrodsandconesintheretinaofahuman

Receptors Distribution
Rods Foundthroughttheretina,butnoneinthecentrerof
thefoveaorintheblindspot
Cones Concentratedinthefovea

Outlinethefunctionofrodsandcones,limitedtogreatersensitivityofrodsfornightvisionandthree
differentkindsofconesabsorbinglightofdifferentcoloursforcolourvision
Wehavetwokindsofreceptorscellsintheretina.RodcellsandConecells.Rodecellsaresensitivetoquite
dimlight,buttheydonotrespondtocolour.Conecellsareabletodistinguishbetweenthedifferentcolours
oflight,buttheyonlyfunctionwhenthelightisquitebright.Wehavethreedifferentkindsofcones,sensitive
tored,greenandbluelight.Rodsthereforeallowustoseeindimlightbutonlyinblackandwhite,while
conesgiveuscolourvision.

Howtheywork?
1. Lightabsorbedbyapigment
2. Rodsdetectlowlightintensityandgiveblackandwhitevision(providenightvision)
3. Conesdetecthighlightintensityandcolour(red,greenandblue)
4. Convertlightintoelectricalimpulsesanditissenttothebrainvianeurons/sensory/opticnerve

Describeanerveimpulseasanelectricalsignalthatpassesalongnervecellscalledneurones
Receptorsendsimpulses.Impulseisthenpickedupbyasensoryreceptorinyourfinger.Ittravelstothespinal
cordalongtheaxonfromthereceptorcell.Inthespinalcord,theneuronepassesanimpulseontoseveral
otherneurones.Theseneuronesarecalledrelayneurones,becausetheyrelaytheimpulseontoother
neurones.Therelayneuronespasstheimpulseontothebrain.Theyalsopassitontoaneffector.Inthiscase,
theeffectorsarethemusclesinyourarm.Theimpulsetravelstothemusclealongtheaxonofamotor
neurone.Themusclethencontracts,sothatyourhandispulledaway.

Hormoneisachemicalsubstance,producedbyaglandandcarriedbytheblood,whichalterstheactivityof
oneormorespecifictargetorgans

Identifyspecificendocrineglandsandtheirsecretions,limitedtoadrenalglandsandadrenaline,pancreas
andinsulin,testesandtestosteroneandovariesandoestrogen
Gland Hormonethatitsecretes
AdrenalGland Adrenaline
Pancreas Insulin
Testis Testosterone
Ovary Oestrogen

Describeadrenalineasthehormonesecretedinfightorflightsituationsanditseffects,limitedto
increasedbreathingandpulserateandwidenedpupils
Therearetwoadrenalglands,oneaboveeachkidney.Theymakeahormonecalledadrenaline.Whenyouare
frightened,excitedorkeyedup,yourbrainsendsimpulsesalonganervetoyouradrenalglandswhich
secretesadrenalineintoyourblood.Adrenalinecauseyourheartbeatfaster,supplyingoxygentoyourbrain
andmusclesmorequickly.Thisprovidesthemmoreenergyforfightingorrunningaway.Adrenalinealso
increasesbreathingrate,sothatmoreoxygencanenterthebloodinthelungs.Adrenalinealsocausesthe
pupilsintheeyetowiden(allowsmorelightentertheeyesocanseedangerclearly).

Giveexamplesofsituationsinwhichadrenalinesecretionincreases
Examination
Youseesomethingscary

Statethefunctionsofinsulin,oestrogenandtestosterone
Insulin
Reducestheconcentrationofglucoseintheblood

Oestrogen
Causesdevelopmentoffemalesecondarysexualcharacteristics,helpsinthecontrolofthemenstrualcycle

Testosterone
Causesdevelopmentofmalesecondarysexualcharacteristics

Discusstheroleofthehormoneadrenalineinthechemicalcontrolofmetabolicactivity,including
increasingthebloodglucoseconcentrationandpulserate
Adrenalineissecretedbyadrenalglandslocatedoneaboveeachkidney;
Adrenalinehelpsustocopewithdangerbyincreasingtheheartrate;
Thussupplyingoxygentobrainandmusclesmorequickly,thisincreasetherateofmetabolicactivityand
givesmoreenergyforfightingorrunningaway;
Thebloodvesselsinskinanddigestivesystemcontractsothattheycarryverylittleblood,asaresultwe
getbutterfliesinourstomach,andmorebloodgoestobrainandmuscles;
Adrenalinealsocausesthelivertoreleaseglucoseintotheblood;
Thisprovidesextraglucosetothemuscles,thusmorerespirationandmoreenergyisreleasedfor
contraction.
Comparenervousandhormonalcontrolsystemsintermsofspeedandlongevityofaction
Feature Nervous Hormonal(endocrine)
Whataretheymadeof Neurons Secretorycells
Formoftransmission Electricalimpulses Chemical(hormones)
Transmissionpathway Nerves Bloodvessels
Speedoftransmission Fast Slow
Durationofeffect Shortterm Longterm
Response Localized Widespread(althoughtheremay
beaspecifictargetorgan)

Homeostasisisthemaintenanceofaconstantinternalenvironment

Explainthathomeostasisisthecontrolofinternalconditionswithinsetlimits
Itisimportantthattheinternalenvironmentofthebodyiscontrolled.Maintainingaconstantinternal
environmentiscalledhomeostasis.Thenervoussystemandhormonesareresponsibleforthis.Theseare
someoftheinternalconditionsthatarecontrolled.

Watercontentofthebody
Thisiscontrolledtoprotectcellsbyavoidingtoomuchwaterenteringorleavingthem.Watercontentis
controlledbywaterlossfrom:
thelungswhenweexhale
theskinbysweating
thebody,inurineproducedbythekidneys

Ion(salts)contentofthebody
Thisiscontrolledtoprotectcellsbyavoidingtoomuchwaterenteringorleavingthem.Ioncontentis
controlledbylossofionsfrom:
theskinbysweating
thebodyinurineproducedbythekidneys

Temperatureofthebody
Thisiscontrolledtomaintainthetemperatureatwhichenzymesworkbest.Bodytemperatureiscontrolled
by:
controllingbloodflowtotheskin
sweating
shivering

Bloodsugarlevels
Thisiscontrolledtoprovidecellswithaconstantsupplyofenergy.Bloodsugarleveliscontrolledbythe
releaseandstorageofglucosecontrolledbyinsulin.

Explaintheconceptofcontrolbynegativefeedback
Achangefromnormal,forinstanceanincreaseinbloodglucoselevels,triggersasensor,whichstimulates
aresponseinaneffector;
However,theresponseinthiscaseisthesecretionofinsulinhormone,whichwouldeventuallyresultin
glucoselevelsdroppingbelownormal;
Asglucoselevelsdrop,thesensordetectsthedropandinstructstheeffector(pancreas)tostopsecreting
insulin(negativeeffect);
Thisisnegativefeedbackthechangeisfedbacktotheeffector.

Describethecontroloftheglucoseconcentrationofthebloodbytheliverandtherolesofinsulinand
glucagonfromthepancreas
Liverisahomeostaticorgan;itcontrolsthelevelsofglucose;
Twohormonesinsulinandglucagoncontrolbloodglucoselevels;
Bothhormonesaresecretedbypancreasandaretransportedtotheliverinthebloodstream.

Roleofinsulinincontrollingbloodglucoselevels:
Whenbloodglucoselevelsarehigh,theninsulinissecretedbypancreas;
Insulinpassesinthebloodstreamandthentotheliver;
Insulinstimulatesthelivertoabsorbglucose;
Insulinconvertsglucosetoglycogen;
Insulinalsoincreasestherateofrespiration;somorebloodglucoseisabsorbedbycellsandusedup,to
reducebloodglucoselevels.

Roleofglucagonincontrollingbloodglucoselevels:
Whenbloodglucoselevelsdropbelownormal,glucagonissecretedbythepancreas;
Glucagonpassesinthebloodstreamandthentotheliver;
Glucagonconvertsglycogentoglucoseintheliver;
Glucoseisthenreleasedintothebloodstream.

Nameandidentifyona
diagramoftheskin:
hairs
hairerectormuscles
sweatglands
receptors
sensoryneurones
bloodvessels
fattytissue

 Describethemaintenanceofaconstantinternalbodytemperatureinhumansintermsofinsulation,
sweating,shiveringandtheroleofthebrain(limitedtobloodtemperaturereceptorsandcoordination)
Describethemaintenanceofaconstantinternalbodytemperatureinhumansintermsofvasodilationand
vasoconstrictionofarteriolessupplyingskinsurfacecapillaries
Humansmaintainabodytemperatureof37oC;
Apartofthebraincalledthehypothalamuskeepsinternaltemperatureconstantbyactinglikea
thermostat;
Ifthetemperatureisaboveorbelow37oC,thehypothalamusreceivesinformationfromthermoreceptors
inourskinandsendselectricalimpulses,alongnerves,tothepartsofthebodywhichhavethefunctionof
regulatingourbodytemperature.

Whencold,thebodyproducesandsavesheatinthefollowingways:
I. Shivering:Musclesinsomepartsofthebodycontractandrelaxveryquickly.Thisproducesheatandis
calledshivering.
II. Metabolismmayincrease;
III. Hairstandsup:Thisproducesgoosefleshandtrapsathickerlayerofwarmairnexttotheskin,actingas
aninsulator;
IV. Vasoconstriction:Thearteriolesthatsupplytheskinbloodcapillariesbecomesnarrower,thuslessblood
flowsinthemandthuslessheatislosttotheairbyradiation.

Whenhot,thebodylosesmoreheatinthefollowingways:
I. Hairliesflat:Noinsulation
II. Vasodilation:Thearteriolesthatsupplytheskinbloodcapillariesgetsdilated,thusmorebloodflows
throughthemandthusheatisreadilylostfromthebloodintotheairbyradiation;
III. Sweating:Sweatglandsecretessweatonthesurfaceofskin,whichevaporates,takingheatfromtheskin
withit,thuscoolingthebody;
IV. Metabolismslowsdown.
OutlinethesymptomsandtreatmentofType1diabetes(detailofcellsisnotrequired)
Symptoms:
Feelingtired
Feelingverythirsty
Frequenturination
Weightloss

Treatment:
Avoidlargeamountsofcarbohydrate
Eatlittleandoften
Injectinsulin

Gravitropismisaresponseinwhichpartsofaplantgrowtowardsorawayfromgravity
Phototropismisaresponseinwhichpartsofaplantgrowtowardsorawayfromthedirectionfromwhich
lightiscoming

Investigategravitropismandphototropisminshootsandroots

Explainphototropismandgravitropismofashootasexamplesofthechemicalcontrolofplantgrowth
Controlofplantgrowthbyauxins
Auxinsaregrowthhormones;
Theyareproducedbytheshootandroottipsofgrowingplants;
Anaccumulationofauxininashootstimulatescellgrowthbytheabsorptionofwater;
However,auxinshavetheoppositeeffectinroots,whentheybuildup,theyslowdowncellgrowth

Explaintheroleofauxinincontrollingshootgrowth,limitedto:
auxinmadeinshoottip(only)
auxinspreadsthroughtheplantfromtheshoottip
auxinisunequallydistributedinresponsetolightandgravity
auxinstimulatescellelongation
Phototropism
Whenashootisexposedtolightfromoneside,auxinsproducedfromtheshoottiptowardstheshaded
sideoftheshoot;
Cellsonshadedsidestimulatedtoabsorbmorewaterthanthoseon
thelightside;
Thusunequalgrowthcausesthestemtobendtowardslight;
Thisiscalledpositivephototropism.

Ifarootisexposedtolightintheabsenceofgravity,auxinsproduced
bytheroottipmovestowardstheshadedsideoftheroot;
Cellsontheshadedsidearestimulatedtoabsorblesswaterthan
thoseonthelightside;
Thusunequalgrowthcausestheroottobendawayfromthelight;
Thisiscallednegativephototropism.

