Concept Design

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Concept design
This article presents information necessary to assist in the choice and use of steel structures at the concept design
stage for modern multi-storey buildings and single storey buildings . The information is presented in terms of the
design strategy, anatomy of building design and structural systems.
For multi-storey buildings the primary sector of interest is commercial buildings, but the same information may also be
used in other sectors.
For single storey buildings the primary sector of interest is industrial buildings, but the same information can also be
used in other sectors, such as commercial, retail and leisure .
Typical columns layout in an office building with an atrium Arrangement of a single-storey building
Multi-storey buildings
1 / 23
//www.steelconstruction.info/Concept_design - 17th September 2017
SteelConstruction.info
Multi-storey commercial building Mid City Place, London
In multi-storey buildings , the design of the primary structure is strongly influenced by many issues, as defined below:
The need to provide clear floor spans for more usable space
The choice of cladding system
Planning requirements, which may limit the building height and the maximum floor-to-floor zone
The services strategy and effective integration of building services
Site conditions, which dictate the foundation system and location of foundations
Craneage limitations and storage space for materials and components
Speed of construction, which may influence the number of components that are used and the installation
process.
Studies show that the cost of the building structure is generally only 10% of the total building cost - and the influence of
the choice of structure on the foundations, services and cladding are often more significant. In reality, building design
is a synthesis of architectural, structural, services, logistics and buildability issues. Steel frames are ideally suited for
modern multi-storey commercial buildings.
Hierarchy of design decisions
2 / 23
The development of any proposal for a construction project requires a complex series of design decisions that are inter-
related. The process should begin with a clear understanding of the client requirements and of local conditions or
regulations. Despite the complexity, it is possible to identify a hierarchy of design decisions. Firstly, planning
requirements are likely to define the overall building form, which will also include aspects such as natural lighting,
ventilation and services. The principal design choices that need to be made in close consultation with the client are:
The depth of the floor zone and the overall structure/service interaction strategy
The need for special structural arrangements in public spaces or circulation areas
The provision of some tolerance between structure and services, to permit future adaptability
The benefit of using longer spans, at negligible extra cost, in order to enhance flexibility of layout.
Based on the design brief, a concept design can then be prepared which is reviewed by the design team and client. It
is at this early interactive stage where the important decisions are made that influence the cost and value of the final
project. Close involvement with the client is essential.
Anatomy of building design
The building design is dependent on various parameters; these include:
Floor grid
Building height
Circulation and access space
Services requirements and service integration.
Floor grids
Floor grids define the spacing of the columns in orthogonal directions, which are influenced by:
The planning grid (normally based on units of 300 mm but more typically multiples of 0.6, 1.2 or 1.5 m)
The column spacing along the faades, depending on the faades material (typically 5.4 to 7.5 m)
The use of the internal space, i.e. for offices or open plan space
The requirements for building service distribution (from the building core).
Along the faade line, column spacings are normally defined by the need to provide support to the cladding system.
For example, a maximum column spacing of 6 m is normally required for brickwork. This influences the column
spacing internally, unless additional columns are used along the faade line. The span of the beams across the
building normally conforms to one of the following column grid arrangement:
Single internal line of columns, placed offset to the line of a central corridor. This is shown in the figure below
Pairs of column lines on either side of a corridor
Column-free internal spans with columns located along the faade line.
3 / 23
Typical column grid for a naturally ventilated office
For naturally ventilated offices, a building width of 12 m to 15 m is typically used, which can be achieved by two spans
of 6 to 7.5 m. A single span can also be provided with deep (400 mm or more) precast concrete hollow core units
spanning the full width of the building. Natural lighting also plays a role in choice of the width of floor plate. In modern
buildings, a long span solution provides a considerable enhancement in flexibility of layout. For air-conditioned offices,
a clear span of 15 m to 18 m is often used. An example of the column grid for a long span option in a building with a
large atrium is shown in the figure below.
Column grid for long span floor in a prestige air conditioned office
4 / 23
Dimensional coordination
The choice of the basic building shape is usually the architect's responsibility, constrained by such issues as the site
plan, access, building orientation, parking, landscaping and local planning requirements. The following general
guidance influences the choice of structure.
A building width of 13 to 20m provides sufficient natural light in the perimeter zones. Wider plan forms are not
generally suitable for open plan office space.
A zone equal to twice the floor to ceiling height from each faade walls may be naturally ventilated (typically 6
to 7m), and the inner zone has to be mechanically ventilated.
Atria provide an additional source of natural lighting and improve the energy use of the building.
Influence of building height
The building height has a strong influence on the:
Structural system that is adopted

