Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Volume 1
Principles and Technical Issues
Second Edition
Edited by
PAUL A LONGLEY,
MICHAEL F GOODCHILD,
DAVID J MAGUIRE,
and
DAVID W RHIND
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Dedication
We dedicate this second edition of Geographical Information Systems to two pioneers in the
field: Professor Terry Coppock and Dr Roger Tomlinson.
Terry Coppock, Professor of Geography at the University of Edinburgh, has devoted a
lifetime of research to the subject of humanitys use of the land surface of the Earth. He was
one of the very first to recognise the importance of geographical information technologies in
collecting, managing, and manipulating the large quantities of data needed to study and
understand changing patterns of land-use, and the ways in which new uses compete with
traditional ones for the national land resource. He began this work in the late 1950s using the
primitive computers of those days. In the mid 1980s he was largely responsible for initiating
the International Journal of Geographical Information Systems (now the International
Journal of Geographical Information Science); he became its first editor, and set it on course
to its current position as the most influential scientific journal in the field of GIS.
Roger Tomlinson is President of Tomlinson Associates, an Ottawa-based GIS
consultancy. He is a past President of the Canadian Association of Geographers, and a
recipient of the Royal Geographical Societys Murchison Award and many other honours. In
the mid 1960s he recognised that digital computers could be used to analyse the vast
quantities of mapped information being created by the Canada Land Inventory. His
costbenefit analyses concluded that computerisation would be the best alternative in spite
of the high costs and primitive nature of computers at the time. It was Roger Tomlinson
who first coined the term geographic information system for this novel way of using
computers, oversaw the extraordinarily innovative creation of the Canada Geographic
Information System, and became the worlds foremost proponent of the GIS vision over the
following decades. He, more than anyone else, is recognised today as the father of GIS.
Dedicating a book is much too modest a way of recognising the magnitude of the
contributions of Terry Coppock and Roger Tomlinson but we hope it draws attention to
the high regard in which we hold them.
Contents
Volume 1
PRINCIPLES AND TECHNICAL ISSUES
Dedication v
Preface xi
List of contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xxiii
Part 1: Principles
vii
Contents
viii
Contents
Volume 2
MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND APPLICATIONS
List of contributors ix
Acknowledgements xix
Part 4: Applications
ix
Contents
x
Preface
The genealogy of the Big Book of GIS can be prospective contributors should be assembled
traced to the emergent view, just after the 1987 without reference to the first edition. The result of
annual meetings of the Association of American this is a complete change in the range of chapters
Geographers, that the rapidly developing field of and (the original editors aside) fewer than one in ten
GIS had attained sufficient maturity to warrant a of the contributors to this book having contributed
large reference compendium. The original editors to the first edition. This is not intended as a snub to
were appointed in 1988 and Geographical those who were not invited to contribute a second
information systems: principles and applications time all of the original contributions are of
appeared as a two-volume boxed set in 1991. enduring relevance but rather a conscious decision
The book fast became the standard reference to do all practicable to ensure a complete
work for GIS and, despite being joined by an ever redefinition, rather than updating, of what we
increasing number of GIS textbooks and specialised believe epitomises the best in GIS books.
topic volumes, probably remains the most used and The first edition was divided into two main parts
most heavily cited work in the field a fitting Principles and Applications plus an extended
testimony to the expertise of the international range overview of GIS detailing definitions, history, and
of contributors and the quality of their work. the context to GIS-based analysis. By the late 1990s
Yet any compendium in a fast-developing field has the developing maturity of the field had made this
a limited shelf-life, and this edition (initially organising structure less relevant. The material
commissioned, like the first, by Vanessa Lawrence) contained in the extended introduction is now much
was commissioned to portray GIS in the late 1990s. more widely known and taken for granted, while the
The careers of two of the original editors had taken scale and pace of developments in GIS techniques
sharp changes in direction since the first edition, and management made it desirable to give these
which has led them out of academia David issues extended treatments in new and distinct
Maguire first became Managing Director of sections. Thus the introduction and epilogue in this
Environment Systems Research Institute (ESRI) UK book are shorter than in the first edition, and most
and then Director of Product Planning at ESRI in of the material is arranged into four parts rather
California; and David Rhind became Managing than two: Principles, Technical Issues,
Director and Chief Executive of Ordnance Survey Management Issues, and Applications. The first
(GB) before announcing his departure to be Vice edition had 56 numbered chapters, while this edition
Chancellor of London City University. In order to has 72 further testimony to both the growth and
maintain the academic content and direction of diversification of the GIS field.