Geotropism
Shootandrootsalsorespondtogravity;
Ifashootisplacedhorizontallyintheabsenceoflight,auxinsaccumulateonthelowersideoftheshoot,
duetogravity;
Thismakesthecellsonthelowersidegrowmorequicklythanontheupperside,sotheshootbends
upwardsnegativegeotropism;

Ifarootisplacedhorizontallyintheabsenceoflight,
auxinsaccumulateonthelowersideoftheroot,dueto
gravity;
Thusthecellsonthelowersidegrowmoreslowlythan
thoseontheupperside,sotherootbendsdownwards
positivegeotropism.
Describetheuseinweedkillersofthesyntheticplanthormone2,4D
Tokillweedsinlawns,cereal,crops[wheat,millet,maizeandsorghum](Weedsareaffectedbytheauxin
butdoesntaffectthegrass)
Weedkillerscontainplanthormonesthatcontaintypeofauxin,usuallyasyntheticform
Theweedsrespondbygrowingveryfastthendieleavingmorespace,nutrientsandwaterforthegrassto
grow

15Drugs

Drugisanysubstancetakenintothebodythatmodifiesoraffectschemicalreactionsinthebody
InjectingheroincancauseinfectionssuchasHIV
Excessivealcoholconsumptioncancauseliverdamage
Tobaccosmokingcancausechronicobstructivepulmonarydisease(COPD),lungcancerandcoronaryheart
disease
Theliveristhesiteofbreakdownofalcoholandothertoxins

Describetheuseofantibioticsforthetreatmentofbacterialinfection
Antibioticsaresubstancesthatkillbacteriaorpreventtheirgrowth,butdonotharmotherlivingcells.Most
ofthemaremadebyfungi.Itisthoughtthatthefungimakeantibioticstokillbacterialivingnearthem
bacteriaandfungiarebothdecomposers,sotheymightcompeteforfood.

Thefirstantibiotictobediscoveredwaspenicillin.ItismadebythefungusPenicillium.Penicillinkillsbacteria
by:preventingtheproductionofpeptidoglycanthatformthecellwall:thecellcontinuetogrowwithout
dividingordevelopingnewcellwallthewallgetsweakerruptures(lysis).

Sincethediscoveryofpenicillinin1928,manymoreantibioticshavebeendevelopedandusedtotreat
bacterialinfections.Somebacteriahavemutatedandbecomeresistanttoantibiotics,butnewdrugsare
constantlybeingdevelopedandtested.

Explainwhyantibioticskillbacteria,butdonotaffectviruses
Antibioticsdonotworkagainstviruses.Manyantibioticskillbacteriabydamagingtheircellwalls.Virusesdo
nothavecellwalls,sotheyareunharmedbyantibiotics.Itisdifficulttodevelopdrugsthatkillviruseswithout
damagingthebodystissues
ExplainhowdevelopmentofresistantbacteriasuchasMRSAcanbeminimised,limitedtousing
antibioticsonlywhenessentialandensuringtreatmentiscompleted
Useantibioticslessoften
Don'tuseantibioticsfornotviral/fungalinfections
Makesurepeoplecompletethecourseofantibiotics
Developnewantibiotics
Donotusethesameantibioticsfortoolong
Usecombinationsofantibiotics

Describetheeffectsofexcessivealcoholconsumptionandabuseofheroin,limitedto:
Heroin:
Heroinisapowerfuldepressant.
Itisanarcotic,producingadreamlikefeelingofrelaxationandreducingseverepain.
Itisveryaddictive,leadingtodependency(addiction).
Withdrawalsymptomscanbeveryunpleasantinvolvingcramp,sleeplessness,violentvomiting,sweating
andhallucinations.
Thebodydevelopsatolerancetothedrug,soanaddictneedstotakeincreasingamounttoachievethe
samefeeling.Thisleasttheriskofoverdosingonthedrug.
Wheninjectedusingunsterilizedandsharedneedles,thereisariskofinfectionssuchashepatitisandHIV.
Addictioncreatesfinancialproblemsleadingtofamilybreakdown,criminalactivityandsexualpromiscuity.

Alcohol:
Smallamountsalcoholcanrelaxthebodyandcreateasenseofwellbeing.
Alcoholisadepressant:largeramountsslowdownthetransmissionofelectricalimpulsesinthebrain,so
reactionsaredepressed,coordinationisimpairedandreasonedjudgmentsbecomedifficult.Moodswings
involvingviolencecanresult.
Decreaseinreactiontimemakesdrivingandhandlingmachinerydangerous.
Poorjudgmentsmayleadstocriminalactivityandsexualpromiscuity.
Longtermexcessivedrinkingcanleadtoaddiction(alcoholism).
Thiscanleadtofinancialdifficultiesandfamilyproblems.
Astheliverremovesalcoholfromtheblood,heavydrinkingcanleastoliverdamagesuchascirrhosis.
Drinkingcancausebraindamage,pepticulcersinthestomachandobesity.
Drinkingduringpregnancycandamagethefetus,increasetheriskofmiscarriageorprematurebirth,and
reducetheaveragebirthweight.
Describetheeffectsonthegasexchangesystemoftobaccosmokeanditsmajortoxiccomponents,
limitedtocarbonmonoxide,nicotineandtar
Chemical Effectsongasexchangesystem
Carbonmonoxide Apoisonousgas;combineswithhemoglobininRBC,preventingthemfrom
transportingoxygen
Nicotine Addictive;increasesheartrate&bloodpressure
Smokeparticles Irritatetheairpassages,causinginflammation&increasedmucusproduction,
resultinginchronicbronchitis;coughingandthepresenceofparticlesinthealveoli
canleadtoemphysema(breakingthewallsofthealveoli)
Tar Acarcinogenincreasestheriskoflungcancer;linestheairpassages,increasing
mucusproductionandparalyzinganddamagingcilia,causingbronchitis.

Explainhowheroinaffectsthenervoussystem,limitedtoitseffectonthefunctionofsynapses
Endorphinshelptoreducesensationsofpain,affectmoodandreducesensationsofhungerandthirst.When
itentersthebrain,heroinismetabolisedtomorphine.Morphinemoleculesfitintosomeoftheendorphin
receptors.Thisiswhyheroinmakespeoplefeelgood.Unfortunately,takingheroincanreducetheproduction
ofnaturalendorphins,andalsoaffectthebrain'sproductionofotherimportantneurotransmitters.Users
oftenfindthattheyhavetokeeptakingmoreandmoreherointogetthesameeffectand,iftheystopusingit,
willsufferextremelyunpleasantwithdrawalsymptoms.

Discusstheevidenceforthelinkbetweensmokingandlungcancer
Itwasinthe1950sthatpeoplefirstbegantorealisethattherewasalinkbetweensmokingcigarettesand
gettinglungcancer.Thepersonattheforefrontofthisnewunderstandingwasamedicalresearchercalled
RichardDoll(Figure15.11).Atthattime,doctorswerebecomingconcernedabouttherapidriseoflungcancer
intheBritishpopulation.Nooneknewwhythiswashappening.
RichardDollinterviewedlungcancerpatientsin20hospitalsinLondon,
tryingtofindoutiftheyhadanythingincommon.Hisinitialtheorywas
thatthiswassomethingtodowiththenewsubstance,tarmac,that
wasbeingusedtobuildroads.However,itrapidlybecamecleartohim
thatallofthesepeopleweresmokers.Veryquickly,hehimselfstopped
smoking.Dollpublishedtheresultsofhisresearchinajournalin1950,
butitwasmanyyearsbeforeeveryonewaspreparedtoacceptthelink
betweensmokingandlungcancer.Thedifficultywasthatyoucould
notreallydoacontrolledexperimentonit.Instead,researchershadto
relyonlookingforacorrelationbetweenthesetwofactors.Thegraphs
inFigure15.12showthatthereisacorrelationbetweenthenumberof
cigarettessmokedperyearandthenumberofdeathsfromlung
cancer.Formanyyears,tobaccocompaniestriedtoplaydownthislink.
Theysuggestedmanyotherpossiblereasonsforthecorrelation,
becausetheydidnotwantpeopletostopsmoking.However,much
researchhasnowbeendoneontheeffectsofsmokingonhealth,and
wenowunderstandhowsmokingbothpassiveandactivecan
causelungandothercancers.Forexample,weknowthattarcontains
chemicalsthataffecttheDNAincellnuclei.Thesechemicalscandamagethenormalcontrolmechanismsofa
cell,sothatitbeginstodivideoverandoveragain.Thisishowcancerbegins.Chemicalsthatcancausethisto
happenarecalledcarcinogens.Tarincigarettesmokecontainsmanydifferentcarcinogens.
Discusstheuseofhormonestoimprovesportingperformance,limitedtotestosteroneandanabolic
steroids
Somehormonesbelongtoaclassofchemicalscalledthesteroids.Steroidhormonesincludethereproductive
hormonestestosterone,oestrogenandprogesterone.Manysteroidhormonesstimulatemetabolicreactions
inbodycellsthatbuilduplargemoleculesfromsmallones.Thesereactionsarecalledanabolicreactions.
Steroidhormonesthatstimulatethesereactionsarecalledanabolicsteroids.Onetypeofreactionthatis
stimulatedbyanabolicsteroidsisthesynthesisofproteinsfromaminoacids.
Testosteronecausesmoreproteinstobemadeinmuscles,sothatmusclesbecomelargerandstronger
Athletesandothershavetakenanabolicsteroidstoincreasetheirmusclesizeandstrength
Thesehormonescanhelpathletestotrainharderandforlongerperiodsoftime

16Reproduction

Asexualreproductionisaprocessresultingintheproductionofgeneticallyidenticaloffspringfromoneparent

Identifyexamplesofasexualreproductionfrominformationprovided
Potatoes,forexample,reproduceusingstemtubers(Figure16.2).Someof
theplant'sstemsgrownormally,aboveground,producingleaves,which
photosynthesize.Otherstemsgrowunderthesoil.Swellingscalledtubers
formonthem.Sucroseistransportedfromtheleavesintothese
undergroundstemtubers,whereitisconvertedintostarchandstored.
Thetubersgrowlargerandlarger.Eachplantcanproducemanystem
tubers.Thetubersareharvested,tobeusedasfood.Someofthem,
however,aresavedtoproducenextyear'scrop.Thesetubersareplanted
underground,wheretheygrowshootsandrootstoformanewplant.
Becauseeachpotatoplantproducesmanytubers,oneplantcangiverise
tomanynewones.Togetmoreplants,tuberscanbecutintoseveral
pieces.Aslongaseachpiecehasabudonit,itcangrowintoacomplete
newplant.

Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofasexualreproduction:
Advantages
Theprocessisquick
Onlyoneparentisneeded
Nogametesareneeded
Allthegoodcharacteristicsoftheparentarepassedontotheoffspring;
Theyusuallystorelargeamountsoffoodthatallowrapidgrowthwhenconditionsaresuitable
Densecoloniesoutcompeteotherspecies
Lessenergy/resourcesused
Disadvantages
Thereislittlevariationcreated,soadaptationtoachangingenvironment(evolution)isunlikely;
Iftheparenthasnoresistancetoaparticulardisease,noneoftheoffspringwillhaveresistance;
Lackofdispersal(e.g.potatotubers)canleadtocompetitionfornutrients,waterandlight.
Sexualreproductionisaprocessinvolvingthefusionofthenucleioftwogametes(sexcells)toformazygote
andtheproductionofoffspringthataregeneticallydifferentfromeachother
Fertilisationasthefusionofgametenuclei
Nucleiofgametesarehaploidandthatthenucleusofazygoteisdiploid

Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofsexualreproduction:
Advantages
Thereisvariationintheoffspringsoadaptationtoachangingornewenvironmentislikely,enabling
survivalofthespecies
Newvarietiesmaybecreatedwhichmayhaveresistancetodisease
Inplants,seedsareproduced,whichallowdispersalawayfromtheparentplant,reducingcompetition
(colonization)

Disadvantages
Twoparentsareusuallyneeded(althoughnotalwayssomeplantscanselfpollinate)
Growthofanewplanttomaturityfromaseedisslow
Muchpollen/manyseedswasted
Fertilizationmaynothappen
Lossoflotsofenergy

Pollinationisthetransferofpollengrainsfromtheanthertothestigma
Selfpollinationisthetransferofpollengrainsfromtheantherofaflowertothestigmaofthesamefloweror
differentfloweronthesameplant
Crosspollinationistransferofpollengrainsfromtheantherofaflowertothestigmaofaflowerona
differentplantofthesamespecies

Identifyanddraw,usingahandlensifnecessary,thesepals,petals,stamens,filamentsandanthers,
carpels,style,stigma,ovaryandovules,ofaninsectpollinatedflower
















Statethefunctionsofthesepals,petals,anthers,stigmasandovaries
Part Function
Petal Oftenlargeandcoloured,toattractinsects
Sepal Protectstheflowerwhileinbud
Petiole(stalk) Supportstheflowertomakeiteasilyseenbyinsects,andtobeableto
withstandwind
Stamen Themalereproductivepartoftheflower,madeofantherandfilament
Anther Containspollensacs,inwhichpollengrainsareformed.Pollencontains
malesexcells
Filament Supportstheanther
Carpel Thefemalereproductivepartoftheflower,madeofstigma,styleandovary
Stigma Astickysurfacethatreceivespollenduringpollination
Style Linksthestigmatotheovary,throughwhichpollentubesgrow
Ovary Containsovules,whichdevelopintoseedswhenfertilised