Foundation system
Fire resistance requirements and means of escape
Access (by lifts) and circulation space
Choice of cladding system
Speed of construction and site productivity.
For taller buildings, strategically placed concrete or braced steel cores are usually adopted. Ultra tall buildings are
influenced strongly by the stabilising system, but are not covered here. Sizes of lifts and their speed of movement also
become important considerations for tall buildings. Depending on the Regulations for fire safety, the use of sprinklers
may be required for buildings of more than eight storeys (or approximately 30 m high).
Horizontal coordination
Horizontal coordination is dominated by the need on plan for defined zones for vertical access, safe evacuation in fire,
and vertical service distribution. Positioning of service and access cores is influenced by:
Horizontal distribution systems for mechanical services

Fire resistance requirements, which may control evacuation routes and compartment sizes
The need to distribute the stabilizing systems (bracing and cores) effectively throughout the building plan.
The two planning grids shown above present typical arrangements that satisfy these criteria.
An atrium may be incorporated to increase lighting to the occupied space and to provide high value circulation areas at
ground and intermediate levels. The design requirements for atria are:
Support to the long span roof of the atrium

Access routes for general circulation
Fire safety measures by smoke extraction and safe evacuation routes
Light levels and servicing to internal offices.
5 / 23
Vertical coordination
The target floor-to-floor height is based on a floor-to-ceiling height of 2.5 to 2.7 m for speculative offices, or 3 m for
more prestige applications, plus the floor depth including services. The following target floor-to-floor depths should be
considered at the concept design stage:
Prestige office 4.0 - 4.2 m
Speculative office 3.6 - 4.0 m
Renovation project 3.5 - 3.9 m
These targets permit a range of structural solutions. If, for planning reasons, it is required to limit the overall building
height, this can be achieved by use of shallow floor or integrated beam systems. Integrated beam systems are often
used in renovation projects where the floor-to-floor height is limited by compatibility with the existing building or
faades.
For concept design of orthodox commercial multi-storey steel structures , the following 'target' floor depths may be
used.
Typical floor depths for multi storey buildings
Flooring system Target floor depth (mm)
Composite beam construction 800 1,200
Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 1,100
Downstand beams with precast concrete floor slabs 1,200 1,450
Shallow floor or integrated beams 600 800
Structural options for stability
The structural system required for stability is primarily influenced by the building height. For buildings up to
eight storeys height, the steel structure may be designed to provide stability, but for taller buildings, concrete or braced
steel cores are more efficient structurally. The following structural systems may be considered for stability.
Rigid frames
For buildings up to four storeys high, rigid frames may be used in which the multiple beam to column connections
provide bending resistance and stiffness to resist horizontal loads. This is generally only possible where the beams are
relatively deep (400 mm to 500 mm) and where the column size is increased to resist the applied moments. Full depth
end plate connections generally provide the necessary rigidity.
Braced frames
6 / 23
For buildings up to 12 storeys high, braced steel frames are commonly used in which cross, K or V bracing is used in
the walls, generally within a cavity in the faades, or around stairs or other serviced zones. Cross bracing is designed
in tension only (the other member being redundant). Cross bracing is often simple flat steel plate , but angle and
channel sections may also be used.
When bracing is designed to work in compression, hollow sections are often used, although angle and channel
sections may also be used. A steel braced frame has the two key advantages:
Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation

As soon as the steel bracing is connected (bolted), the structure is stable.
Concrete or steel cores
Concrete cores are the most practical system for buildings of up to 40 storeys high, but the concrete core is generally
constructed in advance of the steel framework. In this form of construction, the beams often span directly between the
columns on the perimeter of the building and the concrete core. Special structural design considerations are required
for:
The beam connections to the concrete core

The design of the heavier primary beams at the corner of core
Fire safety and robustness of the long span construction.
A typical layout of beams around a concrete core is shown in the figure below, with the use of heavier beams at the
corner of the core. A double beam may be required to minimise the structural depth at the corner of the cores.
Typical beam layout around a concrete core
A braced steel core

