Control System Examples - CH 1 - 7 - Sept 2017

CONTROL SYSTEM
EXAMPLES
Hugh Dougherty
September 2017
Copyright 2017
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Control System Examples Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES .....................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Comparison of step response of a PID and Optimal controller for inertia plant ....................................1
CHAPTER 2 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION EXAMPLES ................................................................................ 13
2.0 Overview of Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................... 13
2.1. Differential Equation: with zero initial conditions at time t = 0 ................13
2.2 with zero initial conditions at time t = 0. ......................... 15
2.3. , for t 0 with zero initial conditions at time t =
0 and r(t) = 1 u-1(t). ............................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Solution for Impulse Response .............................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Step Response ........................................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.3 Total solution ......................................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM EXAMPLES ....................................................................................... 23
3.1 Solve where c(t) = 1, = 1, = 2 ................................... 23
s2 + 3 s + 2
3.2 Solve for c(t) given C(s) = 2000 ............................................................................ 25
s (s + 4) (s2 + 5 s +1000)
3.3 Solve with initial conditions c(0) = 0.01,
= 0.3, = 0.4 ........................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.1 r(t) is a unit step ..................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.2 r(t) is a Parabolic Input .......................................................................................................................... 28
s2 +1.012 s + 0.012
3.4 Invert C(s) = 281.25 ....................................................................................... 30
s (s + 0.015) (s 2 +15 s + 225)
3.5 Inverse Laplace transformation of transfer functions in Chapter 1, Section 1.1 .................................. 31
CHAPTER 4 - STATE SPACE EXAMPLES ......................................................................................................... 37
4.1 State Differential Equation for Coupled Spring Mass System ............................................................... 37
4.1.1 Solution to Part a. State Equations ........................................................................................................ 37
4.1.2 Solution to Part b. Laplace transform from state equations .................................................................. 38
x (0)
4.2 Find the solution of with initial conditions 1 .................................. 39
x (0)
2
4.3 Obtain the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) for the vector differential equation
...................................... 40
4.4 Obtain a state space representation of the system from the block diagram .......................................... 41
4.5 Laplace transform of , ........ 42
4.6 Controller and Observer for Simple Spring Mass System ...................................................................... 42
4.6.1 Controller with full state measurement. ................................................................................................. 44
4.6.2 State Space Approach to ControllerObserver Design .......................................................................... 47
4.6.3 Conventional PID Controller Design. .................................................................................................... 57
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Table of Contents Control System Examples
4.6.4 Comparison of Controller Designs ........................................................................................................61

4.7 Rotational Control System ......................................................................................................................... 64
4.7.1 Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller............................................................................................. 66
4.7.2 Full State Feedback Controller. ............................................................................................................. 68
4.7.3 Observer-Controller using only 1 ........................................................................................................ 72
4.7.4 Observer Design .................................................................................................................................... 74
4.7.5 Controller Design ................................................................................................................................... 75
4.7.6 Form of Error Driven Controller............................................................................................................ 75
4.7.7 Comparison of Controllers ..................................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 5 - MATHEMATICAL MODELING EXAMPLES........................................................................... 79
5.1 Simple Spring-Mass System....................................................................................................................... 79
5.2 Model of coupled spring mass system. ...................................................................................................... 80
5.2.1 Differential equations ............................................................................................................................ 80
5.2.2 Elemental block diagram. ...................................................................................................................... 81
5.3 Elemental block diagram of electrical circuit........................................................................................... 81
5.3.1 Loop equations. ...................................................................................................................................... 82
5.3.2 Node Equations. ..................................................................................................................................... 82
5.3.3 State Equations. ..................................................................................................................................... 82
5.3.4 Transfer Function Vb(s)/e(s) .................................................................................................................. 83
5.3.5 Elemental block diagram. ...................................................................................................................... 84
5.4 Table Positioning System ........................................................................................................................... 84
5.4.1 Equations for System. ............................................................................................................................ 86
5.4.2 Elemental Block Diagram. ................................................................................................................... 86
5.4.3 State Equations. ................................................................................................................................... 86
5.5 Airbearing control system .......................................................................................................................... 87
5.5.1 Equations for System ............................................................................................................................ 90
5.5.2 Elemental Block Diagram ...................................................................................................................... 93
5.5.3 State Equations ...................................................................................................................................... 93
5.6 Lift Control System .................................................................................................................................... 94
5.6.1 Requirements ......................................................................................................................................... 96
5.6.2 Mathematical Model of Plant................................................................................................................. 96
5.6.3 Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller............................................................................................. 99
5.6.4 Block Diagram of Control System ....................................................................................................... 102
5.6.5 Comparison of Controller Against Requirements ................................................................................ 102
5.6.6 Sketch of response ............................................................................................................................... 102
5.6.7 Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller .................................................................................. 104
5.7 Carriage and Azimuth Gimbal Control Systems ................................................................................... 105
5.7.1 Equations for System ........................................................................................................................... 108
5.7.3 State Equations .................................................................................................................................... 110
5.8 Elevation Gimbal Control System ........................................................................................................... 110
5.8.1 Requirements ....................................................................................................................................... 112
5.8.2 Mathematical Model of Plant ............................................................................................................. 113
5.8.3 Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller........................................................................................... 116
5.8.4 Block Diagram of Control System ....................................................................................................... 118
5.8.5 Comparison of Controller Against Requirements ................................................................................ 119
5.8.6 Sketch of response ............................................................................................................................... 119
Appendix Exact Values Compared to Approximations ........................................................................... 122
5.9 Spray Head Belt and linear Motor Control Systems ............................................................................. 124
5.9.1 Equations for System .......................................................................................................................... 128
5.9.2 Elemental Block Diagrams .................................................................................................................. 130
5.9.3 State Equations .................................................................................................................................... 131
5.10 Cart Control System .............................................................................................................................. 131
A. Requirements ............................................................................................................................................... 134
B. Mathematical Model of Plant ....................................................................................................................... 136
iv Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Control System Examples Table of Contents
C. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller ................................................................................................... 140

D. Block Diagram of Control System ................................................................................................................ 142
E. Comparison of Controller Against Requirements ........................................................................................ 142
F. Sketch of response ......................................................................................................................................... 142
G. Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller ........................................................................................... 145
5.11 Overhead Crane Control System .......................................................................................................... 145
A. Equations for System .................................................................................................................................... 148
B. Elemental Block Diagram ............................................................................................................................ 150
C. State Equations.............................................................................................................................................151
5.12 Azimuth Gimbal Control System for Manufacturing Robot ............................................................. 151
A. Requirements ............................................................................................................................................... 153
B. Mathematical Model of Plant ....................................................................................................................... 155
C. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller ................................................................................................... 159
D. Block Diagram of Control System ................................................................................................................ 161
E. Comparison of Controller Against Requirements ........................................................................................ 161
F. Sketch of response ......................................................................................................................................... 161
CHAPTER 6 - TRANSFER FUNCTION EXAMPLES ....................................................................................... 183
6.0 Overview of Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................................. 183
CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES EXAMPLES ............................................................................... 184
7.0 Overview of Chapter 7 ............................................................................................................................. 184
7.0.1 Open and Closed Loop Transfer Functions for Example in Chapter 1, Section 1.1 ....................... 184
7.1 Automatic Welding System ...................................................................................................................... 186
A. Equations for System................................................................................................................................ 188
B. Elemental Block Diagram. ....................................................................................................................... 188
C. State Equations. ......................................................................................................................................... 189
D. Sketch of Root Locus with Proportional Controller (Gc(s)=Kp)................................................................ 190
7.2 Controller for Problem 7.1 ....................................................................................................................... 192
A. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller. ............................................................................................... 193
B. Root Locus of PID Compensated System ................................................................................................. 199
C. Bode Diagram of PID Compensated System ............................................................................................. 201
D. Sketch of Step Response ........................................................................................................................... 201
7.3 Position Control System ........................................................................................................................... 203
7.4 Inner Loop Controller .............................................................................................................................. 221
7.5 Surveying Vehicle Azimuth Control System .......................................................................................... 239
7.6 Maneuvering Orbital Supply Vehicle ..................................................................................................... 271
7.7 Airpad transport cart ............................................................................................................................... 302
7.7.1 Block diagram and state equation ........................................................................................................ 302
7.7.2 Synthesis of control system ................................................................................................................. 311
7.8 Sky Survey Telescope System .................................................................................................................. 334
7.8.1 Overview and Equations ...................................................................................................................... 334
7.8.2 Compensation ...................................................................................................................................... 346
7.9 Science spacecraft control system ........................................................................................................... 372
7.9.1 Overview and Equations ...................................................................................................................... 372
7.9.2 Pitch Axis Design. Compensation Designed Using the Straight-Line Bode Diagram method and the
Standard Form of the 2nd Order System for Mid Frequency Region ................................................................. 382
INDEX ...................................................................................................................................................................... 404
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 v

Preface Control System Examples
Preface
This book contains sample problems to illustrate the control techniques developed in the main volume Control
System Synthesis.
vi Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Control Systems Examples Chapter 1 Introduction
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES
1.0 Introduction
Example 1.1 is a comparison of an optimal controller and a PID controller for a rotational inertia plant.
1.1 Comparison of step response of a PID and Optimal controller for inertia plant
Consider the two control systems in Figure 1.1-1 with command input r(t), output c(t) and disturbance u(t). The
control systems are equivalent in the sense that they have the same linear characteristic equation, and, actuators
and sensors with the same characteristics. The PID controller incorporates limiters to control the response when
either the actuator or sensor saturate. The optimal control, reference: IEEE Control Magazine, August 2013,
Preclassical Tools for Postmodern Control, uses a lead network, but it does not have the structure to allow
mitigating sensor saturation in the event of actuator saturation.
Figure 1.1-1 Equivalent optimal and PID controllers for inertia plant
The conditions on b are b > 1 and (b 1)/2 < 1, or equivalently 1 < b < 3, ensuring a stable pair of complex
conjugate roots.
A. Draw the linear block diagram. Write the linear system closed loop transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/U(s) for
each controller configuration.
B. Write the linear differential equations from the above transfer functions using the operator notation s = d()/dt,
s2 = d2()/dt2 and s3 = d3()/dt3. Sketch the closed loop pole-zero patterns.
C. Based on the linear differential equations, what are the character of the zero steady state tracking (step, ramp, and
parabolic inputs), and the steady state step disturbance response of the two control systems?
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 1

D. Solve the differential equations corresponding to C(s)/R(s) for each controller using the time domain approach
of a homogeneous and particular solution for a unit step input r(t) = 1 u1(t) and zero initial conditions, i.e.,
c(0) = dc(0)/dt = d2c(0)/dt2 = 0 with u(t) = 0. Set = 2 /2 = 0.707 for the complex conjugate roots.
E. Solve the differential equations corresponding to C(s)/U(s) for each controller using the time domain approach
of a homogeneous and particular solution for a unit step disturbance u(t) = 1 u1(t) and zero initial conditions, i.e.,
c(0) = dc(0)/dt = d2c(0)/dt2 = 0 with r(t) = 0. Set = 2/ 2 = 0.707 for the complex conjugate roots.
Solution. A. The linearized control system block diagrams are shown in Figure 1.1-2.
Figure 1.1-2 Linear block diagrams

A. Closed Loop Transfer Functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/U(s).
Optimal Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/R(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 bs +1
C(s) = J ( R(s) - C(s)) 1.1-1
Js 2 s + b
Solving for C(s)
bs +1 bs +1
C(s) 1+ = R(s) 1.1-2
2 2
s (s + b) s (s + b)
or
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1
C(s) = R(s) bs +1 1.1-3
2 2
s (s + b) s (s + b)
The closed loop transfer function is
2 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

C(s) bs +1
= 1.1-4
R(s) s + bs2 + bs +1
3
Optimal Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/U(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 bs +1
C(s) = U (s) + J (-C(s)) 1.1-5
Js 2 s+b
Solving for C(s)
bs +1 1
C(s) 1+ = U (s) 1.1-6
2 2
s (s + b) Js
or
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 1
C(s) =
U (s) 1.1-7
2 2
s (s + b) Js
C(s) 1 s+b
= 1.1-8
U (s) J s3 + bs2 + bs +1
PID Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/R(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 1
C(s) = J bs + b+ ( R(s) - C(s)) 1.1-9
Js 2 s
Solving for C(s)

bs2 + bs +1 bs2 + bs +1
C(s) 1+ =
R(s) 1.1-10
s3 s3
or
s3 + bs2 + bs +1 2
C(s) = R(s) bs + bs +1 1.1-11

s3 s3
C(s) bs2 + bs +1
= 1.1-12
R(s) s3 + bs2 + bs +1
PID Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/U(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 1
C(s) = U (s) + J bs + b+ (-C(s)) 1.1-13
Js 2 s
Solving for C(s)

bs2 + bs +1 1
C(s) 1+ =
U (s) 1.1-14
s3 Js
2
or

s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 1
C(s) =
U (s) 1.1-15
3 2
s Js
C(s) 1 s
= 1.1-16
3 2
U (s) J s + bs + bs +1
B. Differential Equations.
The equations derived from the closed loop transfer functions are in Table 1.1-1.
Table 1.1-1 Differential Equations
Closed Loop Differential Equations Equation

Number
Optimal Controller
C(s)/R(s) 1.1-17
C(s)/U(s)
1.1-18
PID Controller
C(s)/R(s) 1.1-19
C(s)/U(s)
1.1-20
Characteristic Equation. All the differential equations (and transfer functions) have the same characteristic
equation.
s3 + bs2 + bs+1= 0 1.1-21
The symmetry of the coefficients indicate that one root is s = 1. The characteristic equation factors into
( s+1)(s2 + (b-1)s+1) = 0 1.1-22
The damping and undamped natural frequency of the complex roots are = (b 1)/2 and n = 1, respectively. All
roots are at a radius of 1 from the origin in the s-plane. The roots are (writing the quadratic roots as complex
conjugates).

3 2 b -1 b -1 2 b -1 b -1 2
s + bs + bs +1= (s +1) s + + j 1- s+ - j 1-
2 2 2 2 1.1-23

= (s + n ) s + n + j n 1- 2 s + n - j n 1- 2

Note that the real and imaginary parts set the limits on b, given as 1 < b < 3 in the problem statement.
Closed Loop Zeros of Transfer Functions.
Optimal Controller Input Response. The zero is at s = 1/b.
PID Controller Input Response. The quadratic equation for the zeros is s2 + s + 1/b. The zeros are complex
conjugates at s = 0.5 j(1/b 0.52 )1/2 based on 1 < b < 3.
Optimal Controller Disturbance Response. The zero is at s = b.
PID Controller Disturbance Response. The zero is at s = 0.

The closed loop pole-zero sketches are in Table 1.1-2.

Table 1.1-2 Closed loop pole-zero sketches ( = pole, O = zero)
Optimal Controller PID Controller

C(s)/R(s)
C(s)/U(s)
C. Comparison of Tracking and Steady State Error to a Unit Step Disturbance.

Optimal Controller Tracking. The coefficients of the c(t) and r(t) terms agree through the 1st derivative, so it tracks
a step and a ramp input r(t) with zero steady state error.
PID Controller Tracking. The coefficients of the c(t) and r(t) terms agree through the 2nd derivative, so it tracks a
step, ramp and a parabolic input r(t) with zero steady state error.
Optimal Controller Steady State Unit Step Disturbance Response. The coefficients of the c(t) and u(t) terms are 1
and b/J, respectively, so it has a steady state error of b/J.
PID Controller Steady State Unit Step Disturbance Response. The coefficients of the c(t) and u(t) terms are 1 and 0,
respectively, so it has a steady state error of zero.
D. Time Domain Solution of the Differential Equations for the Step Input r(t) = 1 u-1(t).
The homogeneous solution is of the form
2 2
b-1 j 1- b-1 t b-1 - j 1- b-1 t
- t - t
2 2
ch (t) = k1e-t + k2 e 2 e + k3 e 2 e 1.1-24
- n t - n t j n 1- 2 t - n t - j n 1- 2 t
= k1e + k2 e e + k3 e e
Alternately, the solution can be written in term of a sine and cosine term.
b-1 b-1
- b -1 2 - b -1 2
2 sin t
t t
-t
ch (t) = k1e + k2 e 1- 2 + k3 e
2 cos t 1-
2 1.1-25

- t - t - t
= k1e n + k2 e n sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2

The ki, i = 1, 2, 3, are determined by the initial conditions once the particular solution is obtain. Note that the values
of the ks in equations 1.1-24 and -25 are not the same value, but are used as the generic unknown in each equation.

The particular solution consists of both a step and an impulse input. The solution for the unit step input is straight
forward, but the impulse requires getting equivalent initial conditions for its solution. That is, while the given initial
conditions are zero, the response due to the impulse can be mathematically represented in terms of an equivalent
initial condition.
Consider first the step input. Assume the particular solution is a constant, cp(t) = d. Substituting in equation 1.1-17
results in d = 1, yielding
c p (t) =1 1.1-26
Since both the optimal controller and PID controller have the same characteristic equation and the input r(t) is a step,
the evaluation to this point applies to both control systems. Their closed loop zeros are different so the values of the
ks are different.
Optimal Controller
The equivalent initial conditions are obtained by expanding the solution for c(t) in a Taylor series about t = 0 and
taking the derivatives.
1.1-27
where i, i = 1, 2, 3, 4, are constants, and, u1(t), u0(t), u1(t), u2(t) are the unit step, impulse, doublet, etc.
Substituting into equation 1.1-17, where the right hand side is the impulse due to the dr(t)/dt term, and grouping
terms
1u2 (t) + u1(t)[ 2 + b1]+ u0 (t)[3 + b 2 + b1]+ u-1(t)[...]+ ... = bu0 (t) 1.1-28
Equating right and left hand sides of the equation yields 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = b. Based on equation 1.1-27, the
equivalent initial conditions are
1.1-29
The total solution, c(t), is the sum of equations 1.1-25 and -26 with the initial conditions in equation 1.1-29.
- n t - nt - t
c(t) = 1+ k1e + k2 e sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2 1.1-30

The 1st and 2nd derivatives are
1.1-31
1.1-32
Using the equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-29 at time t = 0

k1 + k3 +1 = 0
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = 0 1.1-33
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2 n2 (2 2 -1) = b
or in matrix form
1 0 1
k1 -1
- 2
n 1- 2
- n k =
n 2 0 1.1-34
2 2 2 2 2 k b
n -2 1- n n (2 -1) 3
Substituting the numeric values of n = 1, = 2 /2 and b = 2 + 1 = 2 +1 yields
1 k1
-1
0 1

-1 0.707 -0.707
2 k = 0 1.1-35
1
-1 0 k3
2.414
Solving for the ks

k -1 -0.707 -1 -0.707 -1
1 1 -1
0 1
-1 2.414
k = -1 0.707 -0.707
2 0 = -2.414 -0.707 -1 -0.2929 0 = 0 1.1-36
2.414 -3.414
k3 1 -1 0 2.414 0.2929 1 0.707
Substituting into equation 1.1-30
c(t) =1+ 2.414e-t - 3.414e-0.707t cos(0.707t) 1.1-37

PID Controller
The equivalent initial conditions are obtained using the expanded solution for c(t) in a Taylor series about t = 0
shown in equation 1.1-27. Substituting into equation 1.1-19, where the right hand side is the impulse and doublet
due to the dr(t)/dt and dr2(t)/dt2 terms, and grouping terms
1u2 (t) + u1(t)[ 2 + b1]+ u0 (t)[3 + b 2 + b1]+ u-1(t)[...]+ ... = bu0 (t) + bu-1(t) 1.1-38
Equating right and left hand sides of the equation yields 1 = 0, 2 = b, 3 = b b2. Based on equation 1.1-38, the
1.1-39
Note that since there were 2 zeros there are two initial conditions. The total solution, c(t), and the 1 st and 2nd
derivatives are in equations 1.1-30, -31 and -32. Using the equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-39 at time
t=0
k1 + k3 +1 = 0
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = b 1.1-40
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2
n2 (2 2 -1) = b - b 2

or in matrix form
1 0 1
k1 -1
- 2 n 1- 2 - n k =
n 2 b 1.1-41
2 2 2 2 2 k b - b2

n -2 1- n n (2 -1) 3
1 k1

0 1
-1
-1 0.707 -0.707 k2 = 2.414

1.1-42
1
-1 0 k3 -3.414
Solving for the ks

k -1 -0.707 -1 -0.707 -1
1 1 0 1
-1
-1 -1.707
k = -1 0.707 -0.707 2.414 = -2.414 -0.707 -1 -0.2929 2.414 = 1.707
1.1-43
2 -3.414
k3 1 -1 0 0.2929 1 0.707 -3.414 0.707
c(t) =1-1.707 e-t -1.707 e-0.707t sin(0.707t)+0.707e-0.707t cos(0.707t) 1.1-44

Summary of Unit Step Input Response.
The unit step input response of the Optimal and PID controllers are shown in Figure 1.1-3.
Figure 1.1-3 Comparison of Optimal controller and PID controller unit step response
The Optimal control system has an overshoot of approximately 35% and a time to peak of approximately 2.9 sec.
The PID control system has an overshoot of approximately 25% and a time to peak of approximately 1.5 sec.
E. Time Domain Solution for the Step Disturbance u(t) = 1 u-1(t).
Optimal Controller

The particular solution consists of both a step and an impulse input. The solution for the unit step input is straight
forward, but the impulse requires getting equivalent initial conditions for its solution.
Consider first the step input. Assume the particular solution is a constant, c p(t) = d. Substituting in equation 1.1-18
results in d = b/J, yielding
b
c p (t) = 1.1-45
J
The Taylor series of the solution about t = 0 in equation 1.1-27 substituted into equation 1.1-18, where the right
hand side is the impulse due to the dr(t)/dt term, and grouping terms, yields
1
1u2 (t) + u1(t)[ 2 + b1]+ u0 (t)[3 + b 2 + b1]+ u-1(t)[...]+... = u0 (t) 1.1-46
J
Equating right and left hand sides of the equation 1.1-yields 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 1/J. Based on equation 1.1-27, the
1.1-47
The total solution, c(t), is the sum of equations 1.1-25 and -45 with the initial conditions in equation 1.1-47.
c(t) =
b
J
- t - t
( - t
)
+ k1e n + k2 e n sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2 ( ) 1.1-48
Using the 1st and 2nd derivatives in equations 1.1-31 and -32 and the equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-47
at time t = 0 yields
b
k1 + k3 + =0
J
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = 0 1.1-49
1
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2
n2 (2 2 -1) =
J
or in matrix form

1 0 1
k -b
1 J
- 2 n 1- 2 - n k =
n 2 0 1.1-50
2
n -2 1- 2
n2 n2 (2 2 -1) k3 1
J
1 k1 -2.414

0 1
1
-1 0.707 -0.707 2 =
k 0 1.1-51
1 -1 J
1
0 k3
Solving for the ks

k 1 -1 -0.707 -1 -0.707 -1

1
0 1
-2.414
-2.414 -2.414 1 -2.414
k = 1 -1 0.707 -0.707
2 J 0 = J -0.707 -1 -0.2929 0 = J -3.414 1.1-52

k3 1 -1 0 1 0.2929 1 0.707 1 0


1
c(t) = [2.414 - 2.414e-t - 3.414 e-0.707t sin(0.707t)] 1.1-53
J
PID Controller
The coefficient of the u(t) term is zero so the constant solution to the differential equation is zero.
The equivalent initial conditions are obtained by the expansion of the solution for c(t) in a Taylor series about t = 0
in equation 1.1-27 and substituting into equation 1.1-19, where the right hand side is the impulse due to the dr(t)/dt
term, then grouping terms
1
1u2 (t) + u1(t)[ 2 + b1]+ u0 (t)[3 + b 2 + b1]+ u-1(t)[...]+... = u0 (t) 1.1-54
J
Equating right and left hand sides of the equation 1.1-yields 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 1/J. The equivalent initial
conditions are
1.1-55
The total solution c(t) is

- n t - nt - t
c(t) = k1e + k2 e sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2 1.1-56

with the initial conditions in equation 1.1-55. The 1st and 2nd derivatives are in equations 1.1-31 and -32. Using the
equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-55 at time t = 0
k1 + k3 = 0
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = 0 1.1-57
1
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2
n2 (2 2 -1) =
J
or in matrix form
1 0 1
k1 0
- 2
n 1- 2
- n k = 1
n 2 J 0 1.1-58
2 2 2 2 2 k 1
n -2 1- n n (2 -1) 3
1 k1 0

0 1
1
-1 0.707 -0.707 k2 = 0 1.1-59
1 -1 J
1
0 k3
Solving for the ks

k 1 -1 -0.707 -1 -0.707 -1 1.707
1 0 1 0 0

k = 1 -1 0.707 -0.707 0 = -2.414 -0.707 -1 -0.2929 0 = 1 0.707

2 J J 1.1-60
1 1 J -1.707
k3 1 -1 0 0.2929 1 0.707

1
c(t) = [1.707 e-t + 0.707 e-0.707t sin(0.707t) -1.707 e-0.707t cos(0.707t)] 1.1-61
J
Summary of Unit Step Disturbance Response.
The unit disturbance responses of the Optimal and PID controllers are shown in Figure 1.1-4.
Figure 1.1-4 Comparison of Optimal controller and PID controller unit disturbance responses

Control System Examples Chapter 2 Differential Equations
CHAPTER 2 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION EXAMPLES
2.0 Overview of Chapter 2

The examples are: in Section 2.1, a second order differential equation where the output, c(t), equals the input for a
step input, in Section 2.2, a third order scalar differential equation where the output, c(t), does not have a steady state
solution equal to the step input, and in Section 2.3, a third order scalar differential equation where the output, c(t),
does have a steady state solution equal to the step input.
2.1. Differential Equation: with zero initial conditions at time t = 0
Solve the differential equations using the homogeneous and particular solution method. Sketch the response c(t).
Solution.
The total solution is given by a combination of the homogeneous and particular solutions.
Homogeneous Solution: Assume a solution, ch(t), of the form
ch (t) = ki es t
Substitute it into the homogeneous differential equation
yielding the characteristic polynomial
ki es t (s2 +10 s + 100) = 0

Since the exponential term cannot be zero, the polynomial must be zero.
s 2 +10 s + 100 = 0
Solving
( s + 5+ j 75) (s + 5- j 75) = 0
The roots are 5 j8.6603, indicating an underdamped sinusoidal homogeneous solution where
= 0.5 , n = 10
Closed loop pole, i.e., closed loop root, locations are shown in Figure 2.1-1.
2nd order j
2 1/2
closed n (1 )
loop root

-n
Figure 2.1-1 Closed loop pole pattern for differential equation

Using the complex form of the roots, the homogeneous solution is
(
- 5 + j 75 t
ch (t) = k1 e
) + k2 e
(
- 5 - j 75 t )

Chapter 2 Differential Equations Control System Examples
The constants ki, i = 1, 2, are used to adjust for the initial conditions once the particular solution is determined.
Particular Solution. The assumed particular solution, cp(t), consists of the input and all its derivatives. Since the
input is a constant, the assumed particular solution is also a constant
c p (t) = B
that when substituted into the differential equation yields

100 B = 100
Hence
B =1
Total Solution. The total solution, c(t), is the sum of the homogenous and particular solution
c(t) = ch (t) + c p (t) = k1 e

(
- 5 + j 75 t ) + k2 e
(
- 5 - j 75 t ) + B = k1 e
(
- 5 + j 75 t) + k2 e
( )
- 5 - j 75 t
+1
Evaluating using the initial conditions at time t = 0. For c(0) = 0

- (5 + j )
75 t (
- 5 - j 75 t )
c(t) = 0 = k1 e + k2 e +1 = k1 + k2 +1
t =0
For dc(0)/dt = 0
In matrix formulation these two equations are

1 1 k
1 = - 1
- 5- j 75 - 5+ j 75 k2 0

Solving

k -1 - 1 - j 75
- 5+ j 75 - 1
1 = 1 1
- 1 = - j 75 -1 = 2 30
k - 5 - j 75 - 5+ j 75 0 150 0
2 5+ j 75 1 - 1 + j 75
2 30
Hence the solution c(t) is

1 75 - (5 + j 75 ) t 1 75 - (5 - j 75 ) t
c(t) = - - j e + - + j e +1
2 30 2
30

75 - 5 t e j 75 t - e- j 75 t - 5 t e j 75 t - e- j 75 t
=- e -e +1
15 j 2 2

Using the identities
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
sin 75 t = , cos 75 t =
j2 2
yields
75 - 5 t
c(t) = - e sin 75 t - e- 5 t cos 75 t +1
15
The response c(t) is shown in Figure 2.1-2.
Checking that the solution satisfies the initial conditions at time t = 0
Figure 2.1-2 Response c(t) of differential equation
2.2 with zero initial conditions at time t = 0.
Solve the differential equations using the homogeneous and particular solution method. Sketch the response c(t).
Solution. The total solution is given by a combination of the homogeneous and particular solutions.
Homogeneous Solution. Assume a solution of the form
ch (t) = ki es t
Substituting into the homogeneous differential equation
yielding
( )
ki es t s3 +110 s2 +1100 s + 10000 = 0
Since the exponential term cannot be zero, the polynomial must be zero.
( s +100) ( s + 5+ j )(
75 s + 5- j 75 = 0 )
Note that the complex conjugate roots are the same as for problem 2.1where
= 0.5 , n = 10
with the addition of a "fast root", i.e., "fast" closed loop pole, at s = 100.

2nd Order Closed j

Loop Roots 2 1/2
n (1 )
"Fast" Closed
Loop Root

100 - n
Figure 2.2-1 Closed loop pole-zero plot

Using the complex form of the roots, the homogeneous solution is
ch (t) = k1 e
(
- 5 + j 75 t ) + k2 e
(
- 5 - j 75 t) + k3 e- 100 t
The constants are used to adjust for the initial conditions once the particular solution is determined.
Particular Solution. The assumed particular solution consists of the input and all its derivatives. Since the input is
a constant, the assumed particular solution is also a constant
c p (t) = B
which when substituted into the differential equation yields

99
B=
100
Since the coefficient (10,000) of the c term is not equal to the coefficient (9,900) of the input (whose value is 1), the
steady state output does not exactly equal the input.
Total Solution. The total solution is the sum of the homogenous and particular solution
c(t) = ch (t) + c p (t) = k1 e

( )
- 5 + j 75 t
+ k2 e
(
- 5 - j 75 t) + k3 e- 100 t +
99
100
Initial Conditions: Evaluating for the initial conditions at time t = 0
In matrix form, this is

99
1 1 1 k -
1 100
- 5- j 75 - 5+ j 75 - 100 k2 = 0

k3
0
- 50 + j 2 1875 - 50 - j 2 1875 10000
Solving
k - 1 99
- 100 -0.4956 - j 0.34546
1 1 1 1

k = - 5- j 75 - 5+ j 75 -100 = -0.4956 - j 0.34546
2
0

k3 - 50 + j 2 1875 - 50 - j 2 1875 10000 -0.010879
0

Hence the solution c(t) is

j j
e 75 t
- e- j 75 t
- 0.979 e- 5 t e
75 t
- e- j 75 t
c(t) = - 0.691 e- 5 t - 0.0109 e- 100 t + 0.99
j2 2

Using the identities
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
sin 75 t = , cos 75 t =
j2 2
yields
c(t) = - 0.691 e- 5 t sin 75 t - 0.979 e- 5 t cos 75 t - 0.0109 e- 100 t + 0.99

The time response solution c(t) is shown in Figure 2.2-2.
c(t)
time (sec)
Figure 2.2-2 Response c(t) to Example 2.2

The difference between the solution to Problem 2.1 and 2.2 is shown in Figure 2.2-3. Note the steady state error of
0.01 for t 2.
Difference
in c(t)
for Prob. 2.1
and Prob. 2.2
time (sec)
Figure 2.2-3 Difference in solution for Problems 2.1 and 2.2
2.3. , for t 0 with zero initial conditions at time t = 0

and r(t) = 1 u-1(t).
The response c(t) can be constructed as the superposition of the impulse response given by equation

where u0(t) is the unit impulse, and the step response given by
where u-1(t) is the unit step function.
2.3.1 Solution for Impulse Response

The impulse function is mathematically well defined only when integrated. Hence, it is convenient to represent the
unit impulse function as an equivalent initial condition in the differential equation. To determine the equivalent
initial condition, expand the initial response c(t) in a Taylor series at time t = 0 and differentiate the series expansion
where u-1(t), u0(t), u1(t), and u2(t) are the unit step, impulse, doublet and triplet function, respectfully, and the 's are
constants. Substituting into the differential equation
1 u2 (t) + 2 u1(t) + 3 u0 (t) + ...+100 (1 u1(t) + 2 u0 (t) + 3 u- 1(t) + ...)

+ 200 (1 u0 (t) + 2 u- 1(t) + 3 t +...) + 500 1 u- 1(t) + 2 t + 3 t 2 + ... = 50 u0 (t)
2
Grouping
1 u2 (t) + ( 2 +100 1 ) u1(t) + (3 +100 2 + 200 1 ) u0 (t) + ... = 50 u0 (t)
Equating coefficients associated with the impulse, doublet and triplet functions on the right and left hand side of the
equation, yields
1 = 0 , 2 = 0 , 3 = 50
The initial conditions are
The particular solution is zero since the impulse forcing function has been replaced by an equivalent initial
condition. The homogeneous solution of
can be determined by standard techniques. Assuming a solution of the form
c(t) = ki es t
yields the characteristic equation
s3 +100 s 2 + 200 s + 500 = 0

The equation factors into
( s + 0.99426 + j 2.0280) ( s + 0.99426 - j 2.0280) ( s + 98.011) = 0

The form of the solutions is an exponentially damped sine and cosine
c(t) = k1 e- 98.011 t + k2 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t + k3 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t

Evaluating using the initial conditions to solve for the constants A1, A2 and A3.
In matrix form

1 0 1 k1 0

- 98.0115 2.0280 - 0.99426 k2 = 0

9606.25 - 4.03278 - 3.1243 k 50
3
Solving for the constants
k
1 0.0053098
k = 0.254014
2
k3 - 0.0053098
yields
c(t) = 0.0053098 e- 98.0115 t - 0.0053098 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t + 0.254014 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t
The response is given in Figure 2.3.1-1.
c(t)
time
Figure 2.3.1-1 Impulse response based on equivalent initial condition
2.3.2 Step Response

The form of the solution to
is
c(t) = k0 + k1 e- 98.011 t + k2 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t + k3 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t

where k0, k1, k2 and k3 are constants. k0 is set by the particular solution and k1, k2 and k3 are determined to satisfy
the zero-valued initial conditions. Since the coefficients of the c(t) and r(t) term are equal, k 0 = 1. The relationships
for the initial conditions are
In matrix form

1 0 1 k1 1

- 98.0115 2.0280 - 0.99426 k2 = 0
9606.25 - 4.03278 - 3.1243 k 0
3
Solving
k
1 0.00054176
k = 0.51618
2
k3 0.99946
The solution for the step portion of the response is
c(t) = 0.00054176 e- 98.0115 t - 0.999458 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t - 0.51618 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t +1
The step response is shown in Figure 2.3.2-1.
1.4
1.2
c(t)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time
Figure 2.3.2-1 Step transient portion of response
2.3.3 Total solution

The total solution is the sum of the impulse and step response and is given by
c(t) = 0.004768 e- 98.0115 t -1.0048 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t - 0.2622 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t +1

The response is shown in Figure 2.3.3-1.
1.4
c(t) 1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time
Figure 2.3.3-1 Total response

Control System Examples Chapter 3 Laplace Transforms
CHAPTER 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM EXAMPLES

Examples 3.1 and 3.3 illustrate the use of Laplace Transforms to solve linear constant coefficient differential
equations. Examples 3.2 and 3.4 show the use of partial fractions to inverse transform a Laplace transform.
Example 3.5 is the inverse Laplace transformation of transfer functions in Chapter 1, Section 1.1.
3.1 Solve where c(t) = 1, = 1, =2
Solution:
Laplace transforming the equation
Substituting the initial conditions into the equation

1
s3C(s) + 5 s2C(s) + 7 s C(s) + 3 C(s) - s2 - 4 s = 20
2
s +1
Collecting terms in C(s)
(
C(s) s3 +5 s2 + 7 s + 3 - s2 - 4 s = 20 ) 2
1
s +1
Solving for C(s)
1 s (s - 4)
C(s) = 20 +
(s +5 s + 7 s + 3 ) (s +1) s + 5 s2 + 7 s + 3
3 2 2 3
Factoring the denominator term

1 s (s + 4)
C(s) = 20 +
(s +1) (s + 3)(s +1) (s +1)2 (s + 3)
2 2
The first term is the forced response and the second term is due to the initial conditions. Collecting terms
s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20
C(s) =
(s +1)2 (s + 3) (s2 +1)
Partial fraction expansion yields
b g h s+l
C(s) = + + +
s + 3 (s +1) 2 s +1 s2 +1
where the form of the last term is that of a sine and cosine term with the root at s = j1 Equating the two
expressions for C(s)
s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20 b g h s+l

= + + +
2
(s +1) (s + 3) (s +1)2 s + 3 (s +1)2 s +1 s2 +1
To evaluate multiply the left and right side by s + 3
s (s + 4) (s 2 +1) + 20 b (s + 3) g (s + 3) h s + l
= + + + (s + 3)
2 2
(s +1) (s +1) (s +1)2 s +1 s 2 +1

Chapter 3 Laplace Transforms Control System Examples
Let s = 3, resulting in = 1/4. Similarly for b
s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20 (s +1)2 g (s +1)2 h s + l

= +b + + (s +1)2
2
(s + 3) (s +1) s+3 s +1 2
s +1
Let s = 1, then b = 7/2. To evaluate g perform the differentiation and evaluate at s = 1.

d s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20 (s + 3) (s2 +1) (4 s3 +12 s2 + 2 s + 4) - (s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20) (3 s2 + 6 s +1) 17
g = = =
ds (s + 3) (s +1)
2 2 2
(s + 3) (s +1) 2 4
s = -1 s = -1
To determine the values of h and l, multiply by s2+1 and evaluate at the complex root s = j1.
s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20 (s 2 +1) b (s 2 +1) g (s 2 +1)
= + + +h s + l
(s + 3) (s +1)2 s+3 (s +1)2 s +1
s =- j s =- j
The sum of the real and the sum of the imaginary parts must both be zero, hence, l = -1 h = -
The partial fraction expansion is
1 1 7 1 17 1 3 s +1
C(s) = - + + -
4 s + 3 2 (s +1) 2 4 s +1 s2 +1
Expanding the last term to enable table look-up

1 1 7 1 17 1 1 s
C(s) = - + + - -3
4 s + 3 2 (s +1) 2 4 s +1 s +1 s +1
2 2
Inverse transforming
1 7 17
C(s) = - e- 3 t + t e- t + e- t - sin t - 3 cos t
4 2 4
The response c(t) is shown in Figure 3.1-1.
c(t)
time
Figure 3.1-1 Response c(t) for Problem 3.1

s2 + 3 s + 2
3.2 Solve for c(t) given C(s) = 2000
s (s + 4) (s2 + 5 s +1000)
Solution: The form is ideal for inversion to an exponentially damped sine and cosine by making the numerator term
with the s contain a factor equal to n of the quadratic denominator term. Completing the square in the
denominator term yields the roots
5 1 5 1
s + + j 3975 s + - j 3975
2 2 2 2
The transform can be rewritten as
s2 + 3 s + 2
C(s) = 2000
2
5 3975
(s + 4) s + +
2 4

Partial fraction expanding
h b s +g
C(s) = + +
s s + 4 5 2 3975
s + +
2 4
Equating these two expressions for C(s)
s2 + 3 s + 2 h b s +g
2000 = + +

5 3975 s s + 4 5 3975
2 2

(s + 4) s + + s + +
2 4 2 4

To evaluate , multiply both sides by s + 4 and evaluate at s = 4

s2 + 3 s + 2 h
2000 b s+g
+ +
5 2
3975 = s s + 4 5 3975
2
(s + 4) s + +
s + +
2 4 2 4 s = 4
s = 4
yielding = 250/83. Similarly for the quadratic term coefficients
2 2
2 h 5 3975 5 3975
2000 s + 3 s + 2 = s + + + s + + + b s + g
(s + 4) s = 5 - j 3975 s 2 4 s + 4 2 4
2 2
s = 5 - j 3975
2 2
yielding
5
- g + b +1993+ j
2
1
2 ( 3975 b -126.9 = 0 )
Setting the real and imaginary terms to zero, yields
5
b = 2.012 , - g + b +1993 = 0
2
Evaluating, g = 1998. The coefficient to the 1/s term is evaluated from

s2 + 3 s + 2 h
2000 b s +g
+ +
5 3975
2
= s s + 4 5 3975
2

(s + 4) s + +
2 s + +
4 2 4 s = 0
s = 0
yielding, . Substituting the coefficients in the expression for C(s)

h b s+g 1 250 1 1 s
C(s) = + + = - +1998 + 2.012
s s + 4 5 2 3975 s 83 s + 4 2
5 3975 2
5 3975
s + + s + + s + +
2 4 2 4 2 4
Adjusting coefficients of the last two terms such that the last terms are the transform of an exponentially damped
sine and cosine
3975
1 250 1 2 s
C(s) = - + 63.22 + 2.012
s 83 s + 4 2
5 3975 2
5 3975
s + + s + +
2 4 2 4
5 5
- t 3975 - t 3975
-4t
C(s) = 1- 3.012 e + 63.22 e 2 sin t + 2.012 e 2 cos t
2 2
Note that as time increases, the solution approaches the steady state value 1. The response c(t) is shown in Figures
3.2-1 and -2.
Figure 3.2-1 Response c(t) for Problem 3.2; 0 t 2

c(t)
time (sec)
Figure 3.2-2 Response c(t) for Problem 3.2, t 2
3.3 Solve with initial conditions c(0) = 0.01,

= 0.3, = 0.4
where a.) r(t) = u-1 (t); the unit step function, and b.) r(t) = 0.5 t2; a parabolic input
The Laplace transform of the differential equation is
or
The first term on the right hand side is the forcing due to r(t) and the second term is due to the initial conditions.
Substituting the initial conditions into the equation
100.08 s +1 - 0.01 (s2 +8.01 s +100.08) + 0.3 (s + 8.01) - 0.4

C(s) = R(s) +
s3 + 8.01 s2 +100.08 s +1 s3 + 8.01 s2 +100.08 s +1
3.3.1 r(t) is a unit step

The Laplace transform is
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s2 +101.0822 s +1

C(s) =
s (s3 + 8.01 s 2 +100.08 s +1)
A B D D*
C(s) = + + +
s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
where D* is the complex conjugate of D.

Evaluating the coefficients

- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s 2 +101.0822 s +1
A =
=1
(s + 0.01) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165) s = 0
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s2 +101.0822 s +1
B =
= 0.010809
s (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165) s = - 0.01
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s 2 +101.0822 s +1
D =
= -0.5104 + j 0.20639
s (s + 0.01) (s + 4 + j 9.165) s = - 4+ j 9.165
Thus
1 0.01089 - 0.5104 + j 0.20639 - 0.5104 + j 0.20639
C(s) = + + +
s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
c(t) = 1+ 0.0108 e- 0.01 t - 0.5104 (e(- 4 + j 9.165) t + e(- 4 - j 9.165) t ) - j 0.20639 (e(- 4 + j 9.165) t - e(- 4 - j 9.165) t )
or
c(t) = 1+ 0.0108 e- 0.01 t -1.0208 e- 4 t cos (9.165 t) - 0.41278 e- 4 t sin (9.165 t)

The response to a unit step is shown in Figure 3.3.1-1.
1.4
c(t)
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (sec)
Figure 3.3.1-1 Step response
3.3.2 r(t) is a Parabolic Input

The Laplace transform is
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1

C(s) =
s3 (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)

A B CC D E E*
C(s) = + + + + +
s3 s 2 s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
where E* is the complex conjugate of E. Evaluating the coefficients
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s 4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
A= =1
(s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s=0

d - 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
B = =0
ds (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s=0

1 d - 0.01 s + 0.2199 s +1.0022 s +100.08 s +1
2 3 4 3
CC = = - 8.01
2 ds 2 (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s=0
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
D = = 8.016
s3 (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s = -0.01
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s 4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
E = = - 0.0082 + j 0.01716
s3 (s + 001) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s = -4+ j 9.165
The transform to be inverted is

1 - 8.01 8.016 - 0.0082 + j 0.01716 - 0.0082 - j 0.01716
C(s) = + + + +
s 3 s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
Inverting
c(t) = 0.5 t 2 -8.01 + 8.01 e- 0.01 t - 0.0164 e- 4 t cos 9165 t + 0.0343 e- 4 t sin 9165 t
The error in tracking the input is shown in Figure 3.3.2-1. The error is given by
e (t) = 8.01 -8.01 e- 0.01 t + 0.0164 e- 4 t cos 9165 t - 0.0343 e- 4 t sin 9165 t
10
Error
8
0
0 500 1000 1500
Time (sec)
Figure 3.3.2-1 Error in tracking parabolic input

s2 +1.012 s + 0.012
3.4 Invert C(s) = 281.25
s (s + 0.015) (s 2 +15 s + 225)
Partial fraction expansion of the expression yields
1 1 1 s
C(s) = + 0.2465 + 262.6 -1.2465
s s + 0.015 2
s +15 s + 225 2
s +15 s + 225
Each term can be inverted using a table of transforms, yielding
C(s) = 1+ 0.2465 e- 0.015 t + 20.93 e- 7.5 t sin 12.99 t -1.2465 e- 7.5 t cos 12.99 t
The graph of the response is shown in Figure 3.4-1. The plot of the pole-zero pattern is given in Figure 3.4-2. The
large overshoot and undershoot are due to the poor pole-zero geometry.
12
10
6
c(t)
4
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time (sec)
Figure 3.4-1 Time response corresponding to C(s)

Figure 3.4-2 Closed loop pole-zero pattern
3.5 Inverse Laplace transformation of transfer functions in Chapter 1, Section 1.1

Use the linear system closed loop transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/U(s) from Section 1.1 with b = 1 + 2 and
n = 1 and = 2 /2 = 0.707 for the complex conjugate roots.
A. Solve for time response corresponding to C(s)/R(s) for each controller using the inverse Laplace transform for a
unit step input r(t) = 1 u1(t) and zero initial conditions, i.e., c(0) = dc(0)/dt = d2c(0)/dt2 = 0 with u(t) = 0.
B. Solve for time response corresponding to C(s)/U(s) for each controller using the inverse Laplace transform for a
unit step disturbance u(t) = 1 u1(t) and zero initial conditions, i.e., c(0) = dc(0)/dt = d2c(0)/dt2 = 0 with r(t) = 0.
Solution. The closed loop transfer functions from Section 1.1 are shown in Table 3.5-1.
A. Time Response for C(s)/R(s)
Optimal Controller C(s)/R(s) Unit Step response. The unit step response transform is
bs +1 (2 +1)s +1
C(s) = = 3.5-5
3 2
s(s + bs + bs +1) s(s + (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1)
3
Using the denominator factoring with and n

(2 +1)s +1
C(s) = 3.5-6
s(s + n )(s2 + 2 ns + n2 )

A B D F
C(s) = + + + 3.5-7
s s + n s + + j 1- 2 s + - j 1- 2
n n n n
Table 3.5-1 Closed loop transfer functions
Transfer Functions Equation Number

Optimal
Controller
C(s)/R(s) bs +1 (2 +1)s +1
=
s + bs + bs +1 (s + n )(s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
3 2 3.5-1
C(s)/U(s) 1 s+b 1 s + 2 +1
=
J s3 + bs2 + bs +1 J (s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) 3.5-2
n n n
PID Controller
C(s)/R(s)
bs 2 + bs +1 (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
= 3.5-3
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 (s + n )(s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
C(s)/U(s) 1 s 1 s
=
J s3 + bs2 + bs +1 J (s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) 3.5-4
n n n
To simplify the evaluation of the residues D and F for the complex conjugate terms, the numeric values for and n
are used.
Evaluating

(2 +1)s +1
A= =1 3.5-8
(s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 )
n n n
s=0
n =1
2
=
2

(2 +1)s +1
B= = 2.414
s(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=-n 3.5-9
n
n =1
n
2
=
2

(2 +1)s +1
D= = -1.707
2 s=- n - j n 1- 2 3.5-10
s(s + n )(s + n - j n 1- ) =1
n
2
=
2
F is the complex conjugate of D, or F = 1.707.

1 1 1 1
C(s) = + 2.414 -1.707 +
s s +1 s + 0.707 + j0.707 s + 0.707 - j0.707
3.5-11
1 1 2(s + 0.707)
= + 2.414 -1.707
s s +1 2 2
(s + 0.707) + j0.707
The individual complex conjugate terms are grouped above in the form of the damped sinusoidal terms, but as
observed there is no transform in the expression corresponding to the damped sine term. Using the inverse Laplace
transform table

c(t) = 1+ 2.414e-t - 3.414e-0.707t cos(0.707t) 3.5-12

PID Controller C(s)/R(s) Unit Step response. The unit step response transform is
bs2 + bs +1 (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1

C(s) = = 3.5-13
s(s3 + bs 2 + bs +1) s(s3 + (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1)
(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
C(s) = 3.5-14
s(s + n )(s2 + 2 ns + n2 )

A B D F
C(s) = + + + 3.5-15
s s + n s + + j 1- 2
s + n - j n 1- 2
n n
are used.
Evaluating

(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
A= =1
(s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=0 3.5-16
n n n =1
n
2
=
2

(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
B= = -1.707
s(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=- n 3.5-17
n n =1
n
2
=
2

(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
D = = 0.3536 + j8536
2 s=- n - jn 1- 2 3.5-18
s(s + n )(s + n - j n 1- ) =1
n
2
=
2
F is the complex conjugate of D, i.e., F = 0.3536 j0.8536.

1 1 0.3536 + j0.8536 0.3536 - j0.8536
C(s) = -1.707 + +
s s +1 s + 0.707 + j0.707 s + 0.707 - j0.707
1 1 0.707 (s + 0.707) 3.5-19
= -1.707 +1.707 + 0.707
s s +1 2
(s + 0.707) + j0.707 2
(s + 0.707)2 + j0.707 2
The individual complex conjugate terms are grouped above in the form of the damped sinusoidal terms. Using the
inverse Laplace transform table
c(t) = 1-1.707e-t +1.707e-0.707t sin(0.707t) + 0.707e-0.707t cos(0.707t) 3.5-20

B. Time Response for C(s)/U(s)
Optimal Controller C(s)/U(s) Unit Step response. The unit step response transform is
1 s+b 1 s + 2 +1
C(s) = = 3.5-21
J s(s + bs + bs +1) J s(s + (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1)
3 2 3


1 s + 2 +1
C(s) = 3.5-22
J s(s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 )
n n n

A B D F
C(s) = + + + 3.5-23
s s + n s + + j 1- 2 s + - j 1- 2
n n n n
are used.
Evaluating

1 s + 2 +1 2.414
A= =
J (s + )(s 2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=0 J 3.5-24
n n n n =1
2
=
2

1 s + 2 +1 -2.414
B= =
J s(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=- n J 3.5-25
n n n =1
2
=
2

1 s + 2 +1 - j1.707
D= =
J s(s + )(s + - j 1- 2 ) s=-n - j n 1- 2 J 3.5-26
n n n =1
n
2
=
2
F is the complex conjugate of D, or F = j1.707/J.

1 1 1 - j1.707 j1.707
C(s) = 2.414 - 2.414 + +
J s s +1 s + 0.707 + j0.707 s + 0.707 - j0.707
3.5-27
1 1 1 0.707
= 2.414 - 2.414 + 2(1.707)
J s s +1 (s + 0.707)2 + j0.707 2
The individual complex conjugate terms are grouped above in the form of the damped sinusoidal terms, but as
observed there is no transform corresponding to the damped cosine term. Using the inverse Laplace transform table
c(t) =
1
J (
2.414 - 2.414e-t - 3.414e-0.707t sin(0.707t) ) 3.5-28
PID Controller C(s)/U(s) Unit Step response. The unit step response transform is
1 s 1 1
C(s) = = 3.5-29
J s(s3 + bs2 + bs +1) J s3 + (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1

1 1
C(s) = 3.5-30
J (s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 )
n n n

B D F
C(s) = + + 3.5-31
s + n s + + j 1- 2 s + - j 1- 2
n n n n
are used.
Evaluating

1 1 1.707
B= =
J s2 + 2 + 2 s=- n J 3.5-32
n n n =1
2
=
2

1 1 -0.836 + j0.3536
D= =
J (s + )(s + - j 1- 2 ) s=- n - j n 1- 2 J 3.5-33
n n n =1
n
2
=
2
F is the complex conjugate of D, i.e., F = ( 0.8536 j0.8536)/J.

1 1 -0.8536 + j1.707 -0.8536 - j1.707
C(s) = -1.707 + +
J s +1 s + 0.707 + j0.707 s + 0.707 - j0.707
3.5-34
1 1 0.707 s + 0.707
= -1.707 + 0.707 -1.707
J s +1 (s + 0.707)2 + j0.707 2 (s + 0.707)2 + j0.707 2
The individual complex conjugate terms are grouped above in the form of the damped sinusoidal terms. Using the
inverse Laplace transform table
c(t) =
1
J (
1.707e-t + 0.707e-0.707t sin(0.707t) -1.707e-0.707t cos(0.707t) ) 3.5-35

Control System Examples Chapter 4 State Variables
CHAPTER 4 - STATE SPACE EXAMPLES

Example 4.1 illustrates the use of state variables to write the equations for a coupled spring-mass system. Example
4.2 shows the design of a simple control system using three techniques: full state feedback, an observer when only
partial state variables are measurable, and, a conventional PID control system. Example 4.3 obtains the transfer
function for a vector differential equation. Example 4.4 illustrates the method of obtaining the state space
representation from a block diagram. Example 4.5 illustrates obtaining the transfer function for a vector differential
equation. Examples 4.6 and 4.7 each design an observer, state feedback and PID for a control system.
4.1 State Differential Equation for Coupled Spring Mass System

The spring mass system shown in Figure 4.1-1 is acted on by forces f1 and f2 with outputs y1 and y2.
a.) Write the state equations.
b.) Derive the Laplace transform from the state equations
f2 k2
m2
k1
y2 b1
m1
y1
f1
Figure 4.1-1 Spring-mass block diagram for problem 4.1-1
4.1.1 Solution to Part a. State Equations

Write the scalar differential equations for each mass. For mass m1
For mass m2
Define the state variables
The state equations are

Chapter 4 State Variables Control System Examples
In matrix formulation
The measurable output, y, is given by

x1(t)
x1
y1(t) 1 0 0 0 x2 (t) y 1 x2
= = 1000 x3
y2 (t) 0 0 1 0 x3 (t) y 2 0010
x4

x4 (t)
4.1.2 Solution to Part b. Laplace transform from state equations

Laplace transforming assuming zero initial conditions
0 1 0 0 0
X1(s)
X1(s)
- k1 b
- 1 0
k1 F1 (s)
X 2 (s) m m1 m1 X 2 (s) m
s = 1 + 1
X 3 (s) 0 0 0 1 X 3 (s) 0
b1 k b F (s)
X 4 (s) 0 - 2 - 1 X 4 (s) 2
m2 m2 m2 m2
Solving for X(s)

-1
0 0
1 0 0
X1 (s)
1 0 0 0 k1 b
- 1
k1 F1(s)
X 2 (s) -m m1
0
m1 m
= s 0 1 0 0 - 1 1
X 3 (s) 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

b1 k b F (s)
X 4 (s) 0 - 2 - 1 2
m2 m2 m2 m2

Inverting the matrix

X1(s)
2
(m2 s + b1 s + k2 ) F1(s) + b1 s F2 (s)

X 2 (s) 1 s (m2 s 2 + b1 s + k2 ) F1(s) + b1 s2 F2 (s)
=
X 3 (s) b s F (s) + (m s 2 + b s + k ) F (s)
1 1 1 1 1 2
X 4 (s) 2 2
b1 s F1(s) + s (m1 s + b1 s + k1 ) F2 (s)
where
= m1 m2 s4 + (m1 + m2 ) b1 s3 + (k1 m2 + k2 m1 ) s2 + (k1 + k2 ) s + k1 k2

Solving for the Laplace transform of the displacements, where X1(s) = Y1(s) and X3(s) = Y2(s)
Y1 (s) = X1(s) =
1
( ) 1
(
(m2 s2 + b1 s + k2 ) F1 (s) + b1 s F2 (s) , Y2 (s) = X 3 (s) = b1 s F1(s) + (m1 s2 + b1 s + k1 ) F2 (s)
)
x (0)
4.2 Find the solution of with initial conditions 1
x (0)
2
Laplace transforming the differential equation

s - 1 X (s) x (0)
1 = 1
b2
s + b X 2 (s) x (0)
2
4
Solving for X(s)
(s + b) x (0) + x (0)
1 2
-1 1 2
X (s) s - 1 x (0) s + b 1 (s + b)
1 1 x1(0) 2

1 = 2 = 2 =
X (s) b
s + b x2 (0) s2 + b s + 1 b2 -
b 1
s x2 (0) - b2 x1 (0) + s x2 (0)
2 4 4 4
4
1
(s + b)2
2
The partial fraction expansion is of the form

k1 k
+ 2
1 1
X (s) (s + b)2 s + b
1 = 2 2

X (s) k3 k
2 + 4
1 2 1
(s + b) s + b
2 2
where ki, i = 1,...,4, are constants. Evaluating the constants
1
k1 = (s + b) x1(0) + x2 (0) b = b x1 (0) + x2 (0)
s=- 2
2
d
k2 = ( (s + b) x1(0) + x2 (0)) = x1(0)
ds s = - b
2
1 1 1
k3 = - b2 x1(0) + s x2 (0) = b2 x1 (0) - b x2 (0)
4 s = - b 4 2
2
d 1
k4 = - b2 x1(0) + s x2 (0) = x2 (0)
ds 4 s = - b
2

The expression to invert is

1
b x (0) + x2 (0) x (0)
2 1 + 1 2
1 2 1
X (s) (s + b) s+ b
1 = 2 2

X (s) 1 2 1
2 b x1(0) - b x2 (0) x (0)
4 2
+ 2
1 2 1
(s + b) s+ b
2 2
Inverting yields the solution

1 - 1b t 1
- bt
x (t) b x1(0) + x2 (0) t e 2 + x1(0) e 2
1 = 2
x (t) - 1b t 1
2 1 2 1 - bt

b x1(0) - b x2 (0) t e 2 + x2 (0) e 2
4 2
4.3 Obtain the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) for the vector differential equation
Laplace transforming the differential equation

X (s)
s+1 0 -1 X1(s) 0 1
= 0 U (s) , Y (s) = 1 1 0 X (s)
-1 s+ 2 0 2 X (s)
2
0 0 s+3 X (s) 1 X 3 (s)
3
Solving for X(s)
X (s) -1
1 s+1 0 -1 0

X (s) = - 1 s + 2 0
2 0 U (s)

X 3 (s) 0 0 s + 3 1
(s + 2) (s + 3) 0 s+2
1 0
= s+3 (s +1) (s + 3) 1 0 U (s)
(s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3)
0 0 (s +1) (s + 2) 1
s+ 2
1
= 1 U (s)
(s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3)
(s +1) (s + 2)
Substituting into the expression for y using the fact that both y and u are scalars

s+ 2
Y (s) 1 s+3 1
= 1 1 0 1 = =
U (s) (s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3) (s +1) (s + 2) (s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3) (s +1) (s + 2)

Note: there is a polezero cancellation of the common factor of s + 3.