Useahandlenstoidentifyanddescribetheanthersandstigmasofawindpollinatedflower

Distinguishbetweenthepollengrainsofinsectpollinatedandwindpollinatedflowers
WindPollinatedFlowers:
Pollengrainsaresmooth,lightandverysmalltobeeasilycarriedbythewindproducedinlargequantities

InsectPollinatedFlowers:
Pollengrainsarebig,andwithhookstoattachtoinsectslegsproducedinsmallerquantities

Investigateandstatetheenvironmentalconditionsthataffectgerminationofseeds,limitedtothe
requirementforwater,oxygenandasuitabletemperature

Environmental Explanation
condition
Water Absorbedthroughmicropyle,neededtoactivateenzymes
whichconvertinsolublefoodstoresintosolublefoodsneeded
forgrowthandenergyproduction.
Oxygen Neededforrespiration,toreleaseenergyforgrowthand
chemicalchangesformobilizationoffoodreserves
Suitabletemperature Forenzymestoworkasenzymesworkbestatoptimum
temperature
Light Notusuallyarequirementforgerminationbutsomeseeds
needaperiodofexposuretolightbeforetheygerminate

Describethegrowthofthepollentubeanditsentryintotheovulefollowedbyfertilisation(detailsof
productionofendospermanddevelopmentarenotrequired)
1. Pollengraingerminatesandgrowspollentube
2. Pollentubegrowsdownthestyle
3. Secretesenzymestodigestapathwaythroughthestyle
4. Ovuleissurroundedby(layersof)integuments,atoneend,thereisasmall
holecalledmicropyle
5. Pollentubegrowsthroughthemicropyleandreachestheovule
6. Tipofpollentubebreaksopen
7. Malegamete(s)travelsdownthepollentubeandentertheovule
8. Malegametefuseswithfemalegameteandzygoteisformed

Describethestructuraladaptationsofinsectpollinatedandwindpollinatedflowers
Feature Insectpollinated Windpollinated
Petals Presentoftenlarge,colouredand Absentorsmallandinconspicuous
scented
Nectar Producedbynectariestoattractinsects Absent,orsmallandgreen
Stamen Presentinsidetheflower Longfilaments,allowingtheantherstohang
freelyoutsidetheflowersothepollenis
exposedtothewind
Stigmas Smallsurfacearea,insidetheflower Largeandfeathery,hangingoutsidethe
flowertocatchpollen
Pollen Smalleramountsgrainsareoften Largeramountsofsmoothandlightpollen
roundandsticky,orcoveredinspikesto grains,whichareeasilycarriedbythewind
attachtothefurrybodiesofinsects
Bracts(modified Absent Sometimespresent
leaves)

Comparemaleandfemalegametesintermsofsize,structure,motilityandnumbers
Typesofgamete Structure
1. Islargeinsize0.1mmbecauseithasallcell
componentsthatisneededforthecelltogrow
andmultiply;hasyolktonourishtheembryo.
2. Duringovulation,onlyoneeggisreleasedevery
month.
3. Ovumisimmobileasthespermmovestowards
ittofertiliseit.

1. Sizeisverysmall0.05mm.
2. Duringejaculationmillionsofspermsare
producedintothewomensvagina.
3. Spermsarehighlymobileandcanswimtowards
theoviductwiththehelpofitstail.
Identifyandnameondiagramsofthemalereproductivesystem:thetestes,scrotum,spermducts,
prostategland,urethraandpenis,andstatethefunctionsoftheseparts

Part Function
Testes producespermandtestosterone
Scrotum asacthatkeepstestescool(outsidebody);keeping
themcoolerthanbodytemperature
SpermDucts Musculartubewhichlinksthetestistotheurethra
toallowthepassageofsemencontainingsperm
ProstateGlands Addsfluidandnutrientstosperm,toformsemen
Urethra Topasssemencontainingspermthroughthepenis,
alsocarriesurinefromthebladderatdifferenttimes
Penis becomefirm,insertedintovaginaduringsexual
intercoursetransfersperm

Identifyandnameondiagramsofthefemalereproductivesystem:theovaries,oviducts,uterus,cervix
andvagina,andstatethefunctionsoftheseparts

Part Function
containsfollicles,produceand
Ovary
storeseggs,produceoestrogen
Carriesanovumtotheuterus,
withpropulsionprovidedbytiny
Oviduct
ciliainthewall;Fallopiantubes
=siteoffertilisation
Uterus wherefetusdevelops
aringofmusclesthatseparate
Cervix
thevaginafromtheuterus
receivesspermfromerectpenis
Vagina duringintercourse;spermare
depositedhere

Describefertilisationasthefusionofthenucleifromamalegamete(sperm)andafemalegamete(egg
cell/ovum)
Sexualintercourseinvolvesinsertingtheerectpenisintothevagina.
Whenstimulated,spongytissueinthepenisfilledwithbloodand
becomeserect.
Attheclimax,semenisejaculatedfromthepenisintotheneckof
thevagina.
Musclesinthewallofthespermducthelptopropelthesemen
forward
Thespermswiththeirtailsswimfromthevagina,throughthecervix
anduterus,intoanoviduct.
Ovum/eggpassdowninoviduct
Asinglespermpenetratesthemembraneofovumbysecretingaproteaseenzyme;onlytheheadofthe
spermgoesin,thetailisleftoutside.
Thespermnucleusandtheeggnucleusfusetoformadiploidzygote=fertilization
Spermcanremainactiveintheoviductforatleast2daysandtheovummaytakeadaytopassfromthe
ovarytotheuterus,sothereisafertileperiodof3to4daysaroundovulationwhenfertilizationcan
happen.

Explaintheadaptivefeaturesofsperm,limitedtoflagellum,mitochondriaandenzymesintheacrosome
Tail(formotility)whichpropelsitthroughthecervix,uterusandfallopiantubetowardstheegg.
Eachspermhasmanymitochondria(whererespirationoccurs)toreleasetheenergyneededforits
journey.
Acrosomesallowthemtobreakthroughthecellmembraneoftheegg.

Explaintheadaptivefeaturesofeggcells,limitedtoenergystoresandthejellycoatthatchangesat
fertilization
Ithasalargecytoplasmwhichcontainsthenutrientsandmitochondrianeededformitosis(celldivision)
afterfertilisation.
Eachegghasaspecialcellmembranewhichonlyallowsonespermtofertiliseit.

Statethatinearlydevelopment,thezygoteformsanembryowhichisaballofcellsthatimplantsintothe
walloftheuterus
Whenthespermandeggnucleusfusetogether,theyformazygote.Thezygotecontinuestomoveslowly
downtheoviduct.Asitgoes,it
dividesbymitosis.Afterseveral
hours,ithasformedaballofcells
calledembryo.Ittakesseveralhours
fortheembryotoreachtheuterus
andbythistimeitwillbeaballof16
or32cells.Theuterushasthing,
spongylining,andtheembryosinks
intoit.Thisiscalledimplantation.

Statethefunctionsoftheumbilicalcord,placenta,amnioticsacandamnioticfluid
Part Functions
Umbilicalcord umbilicalcordtransportsnutrients/excretory
products
attachestheplacentatothefetus
Placenta Preventionofmaternalandfetalbloodmixing
Protectionagainstmothersimmunesystem
Supplyofoxygen(tofetus)
Lossofcarbondioxide(fromfetus)
Lossofurea/waste
Protectionagainstpathogens
Transferofantibodies(frommother)
Supplyofnutrients
Supply/removeswater
Secreteshormone
Amnioticsac membranefromembryocells:enclosesfetus
preventsentryofpathogens
secretestheamnioticfluid
Amnioticfluid supportsfetus
protectsagainstdamage
providesconstanttemperature
allowsfetustomove
neededforbone/musclegrowth/development
helpslungs/gutdevelop
collectsfetalurine/waste
providessterileenvironment
Describethefunctionoftheplacentaandumbilicalcordinrelationtoexchangeofdissolvednutrients,
gasesandexcretoryproductsandprovidingabarriertotoxinsandpathogens(structuraldetailsarenot
required)
Theplacentabringsthebloodsupplyofthefetusclosetothatofthemother,butpreventsmixing;
Thisisimportantbecausethefetusandmothermayhavedifferentbloodgroupsandanymixingcanresult
inbloodclotting;
Alsothemothersbloodpressureishighercomparedtothefetuswhichmightdamagethefetalorgans;
Bloodfromfetuspassesthroughtheumbilicalcordintheumbilicalarterytotheplacenta.
Substancesthatdiffuseacrosstheplacentaareasfollows:
Typeofsubstance Tofetusfrommother Tomotherfromfetus
Respiratorygases Oxygen Carbondioxide
Solublenutrients Aminoacids,glucose,fattyacids,
glycerol,vitamins,minerals,water
Diseasepreventingsubstances Antibodies,antibiotics
Nitrogenousexcretory Urea
substances
Potentiallyharmfulsubstances Alcohol,nicotineandotherdrugs,
viruses,bacteria
Sometoxins,e.g.nicotine,andpathogens,e.g.rubellavirus,canpassacrosstheplacentaandaffectthefetus
Outlinethegrowthanddevelopmentofthefetusintermsofincreasingcomplexityintheearlystagesand
increasingsizetowardstheendofpregnancy

Ovary Pituitarygland
afollicledevelops secretesLH,FSH
secretesoestrogen stimulatesfollicletosecrete
oestrogenintheblood. oestrogen.
liningoftheuterusgrowsthick,spongy

Whenthefollicleisfullydeveloped>LHandFSH

folliclesruptureandreleasefullydevelopedovarian
cells(ovulation)
emptyfolliclestopssecretingoestrogen
becomesacorpusluteum LH,FSH
secretesprogesterone
uterusliningthick,spongy,wellsuppliedwithbloodin
caseaneggisfertilised.

Iftheeggisfertilized Iftheeggisnotfertilized
corpusluteumdoesnotdegeneratesoquickly corpusluteumgraduallydisappears
secretesprogesteroneuntiltheembryosinksinto nomoreprogesteronesecreted
uteruswallandaplacentadevelops uterusliningbreaksdown
Placentasecretesprogesteronethroughpregnancy Menstruation
itmaintainstheuterusliningsothatthe anewfollicledevelops
menstruationdoesnothappenduringpregnancy

Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofbreastfeedingcomparedwithbottlefeedingusingformula
milk
Advantages
providesmostsuitablefood
easytodigest
lessriskofallergies/childlesslikelytodevelopdiabetes
providespassiveimmunity/providesprotectionagainstpathogens/diseases/microorganisms
(antibodies)
lessriskofinfection(sterile)
isatbodytemperature
alwaysavailable
bondingwithmother
itsfree
Disadvantages
timeconsuming
transferofviruses/HIV/hepatitisB
painful/sorenipples/mastitis
stressful/maybeembarrassing
mothermaynotbeabletoproduceenoughmilk
cannotseehowmuchbabyhasconsumed
taskcannotbesharedwithotherparent
medications/drugs/alcoholcanpasstobaby

Describetheantenatalcareofpregnantwomen,limitedtospecialdietaryneedsandtheharmfrom
smokingandalcoholconsumption
Whenawomanispregnant,sheshouldtakeextracareofherhealthsinceitwillaffectthefetustoo.She
shouldensurethatherdietcontainslotsofcalcium(forfetusbones),extrairon(neededforhaemoglobin
lotsofredbloodcellsneededtocarrynutrient),littleextracarbohydrate(energytomoveherheavierbody
around),andextraprotein(tohelptoformhergrowingfetussnewcells).Harmfulsubstancestravelacross
theplacentatoo.Smokingcancausethebabytogrowmoreslowlyandbebornsmallerthannormal.Pregnant
womanshouldalsoavoidalcoholconsumption.

Outlinetheprocessesinvolvedinlabourandbirth,limitedto:
Stage1
Themuscularwallsoftheuterusstarttocontract>slowlystretchtheopeningofthecervix.
Thepressurebreakstheamnioticsac,releasingtheamnioticfluid.
Contractiongraduallybecomemorefrequent,pushingthebabydowntowardsthecervix,which
becomedilatedtoallowbabytopassthrough.

Stage2
Thevaginastretchestoallowthebabytobeborn.

Stage3
Thebabyisstillattachedtotheplacentabytheumbilicalcord,sothisiscutandtied.Theplacentabreaks
awayfromthewalloftheuterusandpassedout(afterbirth).