7 / 23
Braced steel cores may be used as an economic alternative where speed of construction is critical. Such cores are
installed with the rest of the steelwork package. An example of a braced steel core is shown in the figure above right.
Columns
Columns in multi-storey steel frames are generally H sections , predominantly carrying axial load. When the stability of
the structure is provided by cores, or discreet vertical bracing, the beams are generally designed as simply supported.
The generally accepted design model is that nominally pinned connections produce nominal moments in the column,
calculated by assuming that the beam reaction is 100 mm from the face of the column. If the reactions on the opposite
side of the column are equal, there is no net moment. Columns on the perimeter of the structure will have an applied
moment, due to the connection being on one side only. Typical internal column sizes are given in the table below.
Typical column sizes for small and medium span composite floors
Number of floors supported by column section Universal Column (UC) serial size
1 152
2-4 203
3-8 254
5 - 12 305
10 - 40 356
Although small column sections may be preferred for architectural reasons, the practical issues of connections to the
floor beams should be considered. It can be difficult and costly to provide connection into the minor axis of a very small
column section.
Structural options for floor systems
A wide range of floor system solutions is available for which typical solutions are given in the table below.
Typical floor solutions
Form of construction Typical solution
Low rise, modest spans, no restriction on construction Downstand beams

depth
8 / 23
Typical floor solutions
Form of construction Typical solution
Low rise, modest spans, Downstand beams

no restriction on
construction depth precast units or
composite floors
Low rise, long span e.g. Downstand beams in the

15m faade precast concrete
units (15 m), composite
floors with secondary
steel beams spanning
15 m
Medium and high rise, Downstand beams,

modest spans, no composite construction
restriction on
construction depth
Medium and high rise, Composite floors with

long spans (to 18 m) cellular long span
restricted construction secondary steel beams
depth
Although steel solutions are appropriate for short spans

(typically 6 to 9 m), steel has an important advantage
over other materials in that long span solutions (between
12 and 18 m) can be easily provided. This has the key
advantage of column-free space, allowing future
adaptability, and fewer foundations.
Floors spanning onto the steel beams will normally be

either precast concrete units , or composite floors. The
supporting beams may be below the floor, with the floor
bearing on the top flange (often known as 'downstand'
beams ), or the beams may share the same zone with the
floor construction, to reduce the overall depth of the
zone. The available construction zone is often the
determining factor when choosing a floor solution.
Beams within the floor zone are known as shallow floor,

slim floor or integrated beams. Beams may be non-
composite, or composite. In composite construction
shear connectors are welded to the top flange of the
beam, transferring load to the concrete floor.
Precast concrete units may be used for low rise frames,

but composite floors are common in both low rise and
high rise structures.
9 / 23
The span range of various structural options in both steel

and concrete are illustrated in the table below. Long span
steel options generally provide for service integration for
spans of over 12m. Cellular beams and composite
trusses are more efficient for long span secondary
beams, whereas fabricated beams are often used for
long span primary beams.
Span range of various structural options
Estimating steel quantities
For estimating purposes in the design of office buildings,

representative weights of steel may be used for buildings
of rectangular plan form. These quantities will increase
significantly for non rectangular or tall buildings or for
buildings with atria or complex faades. The approximate
quantities are presented in the table below, and are
expressed in terms of the total floor area of the building.
They do not include the steelwork used in the faades,
atrium or roof.
Approximate steel quantities
Form of Building Approximate steel quantities
10 / 23
Approximate steel quantities
Form of Approximate steel

Building quantities
(kg/m floor area)
B C B T
e ol ra ot
a u ci al
m m n
s n g
s
3 or 4 storey 2 8 2 3
building of 5 5
rectangular 1 3
form 3 0 4
0 0
68 storey 2 1 3 4
building of 5 2 0
rectangular 5
form 3 1 5
0 5 0
810 storey 3 1 3 5
building with 5 2 0
long spans 5
4 1 6
0 5 0
20 storey 4 1 1 5
building with 0 0 0
long spans and 2
a concrete core 5 1 6
0 3 5
Further guidance on estimating steel

quantities and cost is available.
Factors influencing structural

arrangements
11 / 23
The construction programme will be a key

concern in any project, and should be
considered at the same time as considering
the cost of structure, the services, cladding
and finishes. The structural scheme has a
key influence on programme and cost, and
structural solutions which can be erected
safely, quickly to allow early access for the
following trades.
Site conditions
Increasingly, structures are constructed on