4.4 Obtain a state space representation of the system from the block diagram
The block diagram is shown in Figure 4.4-1
u + e m y
s+z 1
s+p s2

Figure 4.4-1 Block diagram of system

Method 1 - Transfer Function. The transfer function Y(s)/U(S) is
s+ z
s+ z Y (s) 2
s (s + p) s+ z
Y (s) = (U (s) -Y (s)) = =
2
s (s + p) U (s) s + z s + p s2 + s + z
3
1+
2
s (s + p)
The equivalent differential equation is
Collecting the highest derivative of y with the derivatives of u on the left hand side, results in
The differential equation is used to construct the block diagram in Figure 4.4-2, where the state variables are defined
as the output of the integrators.
u
zp 1
x3 x2 x1

+

yu

yu + y y y
1 1 1
s + s s

+
p
+ +
Figure 4.4-2 Block diagram with state variable

Method 2 - Block Diagram

The differential equations for the first block in Figure 4.4-1 can be written as
Rearranging

Using this relationship, the block diagram in Figure 4.4-1 can be redrawn a shown in Figure 4.4-3.
x3 x2 x1

u + e + me me +m y

y
1 1 1
zp
s + s s

Figure 4.4-3 Block diagram showing state variables

The state equations from the block diagram are
Note that the state variables are not unique as the two methods resulted in different definitions of the square matrix.
4.5 Laplace transform of ,
Laplace transforming the state equation

X (s) X1(s) 1 X (s)
1 = - 4 - 1 + U(s) , Y(s) = 1 0 1

s
X (s) 3 - 1 X (s) 1 X (s)
2 2 2
Solving for X(s)
X (s) - 1 1 s
1 = s+ 4 1 1
U(s) = U(s)
X (s) - 3 s + 1 1 s2 + 5 s + 7 s + 7
2
Using the defining relationship for y
Y(s) 1 s s
= 1 0 =
s +5 s + 7 s + 7 s + 5 s + 7
U(s) 2 2
4.6 Controller and Observer for Simple Spring Mass System

Consider the spring mass system in Figure 4.6-1. u(t) is the control force and fd(t) is the disturbance force. Assume
the control actuator has a gain of 1, i.e., the actuator force output u(t) is equal to the control signal. Design the
controllers specified below for the output y(t) to satisfy the requirements:
i.) Overall system undamped natural frequency of 5 Hz and overshoot of less than 15 % for a displacement
initial condition, y(0)
ii.) Zero steady state error in y(t) to a step disturbance force, fd(t).
a.) Assuming both velocity and position for y(t) are measurable, design a full state controller
b.) Design an observer for the system when position y(t), but not the velocity , is measurable.
c.) Design a conventional proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller
d.) Compare the controller structures for the designs in Parts a, b and c.

b k
y(t)
u(t) fd(t)
Figure 4.6-1 Simple spring-mass system

Requirements. Using the standard form of the second order differential equation, for an undamped natural
frequency of 5 Hz
n = 2 p 5 = 31.416
and for 15% overshoot
0.52
Plant Equations. The second order differential equation of the plant is
Define state variables
or in matrix formulation
Laplace transforming with initial conditions x1(0) and x2(0)
X (s) s -1 - 1 0 0
1 = k x1(0)
b + 1 u(t) + 1 f d (t)
X (t) s+
2 m m x2 (0) m m

No Controller. Solving for X(s) with U(s) = 0
X (s) s -1 - 1 0
1 = k x1(0)
b u(t) + 1 f d (t)
X (t) s+
2 m m x2 (0) m

Evaluating the inverse matrix

s -1 - 1 s+ b 1
1 m
k s+
b = k
2 b k
m m s + s+ - s
m m m

Without the control force, U(s), to modify the dynamics, the uncontrolled spring-mass plant has the second order
parameters
k 1 b
n = , =
plant m plant 2 km
Assume the problem is consistent with a 5 Hz undamped natural frequency and 15% overshoot, i.e., the value of
k, b and m provides low damping and a frequency less than 5 Hz requiring the control system to modify the
response. Hence, relative to the controller design parameters
k 1 b
n >> , >>
m 2 km
4.6.1 Controller with full state measurement.

Full State Controller. Since both position and velocity are assumed to be measurable, structure a state space
proportionalderivative controller (PD) as shown in Figure 4.6.1-1.
b k
m
fd u
Control
signal
m y = x1
k1

Position
Measurement k2
x2
s
A. Physical Block Diagram Velocity
Measurement
fd
ycmd = 0 e u+ +
+ y = x2
k1 +
m 1 1 1 y = x1
+ x1 m s s
+
k2 b
m
x2 Control
s
Signal k
Velocity m
Measurement
B. Mathematical Block Diagram
Figure 4.6.1-1 Full state measurement proportional-derivative controller

x (t)
u(t) = - K x(t) = - m k1 k2 1 = -m k x (t) - m k x (t)
x (t) 1 1 2 2
2
where m k1 and m k2 are the position and velocity gains, respectively. The gains are normalized by the mass, m, for
convenience in manipulation. Substituting the control signal into the state equations

The block diagram of the control system is shown in Figure 4.6.1-1. Figure 4. 6.1-1A shows a block diagram with
the physical representation of the spring-mass-damper while Figure 4.6.1-1B shows the mathematical block
diagram.
Laplace Transforming with initial conditions on the state variables x1(0) and x2(0)
X (s) 0 1 0 x (0)
X1(s)
s 1
= + 1 Fd (s) + 1
X (s) - k1 - k - k2 - b
X (s) x (0)
2 m m 2 m 2
Solving for the Laplace variables X1(s) and X2(s)
X (s) s -1 - 1 0 x (0)
1 = X1(s)
+ 1 Fd (s) + 1
X (s) k1 + k s + k2 +
b
X (s) x (0)
2 m m 2 m 2
or
b
s + k2 +
1 m 1

2 b k 2 b k 2 b k
X (s) s + k2 + m s + k1 + m s + k2 + s + k1 +
m m
s + k2 + m s + k1 + m
1 = 1 F (s) + x (0) + x (0)
X (s) m s d k 1 s 2
2 k1 +
m
s2 + k + b s + k + k - s 2 + k + b s + k + k

2
m 1
m s 2 + k + b s + k + k
2
m 1
m
2 1
m m
Setting the denominator equal to the standard second order parameters, i.e.,
b k
s2 + k2 + s + k1 + = s2 + 2 n s + n2
m m
yields
k b
k1 = n2 - , k2 = 2 n -
m m
substituting into the transform
s + 2 n
1 1

X (s) s + 2 n s + n2
2 s + 2 n s + n2
2 s + 2 n s + n2
2
1 = 1 Fd (s) + x1(0) + x2 (0)
X (s) m s n2 s
2 -
s2 + 2 s + 2 2 2 s2 + 2 s + 2
n n s + 2 n s + n n n

Initial Condition Response. Assuming fd(t) = 0, and using the initial conditions x1(0) 0 and x2(0) = 0
s + 2 n

X (s) s 2 + 2 s + 2
1 = n n
x1 (0)
X (s) 2
2 - n

2 2
s + 2 n s + n
The response y(t) is given by x1(t). Hence

s + 2 n
Y (s) = X1 (s) = x1(0)
s + 2 n s + n2
2
The zero at s = 2 n will increase the overshoot relative to a second order system with no zero, hence the
damping ratio must be chosen to compensate for this increase in overshoot. Using the Figures in Chapter 2, section
2.4.2, choose = 0.65 and n = 31.4. Hence
s + 40.841
Y (s) = x1(0)
2
s + 40.841 s + 986.96
Let x1(0) = 1. Partial fraction expanding
40.841 s
Y (s) = +
2 2
s + 40.841 s + 986.96 s + 40.841 s + 986.96
Inverting
y(t) = e- 20.42 t cos 23.87 t + 0.8553 e- 20.42 t cos 23.87 t

The response is shown in Figure 4.6.1-2.
y(t)
time (sec)
Figure 4.6.1-2 Response y(t) to initial condition x1(0)
m
Disturbance Response. Assume zero initial conditions. For a step disturbance of amplitude m, i.e., Fd (s) =
s
1

1 = (
X (s) s s 2 + 2 s + 2
n n )

X (s) 1
2
2 2
s + 2 n s + n

Partial fraction expanding the expression for Y(s), i.e., X1(s)

1 1 1 s + n 1
Y (s) = = - -
(
s s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 ) n2 s n2 ( s + n )
2
(
+ 1- 2
) n2 ( n) ( )
n s + 2 + 1- 2 2
n
Inverting
1 1 - n t - n t
y(t) = - e cos n 1- 2 t - e sin n 1- 2 t
n2 n2 1- 2
n
1
The response y(t) has a non-zero steady value, , indicating a proportional-derivative (PD) controller cannot
2n
provide zero steady state error for a step disturbance. Evaluating the expression for y(t)
y(t) = 0.001- 0.001 e- 20.42 t cos ( 23.87 t ) - 0.00087e- 20.42 t sin ( 23.87 t )
The response to a disturbance step of amplitude "m" is shown in Figure 4.6.1-3.
c(t)
1
n2
time (sec)
Figure 4.6.1-3 Response to step disturbance of amplitude "m"

Controller Transfer Function. The transfer function U(s)/Y(s) is determined from Figure 4.6.1-1.
U (s) k k
= - m ( k2 s + k1 ) = - m k2 s + 1 = - m k1 2 s +1
Y (s) k2 k1
Assuming that b/m and k/m are small relative to the other terms, and using the values for k 1 and k2
s
U (s) 2 +1
= - m 2 n s + = - m n n
n
Y (s) 2
2
4.6.2 State Space Approach to ControllerObserver Design

Two cases will be studied, one with an observer for , and the other, with an observer that also estimates the
disturbance force fd.
4.6.2.1 Observer for Plant States
Assuming only y(t), i.e., x1, is measurable, the state equations of the plant are of the form

where
0 1
1 0 1 0
A= k b , B = m , C= , H = 1 0
- m - m 1 m 1
An observer is used to construct the state variables x1(t) and x2(t). The estimated state vector, x(t) , is the output of
the observer whose state differential equation is
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( y(t) - y(t)) = A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( x1(t) - x(t)) = ( A - G H ) x(t) + B u(t) + G y(t)
dx
where G = [g1 g2]T is the observer gain vector selected by the designer. The observer is "driven" by the error,
y(t) H x(t) , between the measured output y(t) and the estimated output x1(t) .
The controller uses the estimated state and is of the form

x (t)
u(t) = - K x(t) = - m k1 k2 1 = -m k x (t) - m k x (t)
x (t) 1 1 2 2
2
where K, the row vector of gains, is selected by the designer. Substituting the control u(t) into the observer equation
and using the relationship y(t) = H x(t) , results in
dx(t)
= ( A - G K - G H ) x(t)+ G y(t)
dx
The form of the controller-observer system is shown in Figure 4.6.2.1-1. The analogy with the conventional
proportionalintegralderivative (PID) controller paths is shown.
Since the characteristic equations of the controller and observer error are decoupled, the observer and controller
gains can be selected independently.
Observer Plant
Plant Model Controller
for Estimator
Position
Disturbance y = x1
"derivative"
k2 fd
y = x2
^ ^ u
u + x x1 + 1
1 1 2 1 k1 1 1
s m m
m s +
+
s s
+ b
+ "proportional" b
+ m + m
k + Damper
m Control k
g2 g1 ^ Signal m
x1
Spring
+ y
error = y x^ 1
Figure 4.6.2.1-1 Observer-controller system

Observer Design. The observer gain is chosen to set the roots of the observer error equation "faster" than that of
the controller since the "sensor," i.e., observer, estimates should be faster than the control system response. The
observer error characteristic equation is given by the determinant

1 g
1 0 0 1 0 b b k
s I 2 - ( A- G H )) = s - k +
b = s2 + g1 + s + g2 + g1 +
0 1 - - g 0 m m m
m m 2
"Arbitrarily" make the observer "a" times faster, where, a > 1, than the controller, i.e., make the observer undamped
natural frequency "a n", while maintaining the same damping, , as for the controller
b b k
g1 + = 2 ( a n ) , g2 + g1 + = a 2 n2
m m m
Solving for the observer gains
b b b2 k
g1 = 2 ( a n ) - , g2 = a 2 n2 - 2 a n + +
m m 2 m
The observer gain is
b
2 ( a n ) -
m
G = 2
a2 2 - 2 b a + b + k
n n
m 2 m
and the observer error characteristic equation is
s 2 + 2 a n s + a 2 n2
Controller Design. The controller characteristic equation is
1 -1
1 0 0 0 0
s
2 b k
s I 2 - ( A- B K ) = s - k b + = k b = s + k2 + s + k1 +
0 1 - - k k
1 2 k + s + k + m m
m m 1
m 2
m
The desired controller second order roots are determined by n and

k b
k1 + = n , k2 + = 2 n
m m
Solving for the gains
k b
k1 = n - , k = 2 n -
m 2 m
The controller gain vector is
b
K = m k1 k2 = m n -
k
2 n -
m m
The controller characteristic equation is
s I 2 - ( A- B K ) = s2 + 2 n s + n2
Form of the Controller. The controller in Laplace notation is given by
( )
-1
U (s) = - K X (s) = - K s I 2 - ( A- B K - G H ) G Y(s)
where U(s) and Y(s) are scalars. This can be written as the transfer function
U (s)
( )
-1
= - K s I2 - ( A - B K - G H ) G
Y (s)
Substituting the values for gains
s + g1 -1 - 1
U (s) g1
= - m k1
k2 = - m ( k g + k g ) s + k b - k k g + k g
k b
g2
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
Y (s) g2 + k1 + s + k2 + (s) m m
m m
where
b b k
(s) = s2 + k2 + g1 + s + k1 + g 2 + k2 g1 + g1 +
m m m
Using the grouping of terms as a "position" and "rate" path yields the controller structure in Figure 4.6.2.1-2. The
rate path has a zero in the right-half plane.
"position path"
b ^
g2 + k 2 + x1
g1 (s + m
k1 Position
g1
Disturbance y = x1
s2 + (g1 + k2 + b ) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2 fd
m y = x2
u
+
+ 1 + 1 1
"rate path" m m s
s
g1
g2 (s (k1 + k ) ) x^2 b
g2 m k2 + m
+ Damper
s2 + (g1 + k2 + b ) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2
m Control k
Signal m
Spring
y
Figure 4.6.2.1-2 Observer-controller using state estimates

Using the approximations that b/m and k/m are "small" relative to the other terms yields the controller
s
+1
n a

U (s) 2 a2 2 a +1
= m n

Y (s) 2 2
a + 4 a +1 s 2
2 a +1
+ s +1
n

( )
2 a 2 + 4 2 a +1 a 2 + 4 2 a +1
n


The position and rate paths are as shown in Figure 4.6.2.1-3.

"position path"
a (a + 4 2 ) ( s +1)
2 ^
a2 + 1 (a + 4 2 ) x1
n
k1 Position
s2 2 (a + 1) Disturbance y = x1
+ s+1
2 2 n (a2 + 1) fd
n (a + 1) y = x2
u +
+ 1 + 1
"rate path" m 1
m s s
2 n ( a s
)( 2 1 )
a2 + 1 n x^2 b
a k2 + m
2 2 + Damper
s (a + 1)
+ s+1 Control k
2 2
(a + 1) n (a2 + 1) m
n Signal
Spring
y
Figure 4.6.2.1-3 Approximate gain values for controller

Since the control system did not provide an "integral" term, the system will not provide zero error to a step
disturbance.
4.6.2.2 Observer for Plant States and Disturbance Force
To obtain a zero steady state error to a step disturbance, augment the state variables with
x3 (t) = f d (t)
where fd(t) is a constant. Hence
The augmented state equations are
Note, relative to the standard form of the state equation, = A x(t) + B u(t), y(t) = H x(t), the augmented matrices
are
0 1 0 0

k b 1 , B = 1 , H =
A= -
m -m m m 1 0 0

0 0 0 0
An observer is used to construct the two unobserved state variables x2 and x3. The estimated state vector, x(t) , is
the output of the observer whose state differential equation is
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( y(t) - y(t)) = A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( x1(t) - x(t)) = ( A - G H ) x(t) + B u(t) + G y(t)
dx

g
1
G = g2

g3
where G, the observer gain vector, is selected by the designer. The observer is "driven" by the error y(t) x1(t)
between the measured output y(t) and the estimated output y(t) = H x(t) .
The controller uses the estimated state and is of the form

x (t)
1
u(t) = -K x(t) = - m k1 k2
k3 x2 (t) = - m k1 x1(t) - m k2 x2 (t) - m k3 x3 (t)

x3 (t)
where the designer selects the row vector of gains, K. Substituting the control into the observer equation and using
the relationship y(t) = H x(t) , results in
dx(t)
= ( A - B K - G H ) x(t) + G y(t)
dx
The form of the controller-observer system is shown in Figure 4.6.2.2-1. The analogy with the conventional
proportionalintegralderivative (PID) controller paths is shown. Since x 3 (t) = fd (t) , i.e., x 3 (t) is the estimate of
the disturbance that the controller is to null, choose k3 = 1/m.
gains can be selected independently.
Observer Plant
Torque Plant Model Controller
Estimate for Estimator
"integral"
k3 Position
Disturbance y = x1
u "derivative"
k2 fd
+ y = x2
^x ^
x
^
x1 u
1 3 1 + 1 2 + 1
1
s k1 m
1
m
1
s + m+ s + s s
+
b "proportional" b
+ m m
+
k + Damper
m Control k
g3 g2 g1 m
^ Signal
x1
Spring
+ y
error = y x^ 1
Figure 4.6.2.2-1 Observer-controller with force estimate

Observer Design. The observer gain is chosen to set the roots of the observer error equation "faster" than that of
the controller since the "sensor," i.e., observer, estimates should be faster than the control system response.

The observer error characteristic equation is given by the determinant

1 0 0 0 1 0
g1 0 0
k b 1 + g 0 0 = s 3 + g + b s 2 + g + b g + k s + g3
s I3 - ( A - G H ) = s 0 1 0 - - - 2 1 2
0 0 1 m m m m m 1 m m
g 0 0
0 0 0 3
By analogy with the conventional PID, the integral term is "slow." Hence, assuming one root is slower than the
second order response yields the approximate factors of the equation as
g3
b b k g b b k
s3 + g1 + s2 + g2 + g1 + s + 3 s2 + g1 + s + g2 + g1 + s + m
m m m m m m m b k
g2 + g1 +
m m
To make the extra terms added by the approximation "small", the gain g3 is chosen such that
2
b k
g2 + g1 +
g3 b b k g m m
<< g1 + g2 + g1 + and 3 <<
m m m m m b
g1 +
m
Using the approximate quadratic term, "arbitrarily" make the observer "a" times faster, where, a > 1, than the
controller, i.e., make the observer undamped natural frequency "a n", while maintaining the same damping, , as
for the controller
b b k
g1 + = 2 a n , g2 + g1 + = a 2 n2
m m m
b b b2 k
g1 = 2 a n - , g2 = a 2 n2 - 2 a n + -
m m m2 m
Using these values, the relationship for the gain g3 to be "small" given above is
g3 g 1 3 3
<< 2 a3 n3 and 3 << a n
m m 2
Let the exponential root in the approximation for the observer error characteristic equation be l a n. Then g3/m is
given by
g3 b k
= l a n g2 + g1 + = l a3 n3
m m m
where l is selected to be "small" to satisfy the inequality relationship for g3/m. The approximate observer gain is
b
2 a n -
m

b b2 k
G = a 2 n2 - 2 a n + -
m m2 m

m l a3 n3
The approximate observer error characteristic equation is
( s + 2 a s + a ) ( s + l a )
2
n
2 2
n n

Controller Design. The controller characteristic equation is

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
k

s I3 - ( A - B K ) = s 0 1 0
k b 1 + k k b
k3 = s s2 + k2 + s + k1 +
- - - 1 2
m m m m m
0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0

b k
k2 + = 2 n , k1 + = n2
m m
b k
k2 = 2 n - , k1 = n2 -
m m
k b 1
K = m n2 - 2 n -
m m m
(
s I3 - ( A - B K ) = s s2 + 2 n s + n2 )
Form of the Controller. The controller in Laplace notation is given by
( )
-1
U (s) = -K X (s) = -K s I3 - ( A - B K - G H ) G Y (s)
where U(s) and Y(s) are scalars. This can be written as the transfer function
U (s)
( )
-1
= -K s I3 - ( A - B K - G H ) G
Y (s)
s + g1 -1 0 - 1
g1

U (s) k b 1
= - m k1 k2 k3 g2 + k1 + s + k2 + k3 - g
Y (s) m m m 2
g3 0 s g3

m g b k k bg k g
=- k1g1 + k2 g2 + 3 s2 + k1 - k2 g1 + k1g2 + k2 + + 3 s + k1 + 3
(s) m m m m m m m m
where
b k b
(s) = s s2 + k2 + g1 + s + k1 + + g2 + k2 + g1
m m m
Using the approximations that b/m and k/m are "small" relative to the other terms.
U (s)
= - m
( )
2 + l a 2 + 2 a a 3 s2 + 1+ 2 l a a 2 4 s + l a3 5
n ( ) n n
Y (s)
( 2
(
s s + 2 n ( a +1) s + a + 4 a +1 n
2 2 2

) )

The approximate factoring of the numerator yields

a n 1+ 2 l a l a n
U (s)

= - m
( 2 3
)
2 + l a + 2 a a n s + 2
l
s +
a 2 1+ 2 l a
Y (s) 1+ a +
2

( 2 2
(
s s + 2 n ( a +1) s + a + 4 a +1 n
2 2
) )

Using the values of n = 2 p 5, = 0.52 and l = 0.01 yields
U (s) 395330 ( s + 0.95374 ) ( s + 21.91)

= - m
s ( s + 65.345+ j 93.82 ) ( s + 65.345 - j 93.82 )
Y (s)
Position Estimate Path. The transfer function is

b
g1 s + g 2 + k2 + g1
X1(s) m
=
Y (s) b b k
s2 + g1 + k2 + s + k2 + g1 + k1 +
m m m
Using the approximations b/m and k/m are smaller relative to the other terms
s
+1
2 1
(
X1(s) a a + 4
=
2
)
n a + 4 2
Y (s) a 2 + 4 2 a +1 s2 2 a +1
+ s +1
n2 ( )
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n a + 4+ a +1
2 2
Rate Estimate Path. Note the zero in the right half of the s-plane
k
g2 s - k1 + g1
X 2 (s) m
=
Y (s) b b k
s 2 + g1 + k2 + s + g2 + k2 + g1 + k1 +
m m m
Using the approximations b/m and k/m are smaller relative to the other terms, obtain
s
-1
2
n
X 2 (s) 2 a n a
=
Y (s) a 2 + 4 2 a +1 s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
n2 ( ) ( )
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n a 2 + 4 2 a +1
Integral: Disturbance Estimate Path. Note the integration "s" in the denominator.
b k
g1 s2 + k2 + s + k1 +
X 3 (s) m m
=
Y (s) 2 b b k
s s + g1 + k2 + s + g2 + k2 + g1 + k1 +
m m m

Using the approximations b/m and k/m are smaller relative to the other terms, obtain
s2 2
+ s +1
X 3 (s) l a n 3
n2 n
=m
Y (s) a + 4 2 a +1
2
2 ( a +1)

s2
s + s +1

2 2
(
n a + 4 a +1 n a + 4 a +1
2 2 2
)
( )
Figures 4.6.2.2-2 and -3 show the control system with the position, rate and integral paths.
"integral path"; disturbance estimate
k
g3 (s2 + (k2 + b ) s + k 1 + ) k3
m m
^ Position
s x3
Disturbance y = x1
"position path" fd
y = x2
b ^ u
g2 + k 2 + x1 + 1
g1 (s + m ) k1 1 1
m m
g1 s s

b
"rate path" + m
g1 + Damper
g2 (s (k + k ) ) ^
x2 Control k
g2 1 m k2 Signal m
Spring
y
b
= s2 + (g1 + k 2 + ) s + g 2 + k1 + g1( k2 + b ) + k
m m m
Figure 4.6.2.2-2 Observer-controller using disturbance estimate

"integral path"; disturbance estimate
2 2
l a3 n ( s + s +1) ^
x3
2
n n
a2 + 4 2 a + 1 1
Position
Disturbance y = x1
"position path" fd
y = x2
a (a + 4 2 ) ( s + 1) ^ u +
x1
y 2
a + 4 2 a + 1
2 n
k1
+ 1 + 1 1
m m
a s s

b
"rate path" + m
2 a n ( s 1 ) + Damper
2 n ^
x2 Control k
a2 + 4 2 a + 1 a k2 Signal m
Spring

s2 2 (a + 1)
= + s+1
n2(a2 + 4 2 a + 1) n
(a2 + 4 2 a + 1)
Figure 4.6.2.2-3 Approximate gain values with disturbance estimate

Using the values of n = 2p 5, = 0.52 and l = 0.01 yields

X1 (s) 98.018 ( s +123.3)
=
Y (s) ( s + 65.345+ j 93.82 ) ( s + 65.345 - j 93.82)
X 2 (s) 8882.6 ( s -10.891)
=
Y (s) ( s + 65.345+ j 93.82 ) ( s + 65.345 - j 93.82 )
X 2 (s) 8371.7 ( s +16.336 + j 26.834 ) ( s +16.336 - j 26.834 )
=m
Y (s) s ( s + 65.345+ j 93.82 ) ( s + 65.345 - j 93.82)
4.6.3 Conventional PID Controller Design.
As shown in section 4.6.1, a proportional-derivative (PD) controller does not meet the requirement for zero steady
state error to a step disturbance. Integral control is required for zero error. Hence, choose an error driven
proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller of the form
where the error is given by e(t) = r(t) y(t). For comparison with the other controllers, let Kp = m k1, Kr = m k2, and
Ki = m k3. The command input to the control system is denoted by r(t) and is assumed to be zero, i.e., the control
system is a regulator control system designed to hold the mass m at its zero position. The position gain K p is
selected to modify the undamped natural frequency, the rate gain Kr to improve the damping, and the integral gain
Ki to yield a small residue of the "slow" closed loop pole. The block diagram of the compensated system is shown
in Figure 4.6.3-1 where it is assumed that position and velocity measurements are available.
The plant differential equation is
Substituting the control signal u(t) with r(t) = 0 into the equation yields
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
or
Laplace transforming with initial conditions y(0) and

Figure 4.6.3-1 Block diagram of conventional PID controller design

Since Ki/(Kp + k) is typically chosen to be much less than (Kp + k)/m and (Kr + b)/m, the denominator can be
approximately factored as
k
3 b 2 k 2 b k s + 3
s + k2 + s + k1 + s + k3 = s + k2 + s + k1 + k
m m m m k1 +
m
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k b
k1 + = n2 , k2 + = 2 n
m m
Solving for the control gains
k b
k1 = n2 - K p = m n2 - k , k2 = 2 n - K r = 2 m n - b
m m
The "slow root" is approximately
k3 Ki
- or -
k Kp +k
k1 +
m

if the conditions
2
k
( )m k1 +
2
Kp +k m m n3
= =
Kr + b b 2
K i << k2 +
m

( K p + k ) ( Kr - b) = m k + k k b 3
= 2 m n
1 2+
m m m
are satisfied. Choose the slow root to be at n, where << 1. The transform for Y(s) using these
approximations is
Initial Condition Response to y(0). Using the approximation with fd = 0 and =0
y(0)
Y (s)
s + n
and
- n t
y(t) = y(0) e
The initial condition response is dominated by the integral term.
Disturbance response. The disturbance input transform is approximately
Y (s) s s
=
1
m
Fd (s) 2 b
s + k2 + s + k1 +
k
k
2
(
k s + 3 s + 2 n s + n ( s + n )
2
)
m m k1 +
m
For an undamped natural frequency of 5 Hz, n = 31.416 r/s and for 15% overshoot 0.52.
The gains are
k b
k1 = 31.416 2 - , k2 = 32.673-
m m
k3/m must satisfy
2
k
m k +

1
m 3
= n = 29813.7
k3 b 2
<< k2 +
m m
k b
m k1 + k2 + = 2 m n3 = 32246.5
m m
Choose the root associated with the k3 term to be 1/100 of n

k3 1
= = 0.3146
k 100 n
k1 +
m

Using these values, the approximate transfer function becomes

Y (s) s

1 2
( )
F (s) s + 32.673s + 986.96 ( s + 0.31416 )
m d
For a step input in fd of magnitude m, i.e., Fd(s) = m/s
1
Y (s)
( s + 32.673s + 986.96) (s + 0.31416)
2
y(t) = 0.0012 e- 0.31 t + 0.0012 e- 16.3 t sin ( 26.82 t +1.032)
The response y(t) to a unit step disturbance goes to zero as time approaches infinity, i.e., is zero in the steady state.
The response is shown in Figure 4.6.3-2. Note the "fast" second order response followed by the "slow exponential
root", which causes a "tail" on the response.
y(t)
0.0025
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
time (sec)
Figure 4.6.3-2 Response to a step disturbance; slow root 1/100 n

Controller Transfer Function. The Laplace transform of the PID controller is
U (s) K
= - K p + i + Kr s
Y (s) s
In terms of the gains k1, k2 and k3
U (s) k k s2 + k s + k
= - m k1 + 3 + k2 s = - m 2 1 3
Y (s) s s

Since k1, k2 >> k3, the zeros can be approximately factored as
s s
k k +1 +1
U (s) s + s +
1 3 k k
= - m k2 k k = - m k3 1 3
Y (s) 2 1
k k1
s 2
s

Using the approximation b/m and k/m are small relative to the other terms
k b
k1 = n2 - n2 , k2 = 2 n - 2 n , k3 = n
m m
Therefore
s s
+1 +1
U (s) s + n s +
= - m 2 n 2 = - m n n

Y (s) n
2 n
s
s
4.6.4 Comparison of Controller Designs

Using the approximations
k b
<< n2 , << 2 n
m m
which are reasonable for many control problems, the controllers can be readily compared. Tables 4.6.4-1 through -3
compare the control law polezero pattern and position, rate and integral paths.

Table 4.6.4-1 Comparison of controllers
Controller Controller Approximate Controller

Type U (s) U (s)
- -
m Y (s) m Y (s)
PID Controller k2 2 k1 s s
s + s +1 +1 +1
k3
k3 k3 n

s 2 n
n
s
Full State s s
Feedback k1 +1 n2 +1
k1 n
k
2 2
Observer for
States
( k1g1 + k2 g2 ) s s
+1
(s) n a

b k 2 a +1
g
k1 - k2 g1 + k1g2 (s)
m m
+ where
(s)
a2
where g = n2

(s) = s 2 + ( k2 + g1 ) s
2 2
a + 4 a +1
b s2
+ k + g2 + k2 g1 + g1 (s) =
1 m (
n2 a 2 + 4 2 a +1 )
2 a +1
+ s +1
n a + 4 a +1
2 2
Observer
including
g
k1 g1 + k2 g2 + 3 s 2
m
( 2 + l a 2
)
+ 2 a a n3 s2
External 1(s)
Disturbance 1(s)
Estimate b k +
( 2 l a +1) a 2 n4 s + l a3n5
k1 - k2 g1 + k1 g2 1(s)
m m
+
1(s)
where
k g
k2 + 3 k + k (
1(s) = s s2 + 2 n ( a +1) s
m m 1
m g3
+
1 (s) s+
1(s) m (
+ a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n2) )
where
(
1(s) = s s2 + ( k2 + g1 ) s
(
+ a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n2 ) )

Table 4.6.4-2 Comparison of controller pole-zero locations (using approximations k/m and b/m are small
relative to other terms)
Controller- Controller Pole-Zero Controller Gain Diagram

Type Pattern (straight-line approximation)
PID Controller j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
"integral" "rate"
"position"
X
0
n n n
2 n n 2
Full State j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
Feedback "rate"
"position"
20 log n2
0
n n
2
2
Observer for j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
States X "roll
1 "rate" off"
2 2
n (a2 + 4 a + 1) "position"
20 log g 2
0
n n a
( a ) ( )
2 a+1 2 a+1
a n (1 + 4 2 + 1/a2 )
Observer j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
including X 1 "roll
External n (a2 + 4 2a + 1) 2 "integral" "rate"
off"
Disturbance "position"
Estimate
0
a n b l a n
l a n a n b
2 1+2al
1+2al 2
1+2al 2
b= 2 l a3 n
1+a+a l a2 + 4 2 +1
2
a n (1 + 4 2 + 1/a2 )

Table 4.6.4-3 Comparison of controller position, rate and integral estimates (for k/m and b/m small relative
to the other terms)
Controller-Type Path Transfer Function

PID Controller
Position Path 1
Rate Path s
Integral Path 1/s
Full State Feedback
Position Path 1
Rate Path s
Integral Path N/A
Observer for States s
Position Path +1
(
a a+ 42 )
2
(
n a + 4 2

)
a 2 +1
s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
(
2 2 2
)
a +1 n a +1 n (

)
Rate Path s
-1
2
n
a a
2 n
a 2 +1 s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
(
n2 a 2 +1 n a 2 +1 ) ( )
Integral Path N/A
Observer including s
External Disturbance +1
2
Estimate
Position Path (
a a+4 2 a+42
n

) ( )
x 1 X1(s) 2 2
a + 4 a +1 (s)
y Y (s)
s2 2 ( a +1)
(s) = + s +1
n2 (a 2 2
+ 4 a +1 ) (
n a 2 + 4 2 a +1 )
Rate Path s
-1
X 2 (s) 2
n
Y (s) a a
2 n
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 (s)
Integral Path s2 2
X 3 (s) + s +1
3
l a n n2 n
Y (s)
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 s (s)
4.7 Rotational Control System

Given the system in Figure 4.7-1, and requirements: i.) Overshoot 25%, ii.) time to peak 0.15 sec, iii.) zero
steady state error to a ramp input, iv.) settling time (2%) 2 sec, v.) Error of less than 0.001 rad to a unit step
torque disturbance. For Parts A, B and C, assume the structural spring due to Ks is stiff, i.e., at a high frequency
relative to the undamped natural frequency n of the control system. The damping due Bs is small and can be
included B1, i.e., B1 = B1 + Bs. Let I1 denote the combined inertia of the two bodies, i.e., I1 = I1 + I2. Explain any
additional assumptions you make in designing control systems.

A. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your selection. Draw the block
diagram of the controller.
B. Design a full state feedback controller. Draw the block diagram of the controller.
C. Design an observer-controller type control system assuming only 1 is available. Explain your choice of
controller-observer implementation. Draw the block diagram of the controller.
D. Compare the controllers obtained above relative to the requirements and their individual characteristics. What
value would you give the structural designer for the structural frequency for your control designs.
control signal Motor 1 = Angle of Body 1
Kt
Ic 2 = Angle of Body 2
Tc = Kt Ic cmd = Angle command for Body 1

1 B1 = Damping on Body 1
cmd 1 , T1
Controller T1 = Disturbance torque on Body 1
I1, B1
Kt = Motor torque constant
1 Tc = Motor torque
Ks, Bs
Ks = Spring constant coupling Body 1 and 2
Bs = Damping coupling Body 1 and 2
2 I1 = Inertial of Body 1
I2
I2 = Inertial of Body 2
Figure 4.7-1 Rotational control system

Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 4.7-1. The damping ratio, , could be increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the
system.
Table 4.7-1 Requirements
Requirement Parameters without Compensating for Lead

Adjusting for Lead Zero Zero
i.) Damping Ratio, 0.4 (Overshoot 25 %) 0.55 (Overshoot 12.5 %)
ii.) Time to peak 0.15 sec n = 22.9 r/s n = 0.7*22.9 r/s
= 16 r/s
iii.) zero steady state error Match coefficients of right and left hand side of closed
to a ramp input, loop differential equation up through d1/dt
iv.) settling time (2 %) n = 5
2 sec,
v.) Error of less than 0.001 Integral control, or gain of 1 term 1000 times gain on T1
rad to a unit step torque term
disturbance
Mathematical Model of Plant. The plant equations is
Laplace transforming
Tc (s) T1(s)
(s) = +
B B
I1 s s + 1 I1 s s + 1
I1 I1
The torque Tc(t) is derived from control signal u(t), which is the current Ic(t) to the torque motor. Therefore
Tc (t) = Kt I c (t) = Kt u(t)

4.7.1 Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller.

To achieve the tracking of a ramp, and to support the 0.001 r/s error to a step disturbance input, a PID controller is
selected. The form is shown in Figure 4.7-2A-1.
Figure 4.7-2A-1 Block diagram of conventional PID controller design

Substituting the control signal u(t)
into the plant equation yields
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions

k2 s2 + k1 s + k3 1 s
(s) = R(s) + T1(s)
3

B1 2 I1 3 B1 2
s + k2 + s + k1 s + k3 s + k2 + s + k1 s + k3
I1 I1
Since k3 is typically much less than k1 and k2, the denominator can be approximately factored as
B B k
s3 + k2 + 1 s2 + k1 s + k3 s2 + k2 + 1 s + k1 s + 3
I1 I1 k1
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
Choose the slow root to be at n, where << 1. Hence

k3
= n k3 = n3
k1

The transform for (s) using these approximations is

B
2 n - 1 s 2 + n2 s + n3
I1 1 s
(s) R(s) + T (s)
(s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 )(s + ) n ( n n )
I1 s 2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + ) 1
n
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Using the approximation B1/I1 << k2, setting T1 = 0 and assuming the two zeros are
significantly separated in magnitude

2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 2 n s + n
(s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2

R(s)
( )(
s2 + 2 n s + n2 s + b n ) ( )
s2 + 2 n s + n2 ( s + b n ) s2 + 2 n s + n2
The pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 4.7-2A-2. The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin, which canceled in
the approximation above, provides a small residue relative to the dominant second order response. The second order
response is dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero."
2nd order j
pole
n
"lead zero"

n n
"dipole"
2
Figure 4.7-2A-2 Closed loop pole-zero pattern for (s)/R(s)

Disturbance response. The response to a unit step disturbance is approximated by
1 1
(s)
(
I1 s + 2 s + 2 ( s + )
2
n n n )
The pole zero pattern is shown in Figure 4.7-2-4.
j

n
Dominant closed loop

pole in response

n
Figure 4.7-2A-3 Closed loop pole zero pattern for (s) in response to unit step disturbance
The response (t) to a unit step disturbance goes to zero as time approaches infinity, i.e., is zero in the steady state.
The response has a "fast" second order response followed by the "slow exponential root", which causes a "tail" on
the response.

4.7.2 Full State Feedback Controller.

Since both position and velocity are assumed to be measurable, structure a state space proportionalderivative
controller (PD) as shown in Figure 4.7-2B-1. This form is chosen to allow tracking a ramp, as the structure implies
that both the command rate, , and the rate of Body 1, , are available and therefore the error signal, ,
is available to drive the control system.
T1
cmd - x1
cmd
I1 Ic Tc +
k1 +
Kt 1 + 1 = x2 1 = x1
+ Kt + I1 s s
+
k2 B1
Control I1
Signal
s u

e = cmd - x2
Figure 4.7-2B-1 Full state measurement proportional-derivative controller
where I1 k1/Kt and I1 k2/Kt are the position and velocity gains, respectively. These gains are normalized by I 1/Kt for
convenience in manipulation.
Scalar Differential Equation. The Laplace transform of (s) can be obtained from the figure
1 T (s)
(s) = 1 + k1 ( cmd (s) - (s)) + k2 s ( cmd (s) - (s))
B I
1
s s + 1
I1
Solving for (s)
k2 s + k1 1 1
(s) = cmd (s) + T1(s)
2
B I B1
1 2
s + k2 + s + k1
1 s + k2 + s + k1
I1 I1
Setting the denominator equal to the standard second order parameters, i.e.,
B
s 2 + k2 + 1 s + k1 = s2 + 2 n s + n2
I1
yields
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
The transform becomes
B
2 n - 1 s + n2
I1 1 1
(s) = cmd (s) + T (s)
s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 I1 s2 + 2 s + 2 1
n n

Alternate Derivation of Transfer Function Using the State Equations. Substituting the control signal into the
state equations
and
Rewriting the equations
Define new state variables: z1 = x1 and z2 = x2 k2 cmd
and
Laplace transforming the state equation with zero initial conditions

-1 - 1 k2
Z (s) s
1 = B B (t) + 1 0 T (t)
Z (t) k1 s + k2 + 1 k - k k + 1 cmd I1 1 1
2 I1 1 2 2
I1

Solving for the Laplace variables Z1(s) and Z2(s)
B k2
Z (s) s+ k + 1 1
= 1 (t) + 1 0 T (t)
1
2
I1 B
Z (t) 2 B k1 - k2 k2 + 1 cmd
I1 1 1
2 s + k + 1 s + k - k1 s I1
2 I 1

1
or

Z (s) k2 s + k1

1 = 1 (t) + 1 1 T (t)
Z (t) 2
B1
B k1 - k2 k2 + s - k1 k2 cmd
I1 s 1
2 s + k + 1 s + k I
2 I 1
1
1
Setting the denominator equal to the standard second order parameters

B
s 2 + k2 + 1 s + k1 = s2 + 2 n s + n2
I1

yields
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
substituting into the transform

B
2 n - 1 s + n2
I1 1

Z (s) s 2 + 2 n s + n2
2 2
1 = 1 s + 2 n s + n
(t) + T1(t)
Z (t) 2 B B
cmd
I1
( )
2 s
n 1- 4 2 + 2 n 1 s - n2 2 n - 1
2 2

I1 I1
s + 2 n s + n

s 2 + 2 n s + n2

the output (s) is
B
2 n - 1 s + n2
I1 1 1
(s) = cmd (t) + T (t)
s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 I1 s2 + 2 s + 2 1
n n
Step Response. Assuming T1(t) = 0, and using cmd(s) = 1/s

n
s+
B
2 - 1
B1 I1 n
(s) = 2 n -
(
I1 s s2 + 2 s + 2
n n )
The pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 4.7-2B-2.
2nd order j
pole
n
"lead zero"

n

B1 Step
2
I1n Input
Figure 4.7-2B-2 Full state feedback closed loop pole-zero pattern

The zero at s ~ n/2 will increase the overshoot relative to a second order system with no zero. The damping
ratio can be chosen to compensate for this increase in overshoot. Using the values in Table 4.7-2-1, choose = 0.55
and n = 16 r/s. Assuming B1/I1 << 2n
17.6 s + 256
(s) =
( 2
s s +17.6s + 256 )
Partial fraction expanding
1 s
(s) = - 2
s s +17.6s + 296

Inverting
(t) = 1- e- 8.8 t cos 13.4 t + 0.66 e- 8.8 t sin 13.4 t

The response is shown in Figure 4.7-2B-3.
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time (sec)
Figure 4.7-2B-3 Response (t) to step command

Step Disturbance Response. Assume zero command input. For a unit step disturbance, T 1 s = 1
s
1 1
(s) =
(
I1 s s 2 + 2 s + 2
n n )
Partial fraction expanding the expression for (s)

1 1 s + n n 1- 2
(s) = - -
n n (
I1 n2 s ( s + ) 2 + 2 1- 2
)
1- 2 ( s + n ) + n2 1- 2
2
( )

Inverting

1 - n t - n t
(t) = 1- e cos n t 1- 2 - e sin n t 1- 2
I1 n2 1- 2

1 1
The response (t) has a non-zero steady value, . If 0.001, then the steady state response to a unit step
I1 2n I1 2n
1
disturbance requirement will be meet. Using n = 16 r/s, I1 must satisfy 0.256. Evaluating the expression
I1 2n
for (t)
(t) =
1
256 I1 (
1- e- 8.8 t cos 13.4 t - 0.66 e- 8.8 t sin 13.4 t )
The response, scaled by I1, to a unit step disturbance is shown in Figure 4.7-2B-4.

I1
1
2
n
time (sec)
Figure 4.7-2B-4 Response to unit step disturbance
4.7.3 Observer-Controller using only 1

The selection of the structure incorporating the reference input cmd is at the discretion of the designer. One
approach would be to follow the procedure used in the previous observer-controllers and design an error driven
control law, i.e., one driven by the difference between cmd and x1. Note that Tc(t) = Kt u(t) and thus Kt is
incorporated into the B matrix.
Assuming only (t), i.e., x1, is measurable, the state equations of the plant are of the form
where
0 1
1 0 1
A= B1 , B= , C= 0
0 -I I1 K t I1 1
1
An observer is used to construct the state variables x1 and x2. The estimated state vector, x(t) , is the output of the
observer whose state differential equation is
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( y(t) - y(t)) = A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( x1(t) - x1 (t)) = ( A - G H ) x(t) + B u(t) + G y(t)
dt
g
where G =
1
, the observer gain vector, is selected by the designer. The observer is "driven" by the error,
g
2
y(t) - x1(t) , i.e., y(t) - H x(t) , between the measured output y(t) and the estimated output y(t) = H x(t) .
The error driven controller uses the command input and the estimated state and is of the form
where the row vector of gains K = I1 [k1 k2] is selected by the designer. Let

Then u(t) can be written as

I
u(t) = K r(t) - x(t) = 1 k1 k2 r(t) - x(t)
Kt
Substituting the control (with r(t) = 0) into the observer equation and using the relationship y(t) = H x(t) , results in
dx(t)
= ( A - B K - G H ) x(t) + G y(t)
dt
The block diagram of this error driven control system is shown in Figure 4.7-2C-1. Looking at the error equation
between the actual state and the estimate of the state
The error is seen to depend on the reference input. Hence, the designer can either 1.) ignore the reference input and
solve for the homogeneous roots of the error observer as in the case of observer without a reference input, or
2.) reformulate the control and observer to remove the reference input from the error equation.
To decouple the error equation from the reference input, assume a control of the form
u(t) = -K x(t) + g r(t)
where both g and r(t) are scalars. r is cmd(t). The associated observer is assumed to be of the form
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) - G H x(t) + G y(t) + G r(t)
dt
where G is an nx1 matrix (the same dimension as x). Both g and G are selected by the designer. Forming the error
equation
If
G =g B
the error equation is independent of the reference input. The block diagram of this system is shown in Figure 4.7-
2C-2.
gains can be selected independently for both approaches.

Observer Plant
for Estimator

cmd Position
Disturbance y = x1
"derivative" +
k2 T1
u Ic y = x2
^ ^ + Tc
+ x2 x +
1 1 1 1 k1 I1 1 + 1 1
s Kt
I1 s +
+ + + Kt + I1 s s
+ B1 cmd B1
I1 I1
"proportional"
Control
g2 g1 ^ Signal
x1
u
+y
error = y x^ 1
Figure 4.7-2C-1 Error driven observer-controller system
Observer Plant
for Estimator
cmd
Position
g Disturbance y = x1
"derivative"
I1 k2 Ic T1
y = x2
u ^ ^
+ x x1 + I1 Tc +
1+ 1 2 1 k1 1 + 1 1
I1 s s Kt I1
+
+ + Kt + s s
+ g
B1 cmd B1
I1 I1
"proportional"
Control
g2 g1 ^ Signal
x1 u
+y
error = y x^ 1
Figure 4.7-2C-2 Observer error equation independent of cmd
4.7.4 Observer Design

The observer gain is chosen to set the roots of the observer error equation "faster" than that of the controller since
the "sensor," i.e., observer, estimates should be faster than the control system response. The observer error
characteristic equation is given by the determinant

1 0 0 g1 0
1
s I2 - ( A - G H ) = s - B1 + = s2 + g + B1 s + g + B1 g
I1
0 1 0 -I g2 0
1 2
I1 1
1

"Arbitrarily" make the observer "a" times faster, where, a > 1, than the controller. That is, make the observer
undamped natural frequency "a n", while maintaining the same damping, , as for the controller.
B1 B
g2 + g1 = a 2 n2 , g1 + 1 = 2 a n
I1 I1
B1 B B2
g1 = 2 a n - , g2 = a 2 n2 - 2 a n 1 + 1
I1 I1 I 2
1
The observer gain is

B
2 a n - 1
I1
G =
2 2 B1 B12
a n - 2 a n I + 2
1 I1
The observer error characteristic equation is
s 2 + 2 a n s + a 2 n2
4.7.5 Controller Design


1 0 0 1
0 0 B
s I 2 - ( A- B K ) = s - B1 + = s 2 + k2 + 1 s + k1
0 1 0 -I k1 k2 I1
1
B1
n2 = k1 , 2 n = k2 +
I1
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
I1 B1
K= k k = I1 2 2 n -
Kt 1 2 Kt n I1
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
4.7.6 Form of Error Driven Controller

The controller in Laplace notation is given by
( ) ( )
-1
U (s) = K R(s) - X (s) = K R(s) - K s I 2 - ( A - B K - G H ) G Y (s)

where U(s) and Y(s) are scalars. Examining the transfer function U(s)/Y(s)
U (s)
( )
-1
= -K s I 2 - ( A - B K - G H ) G
Y(s)
s+ g -1 -1
I1 1 g
I g s + g k + B1 + g
U (s) = - I1 2
k1 k2
1 1 1 2
= - k1 k2 B 1

Y (s) Kt g2 + k1 s + k2 + 1
g2 Kt (s)
I1 g2 s + g1 k1
B
( k1 g1 + k2 g2 ) s + k1 g1 1 + k1 g2
I I1
= - 1

Kt (s)
where
B B
(s) = s 2 + k2 + g1 + 1 s + k1 + g2 + k2 g1 + g1 1
I1 I1
Using the grouping of terms as a "position" and "rate" path yields the controller structure in Figure 4.7-2C-3. The
rate path has a zero in the right-half plane.
"position path" cmd
B1 ^ +
g2 + k 2 + x1
g1 (s + I1
Position
g1
= x1
I1 k1 Disturbance
s2 + (g1 + k 2 + B1 ) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2 T1
I1 Kt = x2
+
+ 1 + 1 1
"rate path" Kt I1 s
Tc s
g1 B1
g2 (s k ) I1 k2
g2 1 Kt I1
^
s2 + (g1 + k 2 + B1) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2 x2
I1 +

cmd
Figure 4.7-2C-3 Error driven observer-controller using state estimates

Using the approximation that B1/I1 is "small" relative to the other terms, yields the transfer function
s
+1
n a

U (s) I1 2 a2

2 a +1
= n 2
Y (s) Kt 2
a + 4 a +1 s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
(
n2 a 2 + 4 2 a +1 ) (
n a 2 + 4 2 a +1 )

The position and rate paths are as shown in Figure 4.7-2C-4.

"position path"
a (a + 4 2 ) ( s +1) cmd
2 ^
a2 + 1 (a + 4 2 ) x1 +
n
Position
2 (a + 1) Disturbance
s2 s+1 y = x1
+ I1 k1
2 n (a2 + 1) T1
n (a2 + 1) Kt y = x2
+ +
"rate path" + 1 + 1 1
Kt I1 s
+ Tc s
2 n ( a s
)( 2 1 )
I1 k2
a2 + 1 n b
a Kt + m
2 (a + 1) + Damper
s2
+ s + 1 ^x2 + k
2
n (a2 + 1) n (a2 + 1) m

cmd Spring
y
Figure 4.7-2C-4 Approximate gain values for error driven observer-controller

Since the control system did not provide and "integral" term, the system will not provide zero error to a step
disturbance.
4.7.7 Comparison of Controllers

Comparing the controllers against requirements
Table 4.7-2D-1 Requirements
Requirement PID Full State Observer-

Controller
i.) Overshoot 25%
Comply Comply Comply
ii.) time to peak 0.15 sec

iii.) zero steady state error to a
Comply No, need No, need integrator
ramp input,
integrator
iv.) settling time (2%) 2 sec,
v.) Error of less than 0.001 rad to a
Comply Comply if I1 > 4 Comply if I1 > 4
unit step torque disturbance
Select the bending frequency approximately 10x the control bandwidth

Control System Examples Chapter 5 Math Modeling
CHAPTER 5 - MATHEMATICAL MODELING

EXAMPLES
The state equations for a simple spring-mass system are shown in 5.1. The elemental block diagram for a coupled
spring mass system is given in Example 5.2. Example 5.3 shows the elemental block diagram for an electrical
circuit. Example 5.4 demonstrates the elemental block diagram for a table positioning system. Examples 5.5, 5.7
and 5.9 are the elemental block diagram and state equations for an air-bearing table, carriage control system and
spray head control system, respectively. Examples 5.6 and 5.8 are the control system design for a lift controller and
elevation gimbal controller, respectively.
5.1 Simple Spring-Mass System

The spring mass system shown in Figure 5.1-1 is acted on by forces u1 and u2 with outputs y1 and y2. Write the state
equations.
k1 u1
m1 u2
k2
y1
b1
m2
y2
Figure 5.1-1 Spring-mass block diagram

Solution.
Write the scalar differential equations for each mass; for mass m1
For mass m2
Define the state variables

Chapter 5 Math Modeling Control System Examples
In matrix formulation
The measurable output, y, is given by

x1(t)

y1(t) 1 0 0 0 x2 (t)
=
y2 (t) 0 0 1 0 x3 (t)

x4 (t)
5.2 Model of coupled spring mass system.