Describethesitesofproductionofoestrogenandprogesteroneinthemenstrualcycleandinpregnancy
Hormone Productioninmenstrualcycle Productioninpregnancy
Oestrogen Ovary;Follicle;CorpusLeteum Placenta
Ovary;RemainsofFollicle;Corpus Placenta;Corpusluteum/yellow
Progesterone
Leteum body/ovary

Outlineartificialinsemination(AI)
1. Semen/spermiscollectedfrommale/donor/spermbank
2. Insertedintovagina/cervix/uterus/womb/oviduct
3. Neartimeofovulation/atfertiletime

Outlineinvitrofertilisation(IVF)
Eggisfertilisedoutsidethebody(indish)andtheresultingembryoisplacedintotheuteruswherethey
developintheusualway
Describetherolesoftestosteroneandoestrogeninthedevelopmentandregulationofsecondarysexual
characteristicsduringpuberty
Oestrogenfemales
Thebeginningofthemenstrualcycle
Bodymassincreasesandredistributedtohipsandbreasts
Bodyhairpubic
Voicedeepensslowly
Developmentofsexualorgans

Testosteronemales
Productionofsperm
Growthofsexualorgans/genitals
Bodyhairpubic,armsandface
Broadshoulders
Increaseinmuscles
Voicebreaks(becomesdeeper)
Developmentofasexualdrive

Explaintheroleofhormonesincontrollingthemenstrualcycleandpregnancy,limitedtoFSH,LH,
progesteroneandoestrogen
Hormone Roleinmenstrualcycle Roleinpregnancy
o Repairoftheendometrium/liningofuterus
o Thickening/buildingupofendometrium o Develops(liningof)uterus/
o Developmentofblood(vessels)/glands endometrium
o Prepares(uterus)forimplantationofembryo o Preventsheddingoflining/
Oestrogen
o ReleaseofLH menstruation
o InhibitsreleaseofFSH(frompituitary) o Inhibit(releaseof)FSHbypituitary
o Stops,production/releaseofmoreeggs gland
o Causeschangeincervicalmucus
o Maintainstheliningofuterus
o Stopsmenstrualcycleinpregnancy
o Preparesforimplantation
Progesterone o Promotesdevelopment/maintains
o PreventsFSHsecretion/inhibitsLH
bloodvessels
o Preventsfollicledevelopment
o FSHstimulatesfollicle(cells)togrowto
secreteoestrogen
o Causesmaturationofegg
FSH o LowFSHafterovulation,preventsfurther
folliclestimulation
o Stimulateoestrogenandprogesterone
secretion
o Stimulatematurationofovum
LH o Ovulation
o Formationofcorpusleteum

Outlinethefollowingmethodsofbirthcontrol:
Natural:
Abstinence
Avoidingsexualintercoursecompletelyorensurethattheydonothavesexualintercoursewhenthewoman
hasanegginheroviducts.

MonitoringBodyTemperature
Recordofbodytemperatureisneeded.Aroundthetimeofovulation,thetemperaturerisesslightly

CervicalMucus
Thewomancancheckforthemucusinhervagina.Thisbecomesmoreliquidandslipperyaroundthetimeof
ovulation

Chemical:
IUD(Intrauterinedevice)
Adevicethatisplacedinsidetheuterus(somecontaincopper)

IUS
Adevicethatslowlyreleaseshormonesthatpreventimplantation.Thisinterfereswiththeabilityofspermto
findandfertiletheegg,andalsopreventstheimplantationandthedevelopmentofanyeggthatdoesget
fertilised.

Contraceptivepill
Thepillcontainsthefemalesexhormonesoestrogenandprogesterone.Onepillistakeneveryday.The
hormonesarelikethosethataremadewhenawomanispregnant,andstopeggproduction

Spermicides
Spermicidalcreaminthevaginakillssperm

Barrier:
Condom
Placedovererectpenis.Ittrapssemenasitisreleased,stoppingitfromenteringvagina

Femidom
Sameascondombutplacedinvagina

Diaphragmorcaps
Itisacircularsheetofrubber,whichisplacedoverthecervix,atthetopofthevagina.Spermicidalcreamis
firstappliedaroundtheedges.Spermdepositedinthevaginacannotgetpastthediaphragmintotheuterus

Surgical:
Sterilisation
Inaman,thespermductsarecutortied,stoppingspermfromtravellingfromthetestestothepenis.Ina
woman,theoviductsarecutortied,stoppingeggsfromtravellingdowntheoviducts

Outlinetheuseofhormonesincontraceptionandfertilitytreatments
Fertilitydrugs
FSH/LH/clomiphene/clomidcausestheovariestoproducemoreeggswhichincreasesthechanceof
fertilisation

Female
hCGstimulatesfolliclestoreleaseeggs
Progesteronecausesliningofuterus/endometriumtothickenwhichincreaseschanceofimplantation

Male
hCGtostimulatetestosteroneproduction
Testosteronestimulatesspermproduction

Chemicalmethodsofbirthcontrol
Oestrogen/progesteroneincontraceptivepillpreventsFSHreleasepreventsegg/follicledevelopment
preventsovulation/releaseofeggs
Progesteroneonlypillsinhibitspermmovementthroughcervixwhichpreventsimplantation
Contraceptivepillkillssperminvagina/cervixandpreventsspermreachingegg/enteringoviduct

Discussthesocialimplicationsofcontraceptionandfertilitytreatments
Fertility
o Stressisassociatedwithdifficultyhavingchildren
o Multiplebirthsmightoccur
o Problemswithunusedembryos(whenusedwithIVF)
o Issueswithelderlyparent(s)
o Religiousobjectionstouseoffertilitydrugs
o Treatmentmightbeexpensive
o Increasespopulations
o Canbeusedtoincreasepopulations(usefulincountrieswherebirthrateislow)

Contraception
o Itisawidelyheldbeliefthatthepillrevolutionizedsexforwomenastheynolongerhadtoworryabout
pregnancy.
o Anothersocialeffectisthatitallowsforpopulationcontrolinawaythatdidnotexist100yearsago.

o Itisalsoaclass/religious/monetarything:thosewhocanmostaffordtohaveandraisechildrencanselect
whenandhowmanytheyhave.Thosewhocanleastaffordtohaveandraisemultiplechildren(poverty,
3rdworldcountries)areleastlikelytohaveaccesstocontraceptionandmaybethemostinneedofit.
o STDsarealsorelevant.AIDSinwomenhasincreasedgreatlybecausetheyaremorelikelytocontractit
duringsexualintercoursewithaninfectedpartner.
o Religionoftenforbidstheuseofcontraception(catholicsarenotoriousforthis)andyetbelievetheyhave
noresponsibilityforthespreadofillness.
o Ifcontraceptionwereuniversallyavailableandacceptable,itcouldbeagreatequalizeragainstpoverty
anddisease.

Sexuallytransmittedinfectionisaninfectionthatistransmittedviabodyfluidsthroughsexualcontact
Humanimmunodeficiencyvirus(HIV)isanexampleofanSTI
HIVinfectionmayleadtoAIDS

ExplainhowthespreadofSTIsiscontrolled
o Useofcondom/femidom(duringsexualintercourse)
o Toabstinencefromsexualintercourse
o Screeningofbloodfortransfusions/bloodcheckedforHIV
o Useofsterileneedles(forinjectingdrugs)/don'tshareneedles
o Feedbabywithbottledpowderedmilk(ifmomhasHIV)
o Usesterilisedsurgicalinstruments

DescribethemethodsoftransmissionofHIV
o Unprotectedsexualintercourse
o Acrossplacentaatbirthorinbreastmilk
o Sharingneedles
o Bloodfortransfusion

OutlinehowHIVaffectstheimmunesystem,limitedtodecreasedlymphocytenumbersandreduced
abilitytoproduceantibodies
o HIVinfectslymphocytescausingfewerantibodiestobeproduced
o Infectedcellsarenotkilledbyimmunesystem
o Phagocytesbecomelesseffective
o Increasedsusceptibilitytoinfectiousdiseases,cancersandopportunisticdiseases
o AIDSwillbedeveloped

Discusstheimplicationstoaspeciesofselfpollinationandcrosspollinationintermsofvariation,capacity
torespondtochangesintheenvironmentandrelianceonpollinators

17Inheritence

Inheritanceisthetransmissionofgeneticinformationfromgenerationtogeneration
ChromosomeisathreadlikestructureofDNA,carryinggeneticinformationintheformofgenes
GeneisalengthofDNAthatcodesforaprotein
Alleleisaversionofagene
Mitosisisnucleardivisiongivingrisetogeneticallyidenticalcells
Meiosisisreductiondivisioninwhichthechromosomenumberishalvedfromdiploidtohaploidresultingin
geneticallydifferentcells
Haploidnucleusisanucleuscontainingasinglesetofunpairedchromosomes,e.g.ingametes
Diploidnucleusisanucleuscontainingtwosetsofchromosomes,e.g.inbodycells
Genotypeisthegeneticmakeupofanorganismintermsoftheallelespresent(eg.TtorGG)
Phenotypeistheobservablefeaturesofanorganism
Homozygousishavingtwoidenticalallelesofaparticulargene
Heterozygousishavingtwodifferentallelesofaparticulargene
Dominantisanallelethatisexpressedifitispresent
Recessiveisanallelethatisonlyexpressedwhenthereisnodominantalleleofthegenepresent
Sexlinkedcharacteristicisacharacteristicinwhichthegeneresponsibleislocatedonasexchromosomeand
thatthismakesitmorecommoninonesexthanintheother
Inadiploidcell,thereisapairofeachtypeofchromosomeandinahumandiploidcellthereare23pairs(46
chromosomes)
Roleofmitosisingrowth,repairofdamagedtissues,replacementofcellsandasexualreproduction
Theexactduplicationofchromosomesoccursbeforemitosis
Duringmitosis,thecopiesofchromosomesseparate,maintainingthechromosomenumber(detailsofstages
ofmitosisarenotrequired)
Meiosisisinvolvedintheproductionofgametes
Twoidenticalhomozygousindividualsthatbreedtogetherwillbepurebreeding
Heterozygousindividualwillnotbepurebreeding

DescribetheinheritanceofsexinhumanswithreferencetoXXandXYchromosomes
o 23pairsofchromosomespresentineachhumancell;onepairisthesexchromosome;
o Thesedeterminethesexoftheindividual;
o MaleshaveXY,andfemaleshaveXX.

Explainthatthesequenceofbasesinageneisthegeneticcodeforputtingtogetheraminoacidsinthe
correctordertomakeaspecificprotein(knowledgeofthedetailsofnucleotidestructureisnotrequired)
DNAhasonlyfourbasesbutproteinshave20differentaminoacids.ThismeansthatthefourDNAletters
havetobecombinedtomakedifferentwords,eachonesignifyingaparticularaminoacid.

ExplainthatDNAcontrolscellfunctionbycontrollingtheproductionofproteins(someofwhichare
enzymes),antibodiesandreceptorsforneurotransmitters
Controlsfunctionsinthecell
DNAmoleculecarriesacodethatinstructsthecellaboutwhichkindsofproteinsshouldmake.Each
chromosomecarriesinstructionsformakingmanydifferentproteins.ApartofDNAmoleculecodingforone
proteiniscalledagene.Proteinismadeupoflongchainsofaminoacids.Thereare20differentaminoacids.
Thesequenceoftheseaminoacidsinaproteinmoleculedeterminesthefinalshapeofthemoleculeandthis
shapealsoaffectshowtheproteinworks.DNAcontainsacodethatdeterminesexactlywhatsequenceof
aminoacidsacellshouldstringtogetherwhenitsmakingaparticularprotein.Thisishowgenesaffectan
organismsfeatures.Agenedetermineswhatproteinwillbemade,andproteinaffectsafeatureofthe
organism.Manyproteinsdothisbyactingasenzymes.Otherproteinshavedifferentfunctions,suchas
antibodiesandreceptorsforneurotransmitters.

Explainhowaproteinismade,limitedto:thegenecodingfortheproteinremainsinthenucleus;mRNA
moleculescarryacopyofthegenetothecytoplasm;themRNApassesthroughribosomes;theribosome
assemblesaminoacidsintoproteinmolecules;thespecificorderofaminoacidsisdeterminedbythe
sequenceofbasesinthemRNA(knowledgeofthedetailsoftranscriptionortranslationisnotrequired)

DNAisfoundinthenucleusofprotein.Protein
synthesishappensontheribosomes,inthecytoplasm.
TocarryinformationfromtheDNAtotheribosome,a
messengermoleculecalledRNA(mRNA)isused.When
aproteinistobemade,anmRNAmoleculeismadein
thenucleus,copyingthebasesequencefromthe
appropriatelengthofDNA.ThemRNAthenmovesout
fromthenucleusintothecytoplasm,andattachestoa
ribosome.Ifyouhaveagooddiet,thenthecytoplasm
inyourcellswillcontainsplentyofallthe20different
aminoacids.Asthelong,thinmRNAmoleculepasses
throughit,theribosomelinksaminoacidstogetherinexactlytherightordertomakethedesiredprotein,
followingthecodecontainedonthemRNAmolecule.