much of the book, Paul Longley was invited to join Much is made in this second edition, explicitly
the original team to co-edit the second edition. and implicitly, about the radical shifts and changes
The guiding principles for creating the second in technology that have taken place since the original
edition were fundamentally similar to those used in Big Book was published; indeed to the editors this
the first namely to commission international is nowhere more apparent than in the ways in which
experts to write benchmark reviews that could be the second edition has been put together. Prospective
used as a reference against which trends in the field contributors were first approached in February 1996
might be assessed. History is bunk but geography and contracts were sent out shortly afterwards: in
isnt were the watchwords of the early planning nearly all cases all significant correspondence and
stages: the editors decided that none of the original submission between that time and page proofing was
contributions should be retained in any shape or electronic. Authors were asked to provide an
form, that a new list of topics should be drawn up extended abstract in digital form, and after
from scratch, and that an entirely new set of refereeing by the editors these were all posted on a
xi
Preface
WWW site (100 pages and 60 000 words!), along and availability of the final product. Whilst it is the
with author contact coordinates (specifically e-mail). hope of the authors that this second edition will
The editorial collective gave detailed feedback prove to be at least as durable as the first, it is also
comments to each of the contributors, particularly hoped that this reduction in production time will lend
with regard to possible overlaps between chapters the book the freshest possible feel to its first readers.
within the new book structure. Contributors were The successful completion of a major project such
then encouraged to consult the Web site, in order to as this book requires the cooperation and
ascertain the complementarity of their contributions understanding of many key individuals. We thank
to others, and to resolve low level problems of firstly our colleagues for their impressive and
overlap and omission with their fellow contributors thoughtful contributions. Vanessa Lawrence
(again by e-mail). Thus an additional measure of originally commissioned this work her subsequent
self-regulatory checking was introduced to move to Autodesk represents a considerable loss to
complement strategic editorial control. the GI publishing industry and was succeeded by
As before, the role of the editors has been to Heather Burkinshaw and Roy Opie at
provide focus and direction, and to ensure that the GeoInformation International. Steve Attmore
whole of the book is greater than the sum of its undertook the huge task of overseeing the books
individual parts. We feel that, to some extent at least, production editing and Rob Garber oversaw the
the democratisation and opening up of dialogue transfer of the project to John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
between contributors has made this second edition An extended editional meeting was lubricated by
still more tightly integrated and coordinated than its Willi Germanns gin and tonics, and Joas made
highly successful forebear. A related point is that all excellent sendwiches. Finally, we thank our wives
of the contributions were received in digital form and Mandy, Fiona, Heather, and Christine for putting up
were switched many times between the editors in with our erratic but intensive work patterns during
Bristol, Santa Barbara, Redlands, and Southampton the project.
and innumerable field locations between and Paul A Longley
beyond. Most of the artwork and colour plates were
Michael F Goodchild
transmitted to the GIS World Web site in Colorado
David J Maguire
prior to redrawing and sizing. Together, these
David W Rhind
changes have reduced the lead time between writing
xii
List of contributors
xiii
List of contributors
xiv
List of contributors
xv
List of contributors
xvi
List of contributors
xvii
List of contributors
xviii
List of contributors
xix
List of contributors
xx
List of contributors
xxi
List of contributors
xxii
Acknowledgements
Luc Anselin wishes to acknowledge the support of University of Melbourne. The use of facilities, and
the US National Science Foundation (the research the kind invitation to visit are both gratefully
reported on in Chapter 17 was supported in part by acknowledged. Figure 3 in Chapter 13 is reproduced
Grant SBR-9410612). Special thanks are due to with the kind permission of Taylor and Francis. The
Antony Unwin for providing Figure 1 on Manet, assistance of Alan Strachan and Paul Longley is also
and to Noel Cressie and Jrgen Symanzik for gratefully acknowledged.
providing Figures 4 and 5 on ArcView-XGobi. Anthony Gatrell and Martyn Senior are grateful to
Richard J Aspinall would like to thank Peter the following for providing, or allowing them to
Aspinall, Simon Aspinall, David Balharry, Dick modify, illustrations: Dr Anders Schaerstrom, Dr
Birnie, Marianne Broadgate, Marsailidh Chisholm, Danny Dorling, Professor Gerry Rushton, Professor
Roy Haines-Young, Matt Hare, Rachel Harvey, Ann Graham Moon, and Dr Andy Jones.