The system is shown in Figure 5.2-1. The excitation, i.e., the input, is the displacement y(t) of the end of spring k 2
and damper b.
A. Write the differential equations describing the system
B. Draw the elemental block diagram in terms of the input y(t) and the output x1. Blocks are to contain only
one quantity in M, k and b.
Figure 5.2-1 Spring Mass system
5.2.1 Differential equations

The differential equations written at the two masses are
Laplace transforming the differential equations with zero initial conditions, and writing in matrix formulation.
2
M1s + k1 - k1 X1(s) 0
Y(s)
=
- k1 M 2 s2 + b s + k1 + k2 X 2 (s) b s + k2

5.2.2 Elemental block diagram.

The equations can be written by taking the terms in the differential equations in , and to the left hand
side, rewriting the differential equations as
The elemental block diagram in Figure 5.2-2 is started by (A), integrating the left hand side of the second equation,
, to obtain (B), the term . The term b y(t) is subtracted to obtain . The
process is then straight-forward to integrate and obtain x2(t). The adder, denoted by (C), sums the right hand side of
the second equation. The first equation is solved once x2(t) is obtained as shown in the figure.
y(t)
Equation
at M2
k2 b M2 x2 k1 ( x2 x1 )
x2
+ (A) 1 + x2 x1 x1 x1
1 1 + 1 1 1
(C) s k1
+ (B) M2 s M1 s s

M2 x2 b y Solves
+ Equation
b
+ k2 x2 at M1
+ k2
k1 ( x2 x1 ) +
k1
Figure 5.2-2 Elemental block diagram of spring mass system
5.3 Elemental block diagram of electrical circuit.

Consider the electrical circuit in Figure 5.3-1. The currents and voltages in the circuit are initially zero. At time
t = 0, the switch is closed.
Switch closed
at t = 0 R1 R3
Va

e + R2
C Vb
L

Figure 5.3-1 RLC circuit
a.) Write the loop equations.
b.) Write the node equations.
c.) Write the state equations.
d.) Determine the transfer function Vb/e.
e.) Draw the block diagram with input e and output Vb. Use only elemental blocks. No differentiators.

5.3.1 Loop equations.

First label the currents, I1 and I2, and nodes, A and B, as shown in Figure 5.3-2. A node could be chosen between L
and R2, but is not needed for this simple problem.
Switch closed VR1 VR3
at t = 0 A B
R1
Va
R3 V
e R2 C
+
VR2 Vb
I1 I2 C

VL L

Figure 5.3-2 RLC circuit labeled with voltages and currents
The voltages are given by
1
VR (s) = I1(s) R1 , VR (s) = (I1(s) - I 2 (s)) R2 , VR (s) = I 2 (s) R3 , VL (s) = L s (I1(s) - I 2 (s)) , Vc (s) = I (s)
1 2 3 Cs 2
Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law
e(s) = VR (s) +VR (s) +VL (s) , 0 = VL (s) +VR (s) +VR (s) -Vc (s)
1 2 2 3
Substituting the expressions for the voltages

1
e(s) = I1(s) R1 + (I1(s) - I 2 (s)) R2 + L s (I1(s) - I 2 (s)) , 0 = L s (I1(s) - I 2 (s)) + (I1(s) - I 2 (s)) R2 + I 2 (s) R3 - I (s)
Cs 2
Grouping terms
1
e(s) = I1(s) ( L s + R1 + R2 ) - I 2 (s) (L s + R2 ) , 0 = I1(s) (L s + R2 ) - I 2 (s) (L s + R2 + R3 + )
Cs
5.3.2 Node Equations.

The voltage at node A is Va(s). The sign convention used is that currents flowing into the node have a positive sign.
The currents into node A are
e(s) -Va (s) 0 -Va (s) Vb (s) -Va (s)
+ + =0
R1 L s + R2 R3
Similarly for node B
Va (s) -Vb (s) 0 -Vb (s)
+ =0
R3 1

C s
Grouping terms in the equations
1 1 1 V (s) e(s) Va (s) 1
Va (s) - - - + b + =0 , -Vb (s) + C s
R1 L s + R2 R3 R3 R1 R3 R3
5.3.3 State Equations.

The state variables are the result of the energy storage sources in the circuit, that is the current in the inductor and
the voltage across the capacitor. The equations are written in the time domain (not in terms of Laplace transforms).
Figure 5.3-3 shows the circuit with state variables x1(t) = VC(t) and x2(t) = iL(t).

Switch closed vR1 vR3

at t = 0 i=0
Va
R1 R3 x1 = vC
e + iR1 R2
VR2 iC vb = vC
A C
B
x2 = iL L

Figure 5.3-3 Circuit showing state variables
The equations for elements of the circuit are
The loop equations for the first loop, denoted by A in Figure 5.3-3 are
The equations for loop B are
Add the two equations above to eliminate , yielding
To eliminate , multiply the equation for loop A by R3 and the equation for loop B by R1, yielding
Solving the two equations above for and , and writing in matrix notation
5.3.4 Transfer Function Vb(s)/e(s)

Note that Vb(s) = I2(s)/(C s). Using the loop equations in section 5.3.1, i.e., Part a, and writing the matrix
equations, yields
L s+ R + R - (L s + R2 )
1 2 I1(s) 1
= e(s)
1 0
- (L s + R2 ) L s + R2 + R3 + 2I (s)
Cs
Solving for the transfer function

Vb (s) I (s) L s + R2
= 2 =
2
e(s) C s e(s) L C (R + R ) s + ( (R R + R R + R R ) C + L) s + R + R
1 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2

5.3.5 Elemental block diagram.

Figure 5.3.5-1 shows the circuit diagram.
Switch closed vR1 vR3
at t = 0 i=0
Va
R1 R3
e + iR1 R2 x1 = vC
VR2 iC vb = vC
A
B C
x2 = iL L

Figure 5.3.5-1 Circuit diagram for using in drawing block diagram
Block diagram using the loop equations in Section 5.3.1.
e + Va + VR3 I2 Vb
1 1
R3 Cs

Vb
VR1
+ I
+ VL 1 I1 I2 1
R1
Ls +
VR2
R2
Figure 5.3.5-2 Elemental block diagram from loop equations

Alternately, the block diagram can be obtained using the node equations in Section 5.3.2.
VR1 VR2 VL I I + I Vb
I1 I2 2
e + 1 + 1 1 2 1
R2 Ls Cs
R1
I1 I2 +
Va
R3
Va
+ VR3
+
Figure 5.3.5-3 Elemental block diagram from node equations
5.4 Table Positioning System

Given the system shown in Figure 5.4-1,
A. Write the equations describing the system.
B. Draw the elemental block diagram (no differentiators, one element per block).
C. Write the state equations.

Figure 5.4-1 Table positioning control system

5.4.1 Equations for System.

The key equations are summarized in Table 5.4-1.
Table 5.4-1 Key Equations
Item Equations
Summer at K2 Vb = Kb b Vcmd = Kcmd b cmd
Table (Plant) J t b + B t b = T b + T dist
Gyro
For small angle :
Since Jgimbal ~ 0:
Circuit Assume zero loading by current amplifier K2, therefore zero

current through R3. Then
V1 IL R1 IL (R2 + 1/Cs) = 0; or for block diagram :
V1 Va = IL R1 => IL = (V1 Va)/R1
IC = IL -IR2
Va = IC /Cs
I R2 = V a/ R2
5.4.2 Elemental Block Diagram.

Tdist
x2 x1
Vcmd +
bcmd Tb + b b
+ I Kt 1 1 1
Kcmd K2
+ Jt s s

Bt
x3 Jt
Va IC + V V1 V
1 1 R1 + K H
1 K
+ Cs R1 Kg
+
1 IR2 Va Gyro
Vb R2
Kb
Figure 5.4-2 Elemental Block Diagram
5.4.3 State Equations.

The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variable.

In matrix notation
5.5 Airbearing control system

Consider the system shown in Figure 5.5-1 where the air-bearing table is constrained to rotate about the z-axis. The
control torque on the table is generated by the two back-to-back CMGs. The table rate z is measured by the rate-
integrating gyro with damping Bg between the float (containing spinning wheel Hg) and the outer housing. The
encoder measures the table angle. The structural mode is physically simulated by the cantilevered mass with inertia
Jm; its motion about the z-axis is s. The details are in Figure 5.5-1 and Table 5.5-1
A. Write equations describing the system.
B. Draw the elemental block diagram (No differentiators, one element per block where possible/reasonable). Since
CMG 1 and 2 are identical, only draw block diagram for the gimbal rate control loop on CMG 1.
C. Write the state equations. (Start numbering states at Op Amp #4 and in sequence thereafter).

Figure 5.5-1 z-axis angle control system on air-bearing table

Table 5.5-1 Symbol definition for angle control system
Parameter Definition
bs Structural mode damping constant, N-m-s/rad
Bg Rate-integrating gyro damping constant, N-m-s/rad
Ci Op amp capacitances i = 1,,6, microfarads
Hcmg CMG angular momentum, N-m-s/rad
Hg Rate-integrating gyro angular momentum, N-m-s/rad
ia CMG torquer motor current, amp
ig Rate-integrating gyro torquer motor current, amp
IT Table plus equipment (e.g., CMGs, gyro, without Js) inertia, Kg-m2
Jcmg CMG wheel plus mounting inertia, Kg-m2
Jg Rate-integrating gyro float inertia, Kg-m2
Js Structural mode inertia, Kg-m2
ka CMG power amplifier gain, v/v

kbmf CMG back emf constant, v/rad/s
kcmd Gain converting table command angle to volts, v/rad
kcmg CMG torquer motor torque constant, N-m/amp
kdot Gain converting CMG angle to volts, v/rad
kemf Rate-integrating gyro torquer back emf constant, v/rad/s
kg Rate-integrating gyro control loop power amplifier gain, v/v
kr Gain converting table rate command to voltage, v/rad/s
kT Rate-integrating gyro torquer motor torque constant, N-m/amp
ks Structural mode spring constant, N-m/rad
kz Gain converting table angle encoder angle to volts, v/rad
k Gain converting rate-integrating gyro output axis angle to volts, v/rad
La Inductance of CMG torquer motor windings, Henries
Lg Inductance of rate-integrating gyro torquer motor windings, Henries
Ri Op amp resistances i = 0, ... ,16, megohms
Ra Resistance of CMG torquer motor windings, Ohms
Rg Resistance of rate-integrating gyro torquer motor windings, Ohms
Ta CMG torquer motor electrically generated torque, N-m
Tcmg Back-to-Back CMG xHcmg torque onto table, N-m
Tg Rate-integrating gyro torquer motor electrically generated torque, N-m
Va Voltage from CMG gimbal rate loop power amp, v
Vc Voltage equivalent to table command angle cmd, v
Vg Voltage from rate-integrating gyro control loop power amp, v
V Voltage equivalent to rate-integrating gyro output axis angle g, v
V Voltage equivalent to rate-integrating gyro measured rate z, v
V_dot Voltage equivalent to CMG measured gimbal rate , v
Vi Voltage of op amps, i = 1,,12, v
x,y,z Coordinate frame of air-bearing table
g Angle of rate-integrating gyro rotation about output axis, rad
cmd Air-bearing table angle command, rad
cmd Air-bearing table angle rate command, rad/s
RB Table rigid body angle about z-axis, rad
s Structural mode angle about z-axis, rad
z Air-bearing table angle, rad.
, 1, 2 CMG measured gimbal angle ( = 1 = 2), rad
, 1, 2 CMG measured gimbal angle rate ( = 1 = 2), rad
z Air-bearing table rate about z-axis, r/s. z = z

5.5.1 Equations for System

Item Equations
Op Amp #1: Inverter Vz = kz z ; Vz/R0 + V1/R0 = 0 -> V1 = Vz
Op Amp #2: Summer with Vc = kcmd cmd
gain V1/R1 + Vc/R1 + V2/R2 = 0 -> V2 = R2/R1 (Vc + V1)
Op Amp #3: Proportional V2/R4 + V3/R5 = 0 -> V3 = R5/R4 V2
Op Amp #4: Integral V2/R3 + C1 s V4 = 0 -> V4 = (1/(R3 C1 s)) V2
Op Amp #5: Derivative (rate- V = (1/Hg) V11
integrating gyro path) V/R6 + V12/R6 + V5/R7 = 0 -> V5 = R7/R6 (V + V12)
Op Amp #6: PID Summer V3/R8 + V4/R8 + V5/R8 + V6/R9 = 0 -> V6 = R9/R8 (V3 + V4 + V5)
Op Amp #7: _dot Summer V7 = (1/(2 Hcmg cos )) V6 ; V_dot = kdot
V_dot/R10 + V7/R10 + V8/R10 = 0 -> V8 = (V_dot + V7)
Op Amp #8: Lag-Lead V8/R11 + C2 s V8 + V9/R12 + C3 s V9 = 0
1/Zi = 1/R11 + C2 s -> Zi = R11/(R11 C2 s + 1)
1/Zo = 1/R12 + C3 s -> Zo = R12/(R12 C3 s + 1)
-> V9 = (R12/R11) (R11 C2 s + 1)/(R12 C3 s + 1) V8
Op Amp #9: PID in gyro loop V = k g
V (1/R13+ C4 s) + V10 (1/(R14 + 1/(C5 s))) = 0
1/Zi = 1/R13 + C4 s -> Zi = R13/(R13 C4 s + 1)
Zo = R14 + 1/(C5 s) -> Zo = (R14 C5 s + 1)/(C5 s)
-> V10 = (1/R13 C5) ((R13 C4 s + 1) (R14 C5 s + 1)/s) V
Op Amp #10: Lag in gyro loop V10/R15 + V11/R16 + C6 s V11 = 0
Zi = R15
1/Zo = 1/R16 + C6 s -> Zo = R16/(R16 C6 s + 1)
-> V11 = (R16/R15) (1/(R16 C6 s + 1)) V10
Angle encoder Vz = kz z
Rate-integrating Gyro Loop Vg = kg V11
Vg VRg VLg Vemf = 0 -> Vg Ig Rg Lg s Ig kemf =0
Tg = kT Ig
Back-to-Back CMGs Va = ka V9
Va VRa VLa Vbmf = 0 -> Va Ia Ra La s Ia kbmf =0
Ta = kcmg Ia
Table plus structural mode
z = z
The transfer function for Op Amp #8, the lag-lead network, is

V9 (s) R R C s +1
= - 12 11 2 5.5.1-1
V8 (s) R11 R12C3 s +1

5.5.1-2
Collecting the derivative of v8 on the left hand side
5.5.1-3
This equation defines k1 that is used to draw the block diagram for the lag-lead network.
The transfer function for Op Amp #9, the PID network, and Op Amp #10 are combined to ensure that the number of
zeros is equal to the number of poles in realizing the differential equation. The transfer function is
V10 (s) V11(s) V11(s) R16 (R13C4 s +1) (R14C5s +1) R16 R13 R14C4C5s 2 + (R13C4 + R14C5 ) s +1
= = = 5.5.1-4
V (s) V10 (s) V (s) R13 R15C5 s (R16C6 s +1) R13 R15C5 s (R16C6s +1)
5.5.1-5
Collecting the derivatives of the right hand side on the left hand side
5.5.1-6
Compare equation 5.5.1-5 with the form of the equation in Chapter 4 of Control Synthesis given below
4.5-10
where from equation 5.5.1-5
1 R C R C +R C 1
a= , b = 0 , c = 14 4 , d = 13 4 14 5 , e = 5.5.1-7
R16C6 R15C6 R13 R15C5C6 R13 R15C5C6
Based on Chapter 4, equations 4.5-1 and 4.5-5 in Control Synthesis

A= 0 1 , H = 1 0 , B = b1 , L = b
0
-b -a b
2 4.5-11
where b0 = c, b1 = d - a c , b2 = e - b c - a (d - a c)
As for the lag-lead network, the state variables may also be obtained by rewriting equation 4.5-10, retaining the
highest derivative of x and terms with all the derivatives of m on the left hand side. The coefficients to be
determined are denoted with an asterisk superscript in equation 4.5-12 from Control Synthesis.
4.5-12
Expanding
4.5-13
Comparing with equation 4.5-10 to determine the coefficients

c* = c , d * + a c* = d d * = d - a c* , a d * + b c* + e* = e e* = e - b c - a (d - a c) 4.5-14
Evaluating for PID plus lag network
R14C4 R C +R C 1 R14C4 1 1 R13C4 + R14C5 1 R14C4
c* = , d * = 13 4 14 5 - , e* = - -
R15C6 R13 R15C5C6 R16C6 R15C6 R13 R15C5C6 R16C6 R13 R15C5C6 R16C6 R15C6 5.5.1-8
The block diagram in Figure 5.5.1-1 represents the PID plus lag network.
Figure 5.5.1-1 Block diagram of PID plus lag network

The block diagram and equation 5.5.1-8 define c*, d* and e* and is used for the PID plus lag network in the overall
system block diagram.

5.5.2 Elemental Block Diagram
Figure 5.5.2-1 Elemental Block Diagram (k1, c*, d* and e* defined in text)
5.5.3 State Equations

The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variable. The numbering started at Op Amp #4 with x1 = V4.
The state variable numbering is shown in Figure 5.5.2-1.

5.6 Lift Control System

Consider the motor-drum-cable drive control system shown in Figure 5.6-1 that is used to lift loads between levels.
The drum is constrained by bearings to rotate about its axis. The cable that raises and lowers the lift-load is wrapped
around the drum by rotation of the motor. The effective diameter of the drum is D. The weight of the counter
balance mass M0 g offsets the nominal weight, M g, of the lift and load. Disturbances on the control system, such as
the residual lift and mass weight not offset by counter balance, are represented by the torque disturbance T d.
The lift control system compensation Gc(s) is to be designed so the system meets the following requirements:
In response to a unit step command, xcmd:
i.) Overshoot 35%
ii.) Time to peak 3.5 seconds
iii.) Settling time to less than or equal to 2% of the unit step value in less than 20 seconds
Other requirements:
iv.) Zero steady state error to a parabolic command input, xcmd = 0.5 a t2
v.) Zero steady state error in x to a step torque disturbance in T d.

A. Determine your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements, if any, for requirements i through v (e.g.,
determine , n, etc.); use a table-format to display results.
B. Determine the block diagram for the plant.
C. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your design choice for the
controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your control system including the values for your controller.
E. Evaluate how your design compared to the requirements in a table-format. Discuss any requirements you cannot
meet.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, xcmd, and, 2.) a unit step torque disturbance T d. Construct the
sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is
required; computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Implement your controller using op amps and a power amplifier of gain 1 v/v. The power amplifier drives the
motor. The resistor and capacitor values are on the scale of megohms (10 6 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1
f), respectively.
Figure 5.6-1 Lift control system

Table 5.6-1 Lift control system parameters
d Diameter of pulley, m
D Diameter of drum, m
F Force in cable due to lift, N
Fnom Offload force M0 g, N
g Gravity constant, m/s2
Gc(s) Compensation, N-m/m
I Effective inertia of motor, drum, lift and load, Kg-m2
M Mass of lift and load, Kg
M0 Mass of counter balance, Kg
Tcmd Control torque, N-m
Td Effective disturbance torque, N-m
Tm Motor torque, N-m
x Displacement of lift, m
xcmd Commanded displacement of lift, m
x cmd Commanded lift rate, m/s
Angle of drum, rad
Angular rate of drum, r/s
5.6.1 Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.6.1-1. The damping ratio, , can be increased and the undamped
natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the system.
Table 5.6.1-1 Requirements
Requirement Parameters without Adjusting for Lead Zero

Adjusting for Lead Zero
Mid Frequency
i.) Damping Ratio, 0.32 (Overshoot 35%) 0.49 (Overshoot 17.5%)
ii.) Time to peak 3.5 n = 0.95 r/s n = 0.7*0.95 r/s
sec = 0.66 r/s
iii.) Settling time (2 %) n = 0.63 r/s (for = 0.32)
20 sec,
Low Frequency
iv.) Zero steady state error Match coefficients of right and left hand side of the closed
to a parabolic input, loop differential equation up through d2/dt2; equivalently,
open loop transfer function with 1/s3 term -> implies PID
controller
v.) Zero steady state error to Integral control -> implies PID controller
a unit step torque
disturbance Td
5.6.2 Mathematical Model of Plant

The plant equation is
5.6.2-1
The control signal is Tcmd and the disturbance is Td.

I s2 (s) = Tcmd (s) + Td (s) 5.6.2-2

The block diagram is:
Figure 5.6.2-1 Block diagram of plant

Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant is of the form 1/s2. To meet the requirements a PID
controller is needed based on both the requirement for zero steady state error to a step disturbance (integral control)
and the ability to track a parabolic command input (need for 1/s3 in the open loop transfer function).
The position, integral and derivative gains are selected in Section C such that the idealized PID controller creates a
Mid Frequency zero and a low frequency zero as shown in Figure 5.6.2-2.
Figure 5.6.2-2 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for X(s)/X cmd(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is

2 n (s + n ) (s + b ) 2 n (s + n )
X (s) 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n2 2 2
5.6.2-3
X cmd (s) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + 2 )
2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n
Based on the approximate system equation, the low frequency pole-zero pair cancels; this is not true for the exact
transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in
Figure 5.6.2-2 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid
frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.6.2-4
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2

Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.6.2-3.
Figure 5.6.2-3 Alpha angle as a function of

For = 0.49 the alpha angle is approximately 30. The reasonableness of the factor of 2 used for overshoot and 0.7
for time to peak in Table 5.5.1-1 are reviewed using Figures 5.6.2-4 and -5. The overshoot value is acceptable for
the initial iteration of the design, but the value of n tp = 2.5 from Figure 5.6.2-5 indicates that n 0 .72 r/s is
required (factor of 0.75 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). Select n = 0.72 r/s for the first iteration.
The synthesis of the compensation uses
= 0.49, n = 0.72 sr 5.6.2-5
Figure 5.6.2-4 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.7 used for overshoot and time to peak, respectively
Figure 5.6.2-5 Evaluation of 2nd order response with mid frequency zero

5.6.3 Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller

To achieve the tracking of a parabolic input and to have zero steady state error to a step disturbance input, a PID
controller is selected. The form of the system with a PID controller is shown in Figure 5.6.3-1.
Figure 5.6.3-1 Block diagram with conventional PID controller design

Substituting the control signal Tcmd(t)
5.6.3-1
into the plant equation 5.6.1-1 yields
5.6.3-2
Since x(t) = () (D/2), = (2/D). The differential-integral equation can be written in terms of x.
5.6.3-3
5.6.3-4
Since the coefficients of x(t) and xcmd(t) are equal up to and including the second derivative, this system follows a
parabolic input command with zero steady state error.
k D s 2 + k p s + ki D s
X (s) = X cmd (s) + T (s) 5.6.3-5
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki 2 I s + k s + k s+k d
3 2
D p i
Since kI/kp is typically chosen to be much less than kp and kD, the denominator can be approximately factored as
k
s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki (s2 + k D s + k p ) s + i 5.6.3-6
kp
k p = n2 , k D = 2 n 5.6.3-7

Choose the low frequency root to be at b n, where b << 1. Hence

ki
= b n , ki = b n3 5.6.3-8
kp
The approximate transform for X(s) using these values is

2 n s + n ( s + b n )
2 D s
X (s) X cmd (s) + T (s)
(s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b )
n (
2
n n )
2 I s + 2 s + 2 ( s + b ) d
n i
5.6.3-9
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.6.3-7 and -8 with b = 0.01

r
k p = n2 = 0.72 2 = 0.5184
s2
r
k D = 2 n = 2 (0.49) 0.72 = 0.7056 5.6.3-10
s
r
ki = b n3 = 0.01 (0.72)3 = 0.003732
s3
The approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.6.3-1.
Table 5.6.3-1 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros
Values Using Approximations Exact Values

Closed loop poles 0.3528 j 0.6276 0.3492 j 0.6256
(n = 0.72, = 0.49) (n = 0.7165, = 0.4873)
0.0072 0.00727
Closed (and open) loop zeros 0.7347 0.7274
0.0072 0.007271
Step Response to Xcmd(s) = 1/s. Set Td(s) = 0. Since b << 1 the two closed loop zeros are significantly separated in
magnitude, i.e., one is a mid frequency zero the other part of the low frequency pole-zero pair.
The exact step response is given by the transform
k D s 2 + k p s + ki
X (s) = 5.6.3-11
s (s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki )
The closed pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 5.6.3-2. The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin that canceled in
the approximation provides a small residue value relative to the residue value for the dominant second order
response. The second order response is dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero."
Figure 5.6.3-2 Closed loop pole-zero pattern for X(s)/Xcmd(s)

Consider the dominant 2nd order response. The alpha () angle is obtained using the construction shown in Figure
5.6.3-2. The calculations are summarized in Table 5.6.3-2.

Table 5.6.3-2 Calculation for alpha angle and estimated overshoot and time to peak
Parameter Values Using Approximations Exact Values

0.49 0.4873
n 0.72 0.7165
z (magnitude of lead zero) 0.7347 0.7274
= cos 1 60.66 60.66
L1 = z cos y 0.3600 0.3564
L2 = z sin y 0.6405 0.6341
= tan 1 (n L1)/L2 29.34 29.59
Predicted damping, 25% 25%
(Figure 2C-5)
Predicted time to peak, tp 3.47 sec 3.49 sec
(Figure 2C-5; n tp = 2.5)
The value of alpha angle from the exact and approximate roots are essentially the same; hence their prediction of
rise time and overshoot are similar and the overshoot and time to peak offset incorporated using Figure 5.6.3-5 are
maintain.
Disturbance response. Set Xcmd(s) = 0. The response to a step disturbance, T d(s) = A/s, is approximated by
D s
X (s) A 5.6.3-12
2 I s (s2 + 2 s + 2 ) (s + b )
n n n
The pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 5.6.3-4.
Figure 5.6.3-3 Closed loop pole zero pattern for X(s)/Td(s)

Due to the closed loop zero at s = 0, the response x(t) to a step disturbance goes to zero as time approaches infinity,
i.e., is zero in the steady state. The transient response has a "fast" second order response followed by the "slow
exponential root", which causes a "tail" on the response. This is discussed in Section 5.6.6.

5.6.4 Block Diagram of Control System
Figure 5.6.4-1 Block diagram of PID control system
5.6.5 Comparison of Controller Against Requirements

All requirements are met.
Table 5.6.5-1 Requirements Compliance
Requirement PID Exact Values

i.) Overshoot 35% 25% (estimate) 31%
Comply
ii.) time to peak 3.5 sec 3.47 sec (estimate) 3.4 sec
Comply
iii.) settling time (2 %) 20 sec, 12 sec (estimate) 10.6 sec
Comply
iv.) zero steady state error to a Comply Comply
parabolic input,
v.) zero steady state error to a step Comply Comply
torque disturbance
5.6.6 Sketch of response

Unit Step Command Xcmd. The second order terms meet requirements for overshoot and time to peak. The residue
of the low frequency exponential root can be determined from the partial fraction expansion associated with this
slow root.
Using the approximation for the step response, the actual low frequency root value of s = 0.00727 and the
approximate transform for X(s)/Xcmd(s) where Xcmd(s) = 1/s, the residue is approximately

2 n s + n (s + b n )
Residue 2
s (s 2 + 2 n s + n2 ) s = - 0.00727 5.6.6-1
0.72
2(0.49)0.72 - 0.00727 + (- 0.00727 + 0.01 (072))
2(0.49)
= - 7x10- 5
2 2
-0.00727 ((- 0.00727) + 2(0.49)0.72 (-0.00727) + 0.72 )
The time constant of the slow root using the approximated slow root value of s = 0.0072 is 1/0.0072 = 139
seconds.

The exact values for the residue and time constant are 1x10 4 and 138 seconds, respectively. The exact solution is
x(t) = 1- e- 0.3492 t cos 0.6256 t + 0.5698 e- 0.3492 t sin 0.6256 t - 0.0001 e- 0.00727 t 5.6.6-2
Using the approximate values, obtain the sketch in Figure 5.6.6-1. Since the magnitude of the residue of the low
frequency root has such a small value (~ 7x10 5), it does not appear on the scale of the plot and is not shown.
Figure 5.6.6-1 Sketch of response to unit step command

Step Disturbance Td. The system meets requirements for zero steady state error to a step disturbance. The residue
of the low frequency root can be determined from the partial fraction expansion associated with this slow root.
Using the approximation for the response to a step disturbance, the approximate low frequency root is s = 0.0072.
The approximate transform for X(s)/Td(s), where Td(s) = A/s, has the approximate residue
AD 1
Residue
2 I s + 2 s + 2
2
n n s = - 0.00727 5.6.6-3
AD 1 AD
= 1.95
2 I (- 0.00727)2 + 2(0.49)0.72 (-0.00727) + 0.72 2 2I
The approximate values for the components of the response are used to draw the sketch in Figure 2F-2.
Since there is no mid frequency zero the expected step response for the 2 nd order root needs to be evaluated. First,
the overall response x(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2 nd order response terms at time t = 0 is 1.95
AD/2 I. Second, the response is that of the standard form of the second order system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero.
For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.49, the overshoot is 17% and n tp = 3.6. Since
n = 0.72, then tp = 5 seconds. The 2nd order portion of the response is to a step of magnitude approximately 1.95
AD/2 I; the overshoot is 0.33 A D/2 I. At 5 seconds the magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately
1.88 A D/2 I. Hence the estimate of the peak is 2.21 A D/2 I.
Using these approximate values the sketch of the normalized response 2 I/A D x(t) to a torque step of magnitude
A is shown in Figure 5.6.6-2.

Figure 5.6.6-2 Sketch of normalized response (2 I/A D) x(t) to torque step command
The exact value for the low frequency root residue is 1.967 AD/2 I. The exact disturbance response in normalized
form is
2I
x(t) = - 1.967 e- 0.3492 t cos 0.6256 t -1.075 e- 0.3492 t sin 0.6256 t +1.967 e- 0.00727 t 5.6.6-4
AD
The exact peak value is 2.24 A D/2 I.
5.6.7 Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller

The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.6.7-1.

Figure 5.6.7-1 PID operational amplifier configuration
5.7 Carriage and Azimuth Gimbal Control Systems

Consider the Deep Space Radio Antenna carriage and azimuth gimbal control systems shown in Figure 5.7-1. The
carriage uses a geared DC motor drive to move along a track in response to the command ycmd. The position y is
determined from the tachometer as shown. The azimuth gimbal control system uses a direct drive (i.e., DC motor
with no gear train) to position the radio antenna in azimuth in response to the command cmd. The prefilter generates
acceleration, rate and angle commands based on cmd. The gimbal angle A and rate A are measured by the angle
encoder and tachometer, respectively. The azimuth gimbal structural mode is due to the mechanical coupling
between the azimuth gimbal inertia IA and the elevation gimbal inertia IB about the azimuth axis. Details are given
in Figure 5.7-1 and Table 5.7-1
B. Draw the elemental block diagram (No differentiators, one element per block where possible/reasonable).
C. Write the state equations. Start numbering states at op amp #1 (i.e., op amp with output voltage V 1) and number
state variables sequentially with voltage numbering.

Figure 5.7-1 Deep Space Radio Antenna carriage and azimuth control systems

Table 5.7-1 Parameter definition for carriage and azimuth control systems
b Structural mode damping constant, N-m-s/rad
Ci Op amp capacitances i = 1,, 4, microfarads
Fw Carriage drive wheel force, N
I1,2 Motor currents, amp
IA Azimuth gimbal inertia (including motor rotor inertia), Kg-m2
IB Elevation gimbal inertia about azimuth gimbal axis, Kg-m2
J1 Drive motor plus gear 1 inertia, Kg-m2
Jw Drive wheel plus gear 2 inertia, Kg-m2
k Structural mode spring constant, N-m/rad
Kang Command voltage conversion factor, v/rad
Kemf Azimuth gimbal motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Kemf1 Carriage motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Km Azimuth gimbal motor torque constant, Nm/amp
Km1 Carriage motor torque constant, Nm/amp
Krate Azimuth gimbal tachometer constant, v/rad/sec
Ky Gain converting carriage displacement to voltage, v/m
K0 Gain converting carriage displacement command to voltage, v/m
K1,2 Power amplifier conversion constants, v/v
L1,2 Inductance of motor windings, Henries
M Mass of carriage plus gimbals, N-sec2/m
n1,2 Number of gear teeth
R Op amp resistors, M
Ri Op amp and motor resistors, i = 1,,20, M
Rw Carriage wheel radius, m
Tm, Tm1 Azimuth gimbal and carriage motor torques, Nm
T1,2 Gear train torques, Nm
U Disturbance torque on elevation gimbal about azimuth axis, Nm
Vang Voltage equivalent to angle A, v
Vcmd Voltage equivalent of command cmd, v
Vrate Voltage equivalent of rate A of angle A, v
Vy Voltage equivalent to carriage displacement y, v
V0 Voltage equivalent to carriage command ycmd, v
Vi Voltage of op amps and power amplifiers, i = 1,,16, v
y Carriage displacement, m
ycmd Carriage displacement command, m
Carriage displacement rate, rad*/s
A Azimuth gimbal angular rate, rad/sec
A Angle of azimuth gimbal, rad
B Angle of elevation gimbal about azimuth gimbal axis, rad
cmd Azimuth gimbal command angle, rad
1,2 Gear angles, rad
Coefficient of friction


Item Equations
Op Amp #1: PI with gain V0 = K0 ycmd; V4/R1 + V0/R1 + V1/(R2 + 1/C1s) = 0
V1 = (R2C1s + 1)/R1C1s (V4 + V0)
= (R2/R1) (1 + 1/R2C1s) (V4 + V0)
Op Amp #2: Gain V1/R3 + V2/R4 = 0 -> V2 = R4/R3 V1
Power Amp #3: V3 = K1 V 2
Motor Drive Circuit V3 I1 L1s I1 R5 Kemf1 d1/dt = 0
Gear train Tm1 = Km1I1; n11 = n22 -> 2 = n1/n2 1; T11 = T22 -> T2 = n2/n1T1
J1 d21/dt2 + T1 = Tm1
Jw d22/dt2 + FwRw = T2 = n2/n1T1
Fw = M d2y/dt2; where y = 2Rw = n1/n2Rw1; Fw M g/4
Solving for a differential equation in terms of 1
Jeq d21/dt2 = Tm1 ; where Jeq = J1 + n12/n22 Jw + n12/n22 M Rw2
Op Amp #4: Integrator = d2/dt; Vydot = KyRw
Vydot/R6 + C4 s V4 = 0 -> V4 = (1/R6C4s) Vydot
End of Carriage control system equations; Start of Azimuth gimbal equations
Op Amp #5: Summer Vcmd/R + V5/R + V9/R = 0 -> V5 = Vcmd + V9
Op Amp #6 - 8: Integrators Vi = (1/R6C2s) Vi1 ; i = 6, 7, 8
Op Amp #9: Summer V6/R8 + V8/R7 + V9/R7 + V10/R8 = 0 -> V9 = R7/R8 (V6+ V10) V8
Op Amp #10: Gain V7/R9 + V10/R10 = 0 -> V10 = (R10/R9) V7
Op Amp #11: Summer plus Vang/R + V8/R + V11/R11 = 0 -> V11 = R11/R (Vang+ V8)
gain
Op Amp #12: PI with gain V11/R12 + V12/(R13 + 1/C3 s) = 0
-> V12 = (R13/R12) (1 + 1/R13C3 s) V11
Op Amp #13: Summer plus V6/R14 + V12/R15 + V13/R16 = 0 -> V13 = R16/R14 V6 R16/R15 V12
gain
Op Amp #14: Summer Vrate/R + V10/R + V14/R = 0 -> V14 = (V10+ Vrate)
Op Amp #15: Summer plus V13/R17 + V14/R18 + V15/R19 = 0 -> V15 = R19/R17 V13 R19/R18 V14
gain
Motor Drive Circuit V16 = K2 V15; V16 I2 L2 s I2 R20 Kemf A = 0; A = dA/dt
Gimbals with structural mode IA d2A/dt2 + b (dA/dt dB/dt) + k(A B) = Tm
IB d2B/dt2 + b (dB/dt dA/dt) + k(B A) = U
5.7.2 Elemental Block Diagrams
Figure 5.8-2 Block diagram of carriage control system

Figure 5.7-3 Elemental Block Diagram of azimuth control system


The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variable. The numbering starts at Op Amp #1 with x1
assigned to the integral term associated with V1. The state variable numbering is shown in Figures 5.7-2 and -3.
5.8 Elevation Gimbal Control System

Consider the elevation gimbal control system shown in Figure 5.8-1; parameters are defined in Table 5.8-1. The
gimbal experiences a spring effect, represented in Figure 5.8-1 by ks, due to cable wrap in getting wires across the
gimbal joint. Design the control system to meet the following requirements:
i.) In response to a unit step command, b cmd: Overshoot 40%
ii.) In response to a unit step command, b cmd: Time to peak 12 seconds
iii.) Settling time to less than or equal to 2% of the unit step value in less than 100 seconds
iv.) Zero steady state error to a step command input
A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements, if any, for requirements (e.g.,
determine , n, etc.). Use a table-format to display results.
B. Part 1: Determine the block diagram for the plant considering all quantities in Figure 5.8-1 (note: K emf = 0).
Part 2: As designer you get to choose the hardware specification values, i.e., motor drive time constant and
tachometer and encoder time constants 1 and 2. Explain your rationale for chosen values. Show any
simplifications made to the block diagram in Part 1 based on assumptions.
D. Draw the block diagram for your elevation control system including the values for your controller. Some values
may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
E. Evaluate in a table-format how your designs capability compares to the requirements. Discuss any
requirements you cannot meet.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, b cmd, and, 2.) a 0.1 Nm step torque disturbance Td. Construct
the sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch
is required; computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Implement your controller using op amps. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. The resistor
and capacitor values are on the scale of megohms (106 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1 f), respectively.
Figure 5.8-1 Elevation gimbal control system

Table 5.8-1 Elevation gimbal control system parameters

Gc(s) Compensation, N-m/m
Im Motor current, amps
J Elevation gimbal inertia about elevation gimbal control axes, Kg-m2
KA Power amplifier constant, v/v -> Note: KA = 1 v/v
Kemf Motor back emf constant, v/rad/sec -> Note: Kemf = 0
Km Motor torque constant, Nm/amp
ks Wire wrap spring constant, Nm/rad
Lm Motor inductance, Henries
Kb Conversion of angle and angle command to voltage, v/rad
Kbdot Conversion of angle rate and angle rate command to voltage, v/rad/sec
Rm Motor resistance, Ohms
Td External torque about gimbal control axis, Nm
Tm Motor torque about gimbal control axis, Nm
VA Power amplifier output voltage, v
Vc Op amp controller output voltage, v
Vcmd Voltage equivalent to angle command, v
Vdot Voltage equivalent to angle rate command, v
Vb Voltage equivalent to angle b, v
Vbdot Voltage equivalent to angle rate, v
b Angle of elevation gimbal, rad
b Angular rate of elevation gimbal, rad/s
bm Angle measured by encoder, rad
bm Angular rate measured by tachometer, rad/s
bcmd Commanded elevation angle, rad
b cmd Commanded elevation angle rate, rad/sec
1,2 Encoder and tachometer time constants, sec
5.8.1 Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.8-2. The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural
frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the system. As shown in the
Table, for the standard form of the 2nd order system, n 0.28 r/s and 0.3. The effect of the residue of the low
frequency root, b * n, is dependent on the constant b * as shown in Figure 5.8-2 (Control System Synthesis, Ch 3,
Fig 3.4-4 where b was used as the variable; note b * is used in-place of b to prevent confusion with the elevation
angle, b). It is desirable to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. Choose
b* = 0.05. To be conservative, the derived design value for overshoot is set at 35%, which with a mid frequency
zero, becomes 17.5% as shown in column 3 of Table 5.8-2.

Table 5.8-2 Requirement Allocation
Requirement Parameters without Adjusting for Mid Adjusting for Mid

Adjusting for Mid Frequency (Lead) Zero Frequency (Lead) Zero
Frequency (Lead) Zero and Low Frequency
Pole (b n)
Low Frequency
iv.) Zero steady state Match coefficients of right and left hand side of the closed loop differential
error to a step input, equation up through ; equivalently, open loop transfer function with at least a
1/s term.
Mid Frequency
i.) Damping Ratio, 0.28 0.46 0.49
(Overshoot 40%*) (Overshoot 20%) (Overshoot 0.5*35%*)
ii.) Time to peak 12 n = 0.27 r/s n = 0.9*0.27 r/s n = 0.25 r/s
sec = 0.25 r/s
iii.) Settling time n = 0.15 r/s (for = 0.27)
(2 %) 100 sec,
* Modified to 35% as shown in column 3 for Mid Frequency zero to provide margin
Figure 5.8-2 Normalized residue of Low Frequency root to a unit step command as a function of the
constant b *, where the root is b * n
5.8.2 Mathematical Model of Plant

The motor drive voltage VA(t) is related to the control voltage Vc(t) by VA(t) = KA Vc(t). The actuator circuit
differential equation is
dim (t)
V A (t) - im (t) Rm - Lm =0 5.8-1
dt
V A (s) - I m (s) Rm - Lm s I m (s) = 0 5.8-2
The transfer function from voltage VA(s) to current Im(s) is

I m (s) 1 1 1 1 1
= = = 5.8-3
V A (s) Lm s + Rm Rm Lm Rm s
s +1 +1
Rm m

where m = Rm/Lm is the frequency of the motor drive circuit; the motor drive time constant is 1/m. The frequency
m is selected to be equal to 20 n to reduce its effect on the control system by moving it to a value that is greater
than 10 n. The transfer function simplifies to Im(s)/VA(s) = 1/Rm.
Hence, Im(s)/Vc(s) = KA/Rm. The generated torque is Tm(s) = Km Im(s) = (KA Km/Rm) Vc(s).
5.8-4
Rewriting
5.8-5
k K K 1
s + s b (s) = A m Vc (s) + Td (s) 5.8-6
J J Rm J
The tachometer (tach) and encoder time constants are each selected to be 1/(20 n) to reduce their effect on the
control system, i.e., 1 = 2 = 1/(20 n). This makes the transfer functions effectively 1 in the control system
design.
The block diagram from the control signal Vc(s) to the output b(s), including the tach and encoder transfer functions
as 1, is shown in Figure 5.8-3.
Figure 5.8-3 Block diagram of actuator and plant

Review of the implications of the requirements. The actuator and plant combination is Type 0; there is no free
integration. To meet the requirements a PID controller is needed based on the requirement for zero steady state
error to a step input (therefore, need for 1/s in the overall open loop transfer function). The design uses integral
control with the values in the 3rd column, n 0.25 r/s, 0.49 with b = 0.05.
Mid Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as shown in Figure 5.8-4.

Figure 5.8-4 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for b(s)/b cmd(s)
n
2 2 n (s + ) (s + b ) 2 n (s + n )
X (s) 2 ns + n2
s + b n2 2 2
5.8-7
X cmd (s) (s 2 + 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b ) (s + 2 ns + n ) (s + b ) (s + 2 ns + n2 )
2 2 2
transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in
Figure 5.8-4 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.8-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.8-5.
Figure 5.8-5 Alpha angle as a function of

For = 0.49 the alpha angle is approximately 29. The reasonableness of the factor of 2 used for overshoot and the
factor of 0.9 for time to peak in Table 5.8-2 is reviewed using Figures 5.8-6 and -7. The overshoot value is
acceptable for the initial iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.5 from Figure 5.8-7 indicates that a value of
n 0.21 r/s is required (factor of 0.78 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). The value of n = 0.25 r/s is
used as it will provide some margin in meeting requirements. The values in column 3 in Table 5.8-2 are used for the
1st iteration.
The synthesis of the Mid Frequency portion of the design proceeds using
= 0.49 , n = 0.25 5.8-9

Figure 5.8-6 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.9 used for overshoot and time to peak, respectively
Figure 5.8-7 Evaluation of 2nd order response with Mid Frequency zero
5.8.3 Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller

A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady state error to a step input. The form of the system with a PID
controller is shown in Figure 5.8-8. Compared to Figure 5.8-1, Figure 5.8-8 implicitly assumes that the rate path
prior to kD has a gain of 1/Kbdot and the proportional and integral path are preceded by a gain of 1/Kb. The units of
Vc is to be volts. Checking the proportional path units denoting the units of Vc and kp by [Vc] and [kp],
respectively.
[Vc] = Units of [ b cmd kp Rm J/(KA Km)] = rad [kp] (v/amp) (Nm-s2/rad)/((v/v) (Nm/amp)) 5.8-10
2
= [kp] v-s
2
The units of Vc are volts when the units of kp are 1/s . Similarly, since the units of Vc are volts, the units of ki are
1/s3 and the units of kD are 1/s. These units are consistent with the transfer function b(s)/bcmd(s) in equation 5.8-14
since the transfer function is dimensionless.

Figure 5.8-8 Block diagram with conventional PID controller design

Substituting the control signal Vc(t)
5.8-11
into the plant equation 5.8-5 yields
5.8-12
5.8-13
Since the coefficient of b(t) and bcmd(t) are equal, this system will follow a step input command with zero steady
state error. Also, the term dTd(t)/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error if T d is a step torque disturbance.
k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
b (s) = X cmd (s) + Td (s) 5.8-14
3 2
k J 3 2
ks
s + k D s + k p + s + ki
s s + k D s + k p + s + ki
J J
Since kI/(kp + ks/J) is chosen to be much less than (kp + ks/J) and kD, the denominator can be approximately factored
as

k k ki
s3 + k D s2 + k p + s s + ki (s2 + k D s + k p + s ) s + 5.8-15
J J ks
kp +
J
ks
kp + = n2 , k D = 2 n 5.8-16
J

Choose the low frequency root to be at b * n, where b * << 1. Hence

ki
= b * n , ki = b * n3 5.8-17
k
kp + s
J
The approximate transform for b(s) using these values, assuming ks/J small relative to kp, is

2
( )
2 n s + n s + b * n
1 s
b (s) b cmd (s) + Td (s) 5.8-18
( s + 2 s + ) ( s + b )
2
n
2
n
*
n (2
n n )(
J s + 2 s + 2 s + b *
n ) i
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.8-18 and -19 with b * = 0.05
ks r
kp + = n2 = 0.252 = 0.0625
J s2
r
k D = 2 n = 2 (0.49) 0.25 = 0.245 5.8-19
s
r
ki = b * n3 = 0.05 (0.25)3 = 0.000781
s3
The approximate poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.8-3.
Table 5.8-3 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros
Values Using Approximations

Closed loop poles 0.1225 j 0.2179
(n = 0.25, = 0.49)
0.0125
Closed (and open) loop zeros 0.2551
0.0125
5.8.4 Block Diagram of Control System

As discussed in Section C, in implementing the controller in terms of op amps there is an implicit gain of 1/Kbdot in
the rate path prior to kD and a gain of 1/Kb in the proportional and integral path proceeding the gains kp and ki. The
block diagram in Figure 5.8-9 illustrates the control system without the input voltage conversions since they cancel.
Figure 5.8-9 Block diagram of PID control system

5.8.5 Comparison of Controller Against Requirements

The comparison is made using the approximations. The exact values for the closed loop poles and zeros are used in
the 5.8 Appendix to estimate how accurately the approximations predict the results. Based on the checks made
using Figure 5.8-7, the overshoot, time to peak and settling time requirements are met, i.e., overshoot = 25%,
tp = 2.5/n = 2.5/0.25 = 10 sec and ts = 4/( n) = 4/((0.49)(0.25)) ~ 33 sec.
Table 5.8-4 Requirements Compliance
Requirement Estimated
i.) Overshoot 40% 25%
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 12 sec 10 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 100 sec; 33 sec
4 time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to a step Comply
command input, (Type 1 system)
Also, the steady state error to a step torque disturbance is zero.
5.8.6 Sketch of response

Step Response to b cmd(s) = 1/s. Set Td(s) = 0. Since the gain b * << 1, where b * is related to the approximate Low
Frequency root b * n, the two closed loop zeros are separated in magnitude, i.e., one is a mid frequency zero the
other is part of the low frequency pole-zero dipole pair.
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.0125 is 1/0.0125 = 80
seconds, which is approximately 7 times the 12 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root response
does not decrease much in 12 seconds. But as derived from Figure 5.8-2, the value of the residue of 0.0002 is
negligible; therefore, the Mid Frequency region dominates the response.
Using the approximate Mid Frequency overshoot and time to peak values, obtain the sketch in Figure 5.8-10.
Since the magnitude of the residue of the low frequency root has such a small value, it does not appear on the scale
of the plot and is not shown.
Figure 5.8-10 Sketch of response to unit step command

Disturbance response. Set b cmd(s) = 0. The response to a step disturbance, T d(s) = A/s, where A = 0.1 Nm, is
approximated by
A 1
b (s) 5.8-20
J (s + 2 s + 2 ) (s + b * )
2
n n n
The closed loop pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 5.8-11.

Figure 5.8-11 Closed loop pole zero pattern for b(s)/Td(s)

Due to the closed loop zero at s = 0, the response b(t) to a step torque disturbance goes to zero as time approaches
infinity, i.e., is zero in the steady state. The transient response has a "fast" second order response followed by the
"slow exponential root", which causes a "tail" on the response.
The approximate low frequency root is s = 0.0125. The associated time constant is 80 seconds. The approximate
transform for b(s)/Td(s), where Td(s) = A/s, has the approximate low frequency root residue
A 1 A 1 A
Residue = 16.8 5.8-21
J s2 + 2 s + 2 J (-0.0125)2 + 2(0.49)0.25 (-0.0125) + (-0.0125)2 J
n n s = -0.0125
The overall response b(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2nd order Mid Frequency response term at
time t = 0 is 16.8 A/J. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero. For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.49, the overshoot
is approximately 17% and n tp = p/(1 2)1/2 = 3.6. Since n = 0.25, tp = 14.4 seconds. The 2nd order portion of the
response is to a step (starting at 16.8 A/J) of magnitude approximately 16.8 A/J; the overshoot is
0.17 (16.8) A/J = 2.9 A/J.
At 14.4 seconds the magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 16.8 e 0.0125(14.4) A/J = 14 A/J. Hence
the estimate of the peak value of b(t) at t = 14.4 sec is 16.9 A/J.
Using these approximate values the sketch of the normalized response of J/A b(t) to a torque step of magnitude A
(A = 0.1 Nm, but is not used explicitly as a numerical value in sketch) is shown in Figure 5.8-12.

Figure 5.8-12 Sketch of normalized response (J/A) b(t) to torque step command of A
5.8.7 Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller
The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.8-12. Note the inclusion of the voltage conversion gains K b and Kbdot and
their cancellation by the controller electronics.
Figure 5.8-13 PID operational amplifier configuration

Appendix Exact Values Compared to Approximations

The exact transfer function b(s)/b cmd(s) and associated roots (considering only the 3rd order characteristic
polynomial) are given by
b (s) 0.245 s 2 + 0.0625 s + 0.00078125 0.245 (s + 0.2419) (s + 0.01318)

= = 5.8-22
bcmd (s) 3 2
s + 0.245 s + 0.0625 s + 0.00078125 (s + 0.1159 + j 0.2145) (s + 0.1159 - j 0.2145) (s + 0.01314)
The approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.8-5.
Table 5.8-5 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros

(n = 0.25, = 0.49) (n = 0.244, = 0.475)
0.0125 0.01314
0.0125 0.01318
Consider the dominant 2nd order response. The alpha () angle is obtained using the construction shown in Figure
5.8-4. The calculations are summarized in Table 5.8-6.
Table 5.8-6 Calculation for alpha angle and estimated overshoot and time to peak
Parameter Values Using Exact Values

Approximations
0.49 0.475
n 0.25 0.244
z (magnitude of lead zero) 0.255 0.242
= cos 1 60.66 61.32
L1 = z cos y 0.125 0.1161
L2 = z sin y 0.223 0.212
= tan 1 (n L1)/L2 29.32 31.04
Predicted overshoot (Figure 5.8- 25% 25%
7)
Predicted time to peak, tp 10 sec 10.3 sec
(Figure 5.8-7; n tp = 2.5)
The values of alpha angle from the exact and approximate roots are effectively same; hence their prediction of
overshoot and time to peak are similar.
Unit Step Command Input bcmd.
The transform with a step input b cmd(s) = 1/s is
0.245 (s + 0.2419) (s + 0.01318)
b (s) = 5.8-23
s (s + 0.01314) (s2 + 0.2319 s + 0.0594)
1 0.003 1.4059 s + 0.6615
b (s) = - - 5.8-24
s s + 0.01314 s2 + 0.2319 s + 0.0594
The inverse Laplace transform is
b (t) = 1- 0.003 e- 0.01314 t -1.4059 e- 0.1159 t cos 0.2145 t - 2.324 e- 0.1159 t sin 0.2145 t 5.8-25
The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin that canceled in the approximation provides a small residue value (
0.003) relative to the residue value for the dominant second order response. The second order response is dominated
by the second order pole and "lead zero. Values estimated using Figure 5.8-7 are maintained. b * = 0.05 had little

effect on the Mid Frequency region closed loop pole and zero values. The step response is shown in Figure 5.8-14.
The overshoot is 33% and the time to peak is 9.8 sec. The comparison of approximate and exact values in meeting
requirements is shown in Table 5.8-7.
Figure 5.8-14 Response to unit step command input b cmd

Requirement Estimated Exact Values
(Figure 5.8-14)
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 12 sec 10 sec (estimate) 9.8 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 100 sec; 33 sec (estimate) 31 sec
iv.) zero steady state error to a step Comply Comply
command input, (Type 1 system) (Type 1 system)
All requirements are met.
Step Torque Disturbance Td = A u1(t), where A = 0.1 Nm.
The calculations proceed using the literal A for the torque magnitude. The exact transfer function b(s)/bcmd(s) and
associated roots (considering only the 3rd order characteristic polynomial) are given by
b (s) 1 s
= 5.8-26
Td (s) 2
J (s + 0.01314) (s + 0.2319 s + 0.0594)
The transform with a step input (1/A) Td(s) = 1/s is

J 1
b (s) = 2
5.8-27
A (s + 0.01314) (s + 0.2319 s + 0.0594)


J 1 17.67 s + 3.866
b (s) = 17.67 - 5.8-28
A s + 0.01314 s + 0.2319 s + 0.0594
2
b (t) = 17.67 e- 0.01314 t -17.67 e- 0.1159 t cos 0.2145 t -8.469 e- 0.1159 t sin 0.2145 t 5.8-29
The low frequency closed loop pole is the dominant response as shown in Figure 5.8-15. The peak value is 18 A/J
at t = 13.5 sec compared to the estimated value of 16.9 A/J at 14.4 sec.
Figure 5.8-15 Response to step torque input Td = A u1(t)
5.9 Spray Head Belt and linear Motor Control Systems

Consider the spray head control system consisting of the spray cart and moving belt control systems shown in Figure
5.9-1. The spray cart uses a linear DC motor drive to move along a track in response to the command V LC. The
position xLM is measured by the laser sensor and converted to the voltage V x. The belt control system uses a direct-
drive (i.e., rotational DC motor with no gear train) to move the belt in response to the incremental voltage position
command Vcmd and voltage rate command Vcmd_dot.
The incoming product is to be spray coated and the finished product is moved down the belt. The belt speed is to be
a maximum but, due to inertial effects, sudden stops and starts are to be avoided. The belt command generator
incorporates a fixed-time interval speed shaping function to ensure that belt acceleration and deceleration are
controlled. The optical sensor provides the control logic to initiate belt deceleration. When the incoming product
breaks the optical beam a logic signal is sent to the belt command generation that shapes the incremental position
and rate command to stop the belt in a fixed time interval T. At the end of the time interval T the following
operations are simultaneously initiated: 1.) the solenoid is activated, generating a force F s = Ks Is, to lower the spray
arm, and 2.), the spray cart, which was pre-positioned to its start position by its command generator when the

previous product was finished, begins its spray operation that takes a fixed time interval , to complete. At the end
of this fixed time interval, the system autonomously deactivates the solenoid, the spray cart moves to its start
position and the belt is accelerated to maximum speed in preparation to spray the next product when it breaks the
optical beam.
Details are given in Figure 5.9-1 and Table 5.9-1. Note that the control systems have negative feedback. For the
linear motor loop that means the sign of VLC and Vx are opposite. Since VLC is positive, Vx must be negative,
requiring that kx be a negative number although this negative value does not show up explicitly in the block
diagram. Similarly for the belt control system, since the command is negative, i.e., Vcmd, Vxb must be positive.
Therefore, kb is a positive number.
C. Write the state equations. Start numbering states following op amp #1 (i.e., op amp with output voltage V 1) and
number state variables sequentially.