Explainhowmeiosisproducesvariationbyformingnewcombinationsofmaternalandpaternal
chromosomes(specificdetailsarenotrequired)
Humangametesareformedbythedivisionofcellsintheovariesandtestes.Thecellsdividebyaspecialtype
ofcelldivisioncalledmeiosis.Meiosissharesoutthechromosomessothateachnewcellgetsjustoneofeach
type.Eachpairofhomologouschromosomecomesfromthemotherandfather.Duringmeiosis,thenewcells
getamixtureofthese.Soaspermcellcouldcontainachromosome1fromthemansfatheranda
chromosome2fromhismother,andsoon.Thereareallsortsofcombinations,thisiswhygametesare
geneticallydifferentfromtheparentcell.Meiosisgivesgeneticvariation.
Describestemcellsasunspecialisedcellsthatdividebymitosistoproducedaughtercellsthatcanbecome
specialisedforspecificfunctions
'Unspecialised'stemcellscandevelopintoanyothertypeofcell.
Stemcellsarefoundinanimalzygotes(veryyoungembryos),andin
plantsofallages.
o Azygoteisastructurethatformswhenaspermfertilisesanegg.
o azygotecontainingeightidenticalcells
o Zygoteattheeightcellstage
o Thezygotethendividesmanytimesbymitosistoforman
embryo.Thefirstdivisionofthezygoteformstwocells,thenext
four,thenexteight,andsoon.
o Uptotheeightcellstage,allofthecellsareidentical.Theyare
calledembryonicstemcells.Itispossibleforembryonicstem
cellstodevelopintoanyotherspecialisedtypeofcellthatthe
growingembryoneedsforexample,nervecells,bloodcellsand
musclecells.However,oncetheembryonicstemcellsbecome
specialised,theycan'tchangeintoanyothertypeofcell.
o Thespecialisedcellscanformallthedifferenttypesoftissuethattheembryoneeds.

Switchinggenesonandoff
Cellsbecomespecialisedbecausethegenesthatarenotrequiredareswitchedoff.Onlythegenesneededto
makeaparticulartypeofcellworkareswitchedon.Somusclecellsonlyhavethegenesneededtomake
musclecellproteinsswitchedon.Alltheothergenes,suchasthoseneededtomakebloodcellproteinsand
nervecellproteins,areswitchedoff.

Usegeneticdiagramstopredicttheresultsofmonohybridcrossesandcalculatephenotypicratios,limited
to1:1and3:1ratios

Explainhowtouseatestcrosstoidentifyanunknowngenotype
Anorganismthatshowsadominantcharacteristiccouldhaveeitheroftwopossiblegenotypes.Itcouldbe
homozygousforthedominantallele,oritcouldbeheterozygous.Forexample,agreychinchillacouldhavethe
genotypeGGorGg.Wecanfindoutthegenotypeofanindividualwiththedominantphenotypefora
particulargenebycrossingitwithoneknowntohavethehomozygousrecessivegenotypeforthesamegene
Thisiscalledatestcross.Forexample,ifweknowthattheallelefortallnessisdominanttotheallelefor
dwarfnessinacertainspeciesofpea,thenthegenotypeofanytallplantcouldbedeterminedbycrossingit
withadwarfplant.Ifanyoftheoffspringaredwarf,thenthismustmeanthatthetallparenthadanallelefor
dwarfness.Itmusthavebeenheterozygous.Trythisoutforyourself,usingageneticdiagram.Ifnoneofthe
offspringaredwarf,thisalmostcertainlymeansthatthetallparentwashomozygousforthetallnessallele.
However,unlesstherearelargenumbersofoffspring,thiscouldalsohappenifthetallparentisheterozygous
but,justbychance,noneofitsgametescarryingtherecessivealleleweresuccessfulinfertilisation.

ExplaincodominancebyreferencetotheinheritanceofABObloodgroupsphenotypesbeingA,B,AB
andObloodgroupsandallelesbeingIA,IBandIo
Sometimes,neitherofapairofallelesiscompletelydominantor
completelyrecessive.Insteadofoneofthemcompletelyhidingthe
effectoftheotherinaheterozygote,theybothhaveaneffectonthe
phenotype.Therearethreeallelesofthegenegoverningthisinsteadof
two.AlleleIAandIBarecodominant,butbotharedominanttoIO.A
personwiththegenotypeIAIBhasthebloodtypeAB,inwhichcharacteristics
ofbothAandBantigensareexpressed.

Describecolourblindnessasanexampleofsexlinkage
Mostofthetimesexlinkedgenesare
carriedontheXchromosome.Sincefemales
havetwoXchromosomestheyhavetwo
copiesofthesexlinkedgenewhereasmales
onlyhaveonesincetheyonlyhaveoneX
chromosome.Colourblindnessisexampleof
sexlinkage.Genesthatarefoundonlyon
thenonhomologouspartsoftheXorY
chromosomesarecalledsexlinkagegenes.
Oneofthesesexlinkedgenescontrolthe
productionofthethreedifferentkindsofconecellsintheretina.Arecessivealleleofthis,b,resultsinonly
twotypesofconecellsbeingmade.Apersonwhoishomozygousforthisallelecannottellthedifference
betweenredandgreen.Theyaresaidtoberedgreencolourblind.
Thisconditionismuchmorecommonmenthaninwoman.Pic
belowshowspossiblegenotypesthatawomanmighthave,butonly
twopossiblegenotypesforman.Whenwewritegenotypes
involvingsexlinkedgenes,weneedtoshowthechromosomesas
wellastheallele.Sothefivepossiblegenotypesandtheir
phenotypesforredgreencolourblindnessare:

UsePunnettsquaresincrosseswhichresultinmorethanonegenotypetoworkoutandshowthepossible
differentgenotypes

Explainthatallbodycellsinanorganismcontainthesamegenes,butmanygenesinaparticularcellare
notexpressedbecausethecellonlymakesthespecificproteinsitneeds
Everycellinamulticellularorganismcontainsacompletesetofchromosomeswitheverygeneneededto
makeeveryproteinthatthatorganismwillevermake.
However,inanyparticularcell,onlyaverysmallfractionofthesegenesareeverexpressed.
Eachcellisspecialisedtocarryoutacertaintaskandwillonlyneedtoexpresscertaingenes.
Geneexpressionistheprocessbywhichspecificgenesareactivatedtoproducearequiredprotein.

 18Variationandselection

Variationisdifferencesbetweenindividualsofthesamespecies
Mutationisgeneticchange
GenemutationisachangeinthebasesequenceofDNA
Adaptivefeatureistheinheritedfunctionalfeaturesofanorganismthatincreaseitsfitness
Fitnessistheprobabilityofanorganismsurvivingandreproducingintheenvironmentinwhichitisfound
Processofadaptationistheprocess,resultingfromnaturalselection,bywhichpopulationsbecomemore
suitedtotheirenvironmentovermanygenerations
Continuousvariationresultsinarangeofphenotypesbetweentwoextremes,e.g.heightinhumans
Discontinuousvariationresultsinalimitednumberofphenotypeswithnointermediates,e.g.tonguerolling
Mutationisthewayinwhichnewallelesareformed
Ionisingradiationandsomechemicalsincreasetherateofmutation
Phenotypicvariationiscausedbybothgeneticandenvironmentalfactors
Discontinuousvariationismostlycausedbygenesalone,e.g.A,B,ABandObloodgroupsinhumans
Peoplewhoareheterozygous(HbSHbA)forthesicklecellallelehavearesistancetomalaria

Distinguishbetweenphenotypicvariationandgeneticvariation
Ourgeneticmakeup,thesumtotalofourgenes,iscalledagenotype,butthecharacteristicswhichshowup
inourappearancearecalledaphenotype.Geneticvariationgivesrisetodifferencesbetweenindividualsthat
areinherited.Forexample,oureyecolourisinheritedfromourparents.Butourphenotypeisalsoaffectedby
environmentalvariationsuchas:
o Climate,diet,physicalaccidents,culture,lifestyle
Manykindsofvariationareinfluencedbybothenvironmentalandgeneticfactors,becausealthoughour
genesdecidewhatcharacteristicsweinherit,ourenvironmentaffectshowtheseinheritedcharacteristics
develop.Forexample:
o apersonmightinheritatendencytobetall,butapoordietduringchildhoodwillcausepoorgrowth
o plantsmayhavethepotentialforstronggrowth,butiftheydonotreceivesufficientmineralresources
fromthesoil,theymayhardlygrowatall
Identicaltwinsareagoodexampleoftheinteractionbetweeninheritanceandenvironment,assuchtwinsare
geneticallythesame.Anydifferencesyoumayseebetweenthemforexampleinpersonality,tastesand
particularaptitudesareduetodifferencesintheirexperienceorenvironment.

Describethesymptomsofsicklecellanaemia
o Feelingtired/fatigue
o Shortofbreath(Hbdoesntdeliveroxygentotheircellsefficiently)

Explainhowachangeinthebasesequenceofthegeneforhaemoglobinresultsinabnormalhaemoglobin
andsickleshapedredbloodcells
SomepeoplehaveamutationinthegenethatcodesfortheproductionofHb.Themutantallelethat
producesafaultytypeofHbhasatinydifferenceintheDNAsequencebetweennormalHb.Thischangesthe
aminoacidssequenceintheHb,preventingtheHbworkingasitshould.ThisfaultyHvhasatendencyto
producefibresinsideredbloodcellswhenoxygenconcen.islow.Theredbloodcellsgetpulledintoasickle
shapeandgetstuckinbloodcapillaries
Usegeneticdiagramstoshowhowsicklecellanaemiaisinherited

Explainthedistributionofthesicklecellalleleinhumanpopulationswithreferencetothedistributionof
malaria
Thepossiblegenotypesare:
o HNHNnormalhaemoglobin,noanaemia
o HNHnsomeabnormalhaemoglobin,sicklecellstrait(notlifethreatening)
o HnHnabnormalhaemoglobin,sicklecellsanaemia(lifethreatening)

Malariaisalifethreateningdiseasecausedbyaparasitethatinvadesredbloodcells.Theparasiteiscarried
bysomespeciesofmosquito.
o Apersonwhoisheterozygous(HNHn)forsicklecellanaemiahasprotectionfrommalaria,becausethe
malariaparasiteisunabletoinvadeanreproduceinthesicklecells.
o Apersonwhoishomozygousforsicklecellanaemia(HnHn)alsohasprotection,butisathighriskofdying
formsicklecellanaemia.
o Apersonwithnormalhaemoglobin(HNHN)inamalarialcountryisathighriskofcontractingmalaria.
Whenthedistributionsofmalariaandsicklecellanaemiaareshownonamapofthework,itisfoundthatthe
twocoincideintropicalareasbecauseoftheselectiveadvantageoftheHnalleleinprovidingprotection
againstmalaria.