'brownfield' sites, where earlier construction
has left a permanent legacy. In city centres,
a solution involving fewer, albeit more
heavily loaded foundations are often
preferred, which lead to longer spans for
the superstructure.
Cranes
The number of cranes on a project will be

dominated by the site footprint, the size of
the project and the use of additional mobile
cranes. Multi-storey structures are generally
erected using a tower crane, which may be
supplemented by mobile cranes for specific
heavy lifting operations. In city centre
projects, tower cranes are often located in a
lift shaft or atrium.
Service integration
Cellular beam with multiple service ducts
12 / 23
Most large office-type structures require air

conditioning or 'comfort cooling', which will
necessitate both horizontal and vertical
distribution systems. The provision for such
systems is of critical importance for the
superstructure layout, affecting the layout
and type of members chosen. See SCI
P166.
The basic decision either to integrate the

ductwork within the structural depth or to
simply suspend the ductwork at a lower
level affects the choice of structural
member, the fire protection system, the
cladding (cost and programme) and overall
building height. Other systems provide
conditioned air from a raised floor.
Single storey buildings
Single storey building
Single storey buildings use steel framed structures and metallic cladding of all types. Large open spaces can be
created, which are efficient, easy to maintain and are adaptable as demand changes. Single storey buildings are a
'core' market for steel in the UK.
Single storey buildings tend to be large enclosures, but may require space for other uses, such as offices, handling
and transportation, overhead cranes, etc. Therefore, many factors have to be addressed in their design.
Increasingly, architectural issues and visual impact have to be addressed and many leading architects are involved in
the design of modern single storey buildings .
Hierarchy of design decisions
13 / 23
Important design factors for single storey buildings
The development of a design solution for a single storey building, such as a large enclosure or industrial facility is more
dependent on the activity being performed and future requirements for the space than other building types, such as
commercial and residential buildings. Although these building types are primarily functional, they are commonly
designed with strong architectural involvement dictated by planning requirements and client 'branding'.
The following overall design requirements should be considered in the concept design stage of industrial buildings and
large enclosures, depending on the building form and use:
Space use, for example, specific requirements for handling of materials or components in a production facility
Flexibility of space in current and future use
Speed of construction
Environmental performance, including services requirements and thermal performance
Aesthetics and visual impact
Acoustic isolation, particularly in production facilities
Access and security
Sustainability considerations
Design life and maintenance requirements, including end of life issues.
14 / 23
To enable the concept design to be developed, it is necessary to review these considerations based on the type of
single storey building. For example, the requirements for a distribution centre will be different to a manufacturing
facility. A review of the importance of various design issues is presented in the table on the right for common building
types.
Architectural design
Modern single storey buildings using steel are both functional in use and are designed to be architecturally attractive.
Various examples are presented below together with a brief description of the design concept.
Building form
The basic structural form of a single storey building may be of various generic types, as shown in the figure below. The
figure shows a conceptual cross-section through each type of building, with notes on the structural concept, and
typical forces and moments due to gravity loads.
Structural concepts
The basic design concepts for each structural type are described below:
Simple roof beam, supported on columns.
The span will generally be modest, up to approximately 20 m. The roof beam may be pre-cambered. Bracing will be
required in the roof and all elevations, to provide in-plane and longitudinal stability.
Portal frame
15 / 23
A portal frame is a continuous frame with moment resisting connections to provide stability in-plane. A portal frame
may be single bay or multi bay. The members are generally plain rolled sections, with the resistance of the rafter
enhanced locally with a haunch. In many cases, the frame will have pinned bases. Stability in the longitudinal direction
is provided by a combination of bracing in the roof, across one or both end bays, and vertical bracing in the elevations.
If vertical bracing cannot be provided in the elevations (due to industrial doors, for example) stability is often provided
by a rigid frame within the elevation.
Trusses
Truss buildings generally have roof bracing and vertical bracing in each elevation to provide stability in both orthogonal
directions. The trusses may take a variety of forms, with shallow or steep external roof slopes. A truss building may
also be designed as rigid in-plane, although it is more common to provide bracing to stabilise the frame.
Other forms of construction
Built-up columns (two plain beams, connected to form a compound column) are often used to support heavy loads,
such as cranes. These may be used in portalised structures, but are often used with rigid bases, and with bracing to
provide in-plane stability. External or suspended support structures may be used, but are relatively uncommon.
Choice of building type
Portal frames are considered to be a highly cost-effective way to provide a single storey enclosure. Their efficiency
depends on the method of analysis, and the assumptions that are made regarding the restraint to the structural
members, as shown in the table below.
Efficient portal frame design
Most efficient Less efficient
Analysis using elastic-plastic software Elastic analysis
Cladding considered to restrain the flange of the purlins Purlins and side rails unrestrained
and side rails
Purlins and side rails used to restrain both flanges of The inside flange of the hot rolled steelwork is
the hot-rolled steelwork unrestrained
Nominal base stiffness utilised Nominal base stiffness ignored
The reasons for choosing simple beam structures, portal frames or trusses are shown in the table below.
16 / 23
Comparison of structural forms
Simple beam Portal frame Truss
Advantages
Simple design Long span Very long spans possible
Designed to be stable in plane Heavy loads may be carried
Member sizes and haunches may Modest deflection