Figure 5.9-1 Belt and linear motor control systems plus solenoid mechanism

Table 5.9-1 Parameter definition for belt and cart control systems
b Structural mode damping constant, N/m/s
bs Solenoid mechanism damping constant, N/m/s
Ci Op amp capacitances i = 1,, 4, microfarads
Fbelt Belt restraining force on motor drive wheel, N
Fdist Disturbance force on spray cart, N
FA Cart linear motor control force, N
Fs Solenoid force, N
Iarm Overall inertia of spray arm, Kg-m2
Ieff Effective inertia belt motor shaft assembly, Kg-m2
ILM Linear motor current, amp
Im Belt motor current, amp
Is Solenoid current, amp
k Structural mode spring constant, N/m
kb Belt sensor scale factor converting xb to volts, v/m; Vxb = kb xb
ks Solenoid mechanism spring constant, N/m
kx Laser sensor scale factor converting xA to volts, v/m; Vx = kx xA
Kemf Belt motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Kemf_m Linear motor back emf constant, v/m/s
KLM Gain of linear motor control power amplifier, v/v
KLM_T Linear motor force constant, N/amp
Km Gain of belt control power amplifier, v/v
Km_T Belt motor torque constant, Nm/amp
Ks Solenoid force constant, N/amp
K Belt tachometer constant, v/rad/sec; tach output: V = K Rb m
LLM Inductance of linear motor windings, Henries
Lm Inductance of belt motor windings, Henries
Ls Inductance of solenoid windings, Henries
M Total mass of cart, Kg; M = MA + MB
MA Mass of base of cart without spray tower and arm, Kg
MB Mass of spray tower and arm, Kg
MLM Mass of linear motor moving part, Kg
RA Moment arm of solenoid mechanism about arm gimbal, m
Rb Radius of belt drive wheel, m
RLM Linear motor winding resistance,
Rm Belt motor winding resistance,
Ri Op amp resistors, i = 1,,18, M
Rs Solenoid winding resistance,
Tm Belt motor torque, Nm
Vcmd Voltage equivalent to belt position command xcmd, v
Vcmd_dot Voltage equivalent to belt rate command d(xcmd)/dt, v
VLC Voltage equivalent to linear motor control system command r(t), v
VLM Voltage output of linear motor power amplifier, v
Vm Voltage output of belt power amplifier, v

Vs Voltage input to solenoid, v

Vx Voltage equivalent of linear motor control system position xLM, v
Vxb Voltage equivalent of belt control system incremental position xb, v
V Voltage equivalent to rate dxb/dt of belt, v
xA Displacement for MA, m
xB Displacement for MB, m
xs Solenoid mechanism displacement, m
xb Belt incremental displacement, m
xcmd Belt incremental displacement command, m
m Belt motor angular rate, rad/sec
b Belt motor angle, rad
g Angle of spray arm gimbal, rad; hi g stop
hi Angle of spray arm gimbal when not spraying, rad
stop Angle of spray arm gimbal when spraying, rad

Item Equations
Op Amp #1: Summer plus VLC/R1 + Vx/R1 + V1/R2 = 0 -> V1 = (R2/R1)(VLC+ Vx)
gain
Op Amp #2: PID with gain V1(1/R3 + C1s) + V2 (1/(R4 + 1/C2s)) = 0
V2 = V1 ((R4C2s + 1)/C2s)/(R3/(R3C1 + 1))
= V1 (1/R3C2s) (R3C1s + 1) (R4C2s + 1)
Op Amp #3: Lag with gain V2/R5 + V3 (1/R6 + C3s) = 0
V3 = V2 (R6/R5) (1/(R6C3s + 1))
Op Amp #4: Gain V3/R7 + V4/R8 = 0 -> V4 = V3 (R8/ R7)
Linear Motor Power Amp VLM = KLM V4
Motor Drive Circuit VLM ILM LLMs ILM RLM Kemf_m dxA/dt = 0
Control Force FA = KLM_T ILM
Cart masses with structural M*A = MA + MLM
mode plus laser sensor M*A d2xA/dt2 + b (dxA/dt dxB/dt) + k (xA xB) = FA + Fdist
MB d2xB/dt2 + b (dxB/dt dxA/dt) + k (xB xA) = 0
Vx = kx xA

End of Linear Motor control system equations; Start of Belt control system equations
Op Amp #5: Summer Vcmd/R9 + Vxb/R9 + V5/R9 = 0 -> V5 = (Vxb Vcmd)
Vxb = kb xb
Op Amp #6: Integrator V6 = (1/R10C4s) V5
Op Amp #8: Summer with Vcmd_dot/R13 V/R13 + V8/R14 = 0
gain -> V8 = (R14/R13) (Vcmd_dot V)
Op Amp #9: Summer plus V6/R17 + V7/R16 + V8/R15 + V9/R18 = 0
gain -> V9 = R18/R17 V6 R18/R16 V7 R18/R15 V8
Linear Motor Power Amp Vm = K m V9
Motor Drive Circuit Vm Im Lm s Im Rm Kemf m = 0
Belt drive Tm = Km_T Im
Ieff d2b/dt2 = Tm Fbelt Rb
m = db/dt , V = K Rb m
End of Belt control system equations; Start of Solenoid equations
Solenoid Circuit Vs Rs Is Ls s Is = 0
Solenoid Force Fs = K s I s
Dynamic Equations (Fs 0) Iarm d2g/dt2 + switch*bs RA2 dxs/dt + ks RA2 xs = Fs RA
Where switch = 0 (open when g = stop)
The equation for Op Amp #2 has 2 zeros and 1 pole. To eliminate the use of a differentiator the equation for Op
Amp #3 is combined with that of Op Amp #2.
V3 (s) V3 (s) V2 (s) R6 1 (R3C1 s +1)(R4C2 s +1)
= = 5.9-1
V1(s) V2 (s) V1(s) R5 R3C2 s (R6C3 s +1)
The associated 2nd order differential equation is
5.9-2
Comparing with Control System Synthesis notes, Section 4.5, rewrite the equation as (Note: The subscript b b is
used for b is to keep from confusing it with b, the structural spring constant.)
5.9-3
where
1 R R CC RC +R C 1
a= , bb = 0 , c = 3 4 1 2 , d = 3 1 4 2 , e = 5.9-4
R6C3 R6C3 R6C3 R6C3
The differential equation can be written as
5.9-5
Note: bb =0 which is reflected in the block diagram.

This equation is used to draw the portion of the block diagram relating V3 to V1.

5.9.2 Elemental Block Diagrams
Figure 5.9-2 Block diagram of linear motor control system
Figure 5.9-3 Elemental Block Diagram of belt control system
Figure 5.9-4 Solenoid block diagram


assigned to the integral term associated with V1. The state variable numbering is shown in Figures 5.9-2, 3 and -4.
5.10 Cart Control System

Consider the cart control system shown in Figure 5.10-1 consisting of two coupled carts denoted as cart A and cart
B. Parameters are defined in Table 5.10-1. The laser sensor measures both rate and position of cart A. Cart A
experiences a damping effect, represented in Figure 5.10-1 by Bs. The structural mode due to the coupling of the
carts has a frequency b = 25 n and a damping B = 0.005. The structural influence coefficient KB = 0.02, i.e.,
MB/MA = 0.02. The linear motor and laser sensor (both position and rate channels) have transfer functions
1/(m s +1) and 1/(s s +1), respectively
Design the control system to meet the following requirements:
i.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Overshoot 30%

ii.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Time to peak 0.5 seconds
iii.) Settling time of c(t) to less than or equal to 2% of the unit step value in less than 3 seconds
iv.) Track a ramp input r(t) = A t with zero steady state error
A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine , n, etc.)
for Requirements (i) through (iv). Use a table-format to display results.
B. Part 1: Determine the block diagram for the plant considering all quantities in Figure 5.10-1 (for this part, K emf
is non-zero).
Part 2: As designer you get to choose the hardware specification values, i.e., linear motor drive time constant
and laser sensor time constants m and s, respectively. Explain your rationale for chosen values. Explain and
justify any simplifications that can be made to the block diagram in Part 1 based on your assumptions.
C. Assume Kemf = 0 and design either a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet your derived requirements.
Explain your design choice for the controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your final cart control system including the values for your controller. Some values
may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
requirements you cannot meet, if any.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, r(t) (e.g., label composite overall response as well as
components for Low, Mid and High Frequency regions), and 2.), a 1 N step force disturbance F dist(t). Construct the
required; computer generated results not required or acceptable.
G. Implement your controller using op amps. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. Your resistor
and capacitor values are to be on the scale of megohms (10 6 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1 f),
respectively.
Figure 5.10-1 Cart control system

Table 5.10-1 Cart control system parameters
b Structural model damping, N/m/s
Bs Cart damper, N/m/s
c, dc/dt Cart position and rate, m and m/s; Note: c = xA
Fc Control force, N
Fdist External disturbance force, N
Gc(s) Compensation, v/v
IA Linear motor current, amps
k structural model damping, N/m
k1 Position scale factor, v/m
k2 Rate scale factor, v/m/s
Kamp Power amplifier constant, v/v -> Note: KA = 2.5 v/v
KB Structural influence coefficient; KB = MB/MA = 0.02
Kemf Motor back emf constant, v/m/sec; Kemf = 0
KT Motor torque constant, N/amp
LA Motor inductance, Henries
M Cart mass, Kg; M = MA + MB
MA Cart A mass, Kg
MB Cart B mass, Kg
RA Motor resistance, Ohms
VA Power amplifier output voltage, v
Vo Op amp controller output voltage, v
Vcmd Voltage equivalent to position command, v
Vcmd_dot Voltage equivalent to position rate command, v
Vx Voltage equivalent to cart position c, v
Vx_dot Voltage equivalent to cart rate, v
xA Cart A motion, m; Note: xA = c
xB Cart B motion, m
m Time constant of linear motor, s
s Time constant of laser sensor, s
B Structural mode frequency, rad/s; B2 = k (MA + MB)/ MA MB

B Structural mode damping; B = b (MA + MB)/ MA MB

The assumption is made that the value of Bs/M is suitably small relative to 2 n that the results for the 2nd (Type 2
system) and 3rd (Type 3 system) order equations are suitable approximations.
A. Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.10-2. As shown in the 1 st column of the Table, for 30% overshoot and
the standard form of the 2nd order system, n 6.7 r/s and 0.36. The damping ratio, , is increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, slightly decreased as shown in the 2nd column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e.,
"lead", zero is added to compensate the system. For example, with a mid frequency zero, the overshoot is reduced
to 15% and n is reduced by a factor of 0.9.
The sensitivity of the residue and undamped natural frequency of the low frequency root, where the low frequency
root is b n, is a function of the constant b as shown in Figure 5.10-2 (Control System Synthesis, Ch 2, Fig 2.4.3-9
and Ch 3, Fig 3.4-4). It is desired to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. For
b = 0.02, the value of the magnitude of the residue based on Figure 5.10-2 is negligible. Let b = 0.02. To be
conservative, the derived design value for overshoot is set at 25% (allowing 5% for the exponential tail and
unknown-unknowns [unk-unks]). The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n,
decreased as shown in the 3rd column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is also added to compensate
the system. For example, with a mid frequency zero the design value of overshoot becomes 12.5% as shown in
column 3.
Note: Based on the standard form of the 2nd order differential equation Control System Synthesis, Section 2.3.1
(where Mp = OS/100):
(ln M p )2 p 4
= , tp = , t2% =
2
p + (ln M p ) 2
n 1- 2 n


Adjusting for Mid Frequency (Lead) Frequency (Lead) Zero
Frequency (Lead) Zero Zero, but not and Low Frequency
or Tail Exponential Tail Tail bn
Low Frequency
error to a ramp input, equation up through dc/dt; equivalently, open loop transfer function with at
least a 1/s2 term.
Mid Frequency
i.) Damping Ratio, 0.36 0.52 0.56
(Overshoot 30%) (Overshoot 15%) (Overshoot 0.5*25%)
ii.) Time to peak 0.5 n 6.7 r/s n 0.9*6.7 r/s n 6.1 r/s
sec = 6.1 r/s
iii.) Settling time n = 3.7 r/s (for = 0.36)
(2 %) 3 sec,
constant b, where the root is b n

B. Mathematical Model of Plant

Part 1. The motor drive voltage VA(t) is related to the control voltage Vo(t) by VA(t) = Kamp Vo(t). The actuator
circuit differential equation is (Kemf 0)
5.10-1
V A (s) - R A I A (s) - LA s I A (s) - K emf s X A (s) = 0 5.10-2
or
1 K emf s
I A (s) = V A (s) - X (s) 5.10-3
LA s + R A LA s + RA A
The generated force is Fc(s) = KT IA(s).

5.10-4
M A s2 X A (t) + b s ( X A (s) - X B (s)) + Bs s X A (s) + k ( X A (s) - X B (s)) = Fc (s) + Fdist (s)

5.10-5
M B s2 X A (t) + b s ( X B (t) - X A (t)) + k ( X B (t) - X A (t)) = 0
Solving for XA(s) per the technique in Control System Synthesis, Section 5.4.2 using the factor
M = (MA +MB)/MAMB and KB = MB/MA
B
(1+ K B ) s2 + 2 B B - Ms
s + B2
A
X A (s) = ( Fc (s) + Fdist (s))
2
(
M s s + 2 B B s + 2B
2
) 5.10-6
B
s- s
1 1 KB MB
= +
s M s M s2 + 2 s + 2
B B B
where M = MA + MB, B2 = k (MA + MB)/ MA MB and B = b (MA + MB)/ MA MB Bs /MB. The first term in
brackets is in units of rate so that it will provide a feedback in the block diagram that inserts the structural portion of
the rate term through the damper Bs.

Figure 5.10-3 Part 1 (Kemf 0). Block diagram of actuator and plant
Part 2. The transfer function from voltage VA(s) to current IA(s) is
I A (s) 1 1 1 1 1
= = = 5.10-7

V A (s) LA s + R A RA LA
RA s
s +1 +1
RA m
where m = RA/LA is the frequency of the motor drive circuit; the motor drive time constant is 1/m. The frequency
m is selected to be equal to 20 n, i.e., m = 1/(20 n), to reduce its effect (magnitude ~ 1 and phase = arctan (1/20)
~ 2.9) on the control system. The transfer function simplifies to IA/VA = 1/RA.
The laser sensor time constants are also each selected to be 1/(20 n) to reduce their effect (magnitude and phase) on
the control system, i.e., s = 1/(20 n). This limits their effect on magnitude and phase as shown above for the
motor, making their transfer functions effectively 1 for the initial control system design.
The structural mode is at 25 n, KB = 0.02 and = 0.005. The peak amplitude of the structural mode at 25 n is
KB/2 = 2 (6 dB). Since the mode frequency is well above n and the amplitude KB/2 is so small, the mode may be
neglected for the initial synthesis. The plant is therefore a rigid body of mass M = M A + MB.
The block diagram from the control signal Vo(s) to the output c(s), with Kemf = 0, the laser sensor transfer functions
as 1 and the structural mode elimination, is shown in Figure 5.10-4.
The overall transfer function for the simplified actuator and plant equations is
C(s) K amp KT 1
= 5.10-8
V0 (s) RA s ( M s + Bs )
or, in the time domain
5.10-9

Figure 5.10-4 Simplified block diagram of actuator and plant with Kemf = 0, actuator and sensor transfer
functions = 1 and no structural mode
Review of the implications of the requirements. The actuator and plant combination is Type 1; there is one free
integration. To meet the requirements a PID controller is needed based on the requirement for zero steady state
error to a ramp input (therefore, need for 1/s2 in the overall open loop transfer function). The design uses integral
control with the values in the 3rd column of Table 5.10-2, namely n 6.1 r/s, 0.56 with b = 0.02.
Mid Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as shown in Figure 5.10-5. Note. Since Bs/M 0, the model is only
an approximation as the control system Mid Frequency zero is not exactly at n/2. The smaller the value of Bs/M,
the better the approximation.
Figure 5.10-5 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is (Note it assumes the coefficient of the s2 term in the control system
in the numerator polynomial is the same as that for s2 in the denominator polynomial which is not the case for the
system to be designed due to the Bs/M term.)

2 n (s + n ) (s + b ) 2 n (s + n )
X (s) 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n2 2 2
5.10-10
X cmd (s) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + 2 )
2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n
Based on the approximate system equation, the Low Frequency pole-zero pair cancels; again, this is only an
approximation for the exact transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and Mid
frequency zero are illustrated in Figure 5.10-5 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the
second order system with a Mid frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the Figure are
n -L
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2


factor of 0.9 for time to peak in Table 5.10-2 is reviewed using Figures 5.10-7 and -8. While the overshoot factor is
slightly larger than 2, based on the conservatism in Table 5.10-2, the overshoot value in Table 5.10-2 is acceptable
for the initial iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.4 from Figure 5.10-8 indicates that a value of n 4.8
r/s is required (factor of 0.72 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). The value of n = 6.1 r/s is used as it
provides margin in meeting requirements. Hence, the values in column 3 in Table 5.10-2 are used for the 1 st
iteration.
= 0 .56 n = 6.1 5.10-12
Figure 5.10-7 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.9 used for overshoot and n, respectively

C. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller

A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady state error to a step input. The form of the system with a PID
controller is shown in Figure 5.10-9. Compared to Figure 5.10-1, Figure 5.10-9 implicitly assumes that the rate path
prior to kD has a gain of 1/k2 and the proportional and integral path are preceded by a gain of 1/k1.
[Vo] = Units of [ R kp RA M/(Kamp KT)] = rad [kp] (v/amp) (N-s2/rad)/((v/v) (N/amp)) 5.10-13
2
= [kp] v-s

Substituting the control signal Vo(t)
5.10-14
into the plant equation 5.10-9 yields
5.10-15
5.10-16
Since the coefficient of c(t) and r(t) are equal up through the 1st derivative, this system follows a ramp input
command with zero steady state error. Also, the term dFdist/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error for a
step force disturbance Fdist.
k D s 2 + k p s + ki 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + Fdist (s) 5.10-17
3
Bs 2 M 3 Bs 2
s + k D + s + k p s + ki s + k D + s + k p s + ki
M M
Since kI/kp is chosen to be much less than kp and kD + Bs/M, the denominator can be approximately factored as
B B k
s3 + k D + s s2 + k p s + ki s2 + k D + s s + k p s + i 5.10-18
M M k p
Bs
k p = n2 , kD + = 2 n 5.10-19
M


ki
= b n , ki = b n3 5.10-20
kp
Equation 5.10-17 becomes

B 2 2 3
2 n - s s + n s + b n
M 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + F (s) 5.10-21
3
s + 2 n s 2
+ n2 s + b n3 M s + 2 s + 2 s + b 3 dist
3 2
n n n
The zeros are approximately

Bs 2 2 3
Bs 2 n2 b n3
2 n - s + n s + b n 2 n - s + +
M M B B
2 n - s 2 n - s
M M
5.10-22

B
2 n - s s +
M
n
Bs
s + b 3
n ( )
2 -
M n
Note that if Bs/(M n) << 2 n, that the approximate transform for C(s) reduces to that used for the 3rd order
system Type 3

2 n s + n (s + b n )
2 1 s
C(s) R(s) + F (s) 5.10-23
( s 2
+ 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b n ) ( n )
M s 2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + b ) dist
n n
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.10-19 and -20 with b = 0.02
Bs
k p = n2 = 6.12 = 37.21 , k D + = 2 n = 2 (0.56) 6.1 = 6.832 , ki = b n3 = 0.02 (6.1)3 = 4.54 5.10-24
M
The approximate poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.10-3.
Table 5.10-3 Approximate closed loop poles and zeros

(n = 6.1, = 0.56)
0.122
Closed (and open) loop zeros if 5.5.446
Bs/(M n) << 2 n 0.122

D. Block Diagram of Control System

As discussed in Section C, in implementing the controller in terms of op amps there is an implicit gain of 1/k2 in the
rate path prior to kD and a gain of 1/k1 in the proportional and integral path proceeding the gains k p and ki. The
block diagram in Figure 5.10-10 illustrates the control system without the input voltage conversions since they
cancel.
Figure 5.10-10 Block diagram of PID control system (simplified plant, actuator and sensors)
E. Comparison of Controller Against Requirements

The comparison is made using the approximations. Based on the checks made using Figure 5.10-8, the overshoot,
time to peak and settling time requirements are met, i.e., overshoot = 20% + (negligible tail) = 20%, t p = 2.4/n =
2.4/6.1 ~ 0.4 sec and ts = 4/( n) = 4/((0.56)(6.1)) ~ 1.2 sec.
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 0.5 sec 0.4 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 3 sec; 4 1.2 sec
time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to a ramp Comply
command input, (Type 2 system)
Also, the steady state error to a step force disturbance is zero.
F. Sketch of response
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Set Fdist(s) = 0. Since the gain b << 1, where b is related to the approximate Low
Frequency root b n, the two closed loop zeros are separated in magnitude, i.e., one is a mid frequency zero the
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.122 is 1/0.122 = 8.2
seconds, which is approximately 16 times the 0.5 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root
response decreases to 95% (e 0.4/8.2 = 0.95) of its maximum value in 0.4 seconds (tp). As derived from Figure 5.10-
2, the value of the Low Frequency residue is very small; therefore, it does not show when added to the Mid
Frequency region step response in determining overshoot.


Disturbance response. Set R(s) = 0. The response to a step disturbance, Fd(s) = A/s, where A = 1 Nm, is
approximated by
A 1
C(s) = 5.10-25
(2
n n)
M s + 2 s + 2 (s + b )
n
Figure 5.10-12 Closed loop pole zero pattern for C(s)/Fdist(s)

Due to the closed loop zero at s = 0, the response c(t) to a step force disturbance goes to zero as time approaches
dominant "slow exponential root", which causes a "tail" on the response.
The approximate low frequency root is s = 0.112. The associated time constant is 8.2 seconds. The approximate
transform for C(s)/Fdist(s), where Fdist(s) = A/s, has the low frequency root residue
1
A A 1 A
Residue
(
M s + 2 n s + n
2 2
)
s = - 0.122

M
( 2
(- 0.122) + 2(0.56)6.1 (- 0.122) + 6.12
)
= 0.0275
M 5.10-26
The overall response c(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2nd order Mid Frequency response term at
time t = 0 is 0.0275 A/M. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero. For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.56, the overshoot
is approximately 12% and n tp = p/(1 2)1/2 = 3.8. Since n = 6.1, tp = 0.62 seconds. The 2nd order portion of the

response is to a step (starting at 0.0275 A/M) of magnitude approximately 0.0275 A/M; the overshoot is
0.12 (0.0275) A/M = 0.0033 A/M.
At 0.62 seconds the magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 0.0275 e 0.122(0.62) A/M = 0.0255 A/M.
Hence the estimate of the peak value of c(t) at t = 0.62 sec is 0.029 A/J.
Using these approximate values the sketch of the normalized response of M/A c(t) to a torque step of magnitude A
(A = 1 Nm), but is not used explicitly as a numerical value in sketch) is shown in Figure 5.10-13.
Figure 5.10-13 Sketch of normalized response (M/A) c(t) to torque step of amplitude A

G. Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller

The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.10-14. Note the inclusion of the voltage conversion gains k1 and k2 and
5.11 Overhead Crane Control System

Consider the overhead control system shown in Figure 5.11-1. A linear DC motor drive and gear train rotate the
drum moving the carriage attached to the drum by the cable along the rails in response to the command r(t). The
carriage position c(t) is measured by the laser sensor and converted to the voltage V c. The control system uses the
tachometer (tach) to measure the motor rotational rate dM/dt with associated output voltage VT. The cable pulls the
carriage that is constrained by the linear spring-damper with parameters Ks and Bs, respectively. When the drum
rotates in a negative angle direction the spring pulls the cart toward the wall. The rigid boom attaches to the load
capture mechanism with an effective spring and damping of KL and BL, respectively. The mass ML of the load and
capture mechanism is variable depending on the specific load captured.
Details are given in Figure 5.11-1 and Table 5.11-1.
C. Write the state equations. Start numbering states following op amp #2 (i.e., op amp with output voltage V 2) and
number state variables sequentially.

Figure 5.11-1 Carriage control system

Table 5.11-1 Parameter definition for carriage control system

BL Damping constant of load capture mechanism, N/m/s
Bs Damping constant of carriage return, N/m/s
c Carriage position, m
Fc Cable force on carriage, N
IM Motor current, a
JD Inertia of drum, gear 2 and cable, Kg-m2
JM Inertia of motor, gear 1 and tachometer, Kg-m2
KA Power amplifier scale factor, v/v
Kc Laser sensor scale factor converting c(t) to volts, v/m; Vc = Kc c
Kemf Motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
KL Spring constant of load capture mechanism, N/m
KM Motor torque constant, Nm/a
KR Input scale factor, v/m; VR = KR r
Ks Spring constant of carriage return, N/m
KT Tachometer scale factor converting rate to volts, v/r/s; VT = KT dM/dt
LB Length of rigid boom to center of load mass, m
LM Inductance of motor windings, Henries
M Total mass of carriage/boom, capture mechanism/load, Kg; M = Mc+ML
Mc Mass of carriage and boom, Kg
ML Mass of load capture mechanism and load, Kg
n1, n2 Number of teeth on gears
r Input command r(t), m
R Radius of drum, m
RM Motor winding resistance,
Tc Drum drive torque for cable, Nm; Tc = Fc R
TM Motor torque, Nm; TM = KM IM
u Force disturbance on carriage, N
Vc Voltage equivalent to laser sensor output, v
VM Output voltage of power amplifier, v
VR Voltage equivalent to command r(t), v
VT Voltage output of tachometer, v
xp Displacement for load ML, m
M Motor angle, rad
dM/dt Motor angular rate, r/s
D Angle of drum, rad

Solution:
A. Equations for System

Item Equations
Input command V R = KR r
Op Amp #1: Summer with VR/R0 + V3/R1 + V5/R0 + V1/R0 = 0 -> V1 = VR V5 (R0/R1) V3
gain
Op Amps #2 - 4: Integrator Vi/R0 + Vi+1 (C0s) = 0 -> Vi+1 = Vi/(R0C0s); i = 1, 2, 3
Op Amp #5: Summer with V4/R0 + V2/R2 + V5/R0 = 0 -> V5 = V4 (R0/R2) V2
gain
Op Amp #6: Inverter V4/R0 + V11/R0 + V6/R0 = 0 -> V6 = V4 V11
Op Amp #9: Summer with V3/R6 + VT/R7 + V9/R8 = 0 -> V9 = (R8/R6) V3 (R8/R7) VT
gain
Op Amp #10: Summer with V7/R9 + V8/R10 + V9/R11 + V10/R12 = 0 ->
gain V10 = (R12/R9) V7 (R12/R10) V8 (R12/R11) V9
Op Amp #11: Inverter Vc/R0 + V11/R0 = 0 -> V11 = Vc
Op Amp #12: Summer with VT/R14 + V3/R13 + V12/R15 = 0 ->
gain V12 = (R15/R13) V3 (R15/R14) VT
Op Amps #13: High pass filter V13/R16 + V13 (C2s) + V12 (C3s) = 0 ->
V13 = V12 (R16C3s)/( R16C2s + 1); see equation 5.11-8
Op Amps #14: Low pass filter V14 (1/R19 + C4s) + V10/R18 + V13/R17 = 0 ->
V14 = [V10 (R19/R18) + V13 (R19/R17)]/( R19C4s + 1); see 5.11-10
Motor Power Amp VM = KA V14
Motor Drive Circuit VM IM LMs IM RM Kemf dM/dt = 0
Motor Torque T M = KM I M
Laser sensor and Tach Vc = Kc c; VT = KT dM/dt
Motor-Drum-Carriage coupled equations. Define T1 as the drum torque on the motor due to the gear train, T 2 as
the driving torque on the drum and Tc = Fc R as the torque on the drum due to the cable-carriage attachment. The
key equations are
5.11-1
These equations are used to draw the elemental block diagram shown in Figure 5.11-2. Note that there is an
algebraic relationship between M, D and c, and between Tc and Fc so the differential equations for the drum and
carriage are dependent on the differential equation for M.

The equations can be algebraically manipulated to get a reduced expression for the state variables related to the
motor, drum and carriage using
n1 n n n2 5.11-2
D = M ; c = 1 R M ; Tc = Fc R ; define k1 = 1 R 2 and k2 = 12 R 2
n2 n2 n2 n 2
Then
5.11-3
5.11-4
5.11-5
5.11-6
Per the state variable definitions in Figure 5.11-2, x8 = dM/dt, x9 = M, x10 = dxp/dt, x11 = xp. Equation 5.11-5 is
used to write the equation for the state variable x8.
Equation for Op Amp #13 (High Pass Filter). To eliminate a differentiator from the block diagram, the differential
equation for Op Amp #13 is written.
5.11-7
The differential equation is reorganized by moving the derivative of V12 to the left side with that of V13 and clearing
the coefficient of dV12/dt.
5.11-8
Equation for Op Amp #14 (Low Pass Filter). The differential equation for Op Amp #13 is
5.11-9
Solving for dV14/dt.
5.11-10
This equation is used to draw the low pass filter portion of the block diagram.

B. Elemental Block Diagram
Figure 5.11-2 Elemental block diagram

C. State Equations
assigned to the integral term associated with V2. The state variable numbering is shown in Figure 5.11-2.
5.11-11
5.12 Azimuth Gimbal Control System for Manufacturing Robot

Synthesize the azimuth angle control system for the manufacturing robot shown in Figure 5.12-1 consisting of
azimuth and elevation gimbals control systems that manipulate the grappling arm to move work objects.
Parameters are defined in Table 5.12-1. The azimuth motor and sensor assembly measures both angular rate and
position of the gimbal. The gimbaled arm has a cantilevered 1st structural mode with a frequency b, a damping
b and an influence coefficient KB. The angle and rate sensor have equal 2nd order frequency sensitive portions of
their transfer function given by Hs(s) = 1/(s2/12 + 2 1 s/1+1).
Design the azimuth gimbal control system (command generator is given and not part of your design) to meet the
following requirements:
i.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Overshoot (OS) 35%
ii.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Time to peak tp 0.1 seconds
iii.) Settling time of c(t) to 2% of the unit step value in less than 0.5 seconds
iv.) Track an acceleration input r(t) = At2 with zero steady state error
v.) Zero steady state error (i.e., for times > 10 s, error is negligible) to a bearing torque u(t) = T brg (sign of
Tbrg is in direction to oppose angular rate dc/dt)

A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine , n, etc.)
for Requirements (i) through (v). Use a table-format to display results.
B. Part 1: Determine the block diagram for the plant considering all quantities in Figure 5.12-1 (for this part, K emf
is non-zero).
Part 2: As designer you get to choose the motor drive time constant 1/m and sensor parameters 1 and 1.
Explain your rationale for chosen values. Explain and justify any simplifications that can be made to the block
diagram in Part 1 based on your assumptions.
C. Assume Kemf = 0. Design either a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet your derived requirements.
Explain your design choice for the controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your azimuth gimbal control system design including the values for your controller.
Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
requirements you cannot meet, if any.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, r(t) (e.g., label composite overall response as well as
components for Low, Mid and High Frequency regions), and 2.), a + T brg Nm step bearing torque. Construct the
required; computer generated results not required or accepted.
G. Implement your controller using op amps. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. Your resistor
respectively.
Figure 5.12-1 Gimbal control systems for manufacturing robot arm

Table 5.12-1 Azimuth gimbal control system parameters
c, dc/dt Azimuth gimbal angle and rate, rad and r/s, respectively.
Gc(s) Compensation, v/v
Hs(s) Frequency sensitive portion of sensor transfer functions
IM Motor current, amps
Jaz Inertia of arm, Kg-m2
k1 Angle scale factor, v/rad
k2 Angle rate scale factor, v/r/s
Ka Power amplifier constant, v/v
KB Structural influence coefficient; KB = 0.05
Kemf Motor back emf constant, v/r/sec
KM Motor torque constant, Nm/amp
L Motor inductance, Henries
r, dr/dt Azimuth gimbal angle and rate commands, rad and r/s, respectively.
R Motor resistance, Ohms
Tbrg Bearing torque, Nm
TM Motor torque, Nm
u Disturbance torque, Nm.
Vcmd Op amp controller output voltage, v
VM Power amplifier output voltage, v
Vr Voltage equivalent to angle command r(t), v
Vr_dot Voltage equivalent to angle rate command, v
Vc Voltage equivalent to measured gimbal angle c, v
Vc_dot Voltage equivalent to measured gimbal angle rate, v
Elevation gimbal angle, rad

1* Rate sensor frequency, rad/s
M* Motor frequency, rad/s; m = R/L
n* Control system undamped natural frequency, rad/s
* Control system damping
1* Rate sensor damping
b Structural mode frequency, rad/s, b = 35 n
b Structural mode damping, b = 0.005
* Determined by designer
Solution:
A. Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.12-2. As shown in the 1 st column of the Table, for 35% overshoot
and tp 0.1 s the standard form of the 2nd order system yields n 33.2 r/s and 0.32. The damping ratio, , is
increased and the undamped natural frequency, n, slightly decreased as shown in the 2nd column of the Table if a
Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is added to compensate the system. For example, with a Mid Frequency zero, the
overshoot is reduced to 17.5% and n is reduced by a factor of 0.95 (rather than a smaller factor such as 0.8) to
offset the potential decrease in n due to the low frequency residue.

The sensitivity of the residue and undamped natural frequency to b n, the Low Frequency root, is a function of
the constant b as shown in Figure 5.12-2 (Control System Synthesis, Ch 2, Fig 2.4.3-9 and Ch 3, Fig 3.4-4). It is
desired to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. For b = 0.02, the value of the
magnitude of the residue based on Figure 5.11-2 is negligible. Let b = 0.02. To be conservative, the derived
design value for overshoot is set at 30% (allowing 5% for the exponential tail and any unknown-unknowns [unk-
unks]). The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the 3rd
column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is also added to compensate the system. For example, with
a Mid Frequency zero the design value of overshoot becomes 15% as shown in column 3.
(where Mp = OS/100) the equations for and n are

or Tail Exponential Tail Tail bn
Low Frequency
error to an acceleration equation up through d2c/dt2; equivalently, open loop transfer function with at
input least a 1/s3 term (requires integral control).
v.) Zero steady state Integral control. Both low frequency requirements indicate a PID controller
error to torque Tbrg
Mid Frequency
i.) Damping Ratio, 0.32 0.49 0.52
(Overshoot 35%) (Overshoot 17.5%) (Overshoot 0.5*30%)
ii.) Time to peak 0.1 n 33.1 r/s n 0.95*33.1 r/s n 31.5 r/s
sec = 31.5 r/s
iii.) Settling time n 25 r/s (for OS 35%, i.e., = 0.32)
( 2 %) 3 sec,

constant b, where the root is b n
B. Mathematical Model of Plant

Part 1. The motor drive voltage VM is related to the control voltage Vcmd by VM = Ka Vcmd. The actuator circuit
differential equation is (Kemf 0)
di M (t) dc(t)
v M (t) - i M (t)R - L - K emf =0 5.12-1
dt dt
V M (s) - R I M (s) - Ls I M (s) - K emf sC(s) = 0 5.12-2
or
1 1 1 K emf s 1 1 1 K emf s
I M (s) = V M (s) - C(s) = V M (s) - C(s) 5.12-3
R L R L R s R s
s +1 s +1 +1 +1
R R M M
The generated motor torque is TM = KM IM.

Figure 5.12-3 Part 1 (Kemf 0). Block diagram of actuator and plant
Part 2. Kemf = 0. The transfer function from voltage VM(s) to current IM(s) is
5.12-4
where M = R/L is the frequency of the motor drive circuit; the motor drive time constant is 1/M. The frequency
M is selected to be equal to 20 n to limit the effect of the transfer function (magnitude ~ 1 for n and
phase = arctan (1/20) ~ 2.9 at n) on the control system. The transfer function simplifies to IM/VM = 1/R.
The sensor parameters are selected to the limit the effect of the sensors on magnitude and phase at, and below, n.
The phase lag due to each (independent) sensor is arctan (2/1). Choose 1 = 0.7 and 1 = 30 n
(magnitude ~ 1 for n and phase = arctan (2 (0.7)/30) ~ 2.7 at n) making their transfer functions effectively
1 for the initial control system design (gains k1 and k2 cancelled in design process).
The structural mode is at 35 n, KB = 0.05 and b = 0.005. The peak amplitude of the structural mode is at 35 n
and is approximately KB/2b = 5 (14 dB). Since the mode frequency is well above n and the amplitude KB/2b is
small, the mode is neglected for the initial synthesis.
The block diagram from the control signal Vcmd(s) to the output c(s), with Kemf = 0, the laser sensor transfer
functions as 1 and the structural mode elimination, is shown in Figure 5.12-4.
The overall transfer function for the simplified actuator and plant equations is (with U(s) = 0)
C(s) K K
= a M 5.12-5
Vcmd (s) R J s2
az
or, in the time domain
5.12-6

Figure 5.12-4 Simplified block diagram of actuator and plant with Kemf = 0, actuator and sensor transfer
functions = 1 and no structural mode
Review of the implications of the requirements. The actuator and plant combination is Type 2; there are two free
integrations. To meet the requirement for tracking (therefore, need for 1/s3 in the overall open loop transfer
function) and zero steady state error to a step disturbance, a PID controller is needed. The design uses the values in
the 3rd column of Table 5.12-2, namely n 31.5 r/s, 0.52 with b = 0.02.
The position, integral and derivative gains are selected (shown in Section C) such that the PID controller creates a
Figure 5.12-5 PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)

2 n s + n (s + b n ) 2 n s + n
C(s) 2 ns + n2s + b n3
2
2 2
5.12-7
R(s) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
approximation for the exact transfer function.
Considering only the effect of the Mid Frequency zero on the 2nd order response. The approximation for the
dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in Figure 5.12-5 along with the alpha angle, ,
used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha
() based on the figure are
n -L
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2


factor of 0.95 for time to peak in Table 5.12-2 is reviewed using Figures 5.12-7 and -8 supporting the overshoot
factor due to the mid frequency zero of approximately 2 for the initial iteration of the design. The value of
n tp = 2.4 from Figure 5.12-8 indicates that a value of n 24 r/s is required (factor of 0.73 of the n obtained
without mid frequency zero). The value of n = 33.5 r/s is used as it provides margin in meeting requirements.
Hence, the values in column 3 in Table 5.12-2 are used for the 1st iteration.
5.12-9

C. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller

A PID controller is selected to achieve acceleration tracking and zero steady state error to a step input. The form of
the system with a PID controller is shown in Figure 5.12-9. Compared to Figure 5.12-1, Figure 5.12-9 implicitly
assumes for the implementation that the rate path prior to kD has a gain of 1/k2 and the proportional and integral path
are preceded by a gain of 1/k1 (note: r and dr/dt also had the gains k1 and k2, respectively, in their path)

Substituting the control signal Vcmd(t)
5.12-10
into the plant equation 5.12-6 with the disturbance u(t) included yields
5.12-11
5.12-12
Since the coefficient of c(t) and r(t) are equal up through the 2nd derivative, this system follows an acceleration input
command with zero steady state error. Also, the term du(t)/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error for a
step torque disturbance u(t).
k D s 2 + k p s + ki 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 5.12-13
3 2 J az s3 + k s 2 + k s + k
s + k D s + k p s + ki D p i
Since ki/kp is typically much less than kp and kD (or equivalently, b n << n), the denominator can be
5.12-14
k p = n2 and k D = 2 n 5.12-15


ki
= b n and ki = b n3 5.12-16
kp
2 ns2 + n2s + b n3 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 5.12-17
3 2
s + 2 ns + n2s + b n3 J az s + 2 s + 2s + b 3
3
n
2
n n

2 ns2 + n2s + b n3 ~ 2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 5.12-18
2
Equation 5.12-17 is approximately

2 n s + n ( s + b n )
2 1 s
C(s) ~ R(s) + U (s) 5.12-19
(s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b )n ( n n )
J az s 2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + b )
n
k p = n2 = 31.52 = 992.25
k D = 2 n = 2(0.52)31.5 = 32.76 5.12-20
ki = b n3 = 0.02(31.5)3 = 625.12
The approximate and exact poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.12-3.
Table 5.12-3 Closed loop poles and zeros
Approximate Roots Exact Roots

(without motor and Sensor)
(n = 31.5, = 0.52) (n = 31.17, = 0.515)
0.63 0.643
Closed (and open) loop zeros 30.29, 0.63 29.64, 0.644


As discussed in Section C, in implementing the controller in terms of op amps there is an implicit gain of 1/k2 in the
rate path prior to kD and a gain of 1/k1 in the proportional and integral path proceeding the gains k p and ki. The
block diagram in Figure 5.12-10 illustrates the control system without the input voltage conversions since they
cancel.
E. Comparison of Controller Against Requirements

The comparison is made using the approximations. Based on the checks made using Figure 5.12-8, the overshoot,
time to peak and settling time requirements are met, i.e., overshoot = 20% + (negligible tail) = 20%, t p = 2.4/n =
2.4/31.5 ~ 0.08 sec and ts = 4/( n) = 4/[(0.52)(31.5)] ~ 0.24 sec.
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 0.1 sec 0.08 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 0.5 sec; 4 0.24 sec
time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to an Comply
acceleration command input, (Type 3 system)
v.) Zero steady state error to a step Comply
disturbance (Integral control)
F. Sketch of response
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Set U(s) = 0. Since the gain b << 1, where b is related to the approximate Low
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.63 is 1/0.63 = 1.6 seconds,
which is approximately 16 times the 0.1 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root response
decreases to 95% (e 0.08/1.6 = 0.95) of its maximum value in 0.08 seconds (tp). As derived from Figure 5.12-2, the
value of the Low Frequency residue is very small; therefore, it does not show when added to the Mid Frequency
region step response in determining overshoot.

Disturbance response. Set R(s) = 0. The response to a step disturbance, U(s) = T brg/s is approximated by
Tbrg 1
C(s) = 5.12-21
J az (s + 2 s + 2 )(s + b )
2
n n n
Figure 5.12-12 Closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/U(s)

The approximate low frequency root is s = 0.63. The associated time constant is 1.6 seconds. The approximate
transform for C(s)/U(s), where U(s) = Tbrg/s, has the low frequency root residue
Tbrg 1
T 1 T
Residue = brg = 10-3 brg 5.12-22
J az s2 + 2 s + 2 J az (-0.63)2 + 2(0.52)(31.5)(-0.63) + 31.52 J az
n n s=-0.63
time t = 0 is 0.001 Tbrg/Jaz. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no mid frequency zero. For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.52, n tp = p/(1
2)1/2 = 3.7 (since n = 31.5, then tp = 0.12 seconds) and the overshoot is approximately 15%. The 2 nd order portion
of the response is to a step (starting at 0.001 T brg/Jaz) of magnitude approximately 0.001 A/M; the overshoot is
0.15 (0.001) Tbrg/Jaz = 0.00015 Tbrg/Jaz.
The magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 0.001 e 0.63(0.12) Tbrg/Jaz = 0.00093 Tbrg/Jaz at 0.12
seconds. Hence, the estimate of the peak value of c(t) at t = 0.12 sec is approximately 0.0011 T brg/Jaz.
The sketch of the normalized response of Jaz/ Tbrg c(t) to a torque step of magnitude T brg is shown in Figure 5.12-
13 using these approximate values.

Figure 5.12-13 Sketch of normalized response (Tbrg/Jaz) c(t) to torque step Tbrg
The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.12-14. Note the inclusion of the voltage conversion gains k1 and k2 and
ME 217 Midterm Fall 2015 Due 7 AM, Friday 6 Nov. 2015

No credit given for computer work. Use computer only for sanity check, calculating arithmetic expressions
(e.g., overshoot) or to find roots of polynomials as needed.
5.13 Grappling Cart Control Systems
Consider the single-axis control systems shown in Figure 5.13-1. A linear DC motor drive and gear train move the
cart in the c-direction in response to the user input command generator signal r(t). The command generator also
provides the rate command signal dr(t)/dt. The carriage position c(t) is measured by a Global Positioning System
(GPS) receiver and converted to the voltage Vc(t). The accelerometer measures the carts acceleration d2c/dt2 which
is integrated to provide the rate feedback dc(t)/dt with associated output voltage V6. The camera and gimbal
assembly with mass Mc is attached to the main body of the cart and has c-axis direction linear spring-damper
parameters Ks and B, respectively.
The elevation gimbal contains a motor and angle encoder. It rotates the capture arm in response to user input. The
mass Mm of the main body is much larger than that of any specific captured object.
Details are given in Figure 5.13-1 and Table 5.13-1.
A. Write the equations describing the main body and elevation gimbal control systems.
B. Draw the elemental block diagrams for the Elevation Gimbal and Motor Drive control systems (No
differentiators, one element per block where possible/reasonable).
C. Write the state equations. State variable #1, i.e., x1, is associated with op amp #2 (i.e., op amp with output
voltage V2) and then number state variables sequentially.
Figure 5.13-1 Grappling cart control systems

Table 5.13-1 Parameter definition for cart control systems

B Camera-main body translational damping constant in c-direction, N/m/s
Main Body position, m, and acceleration, m/s2, respectively
cc Camera and gimbal assembly position, m
FT Force on track drive, N
Ig Elevation gimbal motor current, a
Im Drive motor current, a
J Inertia of elevation gimbal motor and camera-gimbal assembly, Kg/m2
Jm Inertia of drive motor and gear 1, Kg-m2
Jw Inertia of track drive and gear 2, Kg-m2
KC Drive motor power amplifier scale factor, v/v
Accelerometer scale factor, v/m/s2
KE Elevation gimbal motor power amplifier scale factor, v/v
Kemf Drive motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Kg Elevation gimbal command and encoder scale factor, v/rad
Kg_emf Elevation gimbal motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Km Drive motor torque constant, Nm/a
Kr Position scale factor, v/m
Kr_dot Rate scale factor, v/m/s
Ks Camera-main body translational spring constant in c-direction, N/m
KT Elevation gimbal motor torque constant, Nm/a
Lg, Lm Inductance of elevation gimbal and drive motor windings, Henries
M, Mm, Mc Total mass, main body mass and capture arm mass, respectively, Kg
n1, n2 Number of teeth on gears
Input command position, m, and rate, m/s
rw Radius of track drive, m
Rg, Rm Elevation gimbal and drive motor winding resistances, respectively,
Tg Elevation gimbal motor torque, Nm
Tm, T1, T2 Drive motor torque and gear train motor torques, respectively, Nm
Va Accelerometer feedback voltage, v/m/s2
Vc GPS feedback voltage, v/m
Vg Encoder feedback voltage for elevation gimbal, v/r
Vg_cmd Command voltage for elevation gimbal, v/r
VE Output voltage of elevation gimbal power amplifier, v
Vm Output voltage of drive motor power amplifier, v/v
Vr, Vr_dot Voltage for command r(t), v/m, and command rate , v/m/s
g_cmd, g Elevation gimbal command and encoder readout angle, respectively, rad
1, 2 Drive gear train angles, rad
Coefficient of friction between drive track and ground

Solution:
A. Equations for Systems
The equations are summarized in Table 5.13-2.
Table 5.13-2 Elevation gimbal and drive control system equations
Item Equations
Elevation Gimbal Control System
Input command Vg_cmd = Kg g_cmd
Encoder readout voltage Vg = K g g
Op Amp #1: Unity gain Vg_cmd /R1 + Vg/R1 + V1/R1 = 0 V1 = Vg_cmd Vg
summer
Op Amps #2: PID with gain V2/Zi + V3/Zo = 0, 1/Zi = 1/R2 + C1 s Zi = R2/(R2 C1 s + 1) ,
Zo = 1/C2 s + R3 Zo = (R3 C2 s + 1)/ C2 s ,
V2/V1 = (R3 C2 s + 1) (R2 C1 s + 1) /(R2 C2 s)
Op Amp #3: Low pass filter V2/Zi + V3/Zo = 0, Zi = R4, 1/Zo = C3 s + 1/R5 Zo = R5/(R5 C3 s + 1)
V3/V2 = (R5/R4)/(R5 C3 s + 1)
Power Amplifier V E = KE V 3
Motor Drive Circuit VE Ig Lg s Ig Rg Kg_emf dg/dt = 0
Motor Torque T g = KT I g
Elevator gimbal dynamics J d2/dt2 = Tg
Main Body Drive System
Position input command V r = Kr r
Position feedback V c = Kr c
Rate input command Vr_dot = Kr_dot dr/dt
Op Amp #4: Unity gain Vr /R6 + Vc /R6 + V4/R6 = 0 V4 = Vr Vc
summer
Op Amp #5: PI with gain V4/Zi + V5/Zo = 0, 1/Zi = 1/R7 + C4 s Zi = R7/(R7 C4 s + 1) ,
Zo = 1/C5 s V5 = ( R7 C4 s + 1)/( R7 C5 s) V4
Accelerometer output voltage Va =
Op Amp #6: Integrator V6 = Va/(R8 C6 s)
Op Amp #7: Low pass filter V6/Zi + V7/Zo = 0, Zi = R9, 1/Zo = C7 s + 1/R10 Zo = R10/(R10 C7 s + 1)
V7 = (R10/R9)/(R10 C7 s + 1) V6
Op Amp #8: Summer with V8/R12 + Vr_dot /R11 + V7/R11 = 0 V8 = (R12/R11) V7 (R12/R11) Vr_dot
gain
Op Amp #9: Inverter with gain V8/R13 + V9/R14 = 0 V9 = (R14/R13) V8
Op Amp #10: Summer with V5/R15 + V9/R15 + V10/R16 = 0 V10 = (R16/R15) V5 (R16/R15) V9
gain
Drive motor Power Amp Vm = KC V10
Motor Drive Circuit Vm Im Lm s Im Rm Kemf d1/dt = 0
Motor Torque T m = Km I m
Motor Drive coupled dynamic equations. T1 is the torque on the motor due to the gear train, T 2 is the driving torque
on the gear train output and Tw = FT rw as the torque on the output gear due to the track drive. The equations for the
condition FT 1/2 M g (i.e., no slippage of track assuming equal load on the 2 tracks) are

5.13-1
These equations are used to draw the elemental block diagram shown in Figure 5.13-2. Note that there is an
algebraic relationship between 1, 2 and c, and between T2 and FT so the differential equations for the drum and
carriage are not independent of the differential equation for 1.
The equations can be algebraically manipulated to get a reduced expression for the state variables related to the
motor, drum and carriage using the above relationships.
n1 n n n2
2 = 1 ; c = 1 rw 1 ; Tw = FT rw ; define k1 = 1 rw2 and k2 = 12 rw2 5.13-2
n2 n2 n2 n 2
Then
5.13-3
5.13-4
5.13-5
Per the state variable definitions in Figure 5.13-2, x10 = d1/dt, x11 = 1, x12 = dcc/dt, x13 = cc. Equation 5.13-5 is
used to write the equation for the state variable x10 through x13.
Equation for combined Op Amps #2 (PID) and #3 (Low Pass filter). The transfer function for the combined op
amps is
V3 (s)
=
R5 ( R 2C1 s +1) ( R 3C2 s +1) = 1 R 2 R 3C1C2 s 2 + ( R 2C1 + R 3C2 ) s +1
5.13-6
V1(s) R 2 R 4 R 5C2C3 1 R 2 R 4C2C3
s2 +
1
s
s s +
R 5C3 R 5C3
The differential equation is
5.13-7
Comparing with Control System Synthesis notes, Section 4.5, rewrite the equation as
5.13-8

where
1 RC R C +R C 1
a= , b=0 , c= 3 1 , d = 2 1 3 2 , e= 5.13-9
R5C3 R4C3 R2 R4C2C3 R2 R4C2C3
The differential equation can be written as
5.13-10
Note: b = 0 which is reflected in the block diagram.

Equation for combined Op Amps #5 (PI with gain). The transfer function is
V5 (s) R C s +1
=- 7 4 5.13-11
V4 (s) R 7 C5 s
The differential equation is
5.13-12
Alternately it could be written as
5.13-13
This equation could lead to an algebraic loop since the output V5, which is not a state variable, is feedback. The
block diagram uses equation 5.13-12.

B. Elemental Block Diagrams.
Figure 5.13-2 Elemental block diagrams

C. State Equations.
assigned to the 1st integration in the combined PID and lag state equation associated with V2 and V3. The state
variable numbering is shown in Figure 5.13-2.
5.13-14
5.14 Drive Control System for Cart

Synthesize the drive control system for the cart shown in Figure 5.13-1. The linear block diagram to be used for the
control system plant, actuator and sensors is shown in Figure 5.14-1. Parameters and their values are defined in
Table 5.14-1. The transfer functions to be used for the actuator and sensors are shown in the figure. The camera-
gimbal assembly structural mode has a frequency b, a damping b and an influence coefficient KB. As designer you
are to pick the parameters for the transfer functions for the actuator and sensors and the structural frequency b.
Design the drive control system (command generator is given and not part of your design) to meet the following
requirements:
i.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Overshoot (OS) 20%
ii.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Time to peak tp 2 seconds
iii.) Settling time of c(t) to 2% of the unit step value in less than 10 seconds
iv.) Track an acceleration input r(t) = At2 with zero steady state error
v.) Zero steady state error to a step disturbance force u(t)
vi.) Suppress structural mode peak by 12 dB or more

A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine system type,
, n, etc.) for Requirements (i) through (vi). Use a table-format to display results. Explain/justify your reasons for
choice of parameter values for the transfer functions for the actuator and sensors and the structural frequency b.
B. Synthesize either a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet your derived requirements. Explain your
design choice for the controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design as it evolves.
C. Draw the block diagram for your drive control system design including the values determined for your
controller, actuator and sensors. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
D. Evaluate in a table-format how your designs capability compares to the requirements. Discuss how you
evaluated whether your design met requirements.
E. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, r(t) (e.g., label composite overall response as well as
components for Low, Mid and High Frequency regions), and 2.), a unit step disturbance force. Construct the
required; computer generated results not required or accepted.
F. Implement your controller using op amps and the basic input (r and dr/dt), position sensor (GPS receiver) and
accelerometer sensor (d2c/dt2) shown in Figure 5.13-1. The interface from your op amp design to the actuator is an
amplifier gain (+ Kc) whose output is the command Fcmd and has units of N/v. Your controller design is to replace
the rest of the op amps in the figure. Some op amp values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. Your resistor
respectively.
Figure 5.14-1 Drive control system for cart

Table 5.14-1 Drive control system parameters
Parame Definition
ter
c, dc/dt Drive position and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
cc, dcc/dt Structural mode position and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
cm, Measured position and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
dcm/dt
e, de/dt Error and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
Gc(s), Compensation and actuator transfer functions, respectively

Ga(s)
Hc(s), Position and rate sensor actuator transfer functions, respectively
Hs(s)
Fa Actuator force, N
Fcmd Control signal force command, N
Ka Actuator gain, N/N, Ka = 1 5%
KB Structural mode influence coefficient, KB = 0.15
Kc Position sensor gain, m/m, Kc = 1 0.01%
Ks Rate sensor gain, m/s/m/s, Ks = 1 0.1%
M Total mass of cart, Kg. M is known to 8%
r, dr/dt Drive position and rate commands, m and m/s, respectively.
u Disturbance force, N

c* Position sensor time constant, s
a* Actuator undamped natural frequency, rad/s
b* Structural mode frequency, rad/s
s* Rate sensor undamped natural frequency, rad/s
* Control system damping factor
a* Actuator sensor damping factor
b Structural mode damping. b = 0.005
s* Rate sensor damping factor
* Parameter determined by designer
Solution
A. Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 5.14-2. As shown in the 1st column of the Table, for
20% overshoot and tp 2 s the standard form of the 2nd order system yields n 1.8 r/s and 0.46. The damping
ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n, slightly decreased as shown in the 2nd column of the
Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is added to compensate the system. For example, with a Mid Frequency
zero, the overshoot is reduced to 10%; a potential increase in overshoot due to the Low Frequency exponential
(tail) is discussed below. The design-to value of n is reduced by a (designers choice) factor of 0.95 (rather
than a smaller factor such as 0.8) to balance the increase in n due to the Mid Frequency zero and the potential
decrease in n due to approximation of b n for the Low Frequency pole.
The sensitivity of the residue and undamped natural frequency to b n, the Low Frequency root, is a function of
the constant bas shown in Figure 5.14-2 (Control System Synthesis, Chapter 2, Fig 2.4.3-9 and Chapter 3, Fig 3.4-
4). It is desired to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. For b = 0.02, the value of
the magnitude of the residue based on Figure 5.14-2 is negligible. Let b = 0.02. To be conservative and provide a
designer margin, the derived design value for overshoot is set at 15% (allowing 5% for the exponential tail and
any unknown-unknowns [unk-unks]). The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n,
decreased as shown in the 3rd column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", PID zero is added to compensate
the system. For example, with a Mid Frequency zero the design value of overshoot becomes 7.5% as shown in
column 3.