Humble, Brian Lees, Kim Lowell, David Maguire, Art Getis would like to thank Judy Getis, Stuart
Jeff Maxwell, Elaine McAlister, David Miller, Julia Phinn, and Serge Rey for reviewing his chapter.
Miller, Diane Pearson, Jonathan Raper, Allan Michael Goodchild acknowledges the support of the
Sibbald, Neil Veitch, Paul Walker, and Joanna National Science Foundation for the National
Wherrett for their many and varied contributions to Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
his thinking on the topics discussed in Chapter 69. (SBR 8810917 and SBR 9600465) and the
Mike Barnsley wishes to acknowledge the Natural Alexandria Digital Library (IRI 9411330).
Environment Research Council for data used to Gerard Heuvelink would like to thank Dr J Bouma
construct Plates 21 and 22. and Dr A Stein (Agricultural University
Barry Boots would like to thank Michael Tiefelsdorf Wageningen) for permission to use the Allier dataset.
who provided the results in Table 1 and who drew Mark Horn: acknowledgement is due to Eamonn
Figures 11, 12, and 13 in Chapter 36; and Atsuyuki Clifford and Christine Hansford at the Office of the
Okabe and Narushige Shiode who drew Figure 16 Surveyor-General of New South Wales, Australia,
using software package PLVOR created by who produced the illustrations for Chapter 67.
Toshiyuki Imai of the University of Tokyo. Michael Hutchinson and John Gallant gratefully
Thomas Cova would like to thank Michael acknowledge the assistance of Tingbao Xu and
Goodchild for the invitation to contribute to this Janet Stein in the production of the figures in
book and David Maguire for helpful comments on Chapter 9.
earlier drafts. Dave MacDevette, Richard Fincham, and Greg
Forsyth would like to thank Adele Wildsehut of the
Susan Elshaw Thrall and Grant Ian Thrall would like
Centre for Rural and Legal Studies, Stellenbosch for
to thank Mr Mark McLean of the Department of
permission to reproduce Figure 3 in Chapter 65
Geography at University of Florida for his
from Larry Zietsmans original.
comments on the layout of Table 1 in Chapter 23,
and for his comments on the section on ready-made David Marks paper is a result of research at the US
maps. National Center for Geographic Information and
Analysis, supported by a grant from the National
Manfred Fischer gratefully acknowledges a research Science Foundation (SBR-88-10917); support by
grant provided by the Austrian Ministry for Science, NSF is gratefully acknowledged.
Research and Art (EZ 308.937/2 W/3/95).
Robin McLaren wishes to thank the Ministry of
Peter Fishers chapter was completed when the author Agriculture in Hungary for granting permission to use
was Visiting Fellow at the Department of Geomatics, the cadastral map of Budapest (Figure 5 in Chapter 61).
xxiii
Acknowledgements
Jeffery R Meyers wishes to express his gratitude for Hillis, Bob McMaster, David Mark, Patrick
the invaluable research, editorial, and narrative McHaffie, Roger Miller, Harlan Onsrud, Eric
review assistance provided by Christine M Condit in Sheppard, Paul Schroeder, Dalia Varanka, Dan
the preparation of this chapter. Without Ms Weiner; and at the University of Kentucky, Oliver
Condits efforts, the work would have suffered, and Froehling, Eugene McCann, and Steve Hanna. The
quite possibly not have been completed at all. chapter draws heavily on the work of this group in
I-19, especially the discussions and presentations of
Lubos Mitas and Helena Mitasova wish to
the planning group and participants at the Friday
acknowledge that data for Plates 26 and 27 were
Harbor workshop on Geographic Information
supplied by K Auerswald of the Technische
and Social Theory (1993), the Koinonia Workshop
Universitt Mnchen and S Warren of the US Army
on the Representation of Space, People, and
Construction Engineering Research Laboratories.