Recordandpresenttheresultsofinvestigationsintocontinuousanddiscontinuousvariation
1. Makeasurveyofatleast30people,tofindoutwhetherornottheycanrolltheirtongue.Recordyour
resultsonatable
2. Measurethelengthofthethirdfingerofthelefthandof30people.Takethemeasurementfromthe
knuckletothefingertip,noincludingthenail.
3. Dividethefingerlengthsintosuitablecategories,andrecordthenumbersineach
category,likethis:
4. Drawahistogramofyourresults

Interpretimagesorotherinformationaboutaspeciestodescribeitsadaptivefeatures
Xerophytes:

Hydrophytes

Differencesbetweennaturalandartificialselection
Naturalselectionistheprocessbywhichfavorableheritabletraitsbecomemorecommoninsuccessive
generationsofapopulationofreproducingorganisms,andunfavorableheritabletraitsbecomelesscommon,
duetodifferentialreproductionofgenotypes.Artificialselectionistheintentionalbreedingforcertaintraits,
orcombinationsoftraits,overothers,andissynonymouswith"Selectivebreeding"

Outlinehowselectivebreedingbyartificialselectioniscarriedoutovermanygenerationstoimprovecrop
plantsanddomesticatedanimals
Onlytheorganismswiththeadvantageous(best)featuresbreedandtheonesthataredisadvantageousdont.
Explaintheadaptivefeaturesofhydrophytesandxerophytestotheirenvironments
Xerophytes:Plantsthatliveindeserts
Adaptation
Closingstomata
WaxyCuticle
HairyLeaves
Stomataonundersideofleaves
Cuttingdownonthesurfacearea
Deep/Spreadingroots
Description
Plantslosemostoftheirwaterfromtheirstomata.If
thestomataareclosed,thenthetranspirationrate
willslowrightdown.However,ifthestomataare
closed,theplantcantphotosynthesise(CO2cannot
diffuseout)sothestomataclosewhenitistoohot
anddry,orwhentheycouldnot
Desertplantsoftencoveredwithwaxycuticle(from
epidermis).Thewaxmakestheleafwaterproof
Someplantshavehairsontheirleaves.Thesehairs
traplayerofmoistairnexttotheleaf
Thelowersurfaceofstomataisusuallycoolerthan
theupperone,solesswaterwillevaporate.In
desertplants,theremaybefewerstomatathan
usual,andtheymaybesunkintodeeppitsinthe
leaf.
Thesmallerthesurfacearea,thelesswaterwill
evaporatefromit.Smallsurfaceareahelpsto
conservewaterbutthisslowsdownphotosynthesis
(lesslight,andcarbondioxideisabsorbedtoo)
Tosearchforwaterdeepdown

Hydrophytes:Plantsthatliveinwetplacesorinwater
Adaptation Description
Largeairspaces/largespongymesophyll Tofloat
Leavesfloat Efficientatabsorbinglight
Stomatainuppersurface Diffusionofgasfromtheair
Thincuticle Noneedtoreducewaterlossbytranspiration

Describenaturalselectionwithreferenceto:
Variationwithinpopulations:
Mostpopulationsoforganismscontainindividualswhichvaryslightlydifferentfromoneanother.Someslight
variationsmaybetteradaptsomeorganismstotheirenvironmentthanothers.
Productionofmanyoffspring:
Mostorganismsproducelotsofoffspringsotheycansurvivetoadulthood
Competitionforsurvival
Thepopulationdoesntgenerallyincreaseinsizesotheremustthereforebeconsiderablecompetitionfor
survivalbetweentheorganisms
Struggleforsurvival
Bestadaptedorganismsmostlikelytosurvive
Reproductionbyindividualsthatarebetteradaptedtotheenvironmentthanothers
Welladaptedorganismsthatsurviveandreproducepassontheiralleles

Describeselectivebreedingwithreferenceto:
Naturalselectionistheprocessbywhichplantsandanimalsthatcanadapttochangesintheirenvironment
areabletosurviveandreproducewhilethosethatcannotadaptdonotsurvive.Itgivesthegreaterchanceof
passingonofgenesbythebestadaptedorganisms.

ExampleforPlants:
1. Chooseplantswithdesiredfeatures
2. Cross/breedplants
3. Collectseeds
4. Growseedsandcheckplantsforfeatures
5. Crossplantsshowingfeatureswithoriginalvariety
6. Keepcrossingandselectinguntilyougetwhatfeatureyouwanted

ExampleforDogs:
1. Choosesuitablefeaturetoimprove(eg:ears)
2. Selectindividualsforbreeding(withtheoneyouwanttheearsof)
3. Selectoffspringthatshowimprovement
4. Usetheseforfuturebreeding

ExampleforCows(Milk):
1. Chooseorselectthecowsinyourherdthatproducethemostmilk
2. Letonlythesecowsreproduce
3. Selecttheoffspringthatproducethemostmilk
4. Letonlytheseoffspringreproduce
5. Keeprepeatingtheprocessofselectionandbreedinguntilyouachieveyourgoal.

Describeevolutionasthechangeinadaptivefeaturesofapopulationovertimeastheresultofnatural
selection
Inthisway(naturalselection),overaperiodoftime,thepopulationwillloseallthepoorlyadaptedindividuals
makingthepopulationbetteradaptedtoitsenvironment.Thistheoryisoftencalledthetheoryofnatural
selectionbecauseitsuggeststhatthebestadaptedorganismsareselectedtopassontheircharacteristicsto
thenextgeneration.

Describethedevelopmentofstrainsofantibioticresistantbacteriaasanexampleofevolutionbynatural
selection
o Bacteriareproducerapidlyanewgenerationcanbeproducedevery20minutes;
o Antibiotics(isachemicalthatkillsbacteriabypreventingbacterialcellwallformation)areusedtotreat
bacterialinfections;
o Mutationsoccurduringreproduction,whichproducesomevariationinthepopulationofbacteria;
o Individualbacteriawiththemostfavourablefeaturesaremostlikelytosurviveandreproduce;
o Amutationmayoccurthatenablesabacteriumtoresistbeingkilledbyantibiotictreatment,whiletherest
ofthepopulationiskilledwhentreated;
o Thisbacteriumwouldsurvivethetreatmentandbreed,passingontheantibioticresistantgenetoits
offspring;
o Futuretreatmentofthispopulationofbacteriausingtheantibioticwouldbeineffective.
 19Organismsandtheirenvironment

Describetheflowofenergythroughlivingorganismsincludinglightenergyfromthesunandchemical
energyinorganismsanditseventualtransfertotheenvironment
TheEarthreceivestwomaintypesofenergyfromthesun:light(solar)andheat
Photosyntheticplantsandsomebacteriacantraplightenergyandconvertitintochemicalenergy
Heterotrophicorganismsobtaintheirenergybyeatingplantsoranimalsthathaveeatenplants
Soallorganisms,directlyorindirectly,gettheirenergyfromthesun
Thisenergyispassedfromoneorganismtoanotherinafoodchain
Thisenergydoesnotreturninacyclebutislosttotheenvironment

Foodchainisshowingthetransferofenergyfromoneorganismtothenext,beginningwithaproducer
Trophiclevelisthepositionofanorganisminafoodchain,foodweb,pyramidofnumbersorpyramidof
biomass
Foodwebasanetworkofinterconnectedfoodchains
Producerasanorganismthatmakesitsownorganicnutrients,usuallyusingenergyfromsunlight,through
photosynthesis
Consumerasanorganismthatgetsitsenergybyfeedingonotherorganisms
Herbivoreasananimalthatgetsitsenergybyeatingplants
Carnivoreasananimalthatgetsitsenergybyeatingotheranimals
Decomposerasanorganismthatgetsitsenergyfromdeadorwasteorganicmaterial

Describehowenergyistransferredbetweentrophiclevels
Energyislostateachtrophiclevel(90%islost,andonly10%passed)
Energylostthroughrespiration
Energylostinexcretion
Someofthematerialintheorganismbeingeatenisnotusedbytheconsumere.g.alocust(insect)does
noteattherootsofthemaize,andsomeofthepartseatenarenotdigestible

Constructsimplefoodchains
N.diversicolorisafilterfeeder.Itfiltersplanktonfromseawater.AnnelidslikeN.diversicolorforman
importantpartoftheecosystemsofestuaries.Fishfeedonannelidswhentheseacoversthemudinthe
estuary.Whenthetideisoutwadingbirdsarethemainpredatorsofannelids.Birdsofpreyarethemain
predatorsofthewadingbirds
Planktonannelidwadingbirds

Explainwhyfoodchainsusuallyhavefewerthanfivetrophiclevels
MostenergyfromSunnotavailable
Somematerialsareinedibleorindigestible
Asenergyispassedalongthechain,eachorganismusessomeofitin;
Onanaverage,about90%oftheenergyislostand10%ispassedateachlevelinafoodchain;
Sothefurtheralongthechainyougo,thelessenergythereis;
Thereisplentyofenergyavailableforproducers,sothereareusuallyalotofthem;
Thereislessenergyforprimaryconsumers,andleastinsecondaryconsumers;
Thustowardstheendoffoodchaintheorganismsgetfewerinnumber.
Onlysmalltotalpercentagereachingfourthtrophiclevel
Notenoughenergyinfourthtrophicleveltosupportanotherlevel

Identifyproducers,primaryconsumers,secondaryconsumers,tertiaryconsumersandquaternary
consumersasthetrophiclevelsinfoodwebs,foodchains,pyramidsofnumbersandpyramidsofbiomass
PyramidofbiomassPyramidofNumbersFoodweb

Explainwhythetransferofenergyfromonetrophicleveltoanotherisinefficient
Energytransferisinefficientbecauseenergyislostwhilemovingfromonetrophicleveltoanother.Thisis
because
Nottheentireorganismisconsumedordigested.Partssuchasroot,woodystems,bones,scales,feathers
etcaren'teaten,andsomematerialsthataresuchascellulosecannotbedigested.
Energyisusedupbyorganismsineachtrophiclevelformovementandtransportinsidetheirbodies.
Energyisusedinrespirationandisreleasedfromthebodyoftheorganismasheat.
Energybecomeslostinexcretion.

Explainwhythereisagreaterefficiencyinsupplyingplantsashumanfood,andthatthereisarelative
inefficiencyinfeedingcropplantstolivestockthatwillbeusedasfood
Whenweeatmeat,eggsorcheese,ordrinkmilk,wearefeelingfurtheralongthefoodchain.Thereisless
energyavailableforusfromtheoriginalsource.Itwillbemoreefficienttoeatgrassinfieldratherthanletting
cattleeatingit.(Moreenergyinplantsthanlivestocklowertropiclevelthanlivestock)

Discusstheadvantagesofusingapyramidofbiomassratherthanapyramidofnumberstorepresenta
foodchain
Apyramidofbiomassisbetterthanapyramidofnumbersbecausewhenyoucomparemassesitgivesusa
betterideaoftheamountofenergythatisavailableateachtrophiclevel.Inapyramidofbiomass,itshows
theamountofenergythatislostthrougheachstep.thisistheamounteachtrophicleveldecreasesin
comparisontotheprevious.

Usefoodchainsandfoodwebstodescribetheimpactshumanshavethroughoverharvestingoffood
speciesandthroughintroducingforeignspeciestoahabitat

Describethecarboncycle,limitedtophotosynthesis,respiration,feeding,decomposition,fossilisationand
combustion

1. Carbonmovesintoandoutoftheatmospheremainlyintheformofcarbondioxide;
2. Plantstakecarbondioxideoutoftheairbyphotosynthesis;
3. Plantsconvertcarbondioxideintoorganicmaterials(carbohydrates,fatsandproteins);
4. Herbivoresobtaincarboncompoundsbyeatingplants;
5. Carnivoresgaincarboncompoundsbyeatingotheranimals;
6. Animals(respire)andplantsreleasecarbondioxidebackintotheairthroughrespiration;
7. Whenorganismsdietheyusuallyrot
(decompose);
8. Decomposersbreakdowntheorganicmolecules
throughtheprocessofrespirationtorelease
energy.Thusdecomposersalsoreleasecarbon
dioxide;
9. Ifadeadorganismdoesnotdecompose,the
carboncompoundsaretrappedinitsbody.Over
alongperiod,thiscanformfossilfuels;
10. Combustionoffossilfuelsreleasescarbon
dioxidebackintotheair.

Discusstheeffectsofthecombustionoffossilfuelsandthecuttingdownofforestsonthecarbondioxide
concentrationsintheatmosphere
Photosynthesistakescarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphereandreplacesitwithoxygen;
Respirationandcombustionuseupoxygenfromtheatmosphereandreplaceitwithcarbondioxide;
Whenfossilfuelsareburnt,thecarboninthemcombineswithoxygenfromtheair,andformscarbon
dioxide.Thisprocessiscalledcombustion;
Combustionoffossilfuelsisthoughttobehavinganeffectonthebalanceofcarbondioxide;
Theextracarbondioxidemaybecausingthepercentageofcarbondioxideintheairtoincrease;
Thelossofthetreesmayreducetheamountofphotosynthesistakingplace;
Asaresulttheconcentrationofcarbondioxideincreasesandoxygendecreasesintheatmosphere;
Theriseinthelevelsofcarbondioxidelevelsintheatmospherecouldbedangerousasitmaycauseglobal
warming.
Describethewatercycle,limitedtoevaporation,transpiration,condensationandprecipitation

EnergyfromtheSunheatsthesurfaceoftheEarth.
Plantsreleasewatervapourintotheairthroughtranspiration.
Waterevaporatesfromoceans,rivers,lakesandsoil.
Thewarm,moistairrisesbecauseitislessdense.
Watervapourcondensesintowaterdropletsasitcoolsdown,formingclouds.
Waterdropletsgetbiggerandheaviertheybegintofallasrain,snowandsleet(precipitation),draining
intostreams,rivers,lakesandsea.
Plantroottakeupwaterbyosmosis.
Inaddition,animalslosewatertotheenvironmentthroughexhalingandsweating,andinurineand
faeces.