(where Mp = OS/100) the equations for and n are
(ln M p )2 p 4
= n = t2% = 5.14-1
2
p + (ln M p ) 2
t p 1- 2 n
Table 5.14-2 Requirements Allocation

or Tail Exponential Tail Tail n
Low Frequency
error to an acceleration equation up through d2c/dt2; equivalently, open loop transfer function with at
input r(t) least a 1/s3 term (requires integral control since plant is only 1/s2 ).
v.) Zero steady state Integral control. (Note: Both low frequency requirements indicate a PID
error to step controller)
disturbance force, u(t)
Mid Frequency
i.) Overshoot (OS) 0.46 0.59 0.64
20% (Overshoot 20%) (Overshoot 10%) (Overshoot 0.5*15%)
ii.) Time to peak 2 sec n 1.8 r/s n 0.95*1.8 = 1.7 r/s n 1.7 r/s
iii.) Settling time n 0.87 r/s (for OS = 20%, i.e., = 0.46); Time to peak sets n
( 2 %) 10 sec,
High Frequency
vi.) Suppress mode at b 2 (0.46) 63 = 58 (see below).
least 12 dB
The structural mode parameters are KB = 0.15 and b = 0.005. The peak amplitude of the structural mode occurs at
b and is approximately KB/2b = 15 (~ 24 dB). Since the mode frequency is to be well above n and the controller
is a PID, the high frequency roll-off of the open loop PID transfer function has a slope of 2 (/), so at = b
the attenuation value is 2 (0.46) (/b ). The required attenuation is 36 dB (sum of 12 dB and 24 dB), or a
linear gain of 0.0158 (or 1/63). Therefore the mode frequency b 2 (0.46) 63 = 58 . Due to its high
frequency relative to and the fact that the mode has a (very small) positive phase value at , the mode is not
considered in the initial synthesis and left for the verification phase of the design.
The rate sensor and actuator parameters are selected to the limit the effect of the sensors on magnitude and phase
at, and below, n. The approximate phase lag due to the actuator and rate sensor 2nd order transfer functions is given
by arctan (2 /) and arctan (2 s /s), respectively. Choose a = s = 0.7 and = s = 30 n (magnitude
~ 1 for , s and phase ~ arctan 2 (0.7)/30 ~ 2.7 at n) making their transfer functions effectively 1 for
the initial control system design.
The position sensor time constant is chosen so tan n 3, or 1/ 19 n. Select 1/ = 20 n.

constant b, where the Low Frequency root is b n
The simplified block diagram without the structural mode is shown in Figure 5.14-3.
Figure 5.14-3 Simplified block diagram

Review of the implications of the requirements. The actuator and plant combination is Type 2; therefore there are
two free integrations. To meet the requirement for tracking (therefore, need for 1/s3 in the overall open loop
transfer function) and zero steady state error to a step disturbance, a PID controller is required (reference Table 5.14-
2). The initial design uses the values in the 3rd column of Table 5.14-2, namely n 1.7 r/s, 0.64 with b = 0.02.
The position, integral and derivative gains are selected (shown in Section B) such that the PID controller creates a

Figure 5.14-4 PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)

2 n s + n (s + b n ) 2 n s + n
C(s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2
5.14-2
R(s) (s2 + 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
approximation for the exact transfer function.
Considering only the effect of the Mid Frequency zero on the 2nd order response. The approximation for the
dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in Figure 5.14-4 along with the alpha angle, ,
used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha
() based on the figure are
n -L
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2

For design-to value of = 0.64 the alpha angle () is 40. The reasonableness of the factor of 2 used for overshoot
and the factor of 0.95 for time to peak in Table 5.14-2 is reviewed for the range of values using Figures 5.14-6 and -
7. The overshoot factor due to the mid frequency zero of approximately 2 for the requirement value is too low. To
achieve a 20% overshoot the value of (or equivalently ) is increase to = 0.72 ( = 46). The associated value of
n tp = 2.2 for = 46 from Figure 5.14-7 indicates that a value of n 1.1 r/s is required (factor of 0.61 of the n
obtained without mid frequency zero). The value of n = 1.7 r/s is used as it provides designer margin in meeting

requirements. Hence, the values are used for the 1st iteration in the synthesis of the Mid Frequency portion of the
design proceeds using
= 0.72 and n = 1.7 r/s 5.14-4
B. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller. A PID controller is selected to achieve acceleration tracking and
zero steady state error to a step input. The form of the system with a PID controller is shown in Figure 5.14-8. Due
to the high accuracy of the gains Kc and Ks their value is 1 in the design as they have negligible effect on the static
loop gain variation.
The gain change in the forward path is due to the actual gain changing from the nominal values K a and M to Ka
Ka and M M where Ka and M are 0.05 (5%) and 0.08 (8%), respectively. The range of forward loop gain
variation is
K a + K a 1+ K a
1- 0.05 M + M K a 1+ 0.05
(- 1.1 dB) 0.88 = = = 1.14 (1.1 dB) 5.14-5
1+ 0.08 Ka M 1- 0.08
1+
M M
Due to the small variation in forward gain the design proceeds and parameter variations are evaluated during the
verification phase.


Substituting the PID control signal into the plant equation with the disturbance u(t) included yields
5.14-6
5.14-7
Since the coefficient of c(t) and r(t) are equal up through the 2nd derivative, this system follows an acceleration input
command with zero steady state error. Also, the term du(t)/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error for a
step torque disturbance u(t).
k D s 2 + k p s + ki 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 5.14-8
3 2 3 2
J az s + k s + k s + k
s + k D s + k p s + ki D p i
Since ki/kp is typically much less than kp and kD (or equivalently, b n << n), the denominator can be
ki
(s2 + k D s + k p )(s + ) 5.14-9
kp
k p = n2 and k D = 2 n 5.14-10

ki 5.14-11
= b n ki = b n3
kp

2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3 1 s 5.14-12
C(s) = R(s) + U (s)
s3 + 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3 M s3 + 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3

2 n s2 + n2s + b n3 ~ 2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 5.14-13
2
Equation 5.14-12 is approximately

2 n s + n ( s + b n )
2 1 s
C(s) ~ R(s) + U (s) 5.14-14
(s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b )
n ( 2
n n )
J az s + 2 s + 2 ( s + b )
n
k p = n2 = 1.7 2 = 2.89 , k D = 2 n = 2 (0.72) 1.7 = 2.448 , ki = b n3 = 0.02 (1.7)3 = 0.09826 5.14-15
The approximate and exact poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.14-3. Note that the approximate and exact Mid
Frequency roots are essentially equal and the exact Low Frequency pole-zero pair essentially cancel.
Table 5.14-3 Closed loop poles and zeros
Approximate Roots Exact Roots

(n = 1.7, = 0.72) (n = 1.68, = 0.73)
0.035 0.03504
C. Block Diagram of Control System
D. Comparison of Controller Against Requirements
The comparison is made using the approximations. Based on the checks made using Figures 5.14-6 and -7, the
overshoot, time to peak and settling time requirements are met, i.e., overshoot ~ 20% (with negligible tail) = 20%,
tp = 2.2/n = 2.2/1.7 ~ 1.3 sec and ts = 4/( n) = 4/[(0.72)(1.7)] ~ 3.3 sec. Due to the close estimate of the predicted
overshoot to the required value this is further evaluated in the verification phase.

Comply
ii.) Time to peak 2 sec 1.3 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time ( 2%) 10 sec; 3.3 sec
iv.) Zero steady state error to an Comply
acceleration command input, (Type 3 system)
v.) Zero steady state error to a step Comply
disturbance (Integral control)
vi.) Suppress structural mode greater Comply
than 12 dB
F. Sketch of responses
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Set U(s) = 0. Since the gain b << 1, where b is related to the approximate Low
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.035 is 1/0.035 ~ 29
seconds, which is approximately 15 times the 2 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root response
decreases to 96% (e 1.3/29 = 0.95) of its maximum value in 1.3 seconds (tp). As derived from Figure 5.14-2, the
value of the Low Frequency residue is very small. Checking using the residue with the exact transfer function
values
2.448 s2 + 2.89 s + 0.09826

Residue = = - 0.00045
(
s s2 + 2.413 s + 2.806 ) s = - 0.035
5.14-16
Therefore, it is a negligible term when added to the Mid Frequency region step response in determining overshoot.

Disturbance response. Set R(s) = 0. The response to a unit step disturbance, U(s) = 1/s is approximated by
1 1
C(s) = 5.14-17
M (s2 + 2 s + 2 )(s + b )
n n n

Figure 5.14-11 Closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/U(s)

The approximate low frequency root is s = 0.035. The associated time constant is approximately 29 seconds. The
approximate transform for C(s)/U(s), where U(s) = 1/s, has the low frequency root residue
1 1 1 1 1
Residue = = 0.36
M s2 + 2 ns + n2
s= - 0.035 (
M (- 0.035) + 2(0.72)(1.7)(- 0.035)+1.7
2
)
2 M 5.14-17
time t = 0 is 0.36 /M. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero. The design-to values for and n are used to sketch the expected response
(other values for and n that might result from verification phase will be similar). For the standard form of the
second order system with = 0.72, n tp = p/(1 2)1/2 = 4.5 (since n = 1.7, then tp = 2.7 seconds) and the
overshoot is approximately 3.8%. The 2nd order portion of the response is to a normalized unit step (starting at
0.36/M) of magnitude 0.36/M; the overshoot is 0.038 (0.36) /M = 0.014/M.
The magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 0.36 e 0.035 (2.7) /M = 0.33 /M at 2.7 seconds. Hence,
the estimate of the peak value of c(t) at t = 2.7 sec is approximately (0.33 + 0.014 ) /M = 0.34/M.
The sketch of the normalized response of M c(t) to a unit step force is shown in Figure 5.14-12 using these
approximate values.

Figure 5.14-12 Sketch of normalized response M c(t) to unit step force u(t)
F. Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller. The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.14-13. The
conversion of the input command

5.14.3 Verification
Unit Step Command Input.
The transform with a unit step input 1/s is
2.448 s2 + 2.89 s + 0.09826

C(s) = 5.14-18
s (s + 0.035024) (s 2 + 2.41298 s + 2.80549)
The factored form of the characteristic equation is (s + 0.035024) (s+1.20649 + j 1.16184) (s+1.20649 - j 1.16184).
A B s+ D E 1 - 0.99955 s + 0.036096 0.00045063
C(s) = + + = + -
s s 2 + 2.413 s + 2.80549 s + 0.035024 s s 2 + 2.413 s + 2.80549 s + 0.035024
1 s +1.224 1.1434 0.00045063 5.14-19
= - 0.99955 +1.1016 -
s 2
(s +1.224) +1.1434 2
(s +1.224) +1.1434 s + 0.035024
2 2
c(t) = 1- 0.99955 e- 1.224 t cos (1.1434 t) +1.1016 * e- 1.224 t sin (1.1434 t) - 0.0004506 e- 0.035024 t
5.14-20
The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin that canceled in the approximation provides a small residue value (
0.0004506) relative to the residue value for the dominant second order response. The second order response is
dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero. The step response is shown in Figure 5.14-14. The overshoot
is 20.6% and the time to peak is 1.3 sec. While sufficient margin was provided for n to meet the time to peak
requirement, there was no margin for hence the slight outage relative to the overshoot requirement. On the next
iteration the value of would be increase to provide margin.
Figure 5.12-14 Response to unit step command input

Control System Examples Chapter 6 Transfer Functions
CHAPTER 6 - TRANSFER FUNCTION EXAMPLES

Intentionally left blank.

Chapter 7 Synthesis Techniques Control System Examples
CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES EXAMPLES
An automatic welder controller is discussed in 7.1 and 7.2. The analysis of a position control system is in 7.3 and an
inner loop system in 7.4. Sections 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8 are the design for an azimuth gimbal control system,
maneuvering supply vehicle, air pad transport system and cart control system, respectively.
7.0.1 Open and Closed Loop Transfer Functions for Example in Chapter 1, Section 1.1
Based on the block diagrams in Figure 1.1-1 the open and closed loop transfer functions are shown in Table 7.0.1-1.
Table 7.0.1-1 Open and closed loop transfer functions
Transfer Functions Equation Number

Optimal
Controller
C(s)/R(s); closed bs +1 (2 +1)s +1
loop transfer =
s + bs + bs +1 (s + n )(s2 + 2 n + n2 )
3 2 7.0.1-1
function
C(s)/E(s); open bs +1 (2 +1)s +1
loop transfer =
s s 7.0.1-2
function bs2 +1 (2 +1)s 2 +1
b 2 +1
Lead bs +1 (2 +1)s +1 7.0.1-3
compensation =
s s
transfer function b +1 (2 +1)( +1)
b 2 +1
PID Controller
C(s)/R(s); closed
bs 2 + bs +1 (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
loop transfer = 7.0.1-4
function s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 (s + n )(s2 + 2 n + n2 )
C(s)/E(s); open
bs 2 + bs +1 (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
loop transfer = 7.0.1-5
function s3 s3
PID 7.0.1-6
bs 2 + bs +1 (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
compensation =
transfer function s s
The values are b = 1 + 2, = 2 / 2 and n = 1. The straight-line transfer function for the various transfer functions
are summarized in Table 7.0.1-2.

Control System Examples Chapter 7 Synthesis Techniques
Table 7.0.1-2 Straight-line approximation for the open loop transfer functions
Straight-line Transfer Functions Equation

Number
Optimal
Controller
C(s)/E(s); open 1 1 1 1 b
loop transfer for ; for < < b ; for b 7.0.1-7
2
function bs s= j
b s s= j b s2 s= j
Lead 1 1 1 7.0.1-8
compensation for ; s for < < b ; b for b
b s= j b s= j b s= j
transfer function
PID Controller
C(s)/E(s); open 1 1 b 1
loop transfer for ; for > 7.0.1-9
3 s
function s s= j b s= j b
PID 1 1 1 7.0.1-10
compensation for ; bs for >
s s= j s= j
transfer function b b
The comparison of the exact and straight-line approximations for the compensation and open loop transfer functions
are shown in Figure 7.0.1-1 and -2, respectively. Figure 7.0.1-3 illustrates the straight-line open loop transfer
functions compared to the closed loop transfer functions; note the 0 dB crossing for the PID open loop and closed
loop are similar.
Figure 7.0.1-1 Comparison of straight-line and exact gain for PID and lead compensation

Figure 7.0.1-2 Comparison of straight-line and exact gain for open loop compensation
Figure 7.0.1-3 Comparison of straight-line open loop and exact closed loop gain for compensation
7.1 Automatic Welding System

Consider the automatic welding system shown in Figure 7.1-1. The carriage automatically positions the material to
be welded in the x-y plane. The welding torch moves in the z-axis direction only. The control system for the z-axis
welding torch motion is to be addressed. The plant consists of the power amplifier (which contains the two
operational amplifiers and power stage KA), linear motor and spring-mass torch assembly. The compensation, Gc(s),
is to be designed in Problem 2.
A. Write the equations describing the welding torch plant.
B. Draw the block diagram.
C. Write the state equations of the plant.

D. Sketch the root locus for the control system assuming a proportional controller, i.e., Gc(s)=Kp, and that Kemf = 0
1 1 R
and > > m . Note: Use literals for sketch, "numbers" are not needed.
R2C2 R1C1 Lm
Power
R1 Amp
Programmed
Motion C1 Ro Fixed Support

zcmd ,zcmd R2
mc Rm I
Gc(s) KA Linear Motor
+ V1 +
V2 VA Lm
Ri Ks
C2 Kt, Kemf Fc
Fd Spring
z, z
Sensor M
Welding Torch
Welded
Material
y
x z
mc = control signal, volts

Fc = Electrical force from linear motor, F c = Kt I, N
I = Current through linear motor windings
Kt = Linear motor torque constant, N/amp
Kemf = Linear motor back emf constant, V/m/s
KA= Voltage gain of power stage, volts/volt
Ks = Spring constant, N/m
Lm = Inductance of linear motor, henries
Rm = Resistance of linear motor, Ohms
Ri = Input resistance of op amp, Ohms
Ro = Feedback resistance of op amp, Ohms
R1 = Feedback resistance of op amp, Ohms
R2 = Input resistance of op amp, Ohms
C1 = Feedback capacitance of op amp, farads
C2 = Input capacitance of op amp, farads
M = Total mass of welding torch assembly, Kg
Fd = Disturbance force on welding torch, N
Figure 7.1-1 Welding torch control system

A. Equations for System.

The key equations are summarized in Table 7.1-1A-1.
Table 7.1-1A-1 Key Equations
Item Equations
1st Op Amp Input impedance : Zi(s) = Ri
R1 Feedback Impedance:
Z1 R1
1 1 1
C1 = + C1 s = ( C1R1 s +1) Z1(s) =
Z1(s) R1 R1 C1R1 s +1
Transfer Function:
mc
V1(s) Z (s) R 1
+ V1 =- 1 =- 1
Ri mc (s) Zi (s) Ri R1C1 s +1
2nd Op Amp Input impedance:

Ro 1 1 1 R2
= + C2 s = (C2 R2 s +1) Z2 (s) =
Z2 R2 Z2 (s) R2 R2 C2 R2 s +1

Feedback Impedance: Zo(s)= Ro
V1 +
V2 Transfer Function :
C2 V2 (s) Z (s) R
= - 0 = - 0 ( R2C2 s +1)
V1(s) Z2 (s) R2
Cascaded Op Amps s
(Product of Op Amp 1 +1
1
and 2)
V2 (s) R0 R1 R2C2 s +1 R0C2 R2C2
= =
mc (s) Ri R2 R1C1 s +1 RiC1 s
+1
1

R1C1
Linear Motor Drive Using Kirchkoff's voltage loop equation:
Circuit VA Vemf VRm VLm = 0
or: VA(s) Kemf s z(s) I(s) Rm Lm s I(s) = 0
From block diagram:
VA Vemf VRm = VLm
I(s) = VLm(s)/(Lm s)
VRm(s)= I(s) Rm
Vemf(s) = Kemf s z(s)
Motor Force Fc(s) = Kt I(s)
Spring-Mass
B. Elemental Block Diagram.

The cascaded op amps are of the form
s
+1
1 1
s+
V2 (s) R1R0 R2C2 R0C2 R2C2
= =
mc (s) Ri R2 s RiC1 1
+1 s+
1 R1C1

R1C1
R0C2
where = . Rewriting
RiC1
From the block diagram, x4(t) = V2(t) mc(t) and
Programmed
Motion

zcmd ,zcmd
Gc(s)
mc

R2 C2 R1 C1
x4 Op
+ 1 + +
Amps
s
1
Fd
R1 C1
x3 x2 x1
Fc +
VA VLm 1 I 1 + z z z
KA Kt 1 1
+ Lm s + M s s
V2
+ Linear Ks
Rm Motor M
+ VRm
Vemf Spring
Kemf Back emf
Figure 7.1-1B-1 Block Diagram
C. State Equations.
The outputs of the integrators in Figure 7.1-1B-1 are selected as the state variables.

In matrix notation
D. Sketch of Root Locus with Proportional Controller (Gc(s)=Kp)

The plant block diagram is shown in Figure 7.1-1D-1.
Op Amps
1 1
mc s+ VA I 1 z
R2 C2 Kt
KA R
1 Lm (s + m ) M Ks
s+ V2 Lm s2 +
M
R1 C1
Figure 7.1-1D-1 Plant block diagram

The combined proportional controller, i.e., Gc(s) = Kp, and plant transfer function is
1
s+
K A Kt R2C2
Gc (s) G p (s) = K p
M Lm 1 R K
s + s + m s2 + s
R C
1 1 Lm M
1 1 R Ks
where z = ,p = , p = m , s = . The closed loop transfer function is
R2C2 1 R1C1 2 Lm M
C(s) K RL ( s + z )
=
4
( 1 2
3
) (
p p
2
s1
2
2 RL) ( s (
R(s) s + p + p s + + s + K + p + p 2 s + 2 + K
p p s
1 z RL
2 ) ) 1 2

1 1 R
Using the ordering > > m or z > p > p , the root locus is sketched in Figure 7.1-1D-2.
R2C2 R1C1 Lm 1 2
KRL 60
KRL
Ks
KRL KRL KRL KRL Xj
M
X X
1 1 Rm

R2 C2 R1 C1 Lm
Figure 7.1-1D-2 Sketch of root locus
1. The loci start at the open loop poles R Ks

1
s= - - 1,j
R1C1 Lm M
2 The loci terminate at the zeros 1
s= and 3 zeros at infinity.
R2C2
3. Real axis loci Rm 1 1
s= to s = ,s= to
Lm R1C1 R2C2
4. Angle of asymptotes:
n m R
1 1
p1 - z1 - - m+
R1C1 Lm R2C2
5. C.G of asymptotes: i =1 i =1
# p-#z # p-#z
6. Departure from real axis 90
7. Real axis breakaway N?A - Need numbers to complete
8. Angle of departure from complex poles Ks
Complex poles at j ; angle into
M
RHP
9. j axis crossover ce = s4 + a3 s3 + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
No specific insight is gained by using

Routh's Criteria. It is obvious from root
locus that the j axis crossover is at

Ks
s= j
M
7.2 Controller for Problem 7.1

Design the controller using the system in Figure 7.1-1 and the requirements: i.) Overshoot 20%, ii.) time to
peak 0.05 sec, iii.) steady state error to a ramp input 1%, iv.) settling time (2%) 0.2 sec, v.) zero steady state
error to a constant force disturbance, Fd.
1 1 K R
Assume the op amps have unity DC gain, K emf = = = 0, s = 0.01 n2 , and m = 10 n where n is the
R1C1 R2C2 M Lm
value you chose for your controller design. Explain/justify any additional assumptions you make in designing your
controller.
A. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your selection. Draw the block
diagram of the control system.
B. Sketch the compensated root locus calculating key features, e.g., asymptotes, j axis intercept, breakaway, etc.
C. Draw the compensated Bode Diagram. Determine the gain and phase margins.
D. Sketch the output response to a unit step input; to a unit step force disturbance.
Solution.
Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.2-1. The damping ratio, , could be increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table since a "lead" zero is to added to compensate the
system by a PD and PID controller.
Table 7.2-1 Requirements
Requirement Parameters without Compensating for Lead

Adjusting for Lead Zero Zero
i.) damping ratio, , and 0.46 (overshoot 20%) 0.59 (overshoot 10%)
phase margin, m 48 phase margin 59 phase margin
ii.) time to peak 0.05 sec n = 70.6 r/s n = 0.7*70.6 r/s
= 49.4 r/s
iii.) 1% steady state error Kv 100
to a ramp input,
iv.) settling time (2%) n = 44 r/s
0.2 sec,
v.) zero error to a constant Integral control
force disturbance
Mathematical Model of Control System. The block diagram is shown in Figure 7.2-1.
Fd
zcmd
VA 1 I Fc + 1 z
KA 1
PID R Kt
+ Lm (s + m ) + M s2 + K s
mc Lm M
Figure 7.2-1 Block diagram of control system

The plant is given by

K A Kt 1 K K 1
G p (s) = = A t
M Lm R
(
K M Lm s + p1 s2 + s2
s + m s2 + s )( )
Lm M
Rm Ks
where p = and s = .
1 Lm M
Rewriting in Bode form
K A Kt 1
G p (s) =
K s Rm s 2
+1 s +1
2
p1 s
K A Kt
The DC, or low frequency, gain of the plant is .
K s Rm
A. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller.

A PID controller is selected to achieve the tracking of a ramp command and zero steady state error to a step
disturbance input. The structure is shown in Figure 7.2A-1.
"integral"
1 Ki Fd
s
zcmd
"proportional" + 1
+ e + mc KA Kt Fc +
M z
1 K Kp R
+ Lm (s + m ) + s2 + Ks
Lm M
z(t) Kr
"derivative"
s
Figure 7.2A-1 Block diagram of conventional PID controller design

The compensation transfer function, Gc(s), is
K r s2 + s + K i
Gc (s) = K K p
s
Lm M
K is chosen to cancel the plant gain. Hence K = .
K A Kt
The overall forward loop transfer function is
G(s) =
(
K p K r s2 + s + K i
=
) (
K p K r s2 + s + K i )
R
(
K s s + p1 s2 + s2
s s + m s2 + s )( )
Lm M

Since Ki is chosen to provide a zero at a much lower frequency than the lead zero, the numerator can be
1
( )
K p Kr s2 + s + K i K p K r s +

( s + Ki )
Kr
yielding
1 1
K p Kr s + ( s + Ki ) K p Kr s + ( s + Ki )
Kr Kr
G(s) = =
R K
s s + m s2 + s (
s s + p s 2 + s2
1 )( )
Lm M
Ks R
Using the given data that = 0.01 n2 and m = 10 n , the approximate transfer function is
M Lm
1
K p Kr s + ( s + Ki )
Kr
G(s) = r
(
s ( s +10 n ) s 2 + (0.1 n )2 )
The root locus sketch is
Asymptote
j

n
X j 0.1 n
X X
Rm
= 10 n
Lm
Figure 7.2-2A-2 Sketch of PID compensated system

Rm
Approximate Solution for Controller Gains. The pole at is 10 n, which indicates it can be neglected in
Lm
initially approximating the characteristic equation. If the pole is neglected, which equivalently means that the
inductance is neglected, the motor transfer function becomes 1/Rm. Figure 7.2-2A-3 shows the modified block
R M
diagram with the K* which is chosen to cancel the plant gain. Based on the block diagram, K * = m .
K A Kt

"integral"
1 Ki Fd
s
zcmd
"proportional" + Fc + 1
+ e + mc KA Kt M z
1 K* Kp
+ Rm + s2 + Ks
M
z(t) Kr
"derivative"
s
Figure 7.2-2A-3 Block diagram neglecting the motor time constant

The modified forward path gain is
s2 1
+ s +1
1 K K K
i
s2 + s+ i i
Kr Kr K
r
G(s) = K p K r = Kv
(
s s2 + (0.1 n )2 ) s

s2
(0.1 )2

+1
n
where
K p Ki K p Ki
Kv = = 100
(0.01 n2 ) n2
K p Ki
To meet the requirements, Kv 100, therefore 1, the closed loop transfer function is
n2
1 K
K p K r s2 + s + i
C(s) Kr Kr
=
R(s) 3 2
s + K p K r s2 + K p + n s + K p Ki
100

Equating the characteristic equation to the desired characteristic equation
2

100 (
s3 + K p K r s 2 + K p + n s + K p K i = ( s + a ) s2 + 2 n s + n2 )
= s3 + ( 2 n + a) s 2 + ( n + 2 a) n s + a n2
Equating coefficients of the polynomials of the same degree

2 n + a = K p Kr
n2
( n + 2 a ) n = K p + 100
a n2 = K p Ki

Note that Kp Ki = a n2, yielding

K p Ki a n2
K v = 100 = 100 = 100 a
n2 n2
Thus, to meet the tracking requirement a 1, select a = 1, and use the values of = 0.59 and n = 49.4 r/s, yielding
K i = 0.968 , K p = 2474 , K r = 0.024
Substituting into the open loop transfer function

s s
+1 +1
G(s) = 59.292
( s +1.01) ( s + 40.7 ) = 100
1.01 40.7
(
s s 2 + 24.4 ) s2
s

+1
24.4
Note that Kv = 100. The closed loop transfer function is
s s
+1 +1
C(s)
= 59.292
( s +1.01) ( s + 40.7) =
1.01 40.7
R(s) s ( s +1) ( s + 29.19 + j 39.9 ) ( s + 29.19 - j 39.9) 2
s 2 (0.59)

( s +1) 49.4 +
49.4
s +1

For the step response the partial fraction expansion is
59.292
( s +1.01) ( s + 40.7 ) A B
= + +
CC s + D
s ( s +1) ( s + 58.292s + 2440.36 ) s s +1 s + 58.292s + 2440.36
2 2
Solving for the coefficients

A = 1 , B = -0.01 , CC = -0.99 , D = 1.61
Inverting the transform using these coefficients yields
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t - 0.99 e- 29.146 t cos 39.9 t + 0.76 e- 29.146 t sin 39.9 t
The response for the approximation is shown in Figure 7.2A-4. The overshoot is approximately 25% and occurs at
0.047 seconds.
c(t)
time (sec)
Figure 7.2A-4 Step response without motor time constant, = 0.59

Including Linear Motor Pole in Open Loop Transfer Function. The linear motor pole is placed in the transfer
function maintaining the DC, i.e., low frequency; gain the same value as for the previous case without the linear
motor pole. The open loop transfer function is
Rm
G(s) =
(
K p K r s2 + s + K i ) Lm
= 10 n
(
K p K r s2 + s + K i )
K
s s2 + s
M
R
s+ m
Lm
(
s ( s +10 n ) s2 + 0.01 n2 )

Kr 2 1
s + s +1
K p Ki Ki Ki
= 100
n s
2
s2
s +1 +1
10 n 0.01 n2
Note that Kv = 100. Using the values for the gains found above, the open loop transfer function is
s s
+1 +1
G(s) = 29290
( s +1.01) (s + 40.7)
= 100
1.01 40.7
2
(
s ( s + 494) s + 24.4 )
s
s
s 2
+1 +1
494 4.94

C(s)
= 29290
( s +1.01) (s + 40.7 )
R(s)
(
( s +1) ( s + 433) s2 + 60.2s + 2785 )
The partial fraction expansion for a step input is
A B D E s+ F 1 - 0.01 0.162 - 1.15 s + 0.739
C(s) = + + + = + + +
s s +1 s + 433 s2 + 60.2s + 2785 s s +1 s + 433 s2 + 60.2s + 2785
Inverting
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t + 0.162 e- 433 t -1.15 e-30.1 t cos 43.4 t + 0.815 e-30.1 t sin 43.4 t
The response has approximately 30% overshoot and a time to peak of 0.044 sec. The response is shown in Figure
7.2A-5.
c(t)
time (sec)
Figure 7.2A-5 Step response considering time constant of linear motor; = 0.59

Iteration to reduce the overshoot, set = 0.85. The overshoot exceeds the 20% requirement. The damping ratio,
, is increased to 0.85. The gains are
K p = 2500 , K r = 0.034 , K i = 0.976
The open loop transfer function neglecting the linear motor pole is
s s
+1 +1
G(s) = 84.98
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4) = 100 1.01 28.4
(
s s2 + 24.4 ) s2
s

+1
24.4
C(s)
= 84.98
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
R(s)
(
(s +1) s2 + 84s + 2440 )
The step response is
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t - 0.99 e- 42 t cos 26 t +1.67 e- 42 t sin 26 t

The maximum overshoot is 18% and occurs at t = 0.043 seconds. The response is shown in Figure 7.2-2A-6.
Figure 7.2-2A-6 Step response without the motor pole, = 0.85

Considering the linear motor pole
s s
+1 +1
G(s) = 41980
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4) = 100 1.01 28.4
( )
s s 2 + 24.4 ( s + 494)

s
s
2
+1
s
+1

4.94 494

C(s)
= 41980
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
R(s)
( )
( s +1) s2 + 97.2s + 3046 (s + 396)
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t -1.31 e- 48.6 t cos 26.2 t + 2.43e- 48.6 t sin 26.2 t + 02 e- 396 t

The maximum overshoot is 20% and occurs t = 0.038 seconds. The step response is shown in Figure 7.2-2A-7.
c(t)
time (sec)
Figure 7.2-2A-7 Response with motor time constant included, = 0.85
B. Root Locus of PID Compensated System

The open loop compensated transfer function for = 0.59 in root locus form is
G(s) = 29292
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
s ( s2 + 494 ) ( s + 494)
The form of the transfer function for plotting the root locus is to use the root locus gain, K, as the parameter
G(s) = K
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
s ( s2 + 494) ( s + 494)
The closed loop roots occur when K = 29,290.

Table 7.2B-1 Root locus for = 0.59
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 494 and j 4.94
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 1.01, 40.7 and 2 zeros at infinity.
3. Real axis loci s = 0 to 1 and s = 40.7 to 494
n m
pi - zi -494 + 40.7 +1
i =1 i =1 = -226.15
5. C.G of asymptotes: # p-#z
# p-#z
6. Arrival at real axis 90
7. Real axis breakaway Requires solving 4th order polynomial for
information not need for sketch
8. Angle of departure from complex poles
j
cp
Not to scale X j 4.94
s= 494
s= 1
s=0
s= 40.7
X O O X
494 40.7 1
conj cp
X
9. j axis crossover It is obvious from root locus that the
j axis intersection is at s = j 4.94 at
K=0
The sketch of the root locus is shown in Figure 7.2B-1
j
j 50
j 40
Not to Scale j 30
j 20
j 10
X
X X
494 50 40 30 20 10
Figure 7.2B-2 Sketch of root locus for PID compensated system; = 0.59

C. Bode Diagram of PID Compensated System

The open loop transfer function for = 0.59 in Bode form is
s s
+1 +1
1.01 40.7
G(s) = 100
s2 s
s +1 +1
2
4.94 494
The diagram is shown in Figure 7.2C-1.
D. Sketch of Step Response

Base your sketch on requirement and design parameters chosen.

Figure 7.2C-1 Bode diagram

7.3 Position Control System

Given the control system in Figure 7.3-1
Gc(s)
U(s) Gp(s)
Compensation
+ Plant
Input E(s) ( s + 1 )3 +
M 0.1 1 Output
R(s) + s ( s +1 ) ( s +1 ) M s2 C(s)
0.001
Figure 7.3-1 Position control system

where M = 3000 kg.
A. Draw the Bode gain and phase diagram for C(s)/E(s) (Please use semilog graph paper).
1. Determine the gain and phase margins.
2. Using the technique in Section 7.6 of the class notes, estimate the closed loop response C(s)/R(s) from the
straight-line approximation to the gain characteristic.
3. Using the results in 2, sketch the expected response c(t) to a unit step input r(t).
B. Draw the Nichols diagram. Show gain and phase margins on the diagram.
C. Sketch the Nyquist diagram. Select a "cutting line" and demonstrate stability. Show gain and phase
margins on the sketch.
D. Draw the straight-line approximation to the disturbance rejection transfer function |C(s)/U(s)|. Given a
disturbance u(t) = A sin t, what is the maximum value A that would result in less than 1 millimeter error
in c(t); at what frequency is this error value?
E. Sketch the root locus. Determine key parameters.
Solution.
The open loop transfer function is
s 3
+1
0.1
G(s) =
s s
s3 +1 +1
0.001 1
A.1. The Bode diagram is shown in Figures 7.3-A.1-1 through -4.



Figure 7.3-A.1-1 Bode gain and phase diagram

200
150
100
Gain (dB)
50
-50
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Freq (r/s)
-100
-150
-200
Phase (deg)
-250
-300
-350
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.3-A.1-2 Bode gain and phase diagram

Figure 7.3-A.1-3 Bode gain and phase diagram (hand drawn) - 0.0001 to 10 r/s

Figure 7.3-A.1-4 Bode gain and phase diagram (hand drawn) - 0.01 to 1 r/s

A.2 The estimate of the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) from the Bode gain diagram is based on dividing
the gain into three regions, 20 log|G(j)| > 15 dB, 15 dB 20 log|G(j)| 15 dB and |20 log|G(j)| < 15 dB
with support from the root locus sketch. The root locus sketch is shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-1; the detailed root locus
analysis is in section E.
j
K=1 j0.8
j0.7
s-plane
Not to Scale
j0.6
Closed loop roots
K j0.5
j0.4
j0.3
Low Frequency
Gain Margin K = 0.15
Frequency j0.2
K=1 j0.1
K
X
X
XX
X
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1
Figure 7.3-A.2-1 Root locus sketch

Case 1. Assuming three closed loop roots near the low frequency zero at s = 0.1. The gain at the three zeros is 20
dB, or a linear gain of 10. The approximate closed loop transfer function for the low frequency portion of C(s)/R(s)
is
s 3 s 3
+1 +1
C(s) 0.1 0.1
= =
2
R(s) |G(s)|>> 1 s s s 2 s
+1 +1 +1 +1
0.01(1 - 0.1) 0.01(1 + 0.1) 0.09 0.11
The Mid Frequency transfer function form the Bode gain diagram is shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-2.
+ 15 dB
20 dB/ dec

1
40 dB/ dec
15 dB
Figure 7.3-A.2-2 Sketch of Bode straight line gain diagram in Mid Frequency Region
The associated open loop transfer function for the Mid Frequency Region is
1
G(s) =
|G(s)| 1 s ( s +1)


C(s) 1
=
2
R(s) |G(s)| 1 s + s + 1
with undamped natural frequency of n = 1 r/s and damping factor = 0.5.

The overall approximation for the closed loop transfer function is
s 3
+1
C(s) 0.1
=
R(s) s 2 s
+1
0.09 0.11
(
+1 s2 + s + 1 )
Case 2. The relatively low Bode gain (20 dB) at the open loop zeros and the root locus sketch indicates that the two
roots closest to the origin in the s-plane might approach their associated zeros at 0.1 more rapidly than the other root,
i.e., one of the zeros at s = 0.1 might interact with the Mid Frequency Region response. The straight-line Bode
gain diagram is modified to separate the zeros into one at a frequency twice 0.1 r/s and two below the frequency of
0.1 r/s as shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-3.
Figure 7.3-A.2-3 Sketch of zero separation straight line gain diagram

There are now two closed loop roots near the low frequency zeros at = 0.071 r/s. The gain at the two zeros is
40 dB, or a linear gain of 40. The approximate closed loop transfer function for the low frequency portion of
C(s)/R(s)
s
+1
C(s) 0.071
=
R(s) |G(s)| >> 1 s s
+1 +1
0.069 0.072
The Mid Frequency transfer function form for the Bode gain diagram is derived from Figure 7.3-A.2-3. The open
loop transfer function for the Mid Frequency Region is
s
0.2 +1
0.2
G(s) =
|G(s)| ~ 1 s
s2 +1
1

The approximate mid frequency closed loop transfer function is

s
0.2 +1
C(s) 0.2
=
R(s) |G(s)| ~ 1 s3 + s2 +s + 0.2
with roots of the characteristic equation of 0.245 and 0.377 0.82. The associated undamped natural frequency
of the complex conjugate roots are n = 0.9 r/s and damping factor = 0.42.
The overall approximation for the closed loop transfer function is
s 2 s
+1 +1
C(s) 0.071 0.2
=
R(s) case 2 s s s s2 2 (0.42)
+1 +1 +1 + s +1
0.069 0.072 0.245 0.9 2 0.9
Summary of Results. The comparison of the closed loop roots predicted by the techniques is given by Table 7.3-
A.2-1.
Table 7.3-A.2-1 Comparison of closed loop roots
Exact Roots Case 1 Case 2

Low Frequency 0.0752 j0.0207 0.09, 0.09, 0.069, 0.072
Region n = 0.078 0.11
|G| >> 1 = 0.96
Mid Frequency 0.2267 0.245
Region
|G| ~ 1 0.3120 j0.7926 0.5 j0.866 0.377 j0.82
n = 0.85 n = 1 n = 0.9
= 0.37 = 0.5 = 0.42
Hi Frequency
Region No Roots No Roots No Roots
|G| << 1
A.3. The predicted step response is estimated using the various methods and approximations to see the range of
predictions.
Table 7.3-A.3-1 Comparison of step response terms
Predicted Step Exact Roots Case 1 Case 2 Phase Margin,

Response c
Low Complex roots 3 exponential 2 exponential
Frequency plus exponential roots roots N/A
Region root
|G| >> 1
Tail Time 13.4 sec, 2@11sec, 9 sec 2@14sec, 4 sec

Constant 4.4 sec
Residue complex: 0.2, 3@ 0.1 each 2@0.025
exp: 0.6
Mid Frequency
Region
|G| ~ 1
Overshoot 29% 16% 22% 41%
Time to peak 4 sec 3.6sec 4sec 4.1sec
The exact step response is shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-4 and the error in Figure 7.3-A.2-5. The exact response has 56%
overshoot at 3.7 seconds. The estimates for Case 1 and 2 bracket the exact error due to the "tails."

c(t)
0
0 20
time
Figure 7.3-A.2-4 Step Response
error Exact Case 1
Case 2
10 50
time (sec)
Figure 7.3-A.2-5 Error after conclusion of the dominant second order transient
B. The Nichols diagram is shown in Figure 7.3-B-1 and 2. Figure 7.3-B-3 is the equivalent hand-drawn plot.
200
= 0.001 r/s
180
150
100
Gain (dB)

50
= 0.2 r/s Phase Margin = 30

Gain Margin = 16.5 dB
0
( 1 8 0, 0 dB) = 0.8 r/s
= 10 r/s
-50
-350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100
Phase (deg)
Figure 7.3-B-1 Nichols diagram

30
.
= 0.1 r/s
20
= 0.2 r/s
10
Gain Margin = 16.5 dB
0
Phase Margin = 30
=
Gain (dB)
0.8 r/s
-10
-20
-30
= 10 r/s
-40
-50
-240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140
Phase (deg)
Figure 7.3-B-2 Nichols
C. The Nyquist Diagram is shown in Figure 7.3-C-1.
90 30
120 60
20
150 30
10
180 0
210 330
240 300
270
Figure 7.3-C-1 Nyquist (partial)

D. The transfer function C/U is given by
C(s) G p (s)
=
U (s) 1+ Gc (s) G p (s)

The approximations for the transfer function at low and high gain, |Gc(j) Gp(j)| is

1
C( j ) G ( j ) for Gc ( j ) G p ( j ) >> 1
c
U ( j )
G p ( j ) for Gc ( j ) G p ( j ) << 1
The straight-line approximation of the disturbance rejection using these approximations is shown in Figure 7.3-D-1
along with the exact transfer function. The peak value of |C(j)/U(j)| for the straight line approximation occurs at
= 0.1 r/s and is 50 dB, or approximately 0.0032 m/N (In an SI units system, displacement is measured in meters
and force in Newtons). For a maximum displacement of 0.001 m (1 mm), the maximum force, Umax is 0.001/0.0032
= 0.32 N at 0.1 r/s. Examination of the exact characteristic for |C(j)/U(j)| indicates Umax = 0.32 N is a
conservative value and the sensitivity is approximately constant over the region 0.1 < < 1.

Figure 7.3-B-3 Nichols diagram (hand drawn)

Figure 7.3-C-2 Nyquist diagram (hand drawn)

Figure 7.3-D-1 Disturbance attenuation |C(j)/U(j)| compared with |C(j)/R(j)|

Figure 7.3-D-2 Disturbance Attenuation C/U (hand drawn)

E. Root Locus
The Root locus is drawn using
s 3
+1
( s + 0.1)
3
0.1
G(s) = K =K
s
s3
s
+1 +1 s3 ( s + 0.001) ( s +1)
0.001 1
where K = 1 for the control system.
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 0, 0, 0.001, 1

2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 0.1, 0.1, 0.1 and 2 zeros at infinity.
3. Real axis loci s = 0 to 0.001 and s = 0.1 to 1
n m - 1- 0.001+ 3 (- 0.1)
pi - zi # p-#z
= -0.35
5. C.G. of asymptotes: i =1 i =1
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis poles 90
Arrival at zeros 60 and 180
7. Real axis breakaway ~ 0.0005
8. Angle of departure from complex poles N/A
9. j axis crossover ce = 1000 s5 +1001 s4 + ( +1000 K) s3
+ 300 K s2 + 30 K s + K
From the Bode diagram, j axis crossover
is at 0.2 r/s with K = 0.15
The sketch of the approximate root locus in Figure 7.3-A.2-1. The computer drawn locus is shown in Figure 7.3-E-
1.
0.8 K = 1
09 .
0
0.6
07
06
Imag
0.4 05
0 3 Poles
0 at s = 0
0.2 02
01 and 1 Pole
K=1
at s = -0.001
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
Real 3 Zeros
Figure 7.3-E-1 Root locus for K in increments of gain of 0.1

The roots when K = 1 are 0.3120 j 0.7926, 0.2267 and 0.0752 j 0.0207

7.4 Inner Loop Controller

Consider the control system in Figure 7.4-1.
Figure 7.4-1 Inner loop compensated control system

A. Draw the Bode gain and phase diagram for both the inner and outer loop.
1. Determine the gain and phase margins of each loop.
2. Using the technique in Section 7.6 of the class notes, estimate the closed loop response C(s)/R(s) from the
straight-line approximation to the gain characteristic of the inner and outer loop.
3. Using the results in 2, sketch the expected response c(t) to a unit step input r(t).
B. Draw the Nichols diagram of both the inner and outer loop. Show gain and phase margins on the diagram.
C. Sketch the Nyquist diagram for both the inner and outer loop. Select a "cutting line" and demonstrate
stability. Show gain and phase margins on the sketch.
D. Draw the straight-line approximation to the disturbance rejection transfer function |C(s)/U(s)|. Given a
disturbance u(t) = A sin t, what is the maximum value A that would result in less than 10-4 error in c(t); at
what frequency is this error value?
E. Sketch the root locus for both the inner and outer loop. Determine key parameters.
Exact Solution.
Inner Loop. The open loop transfer function is
s
G f (s) G p (s) = 0.2
s s s
+1 +1 +1
3 6 200
The transfer function C(s)/R'(s) is
s
C(s) G p (s) +1
= = 9000 3
R(s) 1+ G f (s) G p (s)
(
s ( s + 0.182) s2 + 208.8s +19780 )
s+3
= 3000
s ( s + 0.182 ) ( s +104.4 + j 94.24 ) ( s +104.4 - j 94.24)
s
+1
= 2.5 3
s s 2 2(0.742)
s +1 + s +1
0.182 140.6 2 140.6

Outer Loop. The open loop transfer function is

s
+1
C(s) 3
G(s) = 120 = 300
R(s) s s2 2(0.742)
s +1 + s +1
0.182 140.62 140.6
The exact open loop transfer function is shown in Figure 7.4-2. The closed loop transfer function is
s
+1
C(s) G(s) 3
= =
R(s) 1+ G(s) s s s2 2(0.748)
+1 +1 + s +1
3.67 18.9 124.7 2 124.7
The complex conjugate roots corresponding to the damped quadratic term are at s = 93.28 j 82.76.
The step response is shown in Figure 7.4-3. The overshoot is 11% and occurs at 0.22 seconds. The composite
portions of the response are shown in Figures 7.4-4 and -5.
C(t) = 1+ 0.295 e- 3.688 t -1.61 e- 18.88 t + 0.315 e- 93.25 t cos 82.78 t + 0.000572 e- 93.25 t sin 82.78 t

100
50
= 139.1 r/s
Gain (dB) = 20.1 r/s
0
Gain
Margin
.
21 dB
-50
-100
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
-100
Phase
-150 Margin
70.1
Phase (deg)
-200
-250
-300
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.4-2 Exact open loop transfer function for outer loop

c(t)
time
Figure 7.4-3 Exact step response
Low Frequency Region "Tail"

c(t)
High Frequency Response
Composite Response
time (sec)
Mid Frequency Response
Figure 7.4-4 Exact step response; High, Mid and Low Frequency components for 0 < t < 0.1 sec
Low Frequency Region "Tail"

c(t)
Composite Response
High Frequency Response
Mid Frequency Response time (sec)
Figure 7.4-5 Exact step response; High, Mid and Low Frequency components for 0 < t < 1.5 sec
A. Bode Gain and Phase Diagrams.
Inner Loop.
A.1. The inner loop Bode diagram is shown in Figure 7.4-A.1-1 through -4. The root locus sketch is shown in
Figure 7.4-A.1-5.

Figure 7.4-A.1-1 Inner Loop (hand drawn) - 0.01 to 1000 r/s

Figure 7.4-A.1-2 Inner Loop (hand drawn) - 1 to 1000 r/s

Figure 7.4-A.1-3 Outer Loop (hand drawn) - 0.01 to 1000 r/s

40
20
0.2 r/s 83 r/s

Gain (dB)
-20
-40
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
100
50
0 Phase Margin
= 264
Phase (deg)
-50
-100
Phase Margin
-150 = 74
-200
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.4-A.1-4 Inner loop Bode gain and phase diagram

Figure 7.4-A.1-5 Inner loop root locus

The estimate of the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R'(s) is based on the inner loop straight-line approximation
G f (s) G p (s)
shown in Figures 7.4-A.1-1 and -4. The Bode gain diagram "factors" , allowing calculation of
1+ G f (s) G p (s)
C(s)/R'(s) using
C(s) 1 G f (s) G p (s)

=
R(s) G f (s) 1+ G f (s) G p (s)
+ s + 85
20 log|GfGp| 0.2 s( s + 1)
200
+15dB
0.2 3 6 85 200
15dB
Figure 7.4-A.1-6 Schematic of inner loop straight line bode gain diagram
From Figure 7.4-A.1-6, the approximate factoring is
s s
G (s) G (s) 85

f p = 0.2 = 0.2
1+ G (s) G (s) 2
approx s +1 s + s + 85 s +1 s
2
f p
+
2 (0.767)
s +1
0.2 200
0.2 130.4 2
130.4

Thus, the approximation for the closed loop inner loop is
s s
s 2.5 +1
C(s) +1 3
=3 0.2 =
R(s) approx 2 2
2 s 2 s +1 s +
2 (0.767)
s +1 s +1 s +
2 (0.767)
s +1
0.2 130.4 2 130.4 0.2
130.4
2 130.4

Outer Loop. The open loop transfer function of the outer loop based on the approximation for the inner loop is
s s
2.5 +1 300 +1
3 3
(G(s))approx = 120 s2
=
s s2
s 2 (0.767) 2 (0.767)
+1 + s +1 +1 + s +1
0.2 130.4 2 130.4 0.2 130.4 2 130.4
The approximate Bode diagram is shown in Figure 7.4-A.1-7 and the root locus sketch in Figure 7.4-A.1-8.

100
50
= 20 r/s
.
Gain (dB) = 120 r/s
0
Gain
Margin
18 dB
-50
-100
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
-100
-150 Phase Margin

= 68.5
Phase (deg)
-200
-250
-300
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.4-A.1-7 Approximate outer loop Bode gain and phase diagram

Figure 7.4-A.1-8 Outer loop root locus sketch

The approximate closed loop C(s)/R(s) can be estimated as shown in Figure 7.4- A.1-9.
s
20 log|G| 1+
3
Dipole: s
1+
1
(1 + )3 + 18
40 dB/dec 6.7
s
20 dB/dec
+15 dB
16.5 dB
kz = 6,7 18 130.4
0 dB
16.3 dB r/s
3
kp = 0.15

15 dB
Quadratic pole moves to 60 dB/dec
130.4 (1 0.15) = 111 r/s
1
2 2 (0.76)
( s ) + s+1
111 111
Figure 7.4-A.1-9 Estimate of closed loop transfer function from straight line open loop approximate open
loop transfer function
The approximation for C(s)/R(s) is
s
C(s) +1
= 3
R(s) approx s s s 2 2(0.76)
+1 +1 + s +1
3.45 18 1112 111

Summary of Results. The comparison of the closed loop roots predicted by the techniques is given by Table 7.4-
A.2-1.
Table 7.4-A.2-1 Comparison of Inner loop Closed Loop Roots
Exact Roots Approximation

Mid Frequency 0.18 0.2
Region
|G| ~ 1 140.4 j94.24 100 j83.7
n = 140.6 n = 130.4
= 0.742 = 0.767
Table 7.4-A.2-2 Comparison of Outer loop Closed Loop Roots
Exact Roots Approximation

Low Frequency 3.68 3.45
Region
|G| >> 1
Mid Frequency 18.9 18
Region
|G| ~ 1
Hi Frequency 93.28 j82.76. 84.4 j72.1
Region n = 124.7 n = 111
|G| << 1 = 0.75 = 0.76
A.3. The predicted step response is estimated using the various methods and approximations to see the range of
predictions. The exact and approximate step responses are
c(t) = 1+ 0.29 e- 3.688 t -1.61 e- 18.88 t + 0.315 e- 93.25 t cos 82.78 t + 0.000572 e- 93.25 t cos 82.78 t
exact
c(t) = 1+ 0.19 e- 3.45 t -1.52 e- 18 t + 0.326 e- 84.36 t cos 72.15 t + 0.016 e- 84.36 t cos 72.15 t
approx
The step responses are compared in Figures 7.4-A.3-1 and -2.

Table 7.4-A.3-1 Comparison of step response terms
Predicted Step Response Exact Roots Approximation Phase Margin,

c
Low Frequency Region
|G| >> 1 N/A
Tail Time Constant 0.27 sec 0.27 sec
Residue 0.29 0.15

Mid Frequency Region
|G| ~ 1
Time Constant 0.053 sec 0.056 sec 0.05 sec
Residue
High Frequency Region
|G| << 1 N/A
Time Constant 0.01 sec 0.012 sec
Residue 0.32
Exact Solution
c(t)
Approximate Solution
time (sec)
Figure 7.4-A.3-1 Comparison of exact and approximate solution
Exact "Tail"
c(t)
Approximate "Tail" (dotted)
Exact Solution
time (sec)
Figure 7.4-A.3-2 Comparison of "Tails"

B. The Inner loop Nichols diagram is shown in Figure 7.4-B-1 and -2

20
10
Phase
Margin 0.2 r/s
= 74
0
83 r/s
Gain (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Phase (deg)
Figure 7.4-B-1 Inner loop Nichols diagram

80
60
40
Phase
20
Margin
Gain (dB)
68.5
0
Gain
-20 Margin
19.7 dB =
= 128 r/s
20 r/s
-40
-60
-80
-300 -250 -200 -150 -100
Phase (deg)
Figure 7.4-B-2 Approximate Outer loop Nichols diagram

80
60
40
Phase
20 Margin
Gain (dB)
70.1
0
Gain
Margin
-20
21 dB = 139.1 r/s
-40
= 20.1 r/s
-60
-80
-300 -250 -200 -150 -100
.
Phase (deg)
Figure 7.4-B-3 Exact outer loop transfer function

C. The inner loop Nyquist Diagram is shown in Figure 7.4-C-1 and the outer loop Nyquist sketch in Figure
7.4-C-2.
90 10
120 60
8
6
150 30
4
2
= 0+
180 1 0
= + = 0
210 330
240 300
270
Figure 7.4-C-1 Inner loop Nyquist

Im G
= 0
Gain
Margin
1 = + Re G

=
Phase
Margin
70
= 0+
Figure 7.4-C-2 Sketch of outer loop Nyquist diagram

D. The transfer function C(s)/U(s) is given by
G p (s)
C(s) 1+ G f (s) G p (s) G p (s)
= =
U (s)
1+
K G p (s) ( )
1+ G f (s) + K G p (s)
1+ G f (s) G p (s)
The approximations for the transfer function at low and high gain, |G f(j) Gp(j)| is
1
C( j ) for | (G f ( j ) + K ) G p ( j ) | >> 1, | G f ( j ) | << 1
K
U ( j )
| G p ( j ) | for | (G f ( j ) + K ) G p ( j ) | << 1

The straight-line approximation of the disturbance rejection using these approximations is shown in Figure 7.4-D-1
along with the exact transfer function. The peak value of |C(j)/U(j)| is 1/K. For K = 120, 1/K = 0.0083, or 41.6
dB. For a maximum error of 104, the maximum value of U is 104/0.0083 = 0.012 over a frequency range of
0 < < 20 r/s.