Nature in GIS (1996), the planning group of I-19
Data for Plate 28 were supplied by L A K Mertes,
(Helen Couclelis, Michael Curry, Trevor Harris,
Department of Geography, University of California
Bob McMaster, David Mark, Eric Sheppard, and
Santa Barbara; data for plate 29 by L Iverson,
Dan Weiner), and the participants in the Critical
USDA Forest Service, Delaware, Ohio; and data for
Social History of GIS Workshop in Santa Barbara
Plates 30 and 31 are from US EPA Chesapeake Bay
(1996) (Michael Curry, Jon Goss, David Mark,
Program Office. The research in GIS applications of
Patrick McHaffie, Roger Miller, and Dalia Varanka).
spline interpolation methods was supported in part
Parts of section 4 lean heavily on the founding
by Strategic Environmental Research and
proposal for I-19 written by the author, Michael
Development Program (SERDP).
Curry, Trevor Harris, Bob McMaster, David Mark,
Roger Miller, Eric Sheppard, and Dan Weiner.
Harlan Onsruds chapter is based upon work
The summary of GIS-2 was adapted from I-19
partially supported by the National Center for
discussions presented by Paul Schroeder and Harlan
Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA)
Onsrud. The salient points governing the new
under National Science Foundation grant No. SBR
systems for a GIS-2 have been abstracted from the
88-10917. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions
results of I-19 and the Public Participation Project,
are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect
and these can be found at http://ncgia.maine.edu/
the views of the National Science Foundation.
pgis/ppgishom.html. A discussion list for this issue
Stan Openshaw and Seraphim Alvanides wish to has been set up at http://ncgia.spatial.maine.edu/
acknowledge that Cray T3D time was provided by webforum.html. None of the above are responsible
EPSRC under Grant GR/K43933. The 1991 Census for any egregious errors, misinterpretations, or
data and boundary files are provided by ESRC and outrageous claims.
JISC and the resulting maps are all Crown Copyright. Writing the chapter was aided immensely by the
Donna Peuquets work was supported by National opportunity to present these ideas to the national
Science Foundation grant no. FAW 90-27. Portions of postgraduate programme in geography at the
this work was previously published in Donna Peuquet University of Turku in Finland. For this
opportunity the author is indebted to Harri
1988 Representations of geographic space: toward a
Anderson of the Department of Geography at
conceptual synthesis in Annals of the Association of
Turku and students in the course.
American Geographers 78: pages 37594.
Jonathan Raper would like to acknowledge that
John Pickles draws on Chapter 1 of Ground Truth,
Figure 1 in Chapter 5 was developed by John Walker
the founding proposal and progress reports of
(http://www.fourmilab.ch) the image is based on the
Initiative 19 (I-19) of the National Center for
Global Topographic Map from the Marine Geology
Geographic Information Analysis (NCGIA), as well
and Geophysics Division of the National
as his article Tool or science? GIS, techno-science,
Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, Colorado, USA.
and the theoretical turn in Annals of the Association
of American Geographers. In particular, the chapter David Rhind wishes to thank Ray Harris and Ian
owes a great deal to the writings of, and discussion Masser for sight of pre-publication versions of their
with, a small group of colleagues working in the important books cited in Chapter 56. He also
liminal (and at times uncomfortable) spaces between gratefully achnowledges his debt to Nancy Tostas
GIS and social theory: Nick Chrisman, Michael published work on the US National Spatial Data
Curry, Jon Goss, Carol Hall, Trevor Harris, Ken Infrastructure.