Describethenitrogencycleintermsof:

Althoughtheairisfullofnitrogen,theplantsandanimalscantuseatall.Itmustbechangedintomore
reactiveformammonia(NH3)ornitrates(NO3).Changingnitrogengasintomorereactiveformiscalled
nitrogenfixation.Hereareseveralwaysitcanbedone:
1Lightning:
Lightningmakessomeofthenitrogengasintheaircombinewithoxygen,formingnitrogenoxides.Itdissolves
inrainandwashedintothesoilformingnitrates

2Aritificalfertilisers:
Theadditionofartificialfertilizers,compost(decayingplantmaterial)andmanure(decayinganimalwaste
urineandfaeces)

3Nitrogenfixingbacteria:
Thesebacterialiveinthesoil,orinrootnodulesonplantslikepeas,beansorclover.Theyusethenitrogengas
fromtheairspacesinsoil,andcombineitwithothersubstancestomakeammoniumionsandother
compounds.

Oncethenitrogenhasbeenfixed,itcanbeusedtomakeproteins.Animalseattheplants,soanimalsgettheir
nitrogenintheformofproteins.Whenananimalorplantdies,bacteriaandfungidecomposethebody.The
protein,containingnitrogen,isbrokendowntoammoniumionsandthisisreleased.Anothergroupof
bacteria,callednitrifyingbacteria,turntheseionsintonitrates,whichplantscanuseagain.Nitrogenisalso
returnedtothesoilwhenanimalsexcretenitrogenouswastematerial,whichtheyhaveproducedby
deaminationofexcessaminoacids.Itmaybeintheformofammoniaorurea.Again,nitrifyingbacteriawill
convertittonitrates.Athirdgroupofbacteriacompletethenitrogencycle.Theyarecalleddenitrifying
bacteria,becausetheyundotheworkdonebynitrifyingbacteria.Theyturnnitratesandammoniainthesoil
intonitrogengas,whichgoesintotheatmosphere.

Statetherolesofmicroorganismsinthenitrogencycle,limitedtodecomposition,nitrification,nitrogen
fixationanddenitrification(genericnamesofindividualbacteria,e.g.Rhizobium,arenotrequired)
Nitrogenfixation
Decomposition
Denitrification
Nitrification

Populationasagroupoforganismsofonespecies,livinginthesamearea,atthesametime
Communityasallofthepopulationsofdifferentspeciesinanecosystem
Ecosystemasaunitcontainingthecommunityoforganismsandtheirenvironment,interactingtogether,e.g.
adecomposinglog,oralake

Identifythelag,exponential(log),stationaryanddeathphasesinthesigmoidpopulationgrowthcurvefor
apopulationgrowinginanenvironmentwithlimitedresources

Lagphasethenewpopulationtakestimetosettleandmaturebeforebreedingbegins.Whenthishappens,
adoublingofsmallnumbersdoesnothaveabigimpactonthetotalpopulationssize,sothelineofthegraph
risesonlyslowlywithtime.

Log(exponential)phasetherearenolimitingfactors.Rapidbreedinginanincreasingpopulationcausesa
significantinnumbers.Asteadydoublinginnumbersperunitoftimeproducesastraightline.

Stationaryphaselimitingfactors,suchasshortageoffood,causetherateofreproductiontoslowdown
andtherearemoredeathsinthepopulation.Whenthebirthrateanddeathrateareequal,thelineofthe
graphbecomeshorizontal.

Deathphaseasfoodrunsout,moreorganismsdiethanareborn,sothenumberinthepopulationdrops.

Identifyandstatethefactorsaffectingtherateofpopulationgrowthforapopulationofanorganism,
limitedtofoodsupply,predationanddisease
Food
Water
Space
Protection:disease,predator,weather
Birthrate,deathrate,immigration,emigrationwilldeterminethepopulationinthearea

Explainthefactorsthatleadtoeachphaseinthesigmoidcurveofpopulationgrowth,makingreference,
whereappropriate,totheroleoflimitingfactors

Discusstheincreaseinhumanpopulationsizeoverthepast250yearsanditssocialandenvironmental
implications
Iftherearenolimitingfactors,therewillbenostationaryordeathphasethelogphasewillcontinue
upwards,insteadofthelinelevelingoff.Thishashappenedwithhumanpopulationgrowth.Human
populationsizehasincreasedexponentiallybecauseofimprovementsonfoodsupplyandthedevelopmentof
medicinetocontroldiseases.Infantmortalityhasdecreased,whileliferexpectancyhasincreased.

Social/Environmentalimplications:
increasedemandforbasicresources(food,water,space,medicalcare,fossilfuels).
increasepressuresontheenvironment(morelandneededforhousing,growingcrops,roadbuildings,
morewoodforfuelandhousing)andmorepollution.
largerpopulationofyoungpeople>greaterdemandsoneducation.
moreoldpeople>greaterdemandsonhealthcare.

Interpretgraphsanddiagramsofhumanpopulationgrowth

 20Biotechnologyandgeneticengineering

Bacteriaareusefulinbiotechnologyandgeneticengineeringduetotheirrapidreproductionrateandtheir
abilitytomakecomplexmolecules

Discusswhybacteriaareusefulinbiotechnologyandgeneticengineering,limitedto:
Noonemindswhatisdonetobacteriaandfungi.Therearenoethicalissueslikethosethatmightariseif
weusedanimals
Althoughbacterialcellsareverydifferentfromanimalandplantcells,infactweallsharethesamekindof
geneticmaterial;DNA.Thegeneticcodeisthesameforbacteriaasitisforhumansandallother
organisms.Sowecantakeagenefromahumancellandplaceitintoabacterialcell,anditwillworkto
producethehumanprotein
BacteriaalsohaveloopsofDNAcalledplasmids.Thesearequiteeasttotransferfromonecelltoanother.
Wecanuseplasmidsformovinggenesfromoneorganismscelltoanother.

Describetheroleofanaerobicrespirationinyeastduringproductionofethanolforbiofuels
Tomakebeer,yeastisdissolvedinawarmliquidcontainingthesugarmaltose;
Theyeastrespiresanaerobicallybyaprocesscalledfermentation;
Thisprocessproducesethylalcohol(ethanol)makingthedrinkalcoholic;
andcarbondioxidewhichmakesthedrinkfizzy.

Describetheroleofanaerobicrespirationinyeastduringbreadmaking
Yeastismixedwithwaterandsugartoactivateit;
Themixtureisaddedtoflourtomakedough,andleftinawarmplace;
Thedoughrisesastheyeastrespiresandreleasescarbondioxide,whichgetstrappedinthedough;
Whenthedoughiscooked,thehightemperaturekillstheyeastandevaporatesanyalcoholformed;
Airspacesareleftwherethecarbondioxidewastrapped,whichgivesthebreadalighttexture.

Investigateanddescribetheuseofpectinaseinfruitjuiceproduction
Use:
Extractsmorejuice/speedsup
juiceextraction
Pectinconvertedtosugarssojuice
issweeter
Cellwallmaterialisremovedfrom
juicesothejuiceisclearer

Investigateanddescribetheuseofbiologicalwashingpowdersthatcontainenzymes
Biologicalwashingpowderscontainproteaseandlipasetoremoveproteinstainsandfat/greasefromclothes.
Theenzymesbreakdownproteinsorfatsonthefabric,formingwatersolublesubstancesthatcanbewashed
away.Thismakesthewashingpowdermoreeffectivethandetergentalone,especiallyatlowertemperatures.
Thissaveenergy(noneedtoboilwater),butifthetemperatureistoohigh,theenzymewillbedenatured.

Investigateandexplaintheuseoflactaseto
producelactosefreemilk
Lactoseisthesugarfoundinmilk.Itcanbe
brokendownbytheenzymelactaseinto
glucoseandgalactose.However,somepeople
lackthisenzymeandsocannotbreakdown
lactoseleadingtolactoseintolerance.Lactose
intolerantpeopleneedtodrinkmilkthathas
beenlactosereduced.Lactosefreemilkcanbe
madeintwoways.Thefirstinvolvesaddingthe
enzymelactasetothemilksothatthemilk
containstheenzyme.Thesecondwayinvolves
immobilizingtheenzymeonasurfaceorin
beadsofaporousmaterial.Themilkisthen
allowedtoflowpastthebeadsorsurfacewith
theimmobilizedlactase.Thismethodavoids
havinglactaseinthemilk.

DescribetheroleofthefungusPenicilliumintheproductionoftheantibioticpenicillin
Antibioticsaresubstancesthatkillbacteriawithoutharminghumancells.Penicillinismadebygrowingthe
fungusPenincilliuminalargefermenter.

Explainhowfermentersareusedintheproductionofpenicillin
Thefungusisgrowninaculturemediumcontainingcarbohydratesandaminoacid.Thislookslikewatery
porridgeandisstirredcontinuouslyto:
Keepthefungusincontactwithfreshsuppliesifnutrients.
MixO2intotheculture
Rollthefungusupintolittlepellets(thisfacilitatestheseparatingoftheliquidpartcontainingpenicillin
fromthefunguslately).

Forfirst1524h,thefungusjustgrows.Afterthatit
beginstosecretpenicillin.Rateofproductiondepends
onhowmuchsugarisavailable:
Alotofsugarnotmuchpenicillin
Nosugarnopenicillin
Sosmallamountofsugarhavetobefedallthetime
thatthefungusisproducingpenicillin.

Thecultureiskeptgoinguntiltherateofproductionis
soslowthatisnotworthwaitingmore(oftenaftera
week).Thenitisfiltered,andtheliquidistreated
toconcentratethepenicillininit.

Waterjacket
maintainoptimum/constanttemperature
topreventenzymesdenaturingbecauseasfungusrespiresreleasesheatsotemperatureinthefermenter
increaseswhichwouldkillfungusthereforenoproduct/nopenicillin

Additionofacidsandalkalis
maintainspH/keepspHconstant
enzymesneedoptimumpHtogivemaximumenzymeactivitytogivemaximumyield

Geneticengineeringaschangingthegeneticmaterialofanorganismbyremoving,changingorinserting
individualgenes

Stateexamplesofgeneticengineering:
theinsertionofhumangenesintobacteriatoproducehumaninsulin
theinsertionofgenesintocropplantstoconferresistancetoherbicides
theinsertionofgenesintocropplantstoconferresistancetoinsectpests
theinsertionofgenesintocropplantstoprovideadditionalvitamins

Outlinegeneticengineeringusingbacterialproductionofahumanproteinasanexample,limitedto:
1. Extractionofthegeneforinsulinfromhumancells,thisisdoneusingenzymescalledrestrictionenzymes.
TheyleaveshortlengthsofunpairedbasesattheirendofthecutDNA,calledstickends.
2. TheparticularlengthofDNAisidentifiedandextractedfromtheotherDNA
3. WeuseplasmidtoinsertDNAintoabacterium(PlasmidringofDNAinbacteria)
4. FirsttheringofDNAinplasmidiscut,usingtherestrictionenzyme(soitwillleavecomplimentarysticky
endstotheonesonthehumanDNA)
5. Thehumaninsulingeneandcutplasmidsarenowmixedtogether.
6. Thestickyends(unpairedbases)ontheinsulingenepairupwiththestickyendsontheplasmids.
7. EnzymecalledDNAligaselinksthetwostrandsfirmlytogether
8. Nowwehaveplasmidsthatcontainshumaninsulingenecalledrecombinantplasmids.
9. Plasmidisnowinsertedintothebacteriaandsomeofthemtaketheseplasmidsintotheircells
10. Thesebacteriaareputinfermenterstoreproduceasexuallytoformalargerpopulation

Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofgeneticallymodifyingcrops,suchassoya,maizeandrice
Advantages:
Resistanttoherbicideswhentheyaresprayedonthem.Meaningthatfarmerscansprayontheseplants
andonlytheweediskilled.Thisalsoreducestheneedofsprayingherbicidesontheircrops.Thisalso
reducesthedamagetootherplantsthataregrowingnearby.Herbicideresistantcropsincreaseyield.
Reduceslabourcostswhichmeanscheaperfood.
GMcottonplantscontainBtthatistoxictoinsects.Whenpests(likecottonballweevil)eatthecotton
plants,theydie.Bttoxinisspecificandharmsonlyherbivoresthateattheplant.
GMriceproducemorevitaminAthannormalrice.LackofvitaminAisbigproblemforchildreninsome
countriessinceitcancauseblindnessandmorethanmillionpeopledieeachyear

Disadvantages:
Butfarmershavetopayapremiumtobuytheseedswhichtheendcostsdontfallbymuch.
Herbicideresistantgenemightspreadtoplantsgrowingnearbyproducingweedsthatcantbekilledwith
herbicidesnomore.
SomepestsareevolvingtobecomeresistanttoBttoxin.