100
Outer Loop
Gp(j) .
Inner Loop
Gf(j) Gp(j)
0
Magnitude C/U(dB)
1
K C(j)
-100
U(j)
-200
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.4-D-1 Disturbance Attenuation |C(j)/U(j)|

E. Root Locus
Inner Loop. The Root locus is drawn using
s
Ginner (s) = K
( s + 3) ( s + 6) ( s + 200)
where K = 18,000 for the control system. The sketch of the inner loop root locus in Figure 7.4-A.1-5.
Table 7.4-E-1 Inner loop root locus characteristics
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 3, 6, 200

2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 0 and 2 zeros at infinity.
3. Real axis loci s = 0 to 3 and s = 6 to 200
n m
pi - zi - 3- 6 - 200
i =1 i =1 = -104.5
5. C.G. of asymptotes: 3-1
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis poles 90
7. Real axis breakaway dGinner (s)
= 0 s = -104.4 ,
ds
other values for K < 0
9. j axis crossover N/A
Outer Loop. The outer loop transfer function is

s+3
Gouter (s) = K
(
s (s + 0.182) (s2 + 2 (0.742) 140.6 s +140.6 2 ) )
The root locus sketch is shown in Figure 7.4-A.1-8. The closed loop roots occur when K = 359,784.

Table 7.4-E-2 Outer loop root locus characteristics
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 0.18, 104.33 j 94.26
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 3 and 3 zeros at infinity.
3. Real axis loci s = 0 to 0.182 and s = 3 to
n m - 0.182 - 2 (104.33) + 3
pi - zi 4 -1
= - 68.6
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis 90
7. Real axis breakaway dGouter (s)
= 0 s = -0.092 , - 6.1
ds
8. Angle of departure from complex poles 104.3- 3
90 + tan- 1
94.26
104.3
- 90 - tan - 1
94.26
104.3- 0.182
- 90 - tan - 1
94.26
-90 - = - 180
= - 48.7
9. j axis crossover s4 + 208.83 s3 + 19806 s2 +
(3597.84 + K) s +3 K
s4 1 19806 3K
3
s 208.83 3597.8
s2 4.13x106 K 626.5 K
1 2 6
s K + 4.28x10 + j axis
1.487x1010 = crossing
(K+3598) at
(K 4.13x106), j140.7
6
K 4 .132x10
s0 626.5 K; K > 0
7.5 Surveying Vehicle Azimuth Control System
The track-drive surveying vehicle shown in Figures 7.5-1 and 7.5-2, with parameter definitions in Table 7.5-1, is
used to accurately measure landmarks using the Global Positioning System (GPS) and precision range finder. The
range finder is mounted on the payload module that is isolated in all three axes by springs and dampers from the
main carriage. The orientation of the payload module relative to inertial space is maintained by the rate integrating
gyroscopes. The figure illustrates only one axis of the carriage drive system and the azimuth drive system. The
other axle drive is the same as that shown. The elevation angle EL control system is not shown.
7.5.1. For the single axis carriage control shown, and, considering the yv-direction only:
A. Write the equations for the single axis y-direction carriage control system.
B. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix corresponding to the mounting matrix for the gyroscope input axes (IAs)
on the payload module shown in Figures 7.5-1 and 7.5-2. Determine the mounting matrix A, the product with
its transpose and set up the form/equation for the pseudoinverse.

C. Draw the elemental block diagram (no differentiators, one element per block where possible) for the
carriage control system. Compensation, Command Generator and Power Amplifier may be used as
single blocks in your diagram.
D. Write the state equations. Label the variables in your block diagram starting with x1 = Ip.
Carriage y-axis controller: As shown in Figure 7.5-1 the spring-damper mounted payload module structure
contributes a structural mode in the y-direction design. The carriage-payload module weight is uniformly
distributed over the tracks driving the carriage. The coefficient of friction between the tracks and terrain varies
based on contact surface conditions.
Figure 7.5-1 Track-drive surveying vehicle control systems
Figure 7.5-2 Orientation of the input axes (IAs) of the gyros

Table 1. Definition of parameters in Figure 1

Symbol Definition Value
A, A Gyro input axes (IAs) mounting matrix and pseudoinverse, respectively
b Azimuth assembly damping constant about zp axis, Nm/rad/s refer to s
Bx, By, Bz Payload module damping, N/m/s
FD, FT Disturbance force and track force, respectively, N
IAi Gyro input axes (IAs), i = 1,,4
Ip Current through carriage motor winding, amps
J Total inertia of azimuth gimbal and range finder about zp axis, Kg m2
JAZ Inertia of azimuth gimbal and range finder about zp axis, Kg m2 0.3 J
Jm, JT Inertia of carriage motor and track, respectively, Kg m2
Jp Inertia of payload module rotor about zp axis, Kg m2 0.7 J
k Azimuth assembly spring constant about zp axis, Nm/rad refer to s
Ka Voltage gain of azimuth power amplifier, v/v
Kc Torque constant of carriage drive motor, Nm/amp
Kamf Back-emf constant of azimuth drive motor, v/rad/s 0
Kemf Back-emf constant of carriage wheel drive motor, v/rad/s
Km Torque constant of azimuth drive motor, Nm/amp
Kx,Ky,Kz Spring constant between carriage and payload module, N/m
K1 Azimuth angle sensor scale factor, rad/rad; e is error in scale factor 1+e
Lp Carriage motor winding inductance, Henries
Mc,Mp,M Mass of carriage, payload module and total mass (M = Mc + Mp), Kg
n1/n2 Carriage drive gear ratio
rT Radius of carriage drive track, m
Rp Armature resistance of carriage motor, Ohms
Tc Carriage drive motor torque, Nm
T d, T m Azimuth disturbance and drive torque, respectively, Nm
TT Carriage gear train torque on track, Nm
T1 Carriage gear train torque at motor due to track drive, Nm
VA,Vp,V1 Power amplifier voltages and compensation voltage, respectively, v
xE ,yE, zE Earth centered inertial reference axes
xp ,yp, zp Payload module axes
xv ,yv, zv Carriage axes
IAi, I = 1,,4, angle out of xp yp plane, rad
g IAi, I = 1,,4, angle in xp yp plane, rad
D Damping factor of azimuth angle rate sensor 0.7
D Undamped natural frequency of azimuth angle rate sensor, rad/s 50 n
a Azimuth power amplifier time constant, s 1/(45 n)
m Azimuth motor time constant, s 1/(40 n)
1 Azimuth angle sensor time constant, s 1/(50 n)
Coefficient of friction between track and ground 0.6 1
cmd Azimuth command angle, rad
EL,AZ,p Azimuth, elevation and payload module angles, respectively, rad
2, 1 Carriage wheel angle and motor gear angle, rad
s Damping of azimuth structural mode 0.005

s Frequency of azimuth structural mode, rad/s Designer
7.5.1A Equations for System.

The key equations are summarized in Table 7.5.1A-1.
Table 7.5.1A-1 Key Equations
Item Equations
Motor drive Vp VRp VLp Vemf = 0 -> Vp Ip Rp Lp s Ip Kemf 1 = 0
Tc = kc Ip
Gear train , T1 is the track drive torque via the gear train
, TT gear train torque on track
2
Work balance: T1 1 = TT 2 T1 = TT
1
2 n1
Gear train: n1 1 = n 2 2 =
1 n 2
n1
Thus: T1 = TT
n2
And:
Carriage plus structural mode The equations are developed in terms of yv not 1 as above. Note that
2 = (1/ rT) yv and 1 = (n2/(n1 rT)) yv. The equations are derived using
the above. Since
In terms of yv.
Solving for FT.
n 22 1 1
Let: M EQ = J m + JT
n12 rT2 rT2
For the coupled masses Mc and Mp
The development is continued below.

Note: Since the control torque Tm is on the carriage and the GPS sensor is on the payload, KB = 1 for the control
loop. This is verified by the following equations.

The differential equation using the definition of FT(t) is
7.5.1A-1
Laplace transforming and placing in matrix form

n 1
( 2
M c + M EQ s + b s + k) - (b s + k ) Yv (s) 2
= n1 rT Tc (s) + 1 FD (s)
7.5.1A-2
- (b s + k ) M p s2 + b s + k Yp (s) 0
0
The determinant of the matrix is
( ) (
det = M c + M EQ M p s4 + M c + M EQ + M p b s3 + M c + M EQ + M p k s2) ( ) 7.5.1A-3
Solving the matrix equation
n 1
Y (s)
v = 1
2
Mp s +b s+ k (b s + k ) 2 1
Y (s) det n1 rT Tc (s) + FD (s)
( Mc + M EQ )
7.5.1A-4
p

(b s + k ) s2 + b s + k
0

0

Let
n2 Tc (s)
Ftotal (s) = + FD (s) 7.5.1A-5
n1 rT
The transfer functions Yv(s)/Ftotal(s) and Yp(s)/Ftotal(s) are
Yv (s) M p s2 + b s + k
=
Ftotal (s) s2
(( M + M ) M
c EQ p ( ) (
s2 + M c + M EQ + M p b s + M c + M EQ + M p k ) )
7.5.1A-6
Yp (s) b s+ k
=
Ftotal (s) s2 (( M + M ) M
c EQ p ( ) (
s2 + M c + M EQ + M p b s + M c + M EQ + M p k ) )
Multiplying by the numerator and denominator by
M c + M EQ + M p
( M c + M EQ ) M p 7.5.1A-7
yields
M c + M EQ + M p M c + M EQ + M p M c + M EQ + M p
s2 + b s+ k
Yv (s)
=
M c + M EQ ( M c + M EQ ) M p ( M c + M EQ ) M p
Ftotal (s) M c + M EQ + M p
M c + M EQ + M p
( M c + M EQ + M p ) s2 s2 + b s+ k
M c + M EQ M p( M c + M EQ M)
p ( )
M + M EQ + M p M + M EQ + M p 7.5.1A-8
b c s+ k c
Yp (s)
=
(
M c + M EQ M p )
M c + M EQ M p ( )
Ftotal (s) M + M EQ + M p M + M EQ + M p
( M c + M EQ + M p ) s2 s 2 + b c s+ k c

(
M c + M EQ M p )
M c + M EQ M p ( )


Define
Mp M c + M EQ + M p M c + M EQ + M p
KB = , K B = - 1 , 2 s s = b , s2 = k , M = M c + M EQ 7.5.1A-9
c M c + M EQ p
( M c + M EQ ) M p ( M c + M EQ ) M p
Thus
Yv (s)
= c( )
1+ K B s2 + 2 s s s + s2
=
1
+
KB
c 1
Ftotal (s) ( 2 2
) (
M + M EQ s s + 2 s s s + s 2
) (
M + M EQ s 2 M + M 2
) 2
EQ s + 2 s s s + s
7.5.1A-10
Yp (s) 2 s s s + s2 1 -1 1
= = +
Ftotal (s) (M ) (
+ M EQ s2 s 2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) (M + M ) EQ s 2 M + M 2 2
EQ s + 2 s s s + s
7.5.1B Pseudoinverse
The relationship of the gyro mounting matrix A to body and gyro rates gi, i = 1,..,4, is shown in Figure 7.5.1B-1.
Figure 7.5.1B-1 Mounting matrix A

The gyro input axes (IAs) coordinatized in the xp, yp, zp axes are the row vectors in the A matrix. Two approaches
are available to obtain the A matrix representing the mounting of the gyro IAs.
Consider the IAs as unit vectors. Figure 7.5.1B -2 shows the IA #1 components due to .
Figure 7.5.1B-2 IAs as unit vectors

The rate x has a projection on the IA #1 axis of x cos cos g, the rate y a projection y cos sin g and z a
projection z sin . This gives the vector relationship for the measurement of gyro #1.

x
g = cos cos g cos sin g sin y 7.5.1B-1
1
z


Similar relationships can be determined for the other gyros yielding

g
1 cos cos g cos sin g sin
x
g - cos sin g cos cos g sin
x
2
y = A y
= 7.5.1B -2
g - cos sin g - cos cos g sin
3 z
cos cos g - cos sin g sin z
g
4
This defines the mounting matrix A.

Alternately, the relationships can be found by re-coordinatizing the IAs in the xp,yp,zp axes. Figure 7.5.1B-3 shows
the coordinate axes for IA #1 and the Euler angles and g. IA #1 coordinatized in the x1,y1,z1 frame is [1 0 0]T. To
coordinatize IA #1 in the xp,yp,zp axes, i.e., p-frame, the direction cosine matrix is constructed using Euler angle
rotations. Only the first column of the direction cosine matrix is needed.
Figure 7.5.1B -3 IA #1 coordinate frame relative to the xp,yp,zp frame

1 cos g sin g 0 cos 0 - sin cos cos g
1
IA #1 = - g 0 = - sin g cos g 0 0 1 0 0 = cos sin g 7.5.1B -3
p frame 3 2
0 0 sin 0 cos
0 sin

0 1
This yields the row vector in equation 7.5.1B -1. Similarly the direction cosine matrices for IA #2, #3 and #4 are [
90 g]3 []2, [90 + g]3 []2 and [g]3 []2, respectively. Since each IA is the unit vector [1 0 0] in its coordinate
frame, their row vectors in the p-frame including the row vector for IA #1 are the components in the first column of
its direction cosine matrix.
cos cos g cos sin g sin

IA #1

IA # 2 = - cos sin g cos cos g sin
= A 7.5.1B -4
IA # 3 - cos sin g - cos cos g sin

IA # 4 cos cos g - cos sin g sin
Note that sin( 90 g) = cos g, cos( 90 g) = sin g, sin(90 + g) = cos g, cos(90 + g) = sin g. This yields the
same A matrix as in equation 7.5.1B-2.
To calculate the pseudoinverse the matrix AT A is formed.

2 cos 2 0 2 cos sin (cos g - sin g )
T
A A= 0 2 cos2 0 7.5.1B-5
2 cos sin (cos g - sin g ) 0 4 cos 2


The inverse of AT A is
1 cos g - sin g
0
k cos2 2 k cos sin

AT A- 1 = 0
1
0 , where k = 2 cos g sin g +1 7.5.1B-6

2 cos 2

cos g - sin g 0
1
2 k cos sin 2 k sin 2
The pseudoinverse is A = [AT A]1 AT.

3 cos g - sin g cos g + sin g cos g + sin g 3 cos g - sin g
- - -
2 k cos 2 k cos 2 k cos 2 k cos k = 2 cos g sin g +1
sin g sin g sin g sin g
A = - - , where k1 = cos g (cos g - sin g ) +1 7.5.1B-7
2 cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 cos
k1 k2 k2 k1 k2 = - cos g ( cos g - sin g ) +1

2 k sin 2 k sin 2 k sin 2 k sin
7.5.1C Elemental Block Diagram.
Figure 7.5.1C-1 Elemental Block Diagram

7.5.1D. State Equations.

The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variable. The state variable numbering is shown in Figure
7.5.1C-1. The numbering started at the power amplifier with x1 = Vp.
7.5.1D-1
7.5.2. Design the azimuth control system using the dynamics and relationships shown in Figures 7.5.2-1 and 7.5.2-
2. The azimuth control loop system requirements are in Table 7.5.2-1. Table 7.5-1 provides numerical values and
relationships for parameters.
Azimuth controller: Figure 7.5.2-1 is a detailed view of the payload module with azimuth drive system. The motor
stator is rigidly attached to the payload module. The motor rotor is integral with the rotational inertia J p. The
payload module has negligible motion in the azimuth direction. The bearing restraint torque on J p is negligible. The
azimuth drive is to maneuver 90 in 20 seconds using the acceleration profile in Figure 7.5.2-2. The azimuth drive
can move 180.

Figure 7.5.2-1 Azimuth control system inertias with spring-damper coupling
Figure 7.5.2-2 Azimuth angle maneuver profile

Table 7.5.2-1 Azimuth system requirements
Requirement Azimuth control loop

i.) Overshoot to a step command input 40%
ii.) Time to peak for step input command 0.5 sec
iii.) Settling time to within 2% of the commanded step value 5 seconds
iv.) Track parabolic command input Steady state error 1%
v.) Error to a step external disturbance Td Zero error
vi) Suppress azimuth axis mode by 12 dB below 0 dB Set frequency relative to your design
axis solution
vii.) Azimuth angle accuracy during precision range finder Knowledge and position to
operation 0.01
Design the azimuth axis controller. Explain any requirements you cannot meet as well as any derived requirements
and assumptions you make in your design. Where possible estimate/size the credibility of your assumptions.
A. Determine your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine , n, etc.); use a table-
format to display results.
B. Determine the mathematical model and construct block diagram of control loop including transfer functions
given.

D. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the gain values.
E. Evaluate the expected performance of your design compared to the requirements in a table-format. Discuss any
F. Draw both the open loop straight-line magnitude and exact Bode magnitude diagram using semilog graph
paper for the rigid body system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on same graph construct the
phase lag for the system with values shown at the phase margin and gain margin frequencies. Use the given power
amplifier, motor and sensor poles in your graph, even if you assumed them to be ignorable in your initial synthesis
of the compensation. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
a. Evaluate the gain margins and phase margin. For the phase margin use a table to show each source e.g., poles
and zeros, and their value contributed to the phase lag.
b Estimate both the transfer function /cmd(s) and the response to a unit step command cmd(s) using the
straight-line Bode diagram and the value of phase margin. Construct the step response sketches using superposition
of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required; computer generated
results not acceptable.
c. Determine the minimum frequency of the structural mode consistent with requirement (vi).
G. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper for |AZ/(Td/J)| considering
rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
H. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the power amplifier, motor and sensor time
constants. Determine j-axis crossing and real axis breakin/breakaway using only low frequency and mid frequency
poles and zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root locus using the closed
loop estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F.
I. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
values on the diagrams. Show stable and unstable regions by counting encirclements.
J. Provide 1.) the accuracy budget to meet requirement (vii), 2.) the dynamic range for the azimuth attitude and
rate sensors and 3.) the dynamic range for the azimuth motor.

Solution.
7.5.2A Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.5.2A-1. The damping ratio, , is increased and
the undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the
system.
Table 7.5.2A-1 Requirements
Requirement Parameters without Mid- Parameters Adjusted for

Frequency Zero Mid-Frequency Zero
Mid Frequency
i.) Damping Ratio, 0.28 (Overshoot 40%) 0.46 (Overshoot 20%)
Phase margin = 31 Phase margin = 49
ii.) Time to peak 0.5 n = 6.5 r/s n = 0.75*6.5 r/s
sec = 4.9 r/s
iii.) Settling time (2 %) n = 2.9 r/s (for = 0.28)
5 sec,
Low Frequency
iv.) 1% steady state error As minimum, match coefficients of right and left hand side
to a parabolic input, of the closed loop differential equation up through d/dt
with error constant gain Ka 100; Since zero steady state
error to a disturbance, open loop transfer function has 1/s3
term -> zero steady state error.
v.) Zero steady state error to Integral control -> implies PID controller
a step torque disturbance Td
High Frequency
vi.) Suppress azimuth axis Frequency s set relative to design solution.
mode by 12 dB below 0 KB = Jp/JAZ = 0.3/0.7 = 0.43
dB axis KB/(2 s) = 0.43/(2*0.005) = 43 (32.7 dB)
Therefore rigid body diagram must be 44.7 dB (12 + 32.7)
below 0 dB axis at s.
Controlled by Error Budget
vii.) Azimuth angle Knowledge and position to 0.01. Allocate 1/10 of
accuracy during precision requirement to sensor accuracy. The balance to thermo-
range finder operation mechanical effects and margin. See part J.
7.5.2B Mathematical model and block diagram of control loop.
The structural equations based on the notes Control System Synthesis, section 5.4 are
p (s) =
(1+ K B ) s2 + 2 s s s + s2 T 2 s s s + s2
m (s) + Td (s)
(
J s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) (
J s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) 7.5.2B-1
AZ (s) =
2 s s s + s2
Tm (s) +
(1+ K B ) s2 + 2 s s s + s2 T
d (s)
(
J s 2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) (
J s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 )
KB is 0.43 and J = Jp +JAZ.

The structural model using rigid body and structural mode components is
1
p (s) = +
KB 1 T (s) + 1 + - 1 1 T (s)
J s
2 J s2 + 2 s + 2 m J s 2 J s2 + 2 s + 2 d

s s s s s s
7.5.2B-2

1 -1 1 T (s) + 1 + K B 1
AZ (s) = 2 + T (s)
J s J s2 + 2 s + 2 m J s 2 J s2 + 2 s + 2 d

s s s s s s
or
1 1
p (s) = (Tm (s) + Td (s)) + ( K B Tm (s) -Td (s))
Js 2
(
J s + 2 s s s + s2
2
)
1 1 7.5.2B-3
2( m
p (s) = T (s) + Td (s)) + (- Tm (s) + K B Td (s))
Js (
J s2 + 2 s s s + s2 )
The first term for each equation is the rigid body, the second term the structural mode. The block diagram is:
Figure 7.5.2B-1 Block diagram of azimuth control loop (AZ portion shown as dotted line)
Considering only the response to the command input (i.e., T d = 0), equation 7.5.2B-1 yields
p (s) =
(1+ K B ) s 2 + 2 s s s + s2
T m (s)
(
J s 2 s 2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) 7.5.2B-4
2 s s s + s2
AZ (s) = Tm (s)
(
J s 2 s 2 + 2 s s s + s2 )

The transfer function AZ(s)/p(s) is

2 s
s +1
AZ (s) 2 s s s + s2 s
= =
p (s) ( )
1+ K B s2 + 2 s s s + s2 (1+ K B ) s2 + 2 s s +1 7.5.2B-5
s2 s
For frequencies less than s this transfer function is essentially 1 and AZ(t) = p(t). The difference is in the residue
of the response of the structural mode. The magnitude of the transfer function at the root s = s s + s (1 s2)1/2
is (see Section 7.5.3)
AZ (s) 1
= 7.5.2B-6
p (s) KB
s = - ss + j s 1 - s2
Hence the magnitude of the structural oscillation term of AZ(t) due to cmd(t) is a factor 1/KB greater than that of
p(t).
Assumption for Initial Synthesis of Compensation: AZ = p and ignore structural mode. The structural
component of the azimuth angle AZ is open loop relative to the control torque T m. The closed loop transfer function
is relative to p. The difference between AZ and p is the difference in amplitude of the structural mode oscillation.
Relative to the rigid body AZ and p are the same angle. Since the synthesis is carried out relative to the rigid body,
assume AZ = p in writing the transfer functions and performing the analysis. The difference in angles is considered
via the error budget in Part 7.5.2J and in estimating the magnitude of the structural oscillation in Part 7.5.2F.
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant is of the form 1/s2. To meet the requirements a PID
controller is needed for the requirement for zero steady state error to a step disturbance (integral control). With 1/s 3
in the open loop transfer function the control system can also track a parabolic command input with zero steady state
error.
Initially, assume the position, integral and derivative gains are selected such that the idealized PID controller creates
a mid-frequency zero and a low frequency zero as shown in Figure 7.5.2B-2.
Figure 7.5.2B-2 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for AZ(s)/cmd(s)

2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 2 n s + n
AZ (s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2

cmd (s)
( )(
s2 + 2 n s + n2 s + b n ) ( s + 2 s + ) ( s + b )
2
n
2
n n
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
7.5.2B-7
transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and mid-frequency zero are illustrated in
Figure 7.5.2B-2 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid

n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan- 1 n 1 = tan- 1 7.5.2B-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 7.5.2B-3.
Figure 7.5.2B-3 Alpha angle as a function of

for time to peak in Table 7.5.2A-1 are reviewed using Figure 7.5.2B-5. The overshoot value is acceptable for the
initial iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.6 from Figure 7.5.2B-4 indicates that n 5.2 r/s (=2.6/0.5) is
required (factor of 0.8 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). Select n = 5.2 r/s for the first iteration.
Figure 7.5.2B-4 Evaluation of 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the motor drive and
sensors are tabulated in Table 7.5.2B-1.
Table 7.5.2B-1 Phase lag due to sensors and actuator
Source Calculation of lag Phase Lag

Power amplifier arctan (1/45) 1.3
Motor drive arctan (1/40) 1.4
Angle sensor 2 arctan (1/50) 2.3
Rate sensor arctan (2D(n/D)/(1 (n/D)2)) = 1.6 Use angle
where: D = 50 n, D = 0.7 sensor value*
Component phase lag = 5
Margin Allocation 4
Estimate of total phase lag = 9

* Since angle and rate sensor feedback paths are both in feedback path, use angle sensor phase lag for both as it is
largest.
The gain crossover frequency c, i.e., the frequency at which the exact gain characteristic not the straight-line
approximation crosses 0 db, differs from n depending on the value of and whether there is a mid-frequency zero,
or not. The straight-line gain crossover is an indication of the value of the actual gain crossover frequency. As
illustrated in Figure 7.5.2B-5 with no mid-frequency zero and 0.5 the straight-line approximation crosses the
0 dB axis at n; and with a mid frequency zero the straight-line approximation has its zero on the 0 dB axis when
= 0.5. The margin in Table 7.5.2B-1 is to allow for differences between n and c.
The design options are either to ignore the phase lag in the initial synthesis and determine its effect during the
verification phase of the design or to incorporate a correction to due to the increase phase lag due to the sensors
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 9 for the phase lag. Thus the determined from
requirement (i) is modified as shown in Table 7.5.2B-2.
Table 7.5.2B-2 Modification of value for
Mid Frequency
Requirement Parameters without Mid- Parameters Adjusted for Mid-
Frequency Zero Frequency Zero
i.) Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin = 40 Modified phase margin = 58
Modified = 0.37 Modified = 0.58
The synthesis of the compensation with the mid-frequency zero uses the design parameters
= 0.58 , n = 5.2 7.5.2B-9
Note that the final value of resulting from the synthesis is expected to be 0.46 as the 9 is expected to be
used/depleted by the actuator, sensor and margin phase lags.
Figure 7.5.2B-5 Bode straight-line gain diagrams for 2nd order standard form and Mid-frequency zero form
7.5.2C Synthesis of PID controller with Mid-frequency zero. A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady
state error to a step disturbance input. Also, it meets the tracking requirement by providing zero steady state error in
tracking a parabolic input. The simplified block diagram (ignoring structural mode and actuator and sensor time
constants) of the system with a PID controller and rigid body dynamics is shown in Figure 7.5.2C-1.

Figure 7.5.2C-1 Simplified block diagram with PID controller design (Note: Assumes AZ = p)
Substituting the control torque Tm(t)
7.5.2C-1
into the plant equation and differentiating once yields
7.5.2C-2
As expected, since the coefficients of AZ and cmd are equal up to and including the second derivative, this
simplified system follows a parabolic input command with zero steady state error.
k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
AZ (s) = cmd (s) + T (s) 7.5.2C-3
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki J s3 + k s 2 + k s + k d
D p i
Choosing kI/kp to be much less than kp and kD, the denominator can be approximately factored as
k
( )
s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki s2 + k D s + k p s + i
kp
7.5.2C-4
k p = n2 , k D = 2 n 7.5.2C-5

ki
= b n ki = b n3 7.5.2C-6
kp
The approximate transform for AZ(s) using these values is

2 n s + n ( s + b n )
2 1 s
AZ (s) = cmd (s) + T (s) 7.5.2C-7
( s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 ) ( s + b n ) ( n n)
J s2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + b ) d
n
Evaluating the gains using equations 7.5.2C-5 and -6 with b = 0.01
k p = n2 = 5.2 2 = 27.04 r/s2 , k D = 2 n = 2 (0.58) 5.2 = 6.032 r/s , ki = b n3 = 0.01 (5.2)3 = 1.406 r/s3 7.5.2C-8

The approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 7.5.2C-1.
Table 7.5.2C-1 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros

(n = 5.2, = 0.58) (n = 5.17, = 0.578)
0.052 0.052609
0.052 0.52615
7.5.2D Simplified Block Diagram of Control System
Figure 7.5.2D-1 Block diagram of simplified PID control system (Note: assumes AZ = p)
The open loop transfer function of the simplified control loop is (with H(s) = 1)
s s
1.123 +1 +1
2
6.032 s + 27.04 s +1.406 6.032 ( s + 4.415) ( s + 0.05262 ) 4.415 0.05262 7.5.2D-1
Gsimple (s) = = =
s3 s3 s3
7.5.2E Comparison of Simplified Control System Against Requirements
All requirements are met as shown in Table 2E-1.
Table 7.5.2E-1 Requirements Compliance, Simplified System
Requirement PID Exact Values

Comply
ii.) time to peak 0.5 sec 0.5 sec (estimate) 0.45 sec
Comply
iii.) settling time (2 %) 5 sec, 1.9 sec (estimate)* 1.4 sec
Comply
iv.) 1% steady state error to a Zero error Zero error
parabolic input Comply Comply
v.) zero steady state error to a step Comply Comply
torque disturbance
* Using design value of 6.5 r/s and = 0.32 obtained from design

Verification based on Simplified Control Model.

Step Response to cmd(s) = 1/s. Set Td(s) = 0. The exact step response of the simplified system is given by the
transform
AZ (s) = 7.5.2E-1
(
s s3 + k D s 2 + k p s + k i )
The second order response is dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero."
The exact solution is
AZ (t) = 1- 0.000105 e- 0.0526 t - 0.999895 e- 2.99 t cos 4.217 t + 0.7214 e- 2.99 t sin 4.217 t 7.5.2E -2
The step response is shown in Figure 7.5.2E-1
Figure 7.5.2E-1 Sketch of response to unit step command

7.5.2F Bode gain and phase diagram. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in
Figure 7.5.2F-1 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions.
Figure 7.5.2F-1 Azimuth block diagram without structural mode (Note: assumes AZ = p)
The equation relating cmd and AZ is
Ga (s) k s
AZ (s) = k p + i ( cmd (s) - H1(s) AZ (s)) + k D s ( cmd (s) - H D (s) AZ (s)) 7.5.2F-1
s 2
The transfer function is
AZ (s)
=
( 2
)
k D s + k p s + ki Ga (s)
7.5.2F-2
(
cmd (s) s3 + k H (s) s2 + k H (s) s + k H (s) G (s)
D D p 1 i 1 a )
Assume that HD(s) = H1(s) since the straight-line gain characteristics of the sensors are equal and the phase lag of the
angle sensor is greater than that of the rate sensor at n thereby providing a conservative value for phase margin.
k s2 + k s + k
D p i
( )
G (s)
k s 2
+ k s + k G (s) s 3 a
AZ (s) D p i a G(s)
= = = 7.5.2F-3
3
D( 2
p i)
cmd (s) s + k s + k s + k G (s) H (s)
a 1
k s2 + k s + k
1+ D p i
Ga (s) H1(s)
1+ G(s) H1(s)
s3

For the Bode diagram analysis the open loop transfer function is approximately (using values for exact open loop
poles and zeros; the approximate values would yield essentially the same results)
s s
k s2 + k s + k 1.123 +1 +1
G(s) 4.415 0.05262

D p i
Ga (s) H1 (s) 7.5.2F-4
1+ G(s) H1 (s) s 3 s s s 2
s3 +1 +1 +1
208 234 260
The straight-line Bode gain diagrams are in Figures 7.5.2F-2 and -3. The Bode arctangent ruler for the 5 cycle graph
paper is in Figure 7.5.2F-2
a. The gain margin and phase margins are illustrated in Figure 7.5.2F-3. They are summarized in Table 7.5.2F-1.
Table 7.5.2F-1 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin
Item Frequency Value

Phase Margin 7.1 r/s 51
Low frequency gain margin 0.5 r/s 40.7 dB
High frequency gain margin 96 r/s 26.6 dB
Table 7.5.2F-2 Phase margin contributors (c = 7.1 r/s)
Source Calculation of lag Phase

3
s term 3 ( 90) 270
Zero at 0.05262 arctan (7.1/0.05262) 89.6
Zero at 4.415 arctan (7.1/4.415) 58.1
Power amplifier arctan (7.1/234) 1.7
Motor drive arctan (7.1/208) 2
Angle sensor 2 arctan (7.1/260) 3.1
Rate sensor arctan (2D(71/260)/(1 (71/260)2)) = Use angle
1.6 sensor value
where: D = 0.7
Phase lag = 129
Phase Margin = 51( = 0.49)*
* Using factor of 2 of covering overshoot of standard form of the 2 nd order system to that with a Mid-frequency
zero: 2 (17%) =34%

Figure 7.5.2F-2 Straight-line Bode diagram with arctangent ruler

Figure 7.5.2F-3 BODE DIAGRAM INSERT

b.) Estimate of closed loop transfer function and step response. From Figures 7.5.2F-2 and -3 the gain at the low
frequency open loop zeros and high frequency open loop poles can be read from the straight-line Bode diagram.
Values are tabulated in Table 7.5.2F-3.
Table 7.5.2F-3 Tabulation of gains at low frequency zero and high frequency poles
Open Loop Pole or Zero Value in dB Estimate of Estimate of closed loop pole
residue (Time constant)
Low frequency zero at 80 dB (104) 104 0.05262 (1 104) = 0.0526 r/s
0.05262 r/s (19 s)
High frequency pole at 31 dB (0.028) 0.028* 208 (1 0.028) = 202 r/s
208 r/s (0.005 s)
High frequency pole at 33 dB (0.022) 0.022* 234 (1 + 0.022) = 239 r/s
234 r/s (0.0042 s)
High frequency poles at 36 dB (0.016) Two poles:
260 r/s 0.016* 260 (1 0.016) = 256 r/s
(0.0039 s)
0.016* 260 (1 + 0.016) = 264 r/s
(0.0038 s)
* Since all roots have essential the same time constant, a worst-case estimate of the magnitude of the effective high
frequency residue is to add the residue estimates, yielding 0.082.
The mid frequency region is determined from the characteristic between 15 dB in Figures 7.5.2F-2 and 7.5.2F-3.
5.12 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.5.2F-5
2 4.415
s
The estimate of AZ(s)/cmd(s) for the mid-frequency region is
s s
(s) 5.12 +1 +1
4.415 4.415
AZ = = 7.5.2F-6
cmd (s) mid 5.12 s2 2 (0.58)
s2 + s + 5.12 + s +1
4.415 5.12 5.1
Note that even though the mid-frequency estimate of is 0.58 in equation 7.5.2F-6, the phase margin in Table
7.5.2F-2 indicates that is closer to 0.49. The margin allocated to the phase margin in the design process caused the
increase in the value of from the design value of 0.46. = 0.49 is consistent with achieving the derived mid-
frequency design value of = 0.46 established in Table 7.5.2A-1 to ultimately achieve the overshoot requirement of
40% ( = 0.28 for the standard form of the 2nd order system).
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function AZ/cmd using = 0.58 from the mid-frequency region is (Note:
The Bode diagram factors G(s) H1(s)/(1 + G(s) H1(s)) so it needs to be multiplied by 1/H1(s))
s +1 s +1 s +1 2
AZ s 260
= 0.05262
s
4.415
7.5.2F -7
cmd s +1 s 2 + 2 0.58 s + 1 s +1 s +1 s +1 s +1
0.0526 5.1 202 239 256 264
5.1 2
The sketch of the step response is shown in Figure 7.5.2F-4 illustrating the mid and high frequency estimates. The
mid-frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.5.2F-2. The low frequency
contributor to the unit step response is not shown as it has a residue of 10 4, which is negligible.

Figure 7.5.2F-4 Sketch of approximate step response based on Bode diagram

Verification without considering structural mode
s s s 2
+1 +1 +1
AZ (s) 0.0526146 4.430 260
= 7.5.2F-8
cmd (s) s s2 2 (0.562) s s s2 2(0.94)
+1 + s +1 +1 +1 + s +1
0.0526091 5.4578 2 5.4578 127.6
2 330.7 264.52 264.5
The step response is give by
AZ (t) = 1- 0.00010465 e- 0.05261 t -1.0699 e- 3.06458 t cos 4.5162 t + 0.7861 e- 3.06458 t cos 4.5162 t
7.5.2F-9
+ 0.06922 e- 127.57 t + 0.005264 e- 248.8 t cos 89.90 t + 0.02032 e- 248.8 t sin 89.90 t - 0.004487 e- 330.66 t
The step response comparison between the simple model ignoring the high frequency poles and the full model is in
Figure 7.5.2F-5. The time to peak is reduced to 0.42 s and the overshoot is increased to 30%. The high frequency
terms are shown in Figure 7.5.2F-6. The dominant time constant of the high frequency term is 0.0078 s compared to
the Bode diagram approximation that was at 0.005 s. The overall magnitude estimate was close. The high
frequency terms have a small amplitude and die-out fast relative to the mid frequency roots response time, hence,
the high frequency terms have a negligible effect on the response.
Figure 7.5.2F-5 Comparison of step response between simple model (dotted line) and full model with high
frequency poles (solid line)

Figure 7.5.2F-6 Contribution to step response of high frequency terms

c. The minimum frequency for s is determined from Figures 7.5.2F-1 and -2. Using the straight-line gain
characteristic in Figure 7.5.2F-1 a worst-case value of s 345 r/s is obtained. The hand-drawn exact gain
characteristic in Figure 7.5.2F-2 yields s 260 r/s. Both these figures yield only approximate results. A
calculation shows that a more exact value (with no margin) is s 246 r/s.
Verification with structural mode at s = 246 r/s
The unit step response with the structural mode is given for p.
+ 0.0744 e- 124.65 t + 0.0060868 e- 248 t cos 95.062 t + 0.02403 e- 248 t sin 95.062 t - 0.0054 e- 335.77 t 7.5.2F-10
- 0.004634 e- 0.92527 t cos 245.97 t - 0.000651 e- 0.92527 t sin 245.97 t
The magnitude of the structural term for a unit (1 rad) step input is (0.0046342 +0.0006512) = 0.0047 rad = 0.27.
Section 7.5.3 gives the estimate of the magnitude of the structural term from the exact gain of the Bode diagram as
M = GRB ( j s ) | K B 7.5.2F-11
The magnitude of GRB at s is 39 dB (0.011) at 246 Hz and KB = 0.43. Thus M = 0.0047 rad (0.27). The time
constant is 1.08 sec.
The time response is essentially the same as that shown in Figure 7.5.2F-4 with an exponentially-damped structural
oscillation.
Since the amplitude of the structural oscillation of AZ is a factor of KB greater than that of p, the magnitude for AZ
= 0.0047 rad = 0.27. A command generator must be incorporated into the design so shape position, rate and
acceleration commands to limit the structural oscillation and meet the error budget in Section J.
The computer generated Bode gain, Bode phase and Nichols diagrams are given in Figures 7.5.2F-6 and 7.5.2F-7.
Note that the rigid body high frequency gain margin is not the limiting value; the structural mode suppression
essentially determines the high frequency gain margin.

Figure 7.5.2F-6 Bode gain and phase diagrams
Figure 7.5.2F-7 Nichols diagram: simple model and with high frequency poles and structure
Verification with structural mode at s = 345 r/s
The unit step response with the structural mode is given for p.
+ 0.07209 e- 125.88 t + 0.005377 e- 247.49 t cos 93.434 t + 0.02297 e- 247.79 t sin 93.438 t 7.5.2F-12
- 334.56 t - 1.6233 t - 1.6233 t
- 0.0052 e - 0.001957 e cos 344.9 t - 0.000953 e sin 344.9 t

The magnitude of the structural term for a unit (1 rad) step input is (0.0019572 +0.0009532) = 0.0022 rad = 0.12.
The estimate of the magnitude of the structural term from the exact gain of |GRB(js) = 45.9 dB (0.0051) at 345
r/s is 0.43 (0.0051) = 0.0022 rad = 0.12). The time constant is 0.62 sec.
The time response is essentially the same as that shown in Figure 7.5.2F-4 with an exponentially-damped structural
oscillation.
Since the amplitude of the structural oscillation of AZ is a factor of KB greater than that of p, the magnitude for AZ
= 0.0022 rad = 0.12. A command generator must be incorporated into the design so shape position, rate and
acceleration commands to limit the structural oscillation and meet the error budget in Section 7.5.2J.
7.5.2G Bode gain and phase diagram for AZ/(Td/J). The closed loop transfer function is determined from the
block diagram in Figure 7.5.2F-1 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions.
The equation relating Td(s) and AZ(s) is
Ga (s) k 1
AZ (s) = 2
-H1(s) k p + i - H D (s) k D s AZ (s) + Td (s) 7.5.2G-1
s s J s2
The transfer function with Td(s) normalized by J is
1
AZ (s) s2
= 7.5.2G-2
T (s)
d ( 2
H D (s) k D s + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) )
J 1+
s3
The approximation for the magnitude of the transfer function is
AZ (s)
T (s)
d
J s = j

( )
s 7.5.2G-3
, for H D (s) k D s2 + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) >> 1

= (H D (s) k D
2
s + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) ) s = j
s = j

1
s2 s = j
(
, for H D (s) k D s 2 + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) ) s = j
<< 1

Since the magnitude of the terms HD(j), H1(j) and Ga(j) are 1 when |GH(j)| >> 1 the magnitude is rewritten as

s
AZ (s) , for k D s 2 + k p s + ki >> 1
2
k s + k p s + ki s = j
T (s) = D s = j 7.5.2G-4
d
J 1
s = j , for k D s2 + k p s + ki << 1

s 2 s = j s = j
For the Bode diagram analysis the closed loop transfer function is approximately (using values for exact open loop
poles and zeros; the approximate values would yield essentially the same results)


s
AZ (s) , for k D s 2 + k p s + ki >> 1
s s s = j
T (s) = 1.406 0.05262 +1 4.415 +1 7.5.2G-5
d s = j

J s = j
1
, for k D s2 + k p s + ki << 1
s2 s = j s = j

The straight-line approximation for the disturbance is in Figures 7.5.2G-1and 7.5.2G-2.
Figure 7.5.2G-2 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for AZ/(Td/J)

Figure 7.5.2G-1 Hand drawn Disturbance diagram

7.5.2H Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.5.2F-1 that
includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions.
k s2 + k s + k
G(s) H1(s) =
D p i
H1(s) = K RL
( s + 4.415) ( s + 0.05262) 7.5.2H-1
( a )( m )
s3 s +1 s +1
s3 ( s + 208) ( s + 234) ( s + 260)
2
KRL is the root locus gain. For the simple model ignoring the high frequency roots, the closed loop roots occur
when the value of KRL = kD/(a m)= 293,590. Since the sensor and actuator poles are at a high frequency relative to
n, the root locus near the origin is assumed to be relatively unaffected by these poles for determining the locus for
the low and mid frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.5.2H-1.
Table 7.5.2H-1 Root locus results
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 208, 234, 260
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 0.05262, 4.415 and infinity.
3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.05262, 4.415 to 208, 234 to
n m 0 - 208 - 234 - 2 (260) + 0.05262 + 4.415

pi - zi 7-2
= -191.5
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis 60 and 180 at origin; 90 at higher
frequencies
7. Real axis breakaway Using the low and mid frequency roots
d - 3 K RL s2 ( s + 0.05262 ) ( s + 4.415) + K RLs3 ( (s + 0.05262) + (s + 4.415))

G(s) H1(s) =
ds s6
- 3 s 2 ( s + 0.0787 ) ( s + 8.86)
=
s6
Breakaway at s = 0; breakin at s = 8.86 (other value for K RL < 0)
8. Angle of departure from complex poles None
9. j axis crossover Using only the low and mid frequency
values
ce = s3 + KRL s2 +4.476 KRL s
+ 0.23232 KRL
Setting s1 row to zero:

KRL = 0.052 and s = j 0.482
Stable for KRL > 0.052

The sketch of the root locus is
Figure 7.5.2H-1 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
Using the simple model of the control system in Part C, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 6.032.
The low frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (6.032/0.052) = 41.3 dB. This
approximate value is comparable to the more exact value of 40.7 dB found using the complete model including the
high frequency open loop poles in Part F.
7.5.2I Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams and the
transfer function.
s s
2 +1 +1
k D s + k p s + ki 1.12 3
0.05262 4.415
G(s) H1 (s) = Ga (s) H1 (s) = 7.5.2I-1
3
s s3 s s s 2
+1 +1 +1
208 234 260
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.5.22I-1.
Figure 7.5.22I-1 Nichols and Nyquist diagram rigid body sketches

7.5.2J Sizing Components. The accuracy budget to meet requirement (vii), the dynamic range for the azimuth
rate sensor and the dynamic range for the azimuth motor are given below.
Angle Sensor. The error budget is in Table 7.5.2J-1.
Table 7.5.2J-1 Error budget for azimuth accuracy
Item Allocation Comment

Sensor accuracy(1) 0.001 10% of requirement
Sensor scale factor, e(1) 0.001 e 1.8x105 = 180/0.001
Sensor angle resolution(1) 0.0001 10% of sensor accuracy
Control system angle resolution(1) 0.0001 10% of sensor accuracy
Control system jitter(1) 0.001 10% of requirement
Structural motion(2) 0.002 20% of requirement
Alignment (3) 0.002 20% of requirement
Thermo-mechanical motion(3) 0.002 20% of requirement
Subtotal
RSS = 0.0039 Root sum squared
WOW = 0.0092 Worst on worst (additive)
Margin Balance of requirement
(1) Relative to p , (2) AZ relative to rigid body need command generator to smooth commands, (3) AZ relative to
p
The control system angle resolution can be used to size the minimum torque command to the motor and rate
resolution. Consider Figure 7.5.2J-1.
Figure 7.5.2J-1 Determination of torque and rate resolution

The position path dominates for minimum angle resolution. The smallest value of torque command is (T m)min =
1.75x106 kp J Nm. For the rate path to have the same minimum torque command capability, the minimum rate
resolution is e min = (Tm)min/(kD J) = 1.75x106 kp/kD r/s = 7.85x106 r/s (4.5x104 /s).
The azimuth drive is to maneuver 90 in 10 seconds using the acceleration profile in Figure 7.5.2-2. The maximum
rate AZ is 10 ac. The total angle is AZ = 100 ac. For 90 in 20 seconds, ac = 0.9 /s2 = 0.157 r/s2. The maximum
rate is 9/s. The budgets for the maximum values for rate sensor and motor torque are in Tables 7.5.2J-2 and -3.
Table 7.5.2J-2 Maximum rate sensor value

1. Maneuver rate 9/s
2. Control system 1.8/s 20% of maneuver rate
3. Margin 1.8/s 50% of Items 1 and 2
Total 12.6/s

Table 7.5.2J-3 Maximum motor torque value

1. Maneuver 0.157 J Nm
2. Control system 0.04 J Nm 25% of maneuver rate
3. Margin 0.1 J Nm 50% of Items 1 and 2
Total 0.3 J
These values can be used to estimate the dynamic range of the sensors and motor:
The dynamic range of the attitude sensor is 2 (180)/104 = 3.6x106, a potentially large value.
The dynamic range of the rate sensor is 12.6/(4.5x104) = 28,032.
The dynamic range of the motor is 0.3/(1.75x106 kp) = 6,400.
7.6 Maneuvering Orbital Supply Vehicle

The vehicle has both a thrust vector control system and an on-orbit angle maneuvering system. The thrust vector
pitch angle control is considered in Section 7.6.1. Section 7.6.2 considers the design of the on-orbit pitch angle
maneuvering system.
7.6.1. The orbital stage of a maneuvering orbital supply vehicle is shown in Figure 7.6.1-1. Parameter definitions
are given in Table 7.6.1-1. The thrust vector system is used to make small translational, i.e., x,y,z, corrections. The
mass of the vehicle M is essentially constant during any correction maneuver. The thrust vector control system for
the pitch axis is shown along with the velocity-driven thrust cutoff circuit. The orientation relative to inertial space
for the pitch axis is based on information from the rate integrating gyroscopes. The proof mass accelerometer
measures vehicle x-axis velocity for the cutoff circuit. The linear motor force F m is nominally perpendicular to the
vehicle center line through the center of mass and engine pivot point. Hence for small angle motions x m and y are
related and when xm = 0, y = 0.
Figure 7.6.1-1B illustrates the on-orbit 3-axis angular orientation maneuvering system that includes multiple
actuators and sensors to provide redundancy.
For the pitch axis control and velocity cutoff shown in Figure 7.6.1-1A
A. Write the equations for the pitch thrust vector control system and accelerometer-related velocity cutoff
circuitry.
B. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix corresponding to the y-z plane mounting matrix for the reaction wheel
pitch-yaw maneuvering package shown in Figures 7.6.1-1 and 7.6.1-2. There are 4 reaction wheel torque
vectors in the y-z plane; the x torques need not be considered. Determine the mounting matrix ARW, its
pseudoinverse ARW and associated null space matrix NRW.
C. Draw the elemental block diagram (no differentiators, one element per block where reasonable) for the pitch
thrust vector control system.
D. Write the state equations using the block diagram in Part C. Label the state variables in your block diagram
starting with x1 = V2.

Figure 7.6.1-1 Orbital vehicle control systems
Figure 7.6.1-2 Orientation of the reaction wheel torque axes in y-z plane only

Table 7.6.1-1. Definition of orbital vehicle parameters in Figure 7.6.1-1

Symbol Definition
Agyro, Agyro Gyro input axes (IAs) mounting matrix and pseudoinverse, respectively
ARW, ARW Reaction wheel torque axes mounting matrix and pseudoinverse,
respectively
ba Proof mass accelerometer damping constant, Nm/m/sec
bOA Gyro damping constant about output axis, Nm/rad/sec
Ca, Cc, C1, Cg1, Cg2 Op amp capacitors, f
F Thrust force on vehicle, N
Fm Force of linear motor about nozzle pivot point, N
H Gyro angular momentum, Nms
Ig, Im Gyro torquer and linear motor winding current, amps
Iy Pitch axis inertial, Kg-m2
Jm Inertia of gimbaled nozzle, Kg-m2
JOA Gyro inner gimbal inertia about output axis, Kg-m2
ka Accelerometer spring constant, N/m
Ka Voltage conversion of accelerometer, v/m
Kamp Voltage gain of power amplifier, v/v
Kc Gain of current source, amp/volt
Kcmd Gain converting command angle to voltage, volt/rad
Kemf Back-emf constant of linear motor, v/m/s
Kg Conversion of OA to volts, v/rad
Kgm Torque constant of gyro torquer (motor), Nm/amp
Kgyro Voltage conversion of gyro torquer current, v/amp
Km Torque constant of linear motor, N/amp
L Distance from center of mass to nozzle pivot point, m
Ln Distance from linear motor force application to nozzle pivot point, m
Lm Linear motor winding inductance, Henries
ma, mm, M Accelerometer proof mass, motor mass and mass of vehicle, Kg
R,Ra,Rc,Rg1,Rg2,Ri, i = 1,..,8 Op amp resistances, MOhms
Rm Armature resistance of linear motor, Ohms
Tg Gyro torquer (motor) torque, Nm
Tx, Ty, Tz Resultant reaction wheel torque on vehicle, Nm
Va,Vb,Vc,Vcutoff Accelerometer circuit voltages, v
Vcs,Vg,Vgyro,Vi, i = 1,6 Gyro and pitch thrust vector control voltages, v
x ,y, z On-orbit vehicle axes
xa Accelerometer proof mass displacement, m
xm Displacement of linear motor moving mass (rotor) mm, m
Accelerometer proof mass displacement, m
l Angle of reaction wheel torque vector relative to axes, rad
y Thrust vector angle relative to on-orbit vehicle centerline, rad
x, y, z Vehicle angular rates, rad/s
Pitch angle, rad
d/dt dcmd/dt Pitch angle rate and command angle rate, rad/s
OA Gyro inner gimbal angle about output axis, rad


The key equations are summarized in Table 7.6.1-2.
Table 7.6.1-2 Key Equations
Item Equations
Pitch Thrust Vector Control System
Op Amp #1: Summer Vcmd = Kcmd dcmd/dt
Vcmd/R + V7/R + V1/R = 0 -> V1 = Vcmd + V7
Op Amp #4: Attitude Gain V2/R3 + V4/R4 = 0 -> V4 = R4/R3 V2
Op Amp #5: Summer V1/R7 + V3/R5 + V4/R6 + V5/R8 = 0
-> V5 = R8(V1R7+ VR5+ VR6)
Power Amp: V6 = Kamp V5
Motor Drive Circuit V6 Im Lms Im Rm Kemf dxm/dt = 0
Vehicle-Nozzle Dynamics Fm = Km Im ; for small angles y = xm/Ln
Let FJ be force to move engine, then mm d2xm/dt2 = Fm FJ
and Jm d2y/dt2 = FJ Ln , or FJ = Jm/Ln2 d2xm/dt2
Thus, (mm + Jm/Ln2) d2xm/dt2 = Fm
Iy d(d/dt)/dt = F L sin y; Note: gyro measures d/dt.
Gyro Dynamics about Output JOA d2OA/dt2 + bOA dOA/dt = H d/dt Tg
Axis (OA) Vg = Kg OA
Op Amp #6: Transfer Function Vg (1/Rg1 + Cg1 s ) + Vcs (1/Rg2 + Cg2 s) = 0
Writing the differential equation in state variable form:
Cg2 dVcs/dt + Vcs/Rg2 = Cg1 dVg/dt Vg/ Rg1
Or: dVcs/dt + (Cg1/Cg2 ) dVg/dt =
1/( Rg2 Cg2) (Vcs + (Cg1/Cg2 ) Vg) [(1/(Rg1Cg2) Cg1/(Rg2Cg22)]Vg
Ig = Kc Vcs ; Tg = Kgm Ig
Op Amp #7: Pitch Rate Vgyro = Kgyro Ig
Determination Vgyro/R + V7/(R Kgm/H) = 0 -> V7 = Kgm/H V1
Thrust Cutoff Equations
xAxis Force Dynamics M d2x/dt2 = F cos y
Proof Mass Accelerometer ma d2xa/dt2 + ba (dxa/dt dx/dt) + ka (xa x) = 0; = xa -x
ma d2/dt2 + ba d /dt + ka = ma d2x/dt2
Voltage Divider (Va Vb)/Ra + (0 Vb)/Rc + Ca s (0 Vb) = 0
Ca dVb/dt = (Va Vb)/Ra Vb/Rc
Op Amp #8: Integrator Vc = (1/RcCcs) Vb
B. Pseudoinverse
The relationship of the reaction wheel torque vectors to vehicle axes is shown in Figure 7.6.1-2. There is no
projection into the x-axis so the vectors have only y-z components. Let T G denote the 2x1 torque vector [Ty Tz]T
generated by the reaction wheels in the y-z plane.

Based on Figure 7.6.1-2 the generated torque is

TG = T1 cos l + T2 - sin l
+ T3 - sin l + T4 cos l
sin l cos l
- cos l - sin l
T
1
cos l - sin l - sin l cos l T2 7.6.1-1
= = ARW T
sin l cos l - cos l - sin l T3

T4
The pseudoinverse ARW is given by
( )
-1

ARW = ATRW ARW ARW
T
7.6.1-2
Constructing the pseudoinverse

cos l sin l
cos l - sin l - sin l cos l - sin l cos l 1
( )
-1
T
ARW ARW = = 2 1 0 , A AT = 1 0
sin l cos l - cos l - sin l - sin l - cos l 0 1 RW RW
2 0 1

cos l - sin l
cos l 7.6.1-3
sin l

( )
-1 1

ARW T
= ARW T
ARW ARW = - sin l cos l
2 - sin l - cos l

cos l - sin l
The pseudoinverse satisfies the necessary condition that A A is the 2x2 identity matrix.
The null space matrix is
1 0 0 0 cos l sin l

0 1 0 0 - 1 - sin l cos l cos l - sin l - sin l cos l

N RW = I 4 - ARW ARW =
0 0 1 0 2 - sin l - cos l sin l cos l - cos l - sin l

0 0 0 1 cos l - sin l

1 cos 2 l - sin 2 l
0 cos l sin l -
2 2

1 cos2 l - sin 2 l
0 cos l sin l
2 2
= 7.6.1-4
2 2
cos l - sin l 1
cos l sin l 0
2 2
2 2

cos l - sin l 1
- cos l sin l 0
2 2

0.5 sin l - 0.5 cos l
0.5 cos l
0.5 sin l 0.5 sin l 0.5 cos l 0.5 cos l 0.5 sin l
=

0.5 cos l - 0.5 sin l - 0.5 cos l 0.5 sin l - 0.5 sin l 0.5 cos l

0.5 sin l 0.5 cos l
The two vectors spanning the 2-dimensional null space are given in the last equation. These vectors are orthogonal
and of unit length. The null space matrix satisfies the condition that A NRW = 0.

Using the identities: 2 cos l sin l = sin 2 l and, cos2 l sin2 l = cos 2 l yields
1 0 sin 2l -cos 2l

N RW =
1 0 1 cos 2 l sin 2 l 7.6.1-5
2 sin 2l cos 2l 1 1

-cos 2l sin 2l 0 1
C. Elemental Block Diagram.
Figure 7.6.1-3 Elemental Block Diagram

D. State Equations.
The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variables. The state variable numbering is shown in Figure
7.6.1-1. The numbering started at the amplifier #2 with x1 = V2.
7.6.1-6
7.6.2. Design the pitch axis on-orbit angle maneuvering control system for the system shown in Figure 7.6.2-1.
The reaction wheel and gyro dynamics shown in the figure represent the effective actions of the multiple reaction
wheel and gyro units, respectively. The x terms are compensated open loop by the controller and need not be
considered nor shown in the diagram. The pitch control system requirements are in Table 7.6.2-1. The parameters
are given in Table 7.6.2-2.