xxiv
Acknowledgements
Nigel Waters would like to acknowledge comments, Ltd for Figures 1 and 2 in Chapter 33; Georgia Tech
suggestions, ideas and references from Shelley Virtual GIS project for Figure 2 in Chapter 39; IGN
Alexander, Chad Anderson, Robert Arthur, Stefania France for Figures 13 and 14 in Chapter 10, courtesy
Bertazzon, Murray Rice, Terry Woods, and Clarence of C Plazenet; Institute of Geography, University of
Woudsma (all of the Department of Geography at Hanover for Figure 15 in Chapter 10; John Wiley &
the University of Calgary); to Tim Nyerges for Sons Inc. for permission to reproduce Figures 1 and
supplying copies of his seminal papers; and to 2 in Chapter 15; MEGRIN for Table 2 in Chapter
Harvey Miller for copies of his most recent papers. 47; Michael Tiefelsdorf for Figures 11, 12, and 13 in
Finally, he would like to thank Howard Slavin, Chapter 36; NASA for permission to reproduce
President, Caliper Corporation, for providing Table 2 in Chapter 45 and Table 2 in Chapter 48;
technical documentation on the TransCAD package New University of Lisbon for Figure 5 in Chapter
and for other support. 39; Oracle Corporation 1996 for Figure 2 in Chapter
29; Swiss Federal Office of Topography,
Robert Weibel and Geoffrey Dutton wish to thank
DHM251997, 1263a for Figure 16 in Chapter 10;
Frank Brazile for helping with the preparation of
Tables 1 and 2 in Chapter 43 Courtesy of the State
illustrations. A number of people have generously
of Washington, Department of Natural Resources;
provided illustrations or helped with the compilation
Taylor and Francis, London for Figure 2 in Chapter
of figures, including Dietmar Grnreich and Brigitte
8 which appeared in Time in GIS by Gail Langran
Husen of the University of Hanover, Corinne
(1992) and for Table 1 in Chapter 44; Trimble
Plazanet and Anne Ruas of IGN France, and
Navigation Ltd for Figures 3 and 4 in Chapter 33.
Chris Jones of the University of Glamorgan.
Partial support from the Swiss NSF through project We are grateful to the following for permission to
2100-043502.95/1 is gratefully acknowledged. reproduce copyright photographs:
John Wilson acknowledges the following permissions A P Jones for Plate 56; American Society for
for reproduction: Plates 6062 are reprinted with Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing for permission
permission from Hutchinson, Nix, McMahon, and to reproduce Plate 9; Combined Universities
Ord Africa: a topographic and climatic database Collection of Air Photographs for Plate 19; Figure 2
(version 1) 1995 by Australian National in Chapter 29 Caliper Corporation 1996; Figure 5
University, Canberra, Australia; Plates 63 and 64 are in Chapter 61 Department of Lands and Mapping,
reprinted with permission from Corbett and Carter Ministry of Agriculture, Hungary; ESRI Inc. for
Using GIS to enhance agricultural planning: the Plate 49; Georgia Tech Virtual GIS project for Plate
example of inter-seasonal rainfall variability in 37; John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, for Plate 56;
Zimbabwe Transactions in GIS 1: 20718 1997 by Kendall Publishing Co. for Figure 2 in Chapter 54;
GeoInformation International, Cambridge, UK; taken from Morgan J M et al (1996) Directory of
Figures 1 and 2 in Chapter 70 are reprinted with Academic GIS Education; Longman for Plate 7 which
permission from Bell, Cunningham, and Havens appeared in Kraak and Ormeling Cartography,
Soil drainage class probability using a soil visualisation of spatial data, 1996; Microsoft Encarta
landscape model Soil Science Society of America World Atlas for Plate 8; New University of Lisbon for
Journal 58: 46470 1997 by Soil Science Society of Plate 40; Office of the Surveyor-General of NSW for
America, Madison, Wisconsin; Figure 3 is reprinted Figure 1 in Chapter 67; Plate 57 NSW Department
with permission from Usery, Pocknee, and Boydell of Land and Water Conservation 1997; Space
Precision farming data management using Imaging for permission to use Plate 18; Swiss Federal
geographic information systems Photogrammetric Office of Topography, DHM251997, 1263a for
Engineering and Remote Sensing 61: 138391 1995 Figure 16 in Chapter 10; Taylor and Francis, London,
by American Society for Photogrammetry and for Figure 4 in Chapter 47; The Caliper Corporation
Remote Sensing, Falls Church, Virginia. for permission to reproduce Plate 50; Trimble
Navigation Ltd for Plates 23 and 24; UCL 3D Image
The editors and contributors are grateful to the Maker Plate 20.
following for permission to reproduce copyright
While every effort has been made to trace the
figures and tables:
owners of copyright material, in a few cases this has
Atsuyaki Okabe and Narushige Shiode for Figure 16 proved impossible and we take this opportunity to
in Chapter 36; Computing and Statistics magazine offer our apologies to any copyright holders whose
for Figures 4 and 5 in Chapter 17; Garmin (Europe) rights we may have unwittingly infringed.
xxv