 21Humaninfluencesonecosystems

Statehowmoderntechnologyhasresultedinincreasedfoodproductionintermsof:
agriculturalmachinerytouselargerareasoflandandimproveefficiency
chemicalfertiliserstoimproveyields
insecticidestoimprovequalityandyield
herbicidestoreducecompetitionwithweeds
selectivebreedingtoimproveproductionbycropplantsandlivestock,e.g.cattle,fishandpoultry

Explaintheundesirableeffectsofdeforestationontheenvironment
Speciesextinctionthroughhabitatloss:
Reductionofhabitatsorfoodsourcesforanimalscanresultintheirextinction;
Lossofforesthabitatalsoreducesplant&animaldiversity&disruptsthefoodchains.

Lossofsoilbysoilerosion:
Removaloftreesmeanstherearenorootstoholdsoil,thusthethintoplayerofsoiliswashedawayduring
rain;
Thiscausessoilerosionandleachingofminerals;
Desertificationcaneventuallyresult.

Flooding;
Soilfromerosioniswashedintorivers,siltingitandcausingflooding;
Whenforestisremovedtherearenoplantrootstotakeuprainwater,whichinsteadflowsintostreamsand
rivers,causingfurtherflooding.

Carbondioxidebuildup:
Forestshavehighratesofphotosynthesissoabsorblargeamountsofcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere;
Removalofforeststhereforecontributestoincreasesinatmosphericcarbondioxide

Increaseinflooding
Desertification
Soilerosion
Lossofhabitat
Disruptiontofoodchain
Extinctionofspeciesorlossofbiodiversity
Decreasedrainfall
Siltingofrivers
Lossof(plant)nutrients
Lossofhabitat
Forestshavehighratesofphotosynthesissoabsorblargeamountsofcarbondioxidefromthe
atmosphere;Removalofforeststhereforecontributestoincreasesinatmosphericcarbondioxide

Statethatthroughalteringfoodwebsandfoodchains,humanscanhaveanegativeimpactonhabitats

Describethenegativeimpactstoanecosystemofintensivelivestockproduction
Welfareissueswiththecrowdedconditions
Diseasecanspreadeasily
Increasedriskofresistantbacteriawhenlivestockaregivenantibiotic
Wastepollutelandandwaterways

Discusstheproblemswhichcontributeto,famineincludingunequaldistributionoffood,droughtand
flooding,increasingpopulationandpoverty
Famineoccursformanydifferentreasonsandthemaincauseisweather.Iftheareasuffersdroughtfor
severalyears,thenitbecomesimpossibletogrowcropsandtheiranimalsdietoo.Sometimesithappens
causeoftoomuchrainthatcausesfloodingwhichpreventscropsfromgrowing.Sometimeshuman
populationmightgrowtotheextendwheretheareatheyliveincannotprovideenoughfoodforthem.
Sometimeswhenthereiswarorcrisisinthecountry,peoplecannotaffordfoodorthereisnofoodtobuy.

Describethereasonsforhabitatdestruction,limitedto:
Cuttingdownofnativevegetationtomakelandavailableforgrowingcrops,forfarminglivestock,for
buildinghousesandfactoriesandbuildingroads.
Minefornaturalresourceslikemetaloresorfossilfuels
Addpollutantstolandandwaterwhichcankillplantsthatnormallylivethereandsochangethehabitat

Describethenegativeimpactstoanecosystemoflargescalemonoculturesofcropplants
Lowbiodiversity
Increasedpopulationofpestsofthecrop
Peststransfervirusestocropswhichcancausediseaseinplants
Insecticideskillotherharmlessinsects
Pestsbecomingresistanttoinsecticides
Lossofsoilnutrients

Statethesourcesandeffectsofpollutionoflandandwater,e.g.rivers,lakesandthesea,byinsecticides,
herbicidesandbynuclearfallout

Statethesourcesandeffectsofpollutionofwater(rivers,lakesandthesea)bychemicalwaste,discarded
rubbish,untreatedsewageandfertilisers

Statethesourcesandeffectsofpollutionoftheairbymethaneandcarbondioxide,limitedtotheenhanced
greenhouseeffectandclimatechange

Statethatsomeresourcescanbemaintained,limitedtoforestsandfishstocks

Statethatproductscanbereusedorrecycled,limitedtopaper,glass,plasticandmetal

Discusstheeffectsofnonbiodegradableplasticsintheenvironment,inbothaquaticandterrestrial
ecosystems
Aquatic:
Whenswalloweditcannotbedigestedwhichgetstrappedandchokeandsuffocateandkillfish
Plasticblockslightforphotosynthesis
Maycontainandreleaseoilsolubletoxins
Largepiecesofplasticmayblockflowofwaterinariverthatreduceconcentrationofdissolvedoxygen
Lossoforganismatatrophiclevelaffectsthefoodchain

Terrestrial:
Gettrappedinsideplasticcontainer
Getplasticcordsorbagswrappedaroundthem

Explaintheprocessofeutrophicationofwaterintermsof:increasedavailabilityofnitrateandotherions,
increasedgrowthofproducers,increaseddecompositionafterdeathofproducers,increasedaerobicrespirationby
decomposers,reductionindissolvedoxygen,deathoforganismsrequiringdissolvedoxygeninwater
1. Nitratefertilizerswillbewashedintostreamsandrivers
2. Fastgrowthofalgaewhentheyaresuppliedwithextranitrates
3. Lightblockedbyalgae
4. Nomorephotosynthesissoalgaeandwaterplantsdie
5. Thereisnooxygenreleasedbyplants
6. Algaeandplantsfedondecomposedbybacteria
7. Bacteriamultiplyandproducetoxinswhichcausefishtodie
8. Aerobicrespirationoccurscausinglowlevelsofoxygenwhichcausedeath/suffocation/migrationoffish
/animals/invertebrates/(aquatic)creatures/organisms/consumers

Discussthecausesandeffectsontheenvironmentofacidrain
Causes
SO2(Burningoffossilfuels)
Oxidesofnitrogen(Combustionofpetrolincarengines)

Effects
Leaves/plantsgetdamaged
Treesmorelikelytogetdiseased
Barkgetsdamaged
Rootsgetkilled
SoilpHdecreasesandbecomesacidic
Releaseofaluminiumfromthesoilintolakesthataretoxictofish
Nutrientsareleached
Foodchains/foodwebsdisrupted
Lossofhabitatandextinction
Corrosionofstoneworkonbuildings
Increasedriskofasthmaattacksandbronchitisinhumans
Animalshellsdamagedandfailtoreproduce
Sensitivespeciesoflichenskilled

Statethemeasuresthataretakentoreducesulfurdioxidepollutionandreducetheimpactofacidrain
Userenewablesourcesofenergylikenuclearpower,windpower,wavepower,solarpower,hydrogen
power
Uselowsulfurfuels
Reduceuseofcoal
Usescrubbers
Usecatalyticconverters
Usemorepublictransport
Sharecarsorusehydridcars
Usebiofuels
Walking/cycling
Reducefoodmiles
Desulfurisationofcoal

Explainhowincreasesincarbondioxideandmethaneconcentrationsintheatmospherecausean
enhancedgreenhouseeffectthatleadstoclimatechange
Carbondioxideisproducedbyburningoffossilfuels
Methaneisproducedfromthedecayoforganicmatterandasawastegasfromdigestiveprocessesin
cattle
Carbondioxideandmethanearegreenhousegases
Theyarecalledgreenhousegasesastheytrapheatintheearthsatmosphereinthesamewaya
greenhousetrapsheat
Astheconcentrationofthesegasesincreaseintheatmospheremoreheatistrapped,makingthe
atmospherewarmer.Thisiscalledenhancedgreenhouseeffect
ItiscausingglobalwarmingEarthsaveragetemperatureisrising

Describethenegativeimpactsoffemalecontraceptivehormonesinwatercourses,limitedtoreduced
spermcountinmenandfeminisationofaquaticorganisms
Preventthemalehormones,testosterone,workingeffectively
Causeproductionoffewersperm
Makemalefishchangesexandbecomefemale(feminization)

Sustainableresourceasonewhichisproducedasrapidlyasitisremovedfromtheenvironmentsothatit
doesnotrunout
Sustainabledevelopmentasdevelopmentprovidingfortheneedsofanmincreasinghumanpopulation
withoutharmingtheenvironment

Explaintheneedtoconservenonrenewableresources,limitedtofossilfuels
Fossilfuelsarenonrenewable
Conserveforfuturegenerations
Theremightbemoreefficientwaysofusingtheminthefuture
Alternativesareexpensive

Explainhowforestsandfishstockscanbesustainedusingeducation,legalquotasandrestocking
Education:
Educationcanhelppeopletounderstandhowimportanttoconserveforestsis.Insomeareastheyusetrees
asfuelforcookingandeducationcanhelpthemtochangeittorenewableenergy.

Legalquotas:
Imposingquotascanhelptosustainnumberoffishsinceyouareonlyallowedtocatchcertainamountoffish.
Mostquotasystemsspecifydifferentamountsofdifferentspecies.(Eg:fishermenareallowedtocatchlarge
amountoffishthatarentthreatenedandlowquotasornoneatallforthosewithlowpopulations.)
Inspectorsvisitboatsandcheckthecatches.Theycheckiftheyhavecaughtthefishthatarenotendangered
andmakesuretheyareinthequota.Ifoverquotaorendangered,fishisthrownbackintothesea.

Restocking:
Breedingtheminfishhatcheriesandreleasingthemiscalledrestocking.

Explainthatsustainabledevelopmentrequires:
Asourpopulationincreases,weneedtobuildmorehouses,roadsandindustries,andtoproducemorefood.
Achievingthiswithoutdamagingtheenvironmentiscalledsustainabledevelopment.Sustainable
developmentrequiresthecooperationofmanydifferentpeopleandorganisations.Inmostcountries,new
developmentssuchashousing,roadsorindustrialcomplexes,havetobesubmittedforapprovalbyplanning
authorities.Theseauthoritiesshouldtakeintoaccounttheneedsoftheenvironment,aswellasthebusiness
interestsofthedevelopers.

Explainwhyorganismsbecomeendangeredorextinct,limitedtoclimatechange,habitatdestruction,
hunting,pollutionandintroducedspecies
Massextinctioniscausedbyclimatechange(eg:volcanoes)
Speciescannotsurvivewithoutahabitatandwearedestroyingthem
Animalsarehuntedforfoodbutsometimesitcandestroytheentirespecies.
Additionofextracarbondioxideandmethanetotheatmospherecausestemperaturerisewhichcauses
organismsnolongerwelladaptedtothechange.(Eg:Somespeciesrequirecoldconditions,butas
temperaturerises,theicecapsmeltleavingthemwithouthabitats.)
Introducedspeciescanthreatentheexistenceofnativespecies.

Describehowendangeredspeciescanbeconserved,limitedtomonitoringandprotectingspeciesand
habitats,education,captivebreedingprogrammesandseedbanks
Monitoringandprotectingthespeciesinitsnaturalhabitat
Usingcaptivebreedingprogrammes
Educatinglocalpeopleabouttheimportanceofconservation,andwhattheycandotohelp
Buildingupseedbankscansurviveformanyyearsinadormantstate,andgerminateinrightconditionsso
itcanbekeptincaptivityorreintroducedtoitsnaturalhabitatlateron.

Explainreasonsforconservationprogrammes,toinclude:
Norighttomakespeciesextinctasweliveinthesameworldandkeepthemforfuturegenerations
Damagingecosystemsharmourselvestoo.(Eg:cuttingdowntreescanreducewatervapourthatgoesback
intheairwhichcanreducerainfall;peoplewhodependonwoodforfuelcannolongercookorheattheir
homes).Takingcareofourenvironmentcanhelpusmakeourownlivingconditionsmorepleasantand
safe.
Losingaspeciefromanecosystemcanhavewidereachingeffectssinceitmighthavebeenafoodfora
consumerwhichcandisruptthefoodchain/web.
Manyplantspeciescontainchemicalsthatcanbeusedasdrugs.Losingthemmightcauselosingpotential
ofnewmedicines
Wildrelativeofourcropscontaindifferentalleleofgenesthatcouldbeusefulinfuturebreeding
programmes

Explaintheriskstoaspeciesifthepopulationsizedrops,reducingvariation(knowledgeofgeneticdriftis
notrequired)
Ifthereisvariationbetweenindividuals,thenthepopulationasawholehasabetterchanceofsurvivingif
theyarethreatenedbyapathogen,ortheirhabitatchangesinsomeway.Atleastsomeoftheindividualsmay
havevariationsthatallowthemsurviveandreproduce,evenifothersgetkilled.Whenthenumbersofspecies
droptoverylowlevels,sothatonlyafewindividualssurvive,thenmuchofthisgeneticvariationislost.This
makesthespeciesmuchmorelikelytobecomeextinct.

END OF SYLLABUS
ANSWERS