Table 7.6.2-1. Pitch on-orbit maneuvering system requirements
Requirement Pitch maneuvering control loop

1 Overshoot to a step pitch command input cmd 25%
2 Time to peak for step pitch input command cmd 2 sec
3 Settling time to 2% of the commanded step value 10 seconds
4 Phase Margin 30
5 Gain Margins 6 dB
6 Track jerk (1/6 t3) command input (Figure 7.6.2-2) Steady state error 50%
7 Steady state error to a step external disturbance Td 0
8 Suppress pitch axis fundamental structural mode peak Set structural frequency s relative to
value at s by 15 dB below 0 dB axis your design solution
9 Pitch angle accuracy over 2 hour period Pitch angle error 0.15
10 Maneuver using jerk profile in Figure 7.6.2-2 45 in 3 minutes
Design the pitch axis angle controller, specify actuator and sensor parameters, structural mode frequency and specify
the gyro bias. Explain any requirements you cannot meet as well as any derived requirements and assumptions you
make in your design. Where possible estimate/size the credibility of your assumptions.
A. Determine your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine system type, , n, phase
margin m, etc.); use a table-format to display results.
B. Determine the mathematical model and construct block diagram of your control loop including reaction wheel
and gyro transfer functions given.
D. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the controller gain values and reaction wheel and
gyro values you determined.
paper for the rigid body system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on same graph construct the
phase lag for the system with values shown at the phase margin and gain margin frequencies. Include the gain and
phase of the power amplifier, motor and sensor poles in your graph that you set based on guidelines in Table 7.6.2-2,
even if you assumed them to be ignorable in your initial synthesis of the compensation in Part C. Your
reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not acceptable.
and zeros, and the value they contributed to the phase lag.
b. Estimate both the transfer function /cmd and the response to a unit step command cmd using the straight-line
Bode diagram and the value of phase margin. Construct the step response sketches using superposition of the
Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required; computer generated
results not acceptable.
c. Determine the minimum allowable frequency s of the structural mode for your design consistent with Table
7.6.2-1, requirement 8.
G. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper for |/(Td/Iy)| considering rigid
body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
H. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the power amplifier, motor and sensor time constants
you set for your design. Determine j-axis crossing via Rouths criteria using only low frequency and mid
frequency poles and zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root locus using
the closed loop estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F.

I. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
J. Provide the following three hardware related items.
1.) Accuracy budget to meet Table 7.6.2-1, requirement 9.
Figure 7.6.2-1 Pitch maneuvering control system quantities in brackets are TBD by designer
Figure 7.6.2-2 Maneuver profile using constant jerk pulses

2.) Parameter values for the reaction wheels. There are 4 reaction wheels in pitch-yaw plane as shown in Figure
7.6.1-2. Assume that effectively one-half of the 4-reaction wheel capability is used for pitch and the other half for
yaw. Determine the dynamic range of the pitch control loop and maximum attitude/rate or acceleration input
values before reaction wheel torque and/or momentum saturate.
3.) Parameter values for the equivalent gyro. Also determine dynamic range of pitch control loop, i.e.,
maximum attitude, rate or acceleration input values before saturation of the reaction wheel torque.

Table 7.6.2-2. Definition of pitch control system parameters in Figure 7.6.2-1

a c, J Maximum acceleration (r/s2) and jerk (r/s3) for maneuver profile TBD
Gc(s) Frequency sensitive portion of compensation
Iy Pitch inertia, Kg-m2 8%
Hmax Maximum reaction wheel angular momentum, Nms TBD
K Compensation gain, v/rad
Ka Voltage gain of power amplifier, v/v 5%
KB Gain of pitch fundamental (lowest frequency) structural mode 0.2
Km Torque constant of motor drive, Nm/amp 10%
Ta, TJ, TR Time of constant acceleration, jerk and rate for profile, s TBD
Td Disturbance torque, Nm
Tm Control torque, Nm
Ttotal Sum of control and disturbance torque, Nm
Tmax Maximum reaction wheel torque, Nm TBD
Va Voltage to motor drive, v
Vc Control voltage from compensation, v
cmd Pitch angle and pitch command angle, rad
dm/dt Pitch angle rate measured by gyro, rad/s
d/dt dcmd/dt Pitch angle rate and command angle rate, rad/s
d /dt d cmd/dt
2 2 2 2 Pitch angle acceleration and command angle acceleration, rad/s2
a Power amplifier time constant, s TBD*
m Motor drive time constant, s TBD*
bias Gyro bias, rad/s; specified unit value to suppliers is usually /hr TBD***
D Gyro undamped natural frequency, rad/s TBD*
s Lowest structural mode frequency, rad/s TBD**
max Maximum gyro rate capability, rad/s TBD
D Gyro damping ratio 0.7
s Lowest structural mode damping ratio 0.005
* To be determined by designer to meet 3 to 5 phase lag at the gain crossover frequency; the sum of the phase
lag from reaction wheel and gyro is not to exceed 12.
** To be determined by designer to gain suppress structural mode peak value to 15 dB relative to 0 dB axis.
*** To be determined by designer consistent with accuracy requirement.
To be determined by designer.
Tolerance on knowledge of parameter value.

A. Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.6.2-3. The damping ratio, , is increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the system.

Table 7.6.2-3 Derived Requirements

Mid Frequency
1. Damping Ratio, 0.41 (Overshoot 25%) 0.56 (Overshoot 12.5%)
2. Time to peak 2 sec n = 1.7 r/s n = 0.75*1.7 r/s
= 1.3 r/s
3. Settling time (2 %) 10 n = 1 r/s (for = 0.41)
sec
4. Phase Margin 30
5. Gain Margins 6 dB
Low Frequency
6. 50% steady state error As minimum, match coefficients of right and left hand side
to a jerk input, of the closed loop differential equation up through d3/dt3
and an open loop transfer function of type KJ/s3 with error
constant gain KJ 2, -> 1/s3 term implies need for integral
(PID) controller.
7. Zero steady state error to Integral control -> implies PID controller
a step torque disturbance Td
High Frequency
8. Suppress fundamental Frequency s set relative to design solution.
mode at s by 15 dB KB = 0.2
below 0 dB axis KB/(2 ) = 0.2/(2*0.005) = 20 (26 dB)
Therefore rigid body diagram must be 41 dB (15 + 26)
below 0 dB axis at s.
Controlled by Error Budget
9. Pitch accuracy 0.15 Allocate 1/10 of requirement to error caused by gyro bias,
the balance to thermo-mechanical effects and margin. See
part J.
10. Maneuver 45 in 3 Profile shaping and choice of hardware parameters; see
minutes section K
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant ((s)/Ttotal) is Type 1 of the form 1/s. The controller
adds an integral to form . In addition a PID network is used to meet the requirement for a Type 3 system and zero
steady state error to a step disturbance (integral control). With KJ/s3 in the open loop transfer function, the control
system tracks a parabolic command input with zero steady state error and a constant jerk profile of amplitude J with
error J/KJ.
B. Mathematical model and block diagram of control loop.
The structural model using rigid body and structural mode components in Figure 7.6.2-1 is
7.6.2-1

The control system block diagram is
Figure 7.6.2-3 Block diagram of pitch control loop with PID controller
The control signal Vc(s) is given by
7.6.2-2
The control torque Tm(s) is

K K
Tm (s) = a

a V (s)
c 7.6.2-3
a s +1 m s +1
Assumptions for Initial Synthesis of Compensation
1. Ignore the structural mode for the initial design. The structural mode frequency s is selected once the initial
design is finalized to provide the required 41 dB mode suppression relative to the rigid body. The initial synthesis is
carried out relative to the rigid body dynamics.
2. The reaction wheel time constants a and m are to be selected to provide less that 3 to 5 phase shift at n,
hence, the power amplifier and motor drive are represented by the gains Ka and Km, respectively.
3. The gyro frequency D is to be selected to provide between 3 to 5 phase shift at n, hence the gyro transfer
function is essentially 1, and, since bias is very small, m ~ .
The simplified control system block diagram is shown in Figure 7.6.2-4. The system is described by
7.6.2-4
or
7.6.2-5
Note that (s)/s = (s), where (s) is the relative angle since a rate sensor does not know the initial starting angle
without an angle sensor update of the relative angle, yielding
k FA s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
(s) = cmd (s) + T (s) 7.6.2-6
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki Iy s + k s + k s+ k d
3 2
D p i

Figure 7.6.2-4 Simplified block diagram

This is equivalent to the block diagram manipulation shown in Figure 7.6.2-5.
The open loop transfer function (s)/ e (s) , where e (s) = cmd(s) (s) and kFA = 0, is
k k
2 ki D s 2 + p s +1
(s) k D s + k p s + ki ki ki 7.6.2-7
= =
e (s) s3 s 3
The gain KJ = ki. The steady state jerk-tracking requirement led to KJ 2, therefore it is desired that ki 2. The
feedahead assists in the tracking, but that is not considered in equation 7.6.2-7 since kFA = 0.
Figure 7.6.2-5 Block diagram manipulated to show angle feedback

Setting Gains. Initially assume kFA = 0. The position, integral and derivative gains are selected such that the PID
controller creates a Mid Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as idealized in Figure 7.6.2-6. The amount the
Low Frequency root at b n moves the actual Mid Frequency poles and zero from their idealized values is a
function of the value of b. The larger the value of b the greater the effect.
The approximate closed loop transfer function assuming the closed loop low frequency pole-zero dipole cancel is

2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 2 n s + n
AZ (s) 2 n s 2 + n2 s + b n3 2 2
7.6.2-8
( n ) n (
n n n n )
cmd (s) s2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + b ) s2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + b ) s2 + 2 s + 2
n n

Figure 7.6.2-6 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for AZ(s)/cmd(s)
The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan- 1 n 1 = tan- 1 7.6.2-9
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on for the idealized second order system. The angle may change when the
actual roots are determined based on the value of the Low frequency root b n.
for time to peak in Table 7.6.2-3 are reviewed using Figure 7.6.2-7. The overshoot value is acceptable for the initial
iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.4 from Figure 7.6.2-7 indicates that n 1.2 r/s (= 2.4/2) is required
(factor of 0.7 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). Maintain = 0.56 and n = 1.3 r/s at this stage of
design formulation.
Figure 7.6.2-7 Evaluation of ideal 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the reaction wheel and
gyro are tabulated in Table 7.6.2-4. Each source is allocated 3 of phase lag at n = 1.3 r/s. For the single time
constants the phase lag is given by tan n = 3, hence = 0.04 s (or equivalently, a frequency of 25 r/s). For the
gyro with the quadratic term the angle is
7.6.2-10

Table 7.6.2-4 Phase lag due to sensors and actuator
Source Allocated phase lag Parameter

Value
Power amplifier time constant, a 3 0.04 s (25 r/s)
Motor drive time constant, m 3 0.04 s (25 r/s)
Gyro, D 3 35 r/s
Allocation for margin 3
Estimate of Total Phase Lag (sum) 12
The straight-line gain crossover is an indication of the value of the actual gain crossover frequency. The straight-
line gain crossover frequency differs from n depending on the value of and whether there is a mid-frequency
zero, or not. As illustrated in Figure 7.6.2-8 with or without the mid-frequency zero and 0.5 the straight-line
approximation crosses the 0 dB axis at n.
Figure 7.6.2-8 Bode straight-line gain diagrams for 2nd order standard form and mid-frequency zero form
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 12 for the phase lag. Thus the determined in
Table 7.6.2-3 is modified as shown in Table 7.6.2-5.
Table 7.6.2-5 Modification of value for
Mid Frequency
i.) Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin = 56 Modified phase margin = 68
Modified = 0.56 Modified = 0.77
= 0.77 , n = 1.3 7.6.2-11
Note that the final value overshoot resulting from the synthesis is expected to be 25% (based on standard form of 2 nd
order system = 0.41) as the 12 is expected to be used/depleted by the actuator, sensor and Mid Frequency zero.
No specific allocation has been made for the Low Frequency root at b n. The root is near the low frequency open
loop zero that is used to cancel the phase lag due to the 1/s 3 slope due to system type. The residual phase lag at
the gain crossover frequency due to this root is approximately 90 + tan 1 (1/b); the 90 is due to the system type
slope and tan 1 (1/b) is due to the low frequency zero. For b = 0.01, .05. 0.1 the residual phase lag is approximately
0.6, 2.9 and 5.7 respectively. The margin allocation in Table 7.6.2-5 accounts for values of b 0.05.

C. Synthesis of PID controller with mid-frequency zero. A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady state
error to a step disturbance input. It provides zero steady state error in tracking a parabolic input but to meet the jerk-
tracking requirement requires ki 2 if the feed ahead is not used. The simplified block diagram (ignoring structural
mode and actuator and sensor time constants) of the system with a PID controller and rigid body dynamics is shown
in Figures 7.6.2-4 and -5. The closed loop equation in Laplace transform form is given by equation 7.6.2-6 with
kFA = 0.
Consider the approach of choosing kI/kp to be much less than kp and kD. Then the denominator can be
k
(s + k
3
D ) ( 2
) k
i
s2 + k p s + ki s + k D s + k p s +
p
7.6.2-12
k p = n2 , k p = 2 n 7.6.2-13
Evaluating the gains using
k p = n2 = 1.32 = 1.69 , k p = 2 n = 2 (0.77) 1.3 = 2 7.6.2-14

ki
= b n ki = b n3 = 12 b = 2.2 b 7.6.2-15
kp
To meet the jerk-tracking requirement (without the feedahead) requires ki 2 which means that b = 0.91 and does
not satisfy the requirement that b << 1. The use of the feedahead to improve the jerk-tracking requires the tolerance
on the knowledge of the gain Iy/(Ka Km) be know to an accuracy of better than 50%. Using the parameter
tolerance in Table 7.6.2-2 yields
I I
y y
0.92 K A K m actual 1.08 K A K m actual
0.8 1.26 7.6.2-16
1.05 (1.1) I y 0.95 (0.9) I
y

K A K m nominal K A K m nominal
Note that this gain change is approximately 2 dB, a fact that is used in evaluating gain changes with the Bode
diagram in Section F. The gain is known to sufficient tolerance to depend on feedahead perform the jerk tracking.
Chose b = 0.01 (equivalent to a residual 3 open loop phase lag). Then
ki = 2.2 b = 0.022 7.6.2-17
The closed loop poles and zero based on the approximate cubic equation are tabulated in Table 7.6.2-6.
Table 7.6.2-6 Approximate closed loop poles and zeros

Closed loop poles 1 j 0.83
(n = 1.3, = 0.77)
0.013
Closed (and open) loop zeros 0.844, 0.013
Figure 7.6.2-9 shows the system with the feedahead path to meet the jerk tracking requirement. The command
values are obtained from the command generator discussed in Section J.

Figure 7.6.2-9 Block diagram of simplified PID pitch control system

The feedahead is an open loop input and does not affect the closed loop stability, therefore, does not relate to root
locus or frequency response techniques. The open loop transfer function of the control loop is (with kFA = 0)
2 s2 +1.69 s + 0.022 2 ( s + 0.01322 ) ( s + 0.832 ) 0.283 s s

G(s) = = = +1 +1 7.6.2-18
s3 s3 s3 0.01322 0.832
The second transfer function is in root locus form, the third in Bode form.
E. Comparison of Simplified Control System Against Requirements
Requirements are met as shown in Table 7.6.2-7. Requirements such as phase margin and gain margins are verified
when the Bode gain-phase diagram is drawn. Accuracy budget and profile parameters are given in Section J.
Table 7.6.2-7 Requirements Compliance, Simplified System
Requirement Compliance Basis

1. Overshoot 25% 21% (estimate) Fig 7.6.2-8
Comply
2. Time to peak 2 sec 1.85 sec (estimate) Fig 7.6.2-8
Comply n tp = 2.4
3. Settling time (2 %) 10 sec, 4 sec (estimate)* Based on 4/( n)
based on 4/( n) Comply
6. 50% steady state error to a jerk Comply Use feedahead
input
7. Zero steady state error to a step Comply Integral control
torque disturbance
* Using design value of 1.3 r/s and = 0.77.
F. Bode gain and phase diagram. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagrams in
Figures 7.6.2-10 and -11 that includes the reaction wheel and gyro transfer functions. For purposes of closed loop
stability analysis, kFA = 0, as the acceleration feedahead is a command input. Figure 7.6.2-11 illustrates that the
transfer functions can be considered as being in the forward path, i.e., in K G(s), with H = 1.

Figure 7.6.2-10 Pitch block diagram with reaction wheel and gyro transfer functions
Figure 7.6.2-11 Pitch block diagram manipulated to show as output

The open loop transfer function K G(s) relating and e is
s s s 2 2(0.005)
+1 +1 (1+ 0.2 ) +
s
s +1
(s) 0.283 0.0132 0.832 s2
K G(s) = = 7.6.2-19
e (s) s3 s 2 s 2 2(0.7) s 2 2(0.005)

+1 2 +
s +1 + s +1
25 35 35 s2 s

s is determined from the rigid body Bode gain diagram by finding the frequency at which the mode is suppressed
by at least 41 dB. The rigid body transfer function is
s s
3 +1 +1
(s) 0.28 0.0132 0.832
K G(s) = = 7.6.2-20
e (s) s3 s 2 s2 2(0.7)
+1 2 + s +1
25 35 35
The Bode gain diagram is constructed starting at the Low Frequency region with 0.283/s3 which intercepts the 0 dB
axis at 0.28 r/s. To assist in constructing the Bode gain diagram the value of K G(s) in decibels is calculated at the
open loop gain poles and zeros as shown in Table 7.6.2-8. Additional items of interest can be calculated from the
straight-line approximation and are summarized in Table 7.6.2-9. The latter table shows that the straight-line
crosses the 0 DB axis at 2 r/s and the minimum possible structural frequency s is 44.4 r/s. The value of 1.29 r/s is
used when the Mid Frequency characteristic is determined from the Bode gain diagram. The gains at the open loop
zeros at 0.0132 r/s and poles at 25 r/s and 35 r/s are used in determining the approximate residues and closed loop
pole locations.

Table 7.6.2-8 Values of straight-line gain at open loop poles and zeros
Open loop pole or zero Straight-line gain calculation Value in dB

(linear value)
Minimum graph frequency, 0.283 146.8
0.001 r/s 20 log
3
= 0.001
Zero at 0.0132 r/s 0.283 79.6
20 log (9544)
3
= 0.0132
Zero at 0.832 r/s 0.283 7.6
20 log

3
0.0132 = 0.832
Double poles at 25 r/s 0.283 21.9
20 log (0.08)
3
0.0132 0.832 = 25
Quadratic pole at 35 r/s 0.283 252 30.7
20 log (0.029)
3 2
0.0132 0.832 = 35
Maximum graph 0.283 252 352 76.3
frequency, 100 r/s 20 log
3 2 2
0.0132 0.832 = 100
Table 7.6.2-9 Values of straight-line gain at key frequency points
Open loop pole or zero Straight-line gain calculation Value

0 dB intercept of 1.29 r/s
0.283
40 dB/dec slope =1
3 0.0132
0 dB intercept of straight- 2 r/s
0.283
line approximation =1
3 0.0132 0.832
Frequency s at which 41 44.4 r/s
0.283 s s 252 352 -
straight-line approximation = 10 20
is 41 dB s3 2
0.0132 0.832 2
s s
Figure 7.6.2-12 is the straight-line Bode gain diagram. The Bode gain diagram is corrected for gain by using the
gain corrections of 3 dB at the break frequency and 1 dB an octave above and below the break frequency. The
corrected gain diagram along with the arctangent Bode ruler is in Figure 7.6.2-13. The Bode ruler is placed to 2.1
r/s to measure the phase, and therefore determine the phase margin, based on the open loop poles and zeros.
The phase angle positive (+) for zeros and negative () for poles. The phase can be calculated using

2
D
Phase = -270 + tan - 1 + tan- 1 - 2 tan- 1 - tan- 1 7.6.2-21
0.0132 0.832 25 2
1-
D
Note that the phase lag contributed by the quadratic roots at 35 r/s as measured by the Bode arctangent ruler is
slightly in error. The Bode arctangent ruler phase measurement is only correct for the quadratic root if D = 1. The
phase calculation at the gain crossover frequency is shown in Table 7.6.2-10. The phase and gain margins are
shown in Figure 7.6.2-14 and tabulated in Table 7.6.2-11.

Figure 7.6.2-12 Straight-line Bode gain diagram
Figure 7.6.2-13 Corrected gain curve and Bode ruler showing phase calculation at 2.1 r/s

Table 7.6.2-10 Phase margin contributors (c = 2.1 r/s)
Source Calculation of lag Calculated Measured by

Phase Bode ruler
1/s3 term* 3 ( 90) 270 270
Zero at 0.0132 arctan (2.1/0.0132) 89.6 89.6
Zero at 0.832 arctan (2.1/0.832) 68.4 68.5
Power amplifier arctan (2.1/25) 4.8 4.8
Motor drive arctan (2.1/25) 4.8 4.8
Gyro** arctan (2 (0.7) (21/5)/(1 (21/5)2)) 4.8 2 (3.4) = 6.8
Phase lag = 126.4
Phase Margin = 53.6 ***
* 1/s3 slope indicates 270 phase
** Bode arctangent ruler considers quadratic root as having a D = 1.
*** Phase margin corresponds to = 0.52 and an overshoot of 14.6% based on the standard 2 nd order system. Based
on Figure 7.6.2-7 the value is 21% overshoot; this value is used as estimate.
Figure 7.6.2-14 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating phase and gain margins
Table 7.6.2-11 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin

Phase Margin 2.1 r/s 53.6
Low frequency gain margin 0.11 r/s 43 dB
High frequency gain margin 13 r/s 18 dB

The effect of the 2 dB gain variation are illustrated using the Bode gain and phase diagram in Figure 7.6.2-15.
Note that it has little effect on the system design as the 2 dB variation is well within the gain margin values, and,
the phase margin change is small thus preserving the transient response and stability properties.
Figure 7.6.2-15 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating the effect of 2 dB gain variation
b.) Estimate of closed loop transfer function and step response. Figure 7.6.2-16 shows the gain at the low frequency
open loop zeros and high frequency open loop poles. Estimates of closed loop values are tabulated in Table 7.6.2-
12.

Table 7.6.2-12 Tabulation of gains at low frequency zero and high frequency poles
(linear value) residue (Time constant)
Low frequency zero at 79.6 dB ~104 0.0132 (1 104) ~ 0.0132 r/s
0.0132 r/s (9544) (Time constant = 75.8 s)
Effectively dipole pole-zero
cancel each other
High frequency pole at 25 21.9 dB + 0.08* 25 (1 0.08) = 23 r/s
r/s (0.08) (0.043 s)
High frequency pole at 25 21.9 dB 0.08* 234 (1 + 0.08) = 27 r/s
r/s (0.08) (0.037 s)
High frequency quadratic 30.7 dB 0.029* 35 (1 0.029) = 36 r/s
poles at 35 r/s (0.029) Assume damping remains at 0.7
since closed poles do not move
far from open loop poles.
(1/[0.7*36] =0.04 s)
* Based on residue projections on the root locus in Figure 7.6.2-20, the residues have opposite signs. A worst-case
estimate of the magnitude of the effective high frequency residue is to add the residue estimates, yielding 0.19.
Figure 7.6.2-16 Estimation of closed loop characteristics from the straight-line gain diagram
The mid frequency region is determined from the characteristic between 15 dB in Figure 7.6.2-16.
1.29 2 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.6.2-22
2 0.832
s

The estimate of /cmd for the mid-frequency region is

s s
(s) 1.29 2 +1 +1
0.832 0.832
= = 7.6.2-23
cmd (s) mid 1.29 2 s2 2(0.78)
s2 + s +1.29 2 + s +1
0.832 2 1.29
1.29
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function /cmd using = 0.78 for the mid-frequency region damping and
recognizing that the low frequency dipole pole-zero essentially cancel is

s
+1
(s) 0.832 1
= 7.6.2-24
cmd (s) s2 2(0.78)
s s s2 2(0.7)
+
s +1 +1 +1 + s +1
1.29 2 1.29 23 27 362 36
Since the low frequency dipole term has a residue of approximately 104 for a unit step input command there is no
exponential tail. The sketch of the unit step response is shown in Figure 7.6.2-17 illustrating the mid and high
frequency estimates. The mid-frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.6.2-7.
Figure 7.6.2-17 Sketch of approximate step response based on Bode diagram

c. The minimum frequency for s is determined from Figure 7.6.2-18. Using the straight-line gain characteristic a
worst-case value of s 46 r/s is obtained; the exact gain characteristic yields s 40 r/s.

Figure 7.6.2-18 Determination of minimum structural frequency s

G. Bode gain and phase diagram for /(Td/Iy). The closed loop transfer function is determined from the block
diagram in Figure 7.6.2-11 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions.
The equation relating Td and is
Iy 2 s2 +1.69 s + 0.022
1 T (s) - (s)
(s) = d 2 s 7.6.2-25
2 2(0.7) s
2 s +1
Iy s + s +1 25
2 35
35
The transfer function with Td normalized by Iy is
1
s2 2(0.7)
s2 + s +1
2 35
(s) 35
= 7.6.2-26
T (s) 2 2 1.69
d 0.022 s + s + 0.022
I 0.022 0.022
y 1+ 2 2
s s 2(0.7)
s3 +1 + s +1
25 352 35

The approximation for the magnitude of the transfer function is

s
(s) , for G(s) >> 1
2 2 1.69 s = j
T (s) = 0.022 0.022 s + 0.022 s + 0.022
d s = j 7.6.2-27
I
y s = j 1
, for G(s) << 1
s = j
s 2 s = j
The straight-line approximation for the disturbance is in Figures 7.6.2-19.
Figure 7.6.2-19 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for /(Td/Iy)
H. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.6.2-11 and the
rigid body equation 7.6.2-20 that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions.
s s
+1 +1
K G(s) =
0.28 3
0.0132 0.832
=
0.283 252 352 ( s + 0.0132 ) ( s + 0.832) 7.6.2-28
3
s s 2 2
s
+1 2 +
2(0.7)
s +1 ( ) (
0.0132 (0.832) s s + 25 2 s2 + 2(0.7) 35s + 352
3
)
25 35 35
The last equation is in root locus form with a root locus gain KRL ~ 1.53x10+ 6. The root locus is drawn using
K G(s) = K RL
( s + 0.0132) ( s + 0.832) 7.6.2-29
s3 ( s + 25) ( s 2 + 2(0.7) 35s + 352 )
2
For the simple model ignoring the high frequency roots, the root locus transfer function is
( s + 0.0132) ( s + 0.832)
( K G(s))simple = K RL 7.6.2-30
s3
The closed loop roots for the simple model occur when the value of KRL = kD = 2. Since the sensor and actuator
poles are at a high frequency relative to n, the root locus near the origin is assumed to be relatively unaffected by
these poles for determining the locus for the low and mid frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.6.2-13. Figure 7.6.2-20 is the root locus sketch.
Table 7.6.2-13 Root locus results
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 25, 24.5 j 25


3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.0132, 0.832 to
n n - 2 (25) - 2 (0.7) 35+ 0.0132 + 0.832

pi - pi 7-2
= -19.6
# p-#z
frequencies
7. Real axis breakaway Based on the low and mid frequency roots
only
d G(s) H (s) - 3 s ( s + 0.132 ) ( s + 0.832 ) + s ((s + 0.132) + (s + 0.832))

2 3
=
ds K RL s6
- ( s + 0.02) ( s +1.67 )
=
s4
8. Angle of departure from complex poles 25
180 - tan - 1
24.5 - 0.0132
25
+ 180 - tan- 1
24.5 - 0.832
- - 3 (90 + 44.4) - 90
25
- 2 tan- 1 = 180
0.5
= 43.3
values
ce = s3 + KRL s2 + 0.845 s + 0.011 KRL

KRL = 0.013 and s = j 0.105

Figure 7.6.2-20 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
Using the simple model of the control system, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 2. The low
frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (2/0.013) = 43.7 dB. This value is
comparable to the value of 43 dB found using the complete model including the high frequency open loop poles in
Part F.
I. Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams and the transfer
function.
s s
3 +1 +1
0.28 0.0132 0.832
K G(s) = 7.6.2-31
3
s s 2 s2 2(0.7)
+1 2 + s +1
25 35 35
The angle at = 0+ is 270 and 540 at = +. The gain and phase along the j-axis is determined from the
Bode gain-phase diagram.
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.6.2-21.

Figure 7.6.2-21 Nichols and Nyquist diagram rigid body sketches

J. Sizing Components.
The accuracy budget to meet requirement 8, the dynamic range for the gyro and the dynamic range for the azimuth
motor are given below.
1. Pitch Angle Accuracy. The error budget is in Table 7.6.2-14. The attitude accuracy depends on the initial attitude
update (from an attitude source) to the gyro systems integrator that contains attitude, the gyro bias, thermo-
mechanical errors and control system quantization.
Table 7.6.2-14 Error budget for azimuth accuracy

Gyro bias 0.015 10% of requirement;
0.007 /hr bias value
Gyro scale factor, e 0.015 e 83x106 = 0.015/180
Gyro-derived attitude resolution 0.0015 10% of sensor bias allocation
Control system angle resolution 0.0015 10% of sensor accuracy
Control system jitter 0.0015 10% of requirement
Shift during launch 0.0015 10% of requirement
Alignment-prelaunch 0.0015 10% of requirement
Thermo-mechanical motion 0.0015 10% of requirement
Subtotal
RSS = 0.0022 Root sum squared
WOW = 0.0039 Worst on worst (additive)
Margin Balance of requirement
2 and 3. Parameter Values for Reaction Wheel and Gyro. The control system angle resolution can be used to size
the minimum torque command to the motor and rate resolution. Consider Figure 7.6.2-22.

Figure 7.6.2-22 Determination of torque and rate resolution

The position path dominates for minimum angle resolution. The smallest value of torque command is (T m)min =
2.62x105 kp Iy Nm = 4.43x105 Iy Nm. For the rate path to have the same minimum torque command capability, the
minimum rate resolution is e min = (Tm)min/(kD Iy) = 2.62x105 kp/kD r/s = 2.21x105 r/s (1.27x103 /s).
The requirement that the system is to maneuver 45 in 3 minutes using the jerk profile in Figure 7.6.2-23 is used to
size components. For smaller angles than 45 the jerk value J is decreased. For angles greater than 45 there is a
period of constant acceleration and constant velocity.
Figure 7.6.2-23 Maneuver profile for pitch angle of 45

The acceleration is the integral of jerk, the rate is the integral of acceleration and angle is the integral of rate. Due to
symmetry, equal angle increments are gained in each of the 4 jerk pulse regions so only the first region need be
considered. The relationships at the end of the first period are
7.6.2-32
One-quarter of the angle, or 45/4 = 11.25, is accomplished in the first jerk period. T J = 3/4 minutes, or 45 s, thus
the maximum value of J is Jmax = 45*6/(4*453) = 0.000741 /s3. The corresponding maximum value of acceleration
and rate are max = 0.033/s2 and max = 0.75/s, respectively.
The budgets for the maximum values for pitch rate, torque and momentum are in Tables 7.6.2-15 through -17.
Table 7.6.2-15 Maximum pitch rate value

1. Maneuver rate 0.75/s
2. Control system 0.3/s 20% of maneuver rate
3. Margin 0.9/s 50% of Items 1 and 2
Total 1.95/s

Table 7.6.2-16 Maximum pitch torque value

1. Maneuver 0.033 Iy Nm
2. Control system 0. 009 Iy Nm 25% of maneuver rate
3. Margin 0. 021 Iy Nm 50% of Items 1 and 2
Total 0. 063 Iy
Table 7.6.2-17 Maximum pitch momentum value (based on pitch rate)

1. Maneuver 0.026 Iy Nm 1.5/s
2. Control system 0. 005 Iy Nm 0.3/s
3. Margin 0. 016 Iy Nm 0.9/s
Total 0. 047 Iy
Assuming the maximum torque Tmax from each reaction wheel is equal (the configuration in Figure 7.6-2 indicates
the geometric contribution to the magnitude of the pitch torque; using the configuration value) is
TY = Tmax ( cos l + sin l ) 7.6.2-33
or
0.063 IY
TY = 7.6.2-34
cos l + sin l
Using a similar approach, the maximum momentum H max for each reaction wheel is
0.047 IY
TY = 7.6.2-35
cos l + sin l
These values can be used to estimate the minimum required dynamic range of the gyro and reaction wheel. The
gyro is assumed aligned with the pitch axis.
The dynamic range of the gyro is 2.7/(1.27x103) = 2,126
The torque dynamic range of the reaction wheel is 0.063/(4.43x105) = 1423
Torque Saturation due to Command Inputs. Figure 7.6.2-24 illustrates the condition assuming that the feedback
signals are zeros as would occur if the inputs were imposed at time t = 0. Maximum command values are in Table
7.6.2-18.
Table 7.6.2-18 Maximum command values before torque saturation
cmd saturation cmd saturation cmd saturation

0.063 r/s2 0.063/kD = 0.063/2 = 0.0315 r/s 0.063/kp = 0.063/1.69 = 0.0373 r
Momentum saturation is a function of external (inertially-fixed) torques.
Figure 7.6.2-24 Maximum command input model

7.7 Airpad transport cart
7.7.1 Block diagram and state equation

1. The airpad transport cart is shown in Figure 7.7.1-1. The cart is used to load bulk material into its bucket and
move material in an unobstructed area. During bucket loading and unloading the airpad suspension system is
deactivated and the platform rests on the floor. The bucket rotates about its center of mass. To move from location
to location the airpad suspension system is activated, levitating the platform and thrusters provide the force to move
the cart. The carts location (x, y) and angle () plus their rate are determined by a differential GPS system using
pseudo-satellites (i.e., radio transmitters) located around the periphery of the area. Pressurized gas is used to both
levitate the cart and to provide thrust to move the cart. The thrusters are continuous flow, proportional thrusters.
Excess gas is dumped via the thruster null space. The mass, M, of the cart is essentially constant during cart
movement. The externally provided connections for power and pressurized gas induce a force and torque on the
cart, represented in the x-axis by Fdist. Figure 7.7.1-1B illustrates the cart motion control system that includes
multiple thrusters. The thrusters are aligned in the x-y plane through the center of mass of the cart as shown in
Figure 7.7.1-2.
Parameter definitions are given in Table 7.7.1-1.
For the control systems and thrusters shown in Figure 7.7.1-1A:
A. Write the equations for both the load bucket and airpad control systems.
B. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix corresponding to the mounting matrix for the proportional thrusters shown
in Figures 7.7.1-1 and 7.7.1-2. Since each thruster only provides a single sign for the force, thrusters must be
grouped into 4 thruster pairs to get force components. For example, grouping F1 and F3 provides a x-force
and a -torque. For your choice of thruster pairs, determine the mounting matrix AF, its pseudoinverse AF
and associated null space matrix NF.
C. Draw the elemental block diagram for the load bucket and airpad control systems (no differentiators, one
element per block where possible).
D. Write the state equations using block diagram in Part C. Label the state variables in block diagram. Start
numbering with state variable x1 near the input to the load bucket system.

Figure 7.7.1-1 Airpad cart control systems

Table 7.7.1-1. Definition of parameters in Figure 7.7.1-1

Symbol Definition
AF, AF Thruster mounting matrix and pseudoinverse
bs Structural mode damping constant, N/m/sec
c Angle of load bucket, rad
C1, , C4 Op amp capacitors, f
EF Input field voltage, v
EG Generated voltage, v
EL Voltage drop across motor-generator inductance, v
Fmax Maximum thruster force (all thrusters have same maximum), N
Fx, Fy Control forces, N
F1, , F8 Thruster force vectors (force on cart is in opposite direction), N
Fair Airpad force, N
Fdist Disturbance force, N
IF Field current of generator, amp
Im Motor current, amp
JA Motor, tachometer and drive shaft inertia, Kg-m2
JB Inertial of load bucket, Kg-m2
k1 Load control system potentiometer gain, v/rad
k2 Air gap potentiometer gain, v/m
ks Structural mode spring constant, N/m
Kamp Voltage gain of power amplifier, v/v
Kemf Back-emf constant of load bucket motor, v/rad/s
Kforce Proportional airpad thruster constant, N/v
KG Voltage constant of generator, v/amp
Km Torque constant of load bucket motor, Nm/amp
Ktach Tach constant (note: V2 = ktach dm/dt), v/r/s
L1, L2 Distance from nominal center of mass to thruster force, m
LF Field inductance of generator, Henries
LMG Combined motor-generator winding inductance, Henries
MA, MB, M Mass of platform, load and total mass (M = MA + MB), Kg
NF Null space matrix for thrusters
N1, N2 Number of gear teeth
r Command input for load bucket controller, rad
Ri, i = 1,..,11 Op amp resistances, MOhms
RF Field resistance of generator, Ohms
RMG Armature resistance of motor-generator, Ohms
T Control torque, Nm
VAG Airpad command voltage (VAG = k2 zcmd), v
Vamp Airpad power amplifier output voltage, v
Vbat Reference battery voltage for scaling k1 and k2, v
Vc Feedback voltage (Vc = k1 c), v
Vc_dot Feedback rate voltage, v
VF Voltage drop across field inductance, v
Vgap Feedback voltage (Vgap = k2 z), v

Vi, i = 1,4 Op amp voltages (note: V2 = ktach dm/dt), v

Symbol Definition
Vr Command voltage for load bucket controller, v
x,y, z Airpad cart axes
z Airgap distance, m
zcmd Airpad commanded distance, m
Airpad cart angle about z-axis, rad
m Motor angle, rad
Figure 7.7.1-2 Orientation of the thruster force (Note: Force on cart opposes thrust force)

Solution Problem 1:
Item Equations
Load Control System
Op Amp: Summer Vr = k1 r; Vc = k1 c
Vr/R1 + Vc/R1 + Vc_dot/R3 + EF/R2 = 0 ->
EF = R2 (Vr Vc)/R1 (R2 Vc_dot)/R3
Generator Field EF IF RF VF = 0 ; IF = VF/(LF s)
E G = KG I F
Motor-Generator EG Im RMG EL Kemf dm/dt = 0 ; Im = EL/(LMG s)
T m = Km I m
Gear Train-Load JA d2m/dt2 + T1 = Tm , JB dc2/dt2 = T2
N1 m = N2 c , T1 m = T2 c -> T1 = (N1/ N2) T2 and c = (N1/ N2) m
Therefore, JEQ d2m/dt2 = Tm, JEQ = JA + (N1/ N2)2 JB
Tach Circuit V2 = Ktach dm/dt
V2 (1/(1/ C2 s + R7 )) + V1 (1/R6 + C1 s) = 0
Or: V1 = V2 R6 C2 s/((R6 C1 s + 1) (R7 C2 s + 1))
V1/R5 + Vc_dot/R4 = 0 -> Vc_dot = (R4/ R5) V1
Airpad Control Equations
Op Amp - Summer VAG = k2 zcmd; Vgap = k2 z
VAG/R8 Vgap/R8 + V3/R9 = 0 -> V3 = R9 (VAG Vgap)/R8
Op Amp PID V3 (1/R10 + C3 s) + V4 (1/(1/C4 s + R11) = 0
V4 = V3 (R10 C3 s +1) (R11 C4 s +1) (1/(s R10 C4))
Power Amp Vamp = Kamp V4
Proportional Airpad Fair = Kforce Vamp
zAxis Force Dynamics M d2z/dt2 = Fair
B. Pseudoinverse
The relationship of the thruster forces to cart axes is shown in Figure 7.7.1-2. Nominally, there is no projection into
the z-axis so the vectors have only x-y components. The thrusters are grouped into pairs as shown in Table 7.7.1-3.
The implementation of the thruster pairs is shown schematically in Figure 7.7.1-3.
Table 7.7.1-3 Grouping of thrusters
Pseudo-thruster f1 Pseudo-thruster f2 Pseudo-thruster f3 Pseudo thruster f4

Axis F1 F3 F2 F4 F5 F7 F6 F8
x - force x +x x +x
y-force +y y +y y
-torque + + + +

Figure 7.7.1-3 Grouping of thrusters into pairs, fi, i = 1, , 4

Based on Figures 7.7.1-2 and -3 the generated forces and torque on the cart are
f1
F 1 1 0 0 1
x
1 0 0
f2
F = f 0 + f 0 + f3 1 + f 4 1 = 0 0 1 1 = AF f 7.7.1-1
y 1 2
T

L1
-L

L
2
-L

L -L
1 L2 - L2 f3

1 2 1
f4
The pseudoinverse ARW is given by
( )
-1
AF = ATF AF AFT 7.7.1-2


1 0 L1 1 0
1 1 0
0

1 0 0 0
T 1 0 - L1
( )
-1 1 0 1 0
T
AF AF = 0 0 1 1 = 2 0 1 0 , AF AF =
2 0 0 1
- L2
L -L 0 1 L2 2 2
L2
1 1 0 0 L1 + L2 L12 + L22
0 1 - L2
L1
1 0
L12 + L22
7.7.1-3
L1
1 0 -
L12 + L22
( )
-1 1
AF = AFT AF AFT =

2 L2
0 1
L1 + L22
2

L2
0 1 -
L1 + L22
2

The pseudoinverse satisfies the necessary condition that AF AF is the 3x3 identity matrix.
L1
1 0
L12 + L22

1 0 -
L1

1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 - 1 L1 + L22
2

N F = I 4 - AF AF = 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2 L2
0 1
L1 - L1 L2 - L2
0 0 0 1
L1 + L22
2

L2 7.7.1-4
0 1 -
L1 + L22
2

2 L
L2 - L22 - L1L2 L1 L2
2
2 -L
1 - L2 L22 L1L2 - L1 L2 1
= = 2
L2 - L2 - L1 L1
(
)
2 L12 + L22 - L1L2 L1 L2 L12 2 2 2
- L2 2 L1 + L2 ( )

- L1

L1
L1 L2 - L1 L2 - L22 L22
The vector spanning the 1-dimensional null space is given in the last equation. The null space matrix satisfies the
condition that AF NF = 0.
The block diagram showing the flow from controller to dynamics is shown in Figure 7.7.1-4.

Figure 7.7.1-4 Signal flow from controller to dynamics

There are 4 pairs that develop a torque and 2 thruster pairs for x and y forces, respectively. The projection of the
thruster force into the x-y-T axes is shown in Figure 7.7.1-5. Only the + T portion is shown, the T portion (not
shown) is symmetric about the x-y plane. The pseudoinverse is a best fit in the least squares sense. Hence it is
bounded by the largest ellipsoid that can be inscribed in the figure. The largest inscribed circle in the x-y plane is of
radius (2)1/2. An estimate of the minimum radius in the ellipsoid is given by in Figure 7.7.1-5B. The equation for
a is
2 -2 + 16 - 2 = 18 7.7.1-5
Solving, = 4/3. Thus the estimate of the minimum projection is 1.33 Fmax. Conservatively, it is estimated that the
largest thrust available for control is Fmax. This value is used to size the thruster force in Section I.
Figure 7.7.1-5 Thruster projection


The tach equation with the s term in the numerator can either be implemented using the equations as in Chapter 4
or by partial fraction expanding to remover the explicit s in the numerator. The latter approach is used.
Let
R6C2 s b
= + 7.7.1-6
( 6 1 )( 7 2 ) 6 1
R C s +1 R C s +1 R C s +1 R7 2 s +1
C
Equating the numerator on the left and right hand side

R6C2 s = ( R7C2 s +1) + b ( R6C1 s +1) = ( R7C2 + b R6C1 ) s + + b 7.7.1-7
Note that + b = 0, or = b. Then

R6C2
b= 7.7.1-8
R6C1 - R7C2
Substituting into equation 7.7.1-5
R6C2 s R6C2 -1 1
= + 7.7.1-9
( R6C1 s +1) ( R7C2 s +1) R6C1 - R7C2 R6C1 s +1 R7C2 s +1
Each term in the partial fraction expansion is a simple 1st order differential equation.
The load bucket control system block diagram is in Figure 7.7.1-6.
Figure 7.7.1-6 Elemental Block Diagram of load bucket control system

The airpad control system has a PID with 2 zeros and 1 pole and no filter to make the number of zeros less than or
equal to the number of poles. The PID is rewritten as
V3 (s) ( R10C3 s +1) ( R11C4 s +1) V (s) R10C3 R11C4 s + ( R10C3 + R11C4 ) s +1
2
V4 (s) = - =- 3
R10C4 s R10C4 s
7.7.1-10
V (s) 1
=- 3 R10C3 R11C4 s + ( R10C3 + R11C4 ) +
R10C4 s
The first term can be obtained by feeding back the motor rate in the block diagram (Alternately, the PID could have
been implemented by feeding back the motor acceleration and rate).
The airpad control system block diagram is in Figure 7.7.1-7.

Figure 7.7.1-7 Airpad block diagram

D. State Equations.
The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variables. The state variable numbering is shown in Figures
7.7.1-6 and -7.
7.7.1-11
7.7.2 Synthesis of control system

Design the x-axis thruster control system for the system shown in Figure 7.7.2-1. The control system requirements
are in Table 7.7.2-1. The parameters are given in Table 7.7.2-2. The uncertainty in parameter values, e.g., thruster
force, mass, etc., are given in the table.

Table 7.7.2-1. System requirements
Requirement x-axis control system

1 Overshoot to a step command input 20%
2 Time to peak for step input command 5 sec
4 Phase Margin 30
5 Gain Margins 6 dB
6 Track acceleration command input (Figure 7.7.2-2) Steady state error 1%
7 Steady state error to a step disturbance Fdist 0
8 Suppress pitch axis fundamental structural mode peak Set structural frequency s relative to
value at s by 12 dB below 0 dB axis your design solution
9 Maneuver using profile in Figure 7.7.2-2 30 m in 5 minutes
Design the x-axis controller; specify actuator and sensor parameters and structural mode frequency. Explain any
requirements you cannot meet as well as any derived requirements and assumptions you make in your design.
Where possible estimate/size the credibility of your assumptions.
margin m, budgets, etc.); use a table-format to display results.
B. Determine the mathematical model and construct block diagram of your control loop including actuator and
sensor transfer functions given.
D. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the controller gain values and actuator and sensor
values you determined.
paper and straight-edge (ruler) for the rigid body system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on
same graph construct the phase lag for the system with values shown at the phase margin and gain margin
frequencies. Include in your graph the thruster time delay and the gain and phase of the actuator and sensor poles
that you set based on guidelines in Table 7.7.2-2, even if you assumed them to be ignorable in your initial
synthesis of the compensation in Part C. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer
generated results not acceptable.
b. Determine the minimum allowable frequency s of the structural mode for your design consistent with Table
c. Estimate both the transfer function X(s)/Xcmd(s) and the response x(t) to a unit step command xcmd using the
straight-line Bode diagram and the value of phase margin. Construct the step response sketches using
superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency (including structural) components. Your reasoning to obtain
sketch is required; computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper and straight-edge (ruler) for
|X(s)/(Fdist(s)/M)| considering rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required;
computer generated results not acceptable.
H. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the actuator and sensor time constants you set for
your design. Determine j-axis crossing via Rouths criteria using only low frequency and mid frequency poles and
zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root locus using the closed loop
estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F. Computer generated results not acceptable.

I. Provide the maneuver profile parameters in Figure 7.7.2-2 and thruster sizing, F max, for your design.
J. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
Figure 7.7.2-1 x-axis cart control system quantities in brackets are TBD by designer
Figure 7.7.2-2 Maneuver profile using constant acceleration pulses

Table 7.7.2-2. Definition of x-axis control system parameters

amax Maximum acceleration for maneuver profile, r/s2 TBD
Fdist Disturbance force, N
Fmax Maximum thruster force (all thrusters have same maximum), N TBD
Fx Thruster x-axis force, N
Ftotal Total x-axis force, N
Gc(s) Frequency sensitive portion of compensation
K Compensation gain, v/m
Ka Voltage gain of power amplifier, v/v 6%
KB Gain of x-axis fundamental (lowest frequency) structural mode 0.45
KF Force constant of proportional thruster, N/v 12%
M Mass of overall cart (platform + load), Kg 20%
T Time delay in thruster response, s 0.04/n*
T a, T v Time interval for constant acceleration and velocity for profile, s TBD
x xcmd Cart displacement and command, m
xRB xs Rigid body and structural components of x, m
xm, dxm/dt Displacement and rate measured by GPS, m and m/s
dx/dt dxcmd/dt Displacement rate and command rate, m/s
d2x/dt2 d2xcmd/dt2 Displacement acceleration and command acceleration, m/s2
vmax Maximum velocity, m/s TBD
Va Voltage to thruster drive, v
Vc Control voltage from compensation, v
a Power amplifier time constant, s TBD*
F Thruster drive time constant, s TBD*
D GPS undamped natural frequency, rad/s TBD*
s Lowest structural mode frequency, rad/s TBD**
D GPS damping ratio 0.8
s Lowest structural mode damping ratio 0.005
lag from actuator, sensor and thruster time delay is not to exceed 15.
** To be determined by designer to gain suppress structural mode peak value to 12 dB relative to 0 dB axis.
Tolerance in knowledge of parameter value.

Solution to Problem 2.
undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the table if a Mid Frequency ("lead") zero is added to
compensate the system. The residue of the low frequency zero is small by choice of the location (b n, b << 1) of
the low frequency root. The plant shown in Figure 7.7.2-1 makes the control system at least Type 2.

Mid Frequency
1. Damping Ratio, 0.46 (Overshoot 20%) 0.59 (Overshoot 10%)
2. Time to peak 5 sec n = 0.7 r/s n = 0.85*0.7 r/s
= 0.6 r/s
3. Settling time (2 %) 20 n = 0.43 r/s (for = 0.46)
sec
4. Phase Margin 30
Low Frequency
6. 1% steady state error to As minimum, closed loop match coefficients of right and
a constant acceleration input left hand side of the closed loop differential equation up
through d2/dt2; alternately, a type 3 system (use PID) or an
open loop transfer function of type 2 (Ka/s2) with error
constant gain Ka 100.
7. Zero steady state error to Integral control -> implies PID controller
a force disturbance Fdist
High Frequency
8. Suppress fundamental Frequency s set relative to design solution.
mode at s by 12 dB KB = 0.45
below 0 dB axis KB/(2 ) = 0.45/(2*0.005) = 45 (33 dB)
Therefore rigid body Bode gain diagram must be at least 45
dB (12 + 33) below 0 dB axis at s.
Controlled by Budget
9. Maneuver 45 in 3 Profile shaping and choice of thruster force; see section I
minutes
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant (X(s)/Ftotal) is Type 2 of the form 1/s2. In addition a
PID network is used to meet requirement 7 (integral control), making the system Type 3. With K/s 3 in the open loop
transfer function, the control system tracks an acceleration (parabolic) command input with zero steady state error.
2
(1+ K B ) s + 2 s s s + s
KB 2
1 1
X (s) = + F (s) = Ftotal (s) 7.7.2-1
M s2 M s2 + 2 s + 2 total
s s s (
M s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 )


The control system block diagram is
Figure 7.7.2-3 Block diagram of x-axis control loop with PID controller (kFA = 0 and 1 indicates no feedahead
and feedahead, respectively)
The control signal Vc(s) is given by
7.7.2-2
The control force Fx(s) is

K K e- sT
Fx (s) = a F V (s) 7.7.2-3

a s +1 F s +1
c

1. Ignore the structural mode for the initial design. The structural mode frequency s is selected once the initial
2. The reaction wheel time constants a and F are to be selected to provide less that 3 to 5 phase shift at n
(See phase budget in Table 7.7.2-4). The time delay corresponds to a phase lag of n (0.04/n) (180/p) ~ 2.3 at
n (initial design value). These phase terms are added to the phase margin budget to achieve 15 at n. Hence,
the power amplifier and thruster-drive are represented by the gains Ka and KF, respectively. The time delay is
represented by 1.
3. The GPS transfer function frequency D is to be selected to provide between 3 to 5 phase shift at n; hence
the GPS transfer function is essentially 1.
1 ki
2
ki
+ 1 Fdist (s)
X (s) = k s + k + X (s) - k s + k s + k + X (s) 7.7.2-4
2 D p
s cmd FA D p
s 2
s Ms
or
k FA s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
X (s) = X cmd (s) + F (s) 7.7.2-5
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki M s + k s + k s + k dist
3 2
D p i


The open loop transfer function X(s)/Xe(s) , where Xe(s) = Xcmd(s) X(s) with kFA = 0 and Fdist(s) = 0, is
k k
2 ki D s2 + p s +1
X (s) k D s + k p s + ki ki ki
= = 7.7.2-6
Xe (s) s3 s3
The gain Bode gain is ki.
Setting Gains. Assume kFA = 0. The position, integral and derivative gains are selected such that the PID controller
creates a Mid Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as idealized in Figure 7.7.2-5. The amount the Low
Frequency root at b n moves the actual Mid Frequency poles and zero from their idealized values is a function of
the value of b. The larger the value of b the greater the effect.
The approximate closed loop transfer function assuming the closed loop low frequency pole-zero dipole cancel is

2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 2 n s + n
X (s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2
7.7.2-7
X cmd (s)
( )(
s 2 + 2 n s + n2 s + b n ) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b )
2
n
2
n n
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
Figure 7.7.2-5 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for X (s)/X cmd(s)
The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan- 1 n 1 = tan- 1 7.7.2-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on for the idealized second order system. The angle may change when the
actual roots are determined based on the value of the Low frequency root b n.

for time to peak in Table 7.7.2-3 are reviewed using Figure 7.7.2-6. The overshoot value is acceptable for the initial
iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.3 from Figure 7.7.2-6 indicates that n 0.46 r/s (= 2.3/5) is required
(factor of 0.65 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). Maintain = 0.59 and n = 0.6 r/s as the design-to
values at this stage of design formulation.
Figure 7.7.2-6 Evaluation of ideal 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the actuator and sensor are
tabulated in Table 7.7.2-4. Each source is allocated 2 to 3 of phase lag at n = 0.6 r/s. For the single time
constants the phase lag is given by tan 1 n = 2, hence ~ 0.06 s (or equivalently, a frequency of ~ 17 r/s). For
the GPS with the quadratic term the angle is
n
2
-1 D n
3 = tan tan- 1 2 D 18 7.7.2-9
2 D = 0.8
1- n n = 0.6
D = 0.8
n = 0.6
Table 7.7.2-4 Estimate of phase lag due to sensor and actuator
Source Allocated phase lag Parameter

Value
Power amplifier time constant, a 2 0.06 s (17 r/s)
Thruster-drive time constant, F 2 0.06 s (17 r/s)
Thruster time delay, T 2.3 0.04 (180/p)
GPS, D 3 18 r/s
Estimate of Total Phase Lag (sum) 14.3
The straight-line gain crossover is an indication of the value of the actual gain crossover frequency. The straight-
line gain crossover frequency differs from n depending on the value of and whether there is a mid-frequency
zero, or not. As illustrated in Figure 7.7.2-7 with or without the mid-frequency zero and 0.5 the straight-line
approximation crosses the 0 dB axis at n.