be optimised for efficiency
Disadvantages
Relatively short span Software required for efficient Generally more expensive
design fabrication
Bracing needed for in-plane Limited to relatively light vertical Generally bracing is used for in-
stability loading, and modest cranes to avoid plane stability
excessive deflections
No economy due to continuity
Cladding types
The main types of roofing and wall cladding used in single storey buildings are described as follows:
Roofing
'Built-up' or double layer roofing spanning between secondary members such as purlins.
Composite panels (also known as sandwich panels) spanning between purlins.
Deep decking spanning between main frames, supporting insulation, with an external metal sheet or
waterproof membrane.
Walls
Sheeting, orientated vertically and supported on side rails.

Sheeting or structural liner trays spanning horizontally between columns.
Composite or sandwich panels spanning horizontally between columns, eliminating side rails.
Metallic cassette panels supported by side rails.
Different forms of cladding (including vertically and horizontally orientated sheets) may be used together for visual
effect in the same faades. Brickwork is often used as a 'dado' or 'dwarf' wall below the level of the windows for impact
resistance.
Concept design of portal frames
17 / 23
Steel portal frames are widely used because they combine structural efficiency with functional form. A single-span
symmetrical portal frame (as illustrated in the figure below) is typically of the following proportions:
A span between 15 m and 50 m (25 m to 35 m is the most efficient)

An eaves height (base to rafter centreline) of between 5 and 15 m (7.5 m or more is commonly adopted). The
eaves height is determined by the specified clear height between the top of the floor and the underside of the
haunch.
A roof pitch between 5 and 10 (6 is commonly adopted)
A frame spacing between 5 m and 8 m (the greater frame spacings being used in longer span portal frames)
Members are I sections rather than H sections, because they must carry significant bending moments and
provide in-plane stiffness.
Sections are generally S355.
Haunches are provided in the rafters at the eaves to enhance the bending resistance of the rafter and to
facilitate a bolted connection to the column.
Small haunches are provided at the apex, to facilitate the bolted connection.
Single span symmetric portal frame
The eaves haunch is typically cut from the same size Standard open sections|rolled section as the rafter, or one
slightly larger, and is welded to the underside of the rafter. The length of the eaves haunch is generally 10% of the
span. The length of the haunch means that the hogging bending moment at the 'sharp' end of the haunch is
approximately the same as the maximum sagging bending moment towards the apex, as shown in the figure below.
18 / 23
Rafter bending moment and haunch length
The end frames of a portal frame are generally called gable frames. Gable frames may be identical to the internal
frames, even though they experience lighter loads. If future extension to the building is envisaged, portal frames are
commonly used as the gable frames, to reduce the impact of the structural works. A typical gable frame is shown in the
figure below.
Typical details of an end gable of a portal frame building
Frame stability
In-plane stability is provided by frame continuity. In the longitudinal direction, stability is provided by vertical bracing in
the elevations. The vertical bracing may be at both ends of the building, or in one bay only. Each frame is connected to
the vertical bracing by a hot-rolled member at eaves level. A typical bracing arrangement is shown in the figure below.
19 / 23
Typical bracing in a portal frame
The gable columns span between the base and the rafter, where the reaction is carried by bracing in the plane of the
roof, back to the eaves level, and to the foundations by the vertical bracing. If diagonal bracing in the elevations cannot
be accommodated, longitudinal stability can be provided by a rigid frame on the elevation.
Member stability
Restraint locations
For economic design , restraints to the rafter and column must be considered. The purlins and side rails are
considered adequate to restrain the flange that they are attached to, but unless special measures are taken, the
purlins and side rails do not restrain the inside flange. Restraint to the inside flange is commonly provided by bracing
from the purlins and side rails, as shown in the figure below. The bracing is usually formed of thin metal straps,
designed to act in tension, or from angles designed in compression if bracing is only possible from one side. The
arrangement of restraints to the inside flange is generally similar to that shown in the figure below and in all cases, the
junction of the inside face of the column and the underside of the haunch must be restrained.
20 / 23
Restraint bracing to inside flange
Connections
Eaves connection
Typical eaves connection
A typical eaves connection is shown in in the figure below. In almost all cases a compression stiffener in the column
(as shown, at the bottom of the haunch) will be required. Other stiffeners may be required to increase the bending
resistance of the column flange, adjacent to the tension bolts, and to increase the shear resistance of the column web
panel. The haunch is generally fabricated from a similar size beam to the rafter (or larger), or fabricated from
equivalent plate. Typically, the bolts may be M24 8.8 and the end plate 25 mm thick S275.
Apex connection
A typical apex connection is shown in the figure below. The apex connection primarily serves to increase the depth of
the member to make a satisfactory bolted connection. The apex haunch is usually fabricated from the same member
as the rafter, or from equivalent plate. Typically, the bolts may be M24 8.8 and the end plate 25 mm thick S275.
21 / 23
Typical apex connection
Resources
Steel Buildings in Europe - Multi-storey buildings: Part 1 Architects guide
Steel Buildings in Europe - Multi-storey buildings: Part 2 Concept design
Steel Buildings in Europe - Single storey buildings: Part 1 Architects guide
Steel Buildings in Europe - Single storey buildings: Part 2 Concept design
SCI P166 Interfaces: Design of Steel Framed Buildings for Service Integration, 1997
Steel Buildings, 2003, (Publication No 35/03), BCSA
Chapter 3 - Single Storey Buildings
Chapter 4 - Multi-Storey Buildings
SCI P167 Architectural Teaching Resource Studio Guide, 2000
See also
Multi-storey buildings
Single storey buildings
Composite construction
Floor systems
Long span beams
Portal frames
Moment resisting connections
Service integration
Building envelopes
Cost of structural steelwork
Retail buildings
Leisure buildings
Structural fire resistance requirements
Continuous frames
22 / 23
Braced frames
Steel construction products
Structural robustness
Trusses
Fire and steel construction
Design software and tools
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SteelConstruction.

Multi-storey commercial building Mid City Place, London

Hierarchy of design decisions

Anatomy of building design

The building design is dependent on various parameters; these include:

Typical column grid for a naturally ventilated office

Influence of building height

The building height has a strong influence on the:

Structural system that is adopted

Horizontal distribution systems for mechanical services

Support to the long span roof of the atrium

Prestige office 4.0 - 4.2 m

Speculative office 3.6 - 4.0 m

Renovation project 3.5 - 3.9 m

Typical floor depths for multi storey buildings

Flooring system Target floor depth (mm)

Composite beam construction 800 1,200

Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 1,100

Downstand beams with precast concrete floor slabs 1,200 1,450

Shallow floor or integrated beams 600 800

Structural options for stability

Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation

Concrete or steel cores

The beam connections to the concrete core

Typical beam layout around a concrete core

A braced steel core

Structural options for floor systems

Typical floor solutions

Form of construction Typical solution

Low rise, modest spans, no restriction on construction Downstand beams

Typical floor solutions

Form of construction Typical solution

Low rise, modest spans, Downstand beams

Low rise, long span e.g. Downstand beams in the

Medium and high rise, Downstand beams,

Medium and high rise, Composite floors with

Although steel solutions are appropriate for short spans

Floors spanning onto the steel beams will normally be

Beams within the floor zone are known as shallow floor,

Precast concrete units may be used for low rise frames,

The span range of various structural options in both steel

Span range of various structural options

Estimating steel quantities

For estimating purposes in the design of office buildings,

Approximate steel quantities

Form of Building Approximate steel quantities

Approximate steel quantities

Form of Approximate steel

(kg/m floor area)

Further guidance on estimating steel

Factors influencing structural

The construction programme will be a key

Increasingly, structures are constructed on

The number of cranes on a project will be

Cellular beam with multiple service ducts

Most large office-type structures require air

The basic decision either to integrate the

Single storey building

Hierarchy of design decisions

Important design factors for single storey buildings

Simple roof beam, supported on columns.

Other forms of construction

Choice of building type

Efficient portal frame design