Figure 7.7.2-7 Bode straight-line gain diagrams for 2nd order standard form and mid-frequency zero form
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 14.3 for the phase lag. Thus the determined in
Table 7.7.2-3 is modified as shown in Table 7.7.2-5.
Table 7.7.2-5 Modification of value for
Mid Frequency
Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin ~ 63 Modified phase margin ~ 73
Modified ~ 0.66 Modified ~ 0.9
= 0.9 , n = 0.6 7.7.2-10
Note that the final value overshoot resulting from the synthesis is expected to be 20% (based on standard form of
2nd order system with = 0.46). The 14.3 is expected to be used/depleted by the actuator, sensor and Mid
Frequency zero. No specific allocation has been made for the Low Frequency root at b n. The root is near the
low frequency open loop zero that is used to cancel the phase lag due to the 1/s3 slope due to system type. The
residual phase lag at the gain crossover frequency due to this root is approximately 90 + tan 1 (1/b); the 90 is
due to the system type slope and tan 1 (1/b) is due to the low frequency zero. For b = 0.02 the residual phase lag is
approximately 1. The margin allocation in Table 7.7.2-5 accounts for this value.
error to a step disturbance input. It provides zero steady state error in tracking an acceleration input. The simplified
block diagram (ignoring structural mode and actuator and sensor time constants) of the system with a PID controller
and rigid body dynamics is shown in Figure 7.7.2-4. The closed loop equation in Laplace transform form is given
by equation 7.7.2-5 with kFA = 0.
Consider the approach of choosing kI/kp to be much less than kp and kD. Then the denominator can be
k
( )
s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki s2 + k D s + k p s + i
kp
7.7.2-11
k p = n2 , k D = 2 n 7.7.2-12

Evaluating the gains using
k p = n2 = 0.62 = 0.36 , k D = 2 n = 2 (0.9) 0.6 = 1.08 7.7.2-13
Choose the low frequency root to be at b n, where b = 0.02. Hence

ki
= b n ki = b n3 = 0.02 (0.6)3 = 0.00432 7.7.2-14
kp
The closed loop poles and zero based on the approximate cubic equation are tabulated in Table 7.7.2-6.
Table 7.7.2-6 Approximate closed loop poles and zeros

(n = 0.6, = 0.9)
0.012
Closed (and open) loop zeros 0.333, 0.012
Figure 7.7.7-8 shows the system with the feedahead path to support transient acceleration tracking. The command
values are obtained from the command generator discussed in Section I.
Figure 7.7.2-8 Block diagram of simplified PID pitch control system

The feedahead is an open loop input and does not affect the closed loop stability, therefore, does not relate to root
locus or frequency response techniques. The open loop transfer function of the control loop is (with kFA = 0)
s s
0.1633 +1 +1
2
1.08 s + 0.36 s + 0.00432 1.08 ( s + 0.321) ( s + 0.0125) 0.321 0.0125
G(s) = = = 7.7.2-15
3
s s3 s3
The first transfer function is in root locus form, the second in Bode form.
when the Bode gain-phase diagram is drawn. Profile parameters are given in Section I.


1. Overshoot 20% 19% (estimate) Fig 7.7.2-6
Comply
2. Time to peak 5 sec 3.8 sec (estimate) Fig 7.7.2-6
Comply n tp = 2.3
3. Settling time (2 %) 20 sec, 14.5 sec (estimate)* Based on
based on 4/( n) Comply 4/(06* 06)
6. 1% steady state error to a Comply Type 3 system
acceleration input
force disturbance
* Using original design-to values of 0.6 r/s and = 0.46.
Choose kFA = 1 to provide feedahead to improve tracking performance.
F. Bode gain and phase diagram. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure
7.7.2-9 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions. For purposes of closed loop stability analysis, kFA
= 0, as the acceleration feedahead is a command input. The figure illustrates that the sensor transfer function is in
the feedback path; denote it as H(s). The open loop transfer function is K G(s) H(s).
The parameters Ka, KF and M have a gain tolerance as given in Table 7.7.2-2. The compensation gain M/Ka KF is
set to the nominal value of these gains. The gain variation in the open loop transfer function K G(s) H(s) is in the
range
M M

0.8 K a K F actual 1.2 K a K F actual
0.674 1.45 7.7.2-16
1.06 (1.12) M 0.94 (0.88) M

K a K F nominal K a K F nominal
This range is bounded by 3.5 dB. The 6 dB requirement for gain margin in Table 7.7.2-1 is augmented to a
design-to value of 9.5 dB using nominal gains to account for the gain variation.
Figure 7.7.2-9 x-axis block diagram with actuator and sensor transfer functions
The open loop transfer function K G(s) relating X(s) and Xe(s) is
s s s2 2(0.005)
0.1633 +1 +1 (1+ 0.45) 2 + s +1 0.04
0.0125 0.321 s s - s
K G(s) H (s) = e 0.6 7.7.2-17
s 2 s2 2(0.8) s2 2(0.005)
s3 +1 + s +1 + s +1
17 182 18 2
s s

s is determined from the rigid body Bode gain diagram by finding the frequency at which the mode is suppressed
by at least 45 dB. The rigid body transfer function is
s s
0.1633 +1 +1 0.04
0.0125 0.321 - 0.6 s
K G(s) H (s) = e 7.7.2-18
2 2
s s 2(0.8)
s3 +1 + s +1
17 182 18
The exponential term does not affect the gain diagram but does add phase lag to the phase diagram.
The Bode gain diagram is constructed starting at the Low Frequency region with 0.163 3/s3 which intercepts the 0 dB
axis at 0.163 r/s. To assist in constructing the Bode gain diagram the straight-line value of K G(s) H(s) in decibels is
calculated at the open loop gain poles and zeros as shown in Table 7.7.2-8. Additional items of interest can be
calculated from the straight-line approximation and are summarized in Table 7.7.2-9. The latter table shows that the
straight-line crosses the 0 DB axis at 1.08 r/s and the minimum possible structural frequency s is 28.3 r/s. The
value of 0.59 r/s is used when the Mid Frequency characteristic is determined from the Bode gain diagram. The
gains at the open loop zero at 0.0125 r/s and poles at 17 r/s and 18 r/s are used in determining the approximate
residues and closed loop pole locations.

(linear value)
Minimum graph frequency, 0.1633 132.7
0.001 r/s 20 log
3
= 0.001
Zero at 0.0125 r/s 0.1633 66.9
20 log (2217)
3
= 0.025
Zero at 0.321 r/s 0.1633 10.5
20 log

3
0.0125 = 0.321
20 log (0.063)
3
0.0125 0.321 = 17
Quadratic pole at 18 r/s 0.1633 17 2 25.4
20 log (0.053)
3 2
0.0125 0.321 = 18
Maximum graph 0.1633 17 2 182 99.9
frequency, 100 r/s 20 log
3 2 2
0.0125 0.321 = 100


0 dB intercept of 0.59 r/s
0.1633
40 dB/dec slope =1
3 0.0125
0 dB intercept of straight- 1.08 r/s
0.1633
3 0.0125 0.321
Frequency s at which 0.1633 28.3 r/s
17 2 182
45
-
straight-line approximation = 10 20
3 2 2
is 45 dB 0.0125 0.321 =
s
Figure 7.7.2-10 is the straight-line Bode gain diagram. The Bode gain diagram is corrected for gain by using the
gain corrections of 3 dB at the break frequency and 1 dB an octave above and below the break frequency. The
corrected gain diagram along with the arctangent Bode ruler is in Figure 7.7.2-11. The Bode ruler is placed to 1.1
r/s, the 0 dB crossover frequency, to measure the phase, and therefore determine the phase margin, based on the
open loop poles and zeros.
The phase angle is positive (+) for zeros and negative () for poles. For < 18 r/s the phase can also be calculated
using

2
-1 18
Phase = - 270 + tan- 1 + tan- 1 - 2 tan - tan- 1 7.7.2-19
0.0125 0.321 17 2
1-
182
When > 18 r/s, 180 must be added to above equation.
Note that the phase lag contributed by the quadratic roots at 18 r/s as measured by the Bode arctangent ruler is
slightly in error. The Bode arctangent ruler phase measurement is only correct for the quadratic root if D = 1. The
phase calculation at the gain crossover frequency is shown in Table 7.7.2-10. The phase and gain margins are
shown in Figure 7.7.2-12 and tabulated in Table 7.7.2-11. The values with the thruster time delay are the pertinent
data, without time delay is for information only.


Table 7.7.2-10 Phase margin contributors (0 dB crossover frequency: c = 1.1 r/s)

Phase Bode ruler+
1/s3 term* 3 ( 90) 270 270
Zero at 0.0125 arctan (1.1/0.0125) 89.4 89.35
Zero at 0.321 arctan (1.1/0.321) 74 73.8
Thruster-drive arctan (1.1/17) 3.7 3.7
Thruster time 1.1 (0.04)/0.6 *(180/p) 4.3 N/A
delay
GPS arctan (2 (0.8) (11/1)/(1 (11/1)2)) 6 2 (3.5) =
7**
Phase lag = 124.3
Phase Margin = 55.7 ****
+ Difference in calculated and measured is accuracy in drawing Bode curves and roundoff.
** Bode arctangent ruler considers quadratic root as having a D = 1.
*** Thruster delay calculated with design value of n = 0.6 r/s.
**** Phase margin corresponds to = 0.55 and an overshoot of 12.6% based on the standard 2nd order system.
Based on Figure 7.7.2-6 for 2nd order system with Mid Frequency zero the overshoot value is 19%; this value is used
as estimate.

Table 7.7.2-11 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin Nominal Gains
Item Frequency Without Time With Time

Delay Delay
Value Value
Phase Margin 1.1 r/s 60 56
Low frequency gain margin 0.066 r/s 38 dB 38 dB
High frequency gain margin 5.6 r/s - 15 dB
High frequency gain margin 7.6 r/s 19 dB -
The effect of the 3.5 dB gain variation are illustrated using the Bode gain and phase diagram in Figure 7.7.2-13.
The gain crossover frequency, c, and phase and gain margins are tabulated in Table 7.7.2-12. The values with the
thruster time delay are the pertinent data. Note that it has little effect on the gain margin requirements as the 3.5
dB variations are well within the 6 dB gain margin requirement. The phase margin change is small thus
preserving the overshoot to a step input and also the stability properties. The gain crossover frequency value for
3.5 dB gain change is approximately 70% that for the nominal gain value indicating the 5 second time to peak
requirement may be at risk. This is not investigated at this time, but may require an increase in system design value
for n (bandwidth).
Figure 7.7.2-13 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating the effect of 3.5 dB gain variation

Table 7.7.2-11 Effect of gain variations on crossover frequency, phase margin and gain margin (all data
include thruster time delay)
Gain Variation Gain Phase Margin Low Frequency High Frequency

Crossover Gain Margin Gain Margin
Frequency, c
3.5 dB 0.74 r/s 54 34.5 dB 18.5 dB
0 (nominal value) 1.1 r/s 56 38 dB 15 dB
+ 3.5 dB 1.6 r/s 52 41.5 dB 11.5 dB
open loop zeros and high frequency open loop poles. The Bode diagram factors GH/(1+GH). Thus, C(s)/R(s) =
[1/H(s)] [G(s)H(s)/(1+G(s)H(s))]. The complex closed loop poles and zeros due to H(s) essentially cancel and have
little effect on the transient response. Estimates of closed loop values are tabulated in Table 7.7.2-13.
Low frequency zero at 66.9 dB ~ 4.5x104 0.0125 (1 4.5x104) ~
0.0125 r/s (2217) 0.0125 r/s
(Time constant ~ 80 s)
Effectively dipole pole-zero
cancel each other
High frequency pole at 17 23.9 dB + 0.063* 17 (1 0.063) ~ 16 r/s
r/s (0.063) (0.063 s)
High frequency pole at 17 23.9 dB 0.063* 17 (1 + 0.063) ~ 18 r/s
r/s (0.063) (0.055 s)
High frequency quadratic 25.4 dB Negligible** 18 (1 + 0.053) ~ 19 r/s
poles at 18 r/s (0.053) Closed poles do not move far
from closed loop zeros.
* Based on residue projections on the root locus in Figure 7.7.2-19, the residues have opposite signs. A worst-
case estimate of the magnitude of the effective high frequency residue is to add the residue estimates, yielding ~
0.13.
** Since the closed loop poles and zeros due to H(s) essentially cancel and have no effect on step response.

0.59 2 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.7.2-20
2 0.321
s
The estimate of X(s)/X(s)cmd for the mid-frequency region is
s s
X (s) 0.592 +1 +1
0.321 0.321
= = 7.7.2-21
X cmd (s) mid 0.592 s2 2 (0.92)
s2 + s + 0.592 + s +1
0.321 2 0.58
0.58
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function X(s)/X(s)cmd using = 0.92 for the mid-frequency region damping
and recognizing that both the low frequency dipole pole-zero essentially and sensor poles/zeros cancel is
s
+1
X (s) 0.321 1
= 7.7.2-22
X cmd (s) s 2
2 (0.92) s s
+ s +1 +1 +1
0.582 0.58 16 18
Since the low frequency dipole term has a residue of approximately 4.5x104 for a unit step input command there is
no exponential tail. The sketch of the unit step response is shown in Figure 7.7.2-15 illustrating the mid and high
frequency estimates. The Mid-Frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.7.2-7.


c. The minimum frequency for s is determined from Figure 7.7.2-16. Using the 3.5 dB straight-line gain
variation characteristics, a worst-case value of s 32 r/s is obtained. Considering the exact gain characteristics, the
minimum value is 28 r/s. This is a preliminary number as the bandwidth may have to be increased to meet the time
to peak based on considering the gain variations.
Figure 7.7.2-16 Determination of minimum structural frequency s

G. Bode gain diagram for X(s)/(Fdist(s)/M). The closed loop transfer function is determined from the block
diagram in Figure 7.7.2-9 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions Ga(s) and H(s), respectively. Only
the rigid body transfer functions are considered, where Gp(s) = 1/(Ms2).

The equation relating Fdist(s) and X(s) is
X (s) G p (s)
= 7.7.2-23
Fdist (s) 1+ K Gc (s) Ga (s) G p (s) H (s)
The approximation for the magnitude of the normalized transfer function is

1
X (s) , for K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) >> 1
K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) s = j
F (s) s = j
= 7.7.2-24
dist 1
M s = j , for K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) << 1
s = j
s 2 s = j
Or

s
X (s) , for K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) >> 1
s s s = j
F (s) = 0.00432 0.0125 +1 0.321 +1 7.7.2-25
dist s = j

M s = j 1
, for K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) << 1
s = j
s 2 s = j
Figure 7.7.2-17 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for X/(Fdist/M)

H. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.7.2-9 and the rigid
body equation 7.7.2-18 that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions. The time delay is ignored, as it does
not readily lend itself to root locus.
s s
0.00432 +1 +1
K G(s) =
0.0125 0.321 0.000432 17 18
=
2 8
( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321) 7.7.2-26
3 s
s +1
2 2
s
+
2(0.8)

s +1 ( ) (
0.0125 (0.321) s3 s +17 2 s 2 + 2(0.8)18 s +182
)
17 182 18
The last equation is in root locus form with a fixed root locus gain of KRL ~ 1.008x10+ 5. The root locus is drawn
using a variable KRL gain
K G(s) = K RL
( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321) 7.7.2-29
s3 ( s +17 ) ( s2 + 2(0.8)18 s +182 )
2
( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321)
( K G(s))simple = K RL 7.7.2-30
s3
The closed loop roots for the simple model occur when the value of KRL = kD = 1.08. Since the sensor and actuator

1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 17, 14.4 j 10.8
3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.0125, 0.321 to
2 k +1 2 k +1
4. Angle of asymptotes: - 180 - 180 = 36 , 108 , - 180
# p-#z # p-#z
n m
pi - zi - 2 (17) - 2 (14.4) + 0.0125+ 0.321
i =1 i =1 = -12.5
5. C.G. of asymptotes: 7-2
# p-#z
frequencies
only
=
2 3
(
d G(s) H (s) - 3 s ( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321) + s ( s + 0.0125) + ( s + 0.321) )
ds K RL s6
=-
( s + 0.019) ( s + 0.65)
s4
8. Angle of departure from complex poles 10.8
180 - tan- 1
14.4 - 0.0125
-1 10.8
+180 - tan
14.4 - 0.321
10.8
- - 390 + tan- 1 - 90
14.4
10.8
-2 tan- 1 = 180
17 -14.4
= - 158
values
ce = s3 + KRL s2 +0.3335 KRL +
0.004 KRL

KRL = 0.012 and s = j 0.063

Using the simple model of the control system, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 1.08. The low
frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (1.08/0.012) = 39 dB. This value is
comparable to the value of approximately 38 dB found using the complete model in Part F which included the
thruster time delay and high frequency open loop poles.
I. Sizing Components.
The requirement is that the system maneuver 30 m in 5 minutes using the acceleration profile in Figure 7.7.2-2.
Choose constant acceleration for one-half of the time and constant deceleration for the other half; this determines the
thruster force value. For distances greater than 30 m there is a period of constant acceleration and constant velocity.
The relationships at the end of the acceleration period are
7.7.2-31
One-half of the distance, or 30/2 = 15 m, is accomplished in the acceleration period T a = 150 s. Due to symmetry,
the remaining 15 m is accomplished in the 150 second deceleration period. The value of a max = 15/1502 = 6.7x10 4
m/s2 (0.067 cm/s2).
The budget for the maximum value for x-axis force is in Table 7.7.2-15.
Table 7.7.2-15 Maximum x-axis force
Item Allocation (N) Comment

1. Maneuver 6.7x10 4 M Constant acceleration for
150 s
2. Control system 3.3x10 4 M ~ 20% of maneuver
3. Margin 10x10 4 M ~ 50% of items 1 and 2
Total 20x10 4 M
Assuming that the equivalent of only one thruster is available (since thrusters are share between x-axis and T
control requirements), the thruster sizing in Newtons is 20x10 4 M.
J. Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams, and, the
transfer function in equation 7.7.2-18 repeated below.

s s
3 +1 +1 0.04
0.163 0.0125 0.321 - s
K G(s) = e 0.6 7.7.2-32
s = j 3 2 2
s s s 2(0.8)
s3 +1 + s +1
17 182 18 s = j
The angle at = 0+ is 270 and, for the rigid body without the thruster time delay, 450 at = +. The time
delay causes the phase angle to approach as approaches . The gain and phase along the j-axis is
determined from the Bode gain-phase diagram.
Figure 7.7.2-20 Nichols and Nyquist diagram rigid body sketches nominal gain
7.8 Sky Survey Telescope System
7.8.1 Overview and Equations

The ground-based gimbaled sky survey telescope control system is shown in Figure 7.8.1-1. There are 3 gimbals.
Gimbal 1 is the sky scan axis; gimbals 2 and 3 are used to position the gimbal 1 scan axis direction. The command
generator orients the three gimbals for the sky survey; r(t) is the commanded angle for gimbal 1. Gimbal 1 is held at
a constant scan rate while moving the scanning array over the Sky Survey Scan area. At the end of the scan the
command generator increments gimbals 2 and 3 so that on the return scan of gimbal 1 the contiguous area of the sky
is surveyed. An autonomous star sensor mounted rigidly to gimbal 1 platform (Figure 7.8.1-1D) provides the
gimbal 1 orientation; c(t) is the measured angle for gimbal 1. The center of mass of the gimbal 1 platform lies at the
intersection of the axes of the three gimbals.
As shown in Figure 7.8.1C the control rate information for gimbal 1 is supplied by 3 rate-integrating gyros that lie
on the gimbal 1 platform. The input axis (IA1) for gyro 1 lies along the gimbal 1 rotation axis xA and the input axes
for the other two gyros are rotated from the rotation axis by the angles g, respectively. The 3 reaction wheels
(RWs) lie on the gimbal 1 platform and provide the control torque. The torque axis (1) for reaction wheel 1 lies
along the gimbal 1 rotation axis and the torque axes for the other reaction wheels are off the rotation axis by the
angles l, respectively.
Figure 7.8.1-1B is the diagram for a typical rate-integrating gyro where dci/dt is the projection of the gimbal 1 rate,
dc/dt, on the i-th gyros input axis (IAi). The spin axis and output axis are denoted by the notation SAi and OAi,
respectively. The i-th gyros output in units of r/s is denoted by gi. Note that the gyro mechanical assembly
consists of two parts, the case that is rigidly attached to the gimbal 1 platform and the float assembly consisting of
the gyro torquer, angle sensor and spinning wheel (H). The gap between the case and float is filled with a viscous
damping fluid with coefficient B. The torque T required to null, i.e., zero, the float angle , or as shown in the
figure the op amp voltage V2 generating T, are both a direct measure of the sensed rate gi.
The diagram for a typical reaction wheel is shown in the gimbal controller block diagram, Figure 7.8.1-1D. The
outputs of the pseudoinverse A are the three voltages, VRWj, j = 1,2,3, to each of the three reaction wheels power
amplifiers. The output of each reaction wheel is the torque T RWj.
The autonomous star sensor has the transfer function HT(s) = 1/(1 + s/T).
For gimbal 1:
A. Write the equations for the j-th reaction wheel, the i-th gyro and the dynamics.
B. 1. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix A corresponding to the mounting matrix for the reaction wheels.
Determine the null space matrix NRW for the reaction wheels and its vector direction in reaction wheel space.
2. The maximum torque range for each reaction wheel is Tmax. Draw the flow of the torque
command Tcmd through the pseudoinverse, reaction wheel dynamics with torque saturation and geometry
matrix to the output torque Tc. Include the null space control loop with feedback voltages Vnullj, j 1,2,3,
based on the scalar gain element Knull and NRW. (Note. The implementation of a reaction wheel
desaturation control system is not considered at this time.) Determine the maximum torque that the
pseudoinverse can command for gimbal 1 without saturating a reaction wheel, where the maximum torque
per reaction wheel is Tmax Nm (Assume the budget value for the null space control law is 0.1 T max Nm per
reaction wheel)
3. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix G corresponding to the mounting matrix for the gyros.
4. The maximum rate range for each gyro is max. Draw the flow of rate through the geometry
matrices, saturation element and associated pseudoinverse matrix (for the diagram, assume the gyro
dynamics have a transfer function value of 1).
C. Draw the elemental block diagram for the gimbal 1 control system (no differentiators, one element per block
where possible). In your diagram use Gc(s) to denote the compensation. Assume that the input (driving function) to
your equations are Vcj and Vnullj, j = 1,2,3. Include the structural mode in your diagram.
D. Write the state equations using the block diagram in Part C. Label the state variables in block diagram. Start
numbering with state variable x1 nearest the voltage input VRWj to the reaction wheels.

Figure 7.8.1-1 Gimbaled sky survey control system


Symbol Definition
A, A Reaction wheel mounting matrix and pseudoinverse
B Gyro damping coefficient, Nm/(r/sec)
c, dc/dt Angle and angle rate of gimbal 1, rad and r/s
dci/dt, i =1, 2, 3 Projection of angle rate of gimbal 1 along IAi, r/s
cM, dcM/dt Measured angle and angle rate of gimbal 1, rad and r/s
C1, C2, C3 Op amp capacitors, f

G, G Gyro mounting matrix and pseudoinverse
Gc(s) Compensation transfer function, v/r
H Gyro angular momentum, Nms
HG(s) Gyro transfer function
HT(s) Autonomous star sensor transfer function
IAi, i=1, 2, 3 Input axes for i-th gyro
Ig Gyro torquer current, amp
IRWj, j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel current, amp
J Gyro float inertia, Kg-m2
JG Inertia of gimbal 1, Kg-m2
JRWj, j = 1, 2, 3 Inertia of j-th reaction wheel rotor and motor, Kg-m2
kemf Gyro back emf, v/(r/s)
kg Gyro power amplifier gain, v/v
kT Gyro torquer current to torque conversion, Nm/amp
k Gyro angle sensor gain, v/r
k Gyro block diagram conversion gain, (r/s)/v
KAj, j = 1, 2, 3 Voltage gain of j-th reaction wheel power amplifier, v/v
KB Gimbal 1 structural mode influence coefficient
Kemfj , j = 1, 2, 3 Back-emf constant of j-th reaction wheel motor, v/(r/s)
Knull Gain (scalar) for null space control loop, v/r/s
KRWj , j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel torque constant, Nm/a
KT Conversion of Tcmd to Vcmd, v/Nm
Lj , j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel motor winding inductance, Henries
Lg Gyro torquer winding inductance, Henries
NRW Null space matrix for reaction wheels
OAi, i = 1, 2, 3 Output axis for i-th gyro
r, dr/dt Command input and rate for gimbal 1, rad and r/s
Rj , j = 1, 2, 3 Armature resistance of j-th reaction wheel, Ohms
Ri, i = 1, 2, 3, 4 Op amp resistances, MOhms
Rg Armature resistance of gyro torquer, Ohms
SAi, I = 1, 2, 3 Spin axis for i-th gyro
TB Total reaction wheel control torque on xB axis, Nm
Tc Total reaction wheel control torque on gimbal 1, Nm
Tcmd Torque command from Gc(s), Nm
Tmax Maximum magnitude of a reaction wheels torque output, Nm
Tnull Null space control torque command, Nm
TRWj, j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel torque, Nm
T Gyro torquer output, Nm

u Disturbance torque on gimbal 1, Nm

VAj, j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel power amplifier output voltage, v
Vcj, j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel voltage from pseudoinverse, v
Vcmd Command voltage from compensation Gc(s), v
Vg Gyro power amplifier output voltage, v
Vi, i = 1, 2 Op amp output voltages, v
Vnullj, j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel null torque voltage, v
VRWj, j = 1, 2, 3 j-th reaction wheel total input voltage, v
V Angle sensor voltage to op amp, v
V Voltage proportion to rate gi, v
xA, xB Coordinate frame for gimbal 1 platform
g Gyro input axis offset angle, rad
l Reaction wheel torque axis offset angle, rad
Gimbal 2 angle, rad
i Gyro float angle, rad
dRWj/dt, j =1,2,3 Rotor angular rate of j-th reaction wheel, rad
y Gimbal 3 angle, rad
j, j=1,2,3 j-th reaction wheel torque axis, rad
b Gimbal 1 structural frequency, r/s
B Rate about xB axis, r/s
gi, i = 1, 2, 3 Measured rate from i-th gyro, r/s
max Maximum rate output from each gyro, r/s
RWj, j = 1, 2, 3 Frequency for j-th reaction wheel, r/s
T Autonomous star sensor frequency, r/s
b Gimbal 1 structural damping

Solution to 7.8.1:
Item Equations
Equations for j-th Reaction Wheel (Figure 7.8.1-1D)
Circuit VRWj IRWj Rj Lj dIRWj/dt Kemf dRWj/dt = 0
Torque Generated TRWj = KRWj IRWj
Reaction wheel dynamics JRWj d(dRWj/dt)/dt = TRWj
Rate-Integrating Gyro Equations (Figure 7.8.1-1B)
Float dynamics J d2 i /dt2 + B d i /dt = H dci/dt + T
Angle sensor V = k i
Op Amp #1 Lag-Lead V (1/R1 + C1 s) + V1 (1/ R2 + C2 s) = 0
V1 = V (R2/R1) (R1 C1 s +1)/(R2 C2 s +1)
Op Amp Lag V1/R3 + V2 (1/R4 + C3 s) = 0
V2 = V1 (R4/R3)/(R4 C3 s +1)
Gyro output gi = V2 k/H
Power Amp Vg = k g V 2
Circuit Vg Ig Rg Lg dIg/dt kemf d/dt = 0
Gyro torquer T = kT Ig
Dynamics
C(s)/Tc(s) (1/s) [1/(JG s) + {(KB/JG) s/( s2 + 2 bbs + b2)}]
Autonomous Star Sensor
HT(s) 1/(1 + s/T)
B. Reaction Wheels
1. Pseudoinverse and Null Space Matrix. The relationship of the individual reaction wheel torques to platform axes
is shown in Figure 7.8.1-1A and C. The reaction wheel torques on the platform in the xAxB coordinate frame are

T 1 1
c = 1 + cos l + cos l = 1 cos l cos l 2 = A 7.8.1-1
T 0 1 sin l 2 -sin l 3 0 sin l -sin l 2
B 3 3
The pseudoinverse is A = AT (A AT)1. Constructing the pseudoinverse

1 0
1+ 2cos 2 l
A A = 1 cos l cos l
T
cos l sin l =
0 7.8.1-2
0 sin l -sin l 0 2sin 2 l
cos l -sin l
7.8.1-3

1
0
1+ 2cos 2 l
2sin 2 l 0
1 cos l 1
A = 2sin 2 l cos l sin l (1+ 2cos 2 l ) = 7.8.1-4
2sin 2 l (1+ 2cos 2 l ) 1+ 2cos 2 l 2sin l
2sin l cos l -sin l (1+ 2cos l )
2 2
cos l 1
-
1+ 2cos 2 l 2sin l
The null space matrix is given by NRW = I3 AA.
1
0
1 0 0 1+ 2cos 2 l
cos l
N RW = 0 1 0 -
1 1 cos l cos l
2sin l 0 sin l -sin l
0 0 1 1+ 2cos 2 l

cos l 1
-
1+ 2cos 2 l 2sin l
1 cos l cos l

1+ 2cos 2 l 1+ 2cos 2 l 1+ 2cos2 l
1 0 0
cos l cos 2 l 1 cos 2 l 1 7.8.1-5
= 0 1 0 - + -
1+ 2cos l 2
1+ 2cos l 2 2 1+ 2cos 2 l 2
0 0 1
cos l cos 2 l 1 cos2 l 1
- +
2 2 2 2 2
1+ 2cos l 1+ 2cos l 1+ 2cos l

2 2 cos l
2cos l -cos l -cos l
1
1 -cos l
1 1
= 1 - 1 1
= 2 2 2 2 cos l - -
2
1+ 2cos l 1+ 2cos 2 l 2 2
1 1 1
-cos l -
2 2 2
condition that A NRW = 0.
The null space feedback voltages are given by
7.8.1-6

2. Reaction Wheel Signal Flow. The block diagram showing the flow from T cmd to Tc is shown in Figure 7.8.1-2.
Figure 7.8.1-2 Flow from Tcmd to Tc

The torque path for Figure 7.8.1-2 is redrawn as shown in Figure 7.8.1-3 assuming RWj >> n. The value for KT is
based on the average of the parameters KRWj and Rj for the 3 reaction wheels. Since the torque for the null space
control is limited to less than 0.1 T max per reaction wheel, there is 0.9 Tmax available per reaction wheel for control.
Reaction wheel #1 has the largest command capability (since for reaction wheels #2 and #3 cos l < 1). The
maximum control torque is
[Tcmd ]max = 0.9(1+ 2cos2 l )Tmax 7.8.1-7

Figure 7.8.1-3 Reaction wheel signal flow showing torque limits
denotes the torque command from the pseudoinverse.
3. Gyro Pseudoinverse. The relationship of the rates dc/dt and B about the xA axis and xB axis, respectively, to the
gyro output rates i, i=1,2,3 is given by
7.8.1-8
The pseudoinverse is given by G = (GT G)-1 GT.

7.8.1-9

1
2 2
0
T -1
(G G) =
1 2sin g 0 = 1+ 2cos g
2 2 7.8.1-10
2sin g (1+ 2cos g ) 0 1+ 2cos 2 g
1
0
2sin 2 g

7.8.1-11
4. Gyro signal flow through mounting matrix and pseudoinverse. The flow is shown in Figure 7.8.1-4.
Figure 7.8.1-4 Gyro signal flow (B path shown dotted)

The lag-lead transfer function is
V1(s) R R C s +1
= - 2 1 1 7.8.1-12
V (s) R1 R2C2s +1
The corresponding differential equation with the state variable V1 C1/C2 V is
7.8.1-13

The gimbal 1 control system elemental block diagram is in Figure 7.8.1-5.
Figure 7.8.1-5 Elemental Block Diagram for gimbal 1

D. State Equations.
7.8.1-5. Based on Figure 7.8.1-2 the control torque on gimbal 1, namely + T c, is given by
7.8.1-14
The reaction wheel dynamics are given by
7.8.1-15

The rigid body and structural mode equations are
7.8.1-16
The gyro float dynamics are given by (cross axis rate B assumed to be 0)
7.8.1-17
The gyro lag-lead equations are
7.8.1-18
The gyro lag equations are
7.8.1-19
The gyro torquer equations are
7.8.1-20

7.8.2 Compensation
Design the gimbal 1 control system for the system shown in Figure 7.8.2-1. The control system requirements are in
Table 7.8.2-1. The parameters are given in Table 7.8.2-2. The variability in parameter values is given in the table.
Table 7.8.2-1. System requirements
Requirement Gimbal 1 control system

1 Overshoot to a step command input 40%
2 Time to peak for step input command 0.8 sec
4 Residue of Low Frequency root to step input In range of 2% to 5%
5 Phase Margin 30
6 Gain Margins 6 dB
7 Track constant acceleration command input Steady state error = 0
8 Steady state error to a step disturbance u 0
9 Suppress structural mode peak value at b by 15 Set structural frequency b relative to your
dB below 0 dB axis design solution
10 Scan using profile in Figure 7.8.2-2 Parameters in figure
Figure 7.8.2-1 Gimbal 1 control system
Figure 7.8.2-2 Gimbal 1 velocity scan profile dr/dt

Design the gimbal 1 controller. Specify actuator and sensor parameters and structural mode frequency. Explain any
requirements you cannot meet as well as any derived requirements and assumptions you make in your design.
Wherever possible estimate or size the credibility of your design decisions and assumptions.
margin m, budgets, etc.); use a table-format to display results.

B. Determine the mathematical model and construct block diagram of your control loop including actuator and
sensor transfer functions given.
D. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the controller gain values and actuator and sensor
E. Evaluate in a table-format the expected performance of your design compared to the requirements. Discuss any
paper and straight-edge (ruler) for the rigid body system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on
same graph construct the phase lag for the system with values shown at the phase margin and gain margin
frequencies. Include in your graph the gain and phase of the actuator and sensor poles that you set based on
guidelines in Table 7.8.2-2, even if you assumed them to be ignorable in your initial synthesis of the compensation
in Part C. Your reasoning and approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
b. Determine the minimum allowable frequency b of the structural mode for your design consistent with Table
c. Estimate both the transfer function C(s)/R(s) and the response c(t) to a unit step command r(t) using the straight-
line Bode diagram and the value of phase margin. Construct the step response sketches using superposition of the
Low, Mid and High Frequency (including structural) components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required;
G. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper and straight-edge (ruler) for
|C(s)/(U(s)/JG)| considering rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required;
H. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the actuator and sensor time constants you set for
your design. Determine j-axis crossing via Rouths criteria using only low frequency and mid frequency poles and
zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root locus using the closed loop
estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F. Computer generated results not acceptable.
I. Provide the scan profile parameters in Figure 7.8.2-2 and reaction wheel sizing, T max, for your design to achieve
the value of Tc required.
J. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin

Table 7.8.2-2. Definition of gimbal 1 control system parameters

c, dc/dt Gimbal 1 angle and rate, rad and r/s, respectively
cm, dcm/dt Measured Gimbal 1 angle and rate, rad and r/s, respectively
D Scan profile parameter, r/s3 TBD
Gc(s) Frequency sensitive portion of compensation TBD
JG Inertia of gimbal 1 platform, Kg-m2 3%
K Compensation gain, v/rad TBD
KA Voltage gain of power amplifier, v/v 10%
KB Gain of x-axis fundamental (lowest frequency) structural mode 0.6
K*RW Gain of reaction wheel complement, Nm/v 5%
r, dr/dt Command angle and rate, rad and r/s
T Command profile time from zero to vscan, s 2
Tc Total reaction wheel torque on gimbal 1, Nm
Tmax Maximum torque per reaction wheel, Nm TBD
Tscan Scan profile constant rate time interval, s 400
TT Total torque on gimbal 1, Nm
u Disturbance torque, Nm; (Maximum value umax) umax
VA Power amplifier voltage, v
Vcmd Voltage command from compensation, v
vscan Scan rate, deg/s 4
A Power amplifier frequency, r/s TBD*
b Structural mode undamped natural frequency, r/s TBD**
G Gyro undamped natural frequency, r/s TBD*
RW Reaction wheel undamped natural frequency, r/s TBD*
T Autonomous star sensor frequency, r/s TBD*
b Structural mode damping ratio 0.005
G Gyro damping ratio 0.7
RW Reaction wheel damping ratio 0.6
lag from actuator and sensor is not to exceed 12.
** To be determined by designer to gain suppress structural mode peak value by 15 dB relative to 0 dB axis.

Solution to Problem 7.8.2.

undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the table if a Mid Frequency ("lead") zero is added to
compensate the system. The residue of the low frequency zero is set to range of 2% to 5% by choice of the location
(b n, b << 1) of the low frequency closed loop root; i.e., by setting the gain at the low frequency open loop zero in
the range 20 (26 dB) to 50 (34 dB). The plant shown in Figure 7.8.2-1 is Type 2.
Requirement Parameters without Parameters Adjusted Parameters Adjusted

Mid-Frequency Zero for Mid-Frequency for Mid-Frequency
Zero Zero and Residue
Mid Frequency
1. Damping Ratio, 0.28 0.46 0.52
(Overshoot 40%) (Overshoot 20%) (Overshoot 15%)
Phase margin = 31 Phase margin = 48 Phase margin = 53
2. Time to peak 0.8 n = 4.1 r/s n = 0.85*4.1 r/s 3.5 r/s
sec = 3.5 r/s
3. Settling time (2 %) n = 3.6 r/s (for = 0.28)
4 sec
5. Phase Margin 30
Low Frequency
4. Residue of Low Gain at the low frequency open loop zero in range of 20 (26 dB) to 50 (34 dB).
Frequency Pole between
2% and 5%
7. Zero steady state Closed loop match coefficients of right and left hand side of the closed loop
error to a constant differential equation up through d2/dt2; i.e., a type 3 system with 1/s3 in the
acceleration input open loop transfer function. (use PID).
8. Zero steady state Integral control -> also implies a PID controller
error to a constant
torque disturbance u
High Frequency
9. Suppress fundamental Frequency b set relative to design solution.
mode at b by 15 dB KB = 0.6; KB/(2 ) = 0.6/(2*0.005) = 60 (36 dB)
below 0 dB axis Therefore rigid body Bode gain diagram must be at least 51 dB (15 + 36) below
0 dB axis at b, i.e., rigid body Bode diagram gain 51 dB at b.
Controlled by Budget
10. Scan Profile Profile timing and choice of reaction wheel torque; see section I
Tracking
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant, C(s)/TT(s), is Type 2 of the form 1/s2. A PID network
is used to meet requirements 7 and 8, making the overall system Type 3.
1 1 K s
C(s) = + B T (s) 7.8.2-1
s J G s J G s2 + 2 s + 2 c
b b b

The control system block diagram is shown in Figure 7.8.2-3.
Figure 7.8.2-3 Block diagram of gimbal 1 control loop with PID controller and mode
The control signal Vcmd(s) is given by
7.8.2-2
The control torque Tc(s) is

*

K K
Tc (s) = A RW
Vcmd (s)
s 2
7.8.2-3
s s
+1 + 2 RW +1
A 2 RW
RW

1. Ignore the structural mode for the initial design. The structural mode frequency b is selected once the initial
2. The reaction wheel and power amplifier frequencies A and RW are selected to provide less that 3 to 5
phase shift at n (See phase lag budget in Table 7.8.2-4). These phase terms are added to the phase margin
requirement at n (See Table 7.8.2-5). Hence, the power amplifier and thruster-drive are represented by the gains K a
and KF, respectively.
3. The star sensor and gyro transfer function frequencies A and G are to be selected to provide a phase shift of
3 at n; hence the sensor transfer functions are represented as 1.
1 k 1
C(s) = k D { sR(s) - sC(s)} + k p + i ( R(s) - C(s)) + U (s) 7.8.2-4
2 s J s 2
s G
or
k D s2 + k p s + ki s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 7.8.2-5
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki (
J G s + k D s 2 + k p s + ki
3
)

The open loop transfer function C(s)/E(s), where E(s) = R(s) C(s) and U(s) = 0 is
k k
2 ki D s2 + p s +1
C(s) k s + k p s + ki ki ki
= G(s) = D = 7.8.2-6
E(s) s3 s3
The gain Bode gain is ki. This is the Jerk error constant.
error to a step disturbance input. It provides zero steady state error in tracking an acceleration input. The simplified
block diagram (ignoring structural mode and actuator and sensor time constants) of the system with a PID controller
and rigid body dynamics is shown in Figure 7.8.2-4.
Setting Gains. The position, integral and derivative gains are selected such that the PID controller creates a Mid
Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as idealized in Figure 7.8.2-5. The amount the Low Frequency root at b
n moves the actual Mid Frequency poles and zero from their idealized values is a function of the value of b. The
larger the value of b, the greater the effect of the low frequency root on the step response.
Figure 7.8.2-5 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)
Using the approach described in Control System Synthesis, Section 7.6.4, specifically starting with equation 7.6.4-
27, the gains are defined as
k p = n2 ; k D = 2 n ; ki = b n 7.8.2-7
The exact open loop transfer function is
2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3
G(s) = 7.8.2-8
s3

s s

s s b n +1 n +1
b n3 +1 ( +1) 1 b
n n b n
2 n (s + )(s + b n ) 2
2 2
Gapprox (s) = = = 7.8.2-9
s3 s3 s 3

n
The straight-line gain versus frequency sketch in Control System Synthesis(Figure 7.6.4-11) is shown below as
Figure 7.8.2-6. Based on the residue of the Low Frequency root being in the range of 2% to 5%, the straight-line
open loop Bode diagram gain of 1/b 2 at the open loop zero at b n is used to set the gain in the range of 50 to 20,
respectively. Since this yields only an approximation for the value of the residue, the gain is initially set toward the
upper value for the initial design, namely 50 (36 dB), to ensure the residue is less than 5%.
Figure 7.8.2-6 Straight-line gain vs. frequency for Gapprox(s); (Section 7.6.4, Figure 7.6.4-11)
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the reaction wheel and
sensors are tabulated in Table 7.8.2-4. Each source is allocated 3 of phase lag at n = 3.5 r/s.
Autonomous Star Sensor. Since it is described by a single time constant, the phase lag at the frequency T is given
by tan 1 n/T = 3, hence T ~ 19 n r/s = 67 r/s.
Power Amplifier. Since it is described by a single time constant, the phase lag at the frequency A is given by tan 1
n/A = 3, hence A ~ 19 n r/s = 67 r/s.
Gyro. Since the gyro is described by a quadratic transfer function, the frequency G (with G = 0.7) is

2 n
G r r
tan-1 G = 3 ; G ~ 27 n = 94 7.8.2-10
2 s s

1- n
G g =0.7
n =3.5
Reaction Wheel. Since the reaction wheel is described by a quadratic transfer function, the frequency RW (with
RW = 0.6) is


2 n
RW r r
tan -1 RW = 3 ; RW ~ 23 n = 80 7.8.2-11
2 s s

1- n
RW RW =0.6
n =3.5
Since both the gyro and autonomous star sensor contribute the same phase lag, 3, at n, 3 is used for the
sensor in Table 7.8.2-4. The margin term in the budget accounts for unk-unks in the synthesis process.
Table 7.8.2-4 Estimate of phase lag due to sensor and actuator
Source Allocated phase lag Parameter Value

Power amplifier frequency 3 A = 67 r/s (19 n)
Reaction wheel 3 RW = 80 r/s (23 n)
Sensor 3 G = 94 r/s (27 n)
T = 67 r/s (19 n)
Estimate of Total Phase Lag (sum) 12
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 12 for the phase lag in Table 7.8.2-4. Thus the
determined in Table 7.8.2-3 is modified as shown in Table 7.8.2-5.
Table 7.8.2-5 Modification of value for (Both include 5% for residue of Low Frequency root)
Mid Frequency
Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin ~ 47 Modified phase margin ~ 65
Modified ~ 0.66 Modified ~ 0.7
(Overshoot 35% [35] + 12) (Overshoot 15% [53] + 12)
r 1
= 0.7 ; n = 3.5 ; = 50 b = 0.1414 7.8.2-12
s b2
Figure 7.8.2-7 incorporates these numbers into the straight-line gain diagram in Figure 7.8.2-6. Based on only the
PID transfer function, the lowest frequency, b, at which the structural mode can be placed, is give by
51
4.9 - r
= 10 20 b = 1739 or 497 n 7.8.2-13
b s
The addition of the sensor and actuator transfer functions will reduce this frequency value. The result also indicates
that an additional filter might be added above n, e.g., one that contributes approximately a phase lag of 3 at n,
to cause the gain to roll off at a faster rate.

Figure 7.8.2-7 Sketch of straight-line gain diagram (Note: gain values are in the log of the gain, not in dB)
Evaluating the gains
k p = n2 = 3.52 = 12.25 ; k D = 2 n = 2 (0.7) 3.5 = 4.9 ; ki = b n3 = 0.1414 (3.53 ) = 6.063 7.8.2-14
The closed loop poles and zero based on the approximate and exact closed loop transfer function
k k
2
k D s + p s + i
C(s) k D s + k p s + ki k D k p
= ~ 7.8.2-15
R(s) s3 + k s2 + k s + k k
D p i
( )
s2 + k D s + k p s + i
kp
are tabulated in Table 7.8.2-6.
Table 7.8.2-6 Approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros

(n = 3.5, = 0.7) (n = 3.1, = 0.69)
0.5 0.636
Figure 7.8.7-8 shows the system with the gains determined above. The command values are obtained from the
command generator profile discussed in Section I.
Figure 7.8.2-8 Block diagram of simplified PID control system

The exact open loop transfer function is

k D s 2 + k p s + ki 4.9s2 +12.25s + 6.063

G(s) = =
s3 s3
s s 7.8.2-16
1.823 +1 +1
4.9(s + 0.68)(s +1.82) 0.68 1.82
= =
3
s s3
The first transfer function is in root locus form, the second in Bode form.
Low Frequency Residue. The approximate estimate of the residue is 1/50, or 2%. The Low Frequency residue
requirement is verified based on the residue of the low frequency pole using the exact root values in Table 7.8.2-6.
4.9(s + 0.68)(s +1.82)
Residue = = 0.035 7.8.2-17
s2 + 2(0.69)3.1s + 3.12 s=-0.636
The residue is 3.5% instead of the 2% estimated in the initiation of the design. This number is within the 2% to 5%
range.
Mid Frequency Region. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on Figure 7.8.2-6 are
y = cos-1 = cos-1 0.69 = 46.4
3.1 3.1
L1 = n = = 1.55 ; L2 = n 1- 2 = 1- 0.69 2 = 1.63 7.8.2-18
2 2 2 2(0.69)
0.69
= tan-1 = tan-1 = 44
2
1- 1- 0.69 2
Note that alpha () only depends on for the idealized second order system. Figure 7.8.2-9 indicates that the
overshoot is 20% and n tp = 2.2, estimating the time to peak tp = 0.63 s.
Figure 7.8.2-9 Evaluation of 2nd order mid frequency response

when the Bode gain-phase diagram is drawn.


1. Overshoot 40% 23.5% (estimate 3.5% for low
without Hi frequency residue
Frequency Terms and 20% for Mid
that are expected to Frequency; effect of
be small) Hi Frequency terms
Comply still to be evaluated
2. Time to peak 0.8 sec 0.63 sec (estimate) Fig 7.8.2-8
Comply n tp = 2.2
3. Settling time (2 %) 4 sec, 1.9 sec (estimate) Based on
based on 4/( n) Comply 4/(069*1)
4. Residue of Low Frequency pole 3.5% Equation 7.8.2-17
between 2% and 5% Comply
7. Zero steady state error to a Comply Type 3 system
acceleration input
force disturbance
F. Bode gain and phase diagram. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure
7.8.2-10 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions. The gyro and star sensor feedback transfer
functions are different, but both were set for 3 of phase lag at n. The question arises as to which transfer
function, HG(s) or HT(s), to use for the high frequency region.
Figure 7.8.2-10 Gimbal 1 block diagram with actuator and sensor transfer functions
Determination of High Frequency Sensor Transfer Function for Bode Diagram Usage. Two viewpoints are
presented. First, based on Figure 7.8.2-10 the feedback component of the PID control, T PID, signal is examined with
r(t) = dr(t)/dt = 0.
k
TPID = -k D H G (s)s + k p + i HT (s)C(s)
s
s
+1 s
k +1
i 6.063
k 7.8.2-19
= -
k D s
+ ki
p C(s) = - 4.9 s
+ ki
12.25
C(s)
s2 2 s
s s s s s +1
2 + 2 G +1 s +1 + 2(0.7) +1
G G T 942 94 67


Figure 7.8.2-11 is a log-log sketch of the magnitude of T PID. Note that in the High Frequency Region, i.e., >> n,
the derivative path dominates the feedback. As a point of reference, based on Figure 7.8.2-7 it was estimated that
with the PID the frequency at which the mode was suitably suppressed was = 1739 r/s. Figure 7.8.2-11 shows the
gain of the derivative and proportional-integral paths are 0.27 and 7.2x10 3, respectively, at this frequency.
Figure 7.8.2-11 Sketch of TPID

The second viewpoint is analysis of the closed loop relationship for C(s). The power amplifier, reaction wheel
transfer and structural mode functions do not affect the choice of the dominate feedback transfer function, therefore
assume for this investigation that GA(s) = GRW(s) = Gs(s) = 1. Based on Figure 7.8.2-10
1 k
C(s) = k D s ( R(s) - H G (s)C(s)) + k p + i ( R(s) - HT (s)C(s))
s2 s
7.8.2-20
=
1
s3
(k Ds
2
)
+ k p s + ki R(s) -
1
s3
(k D H G (s) s
2
)
+ k p HT (s) s + HT (s) ki C(s)

k Ds2 + k p s + ki
C(s) s3
=
R(s) k H (s)s 2 + k H (s)s + H (s) k
1+ D G p T T i
7.8.2-21
s 3

=
s3 + k D H G (s)s 2 + k p HT (s)s + HT (s) ki
The characteristic equation is

k H (s)s2 + k H (s)s + H (s) k
1+ D G p T T i
= 1+ GOL (s)H OL (s) = 0 7.8.2-22
s 3

The open loop transfer function derived from the characteristic equation is

k D H G (s)s 2 + k p HT (s)s + HT (s) ki

GOL (s)H OL (s) =
s3
k D s2 (k p s + ki )
+ 2
s 2
s s s s s
+ 2 G +1 +1 k D s 2 +1 + (k p s + ki ) + 2 G +1
G T T 2 G
G2 G
= = 7.8.2-23
s3 2
s s s
s3 + 2 G +1 +1
2 G T
G
k k 2 k k 2k
s3 D + p + s 2 k D + G p + i + s k p + i G + ki
2 G G2 G
T G
=
2
s s s
s3 + 2 G +1 +1
2
G T
G
The numerator has 3 roots. Two zeros are the Low and Mid Frequency zeros due to the PID. The high frequency
root is created by the feedback transfer functions HG(s) and HT(s). The High Frequency zero is given approximately
by the ratio of the coefficients of the s3 and s2 terms. Since G >> n terms with G can be neglected; the High
Frequency zero z can be approximated as
2 G k p ki
kD + +
G G2
z = ~ T 7.8.2-24
kD kp
+
T G2
Thus the open loop transfer function is approximately
7.8.2-25
The sensor transfer function used in the feedback path for the High Frequency region is the gyro transfer function
HG(s).
Accounting for Parameter Variability. The parameters KA, K*RW and JG have a gain tolerance as given in Table
7.8.2-2. The compensation gain JG /KA K*RW is set to the nominal value of these gains. The gain variation in the
open loop transfer function K G(s) H(s) is in the range
J J
G G
K K* K K*
0.97 A RW actual 1.03 A RW actual
< ; or 0.84(-1.5 dB) < 1.2(1.6 dB) 7.8.2-26
1.1(1.05) J 0.9 (0.95) J
G G
K K* K K*
A RW nominal A RW nominal
This range is bounded by 1.6 dB. The 6 dB requirement for gain margin in Table 7.8.2-1 is augmented to a
design-to value of 7.6 dB using nominal gains to account for the gain variation.
Open Loop Transfer Function. The open loop transfer function K G(s)HG(s) relating C(s) and R(s) that includes the
structural mode is

s s s2 s
1.823 +1 +1 (1+ K B ) + 2 b +1
0.68 1.82 b2 b
K G(s)H G (s) =
s2 s s s2 s s2 s
s3 + 2 G +1 +1 + 2 G +1 + 2 b +1
2 G A RW 2 RW b2 b 7.8.2-27
G
4.9 G2 A RW (s + 0.68)(s +1.82) (1+ K B )s2 + 2 b bs + b2
=
( ) (
s3 s 2 + 2 GG s + G2 ( s + A ) s2 + 2 RW RW s + RW
2
) s2 + 2 b bs + b2
The first form is the Bode form, the second the root locus form. b is determined from the rigid body Bode gain
diagram by finding the frequency at which the mode is suppressed by at least 51 dB. The rigid body transfer
function used is
s s
1.823 +1 +1
0.68 1.82
K G(s)H G (s) =
2 2
s s s s s
s3 +1 + 2 RW +1 + 2 G +1
A 2RW RW 2
G
G 7.8.2-28
4.9 A RW G2 (s + 0.68)(s +1.82)

=
(
s3 ( s + A ) s2 + 2 RW RW s + 2RW ) ( s + 2 s + )
2
G G
2
G
where G = 94, A = 67, RW = 80.

The Bode gain diagram is constructed starting at the Low Frequency region with 1.823/s3 which intercepts the 0 dB
axis at 1.82 r/s. To assist in constructing the Bode gain diagram the straight-line gain value of K G(s) H(s) in
decibels is calculated at the open loop gain poles and zeros as shown in Table 7.8.2-8. Additional items of interest
can be calculated from the straight-line approximation and are summarized in Table 7.8.2-9. The latter table shows
that the straight-line crosses the 0 DB axis at 1.08 r/s and the minimum possible structural frequency s is 28.3 r/s.
The value of 0.59 r/s is used when the Mid Frequency characteristic is determined from the Bode gain diagram. The
gains at the open loop zero at 0.0125 r/s and poles at 17 r/s and 18 r/s are used in determining the approximate
residues and closed loop pole locations.


(linear value)
Minimum graph frequency, 1.823 167
0.01 r/s 20log
3
=0.01
Zero at 0.68 r/s 1.823 25.7
20log (19.3)
3
=0.68
Zero at 1.82 r/s 1.823 8.6
20log

3
0.68 =1.82
20log (7.3x102)
3 0.68 1.82
=67
Quadratic pole at 80 r/s 1.823 67 25.8
20log
(5.1x102)
0.68 1.82 =80
3
Quadratic pole at 94 r/s 1.823 67 802 31.4

20log (2.7x102)
2
0.68 1.82 =94
3
Maximum graph frequency, 1.823 67 802 942 155

1000 r/s 20 log
2
0.68 1.82 =1000
3 2

0 dB intercept of 3 r/s
1.823
40 dB/dec slope =1
3 0.68
0 dB intercept of straight- 4.9 r/s
1.82 3
3 0.68 1.82
Frequency b at which 51 137 r/s
straight-line approximation 1.823 67 802 942 -
= 10 20
is 51 dB 3 0.68 1.82 2 2
Figure 7.8.2-12 is the straight-line Bode gain diagram. The Bode gain diagram is corrected for exact gain by using
the single pole/zero gain correction of 3 dB at the break frequency and 1 dB an octave above and below the break
frequency. The corrected gain diagram along with the arctangent Bode ruler is in Figure 7.8.2-13. The Bode ruler is
placed to 5.2 r/s, the 0 dB crossover frequency, to measure the phase, and therefore determine the phase margin,
based on the open loop poles and zeros.
The phase angle is positive (+) for zeros and negative () for poles. For < 80 r/s the phase can also be calculated
using
7.8.2-29
When > 80 r/s or > 94 r/s, 180 must be added to above equation to account for quadratic phase.

Note that the phase lag contributed by the quadratic poles as measured by the Bode arctangent ruler are slightly in
error as the measurement is correct only if = 1. The phase calculated at the gain crossover frequency is shown in
Figures 7.8.2-13 and 14 and tabulated in Table 7.8.2-9.

Table 7.8.2-9 Phase margin contributors (0 dB crossover frequency: c = 5.2 r/s)

Phase Bode ruler+
3
1/s term* 3 ( 90) 270 270
Zero at 0.68 arctan (5.2/0.68) 82.5 82.5
Zero at 1.82 arctan (5.2/1.82) 70.7 70.5
Reaction Wheel arctan (2 (0.6) (52/0)/(1 (52/0)2)) 4.5 2 (3.7) = 7.4**
Gyro 2
arctan (2 (0.7) (52/9)/(1 (52/9) )) 4.4 2 (3.1) = 6.2**
Phase lag = 130.1
Phase Margin = 49.9 ***
+ Difference in calculated and measured is accuracy in drawing Bode curves and roundoff.
** Bode arctangent ruler considers quadratic root as having a G = RW = 1.
*** Phase margin corresponds to = 0.48 and an overshoot of 18% based on the standard 2 nd order system. Based
on Figure 7.8.2-6 for 2nd order system with Mid Frequency zero the overshoot value is 20%; this value is used as
estimate for the overshoot.

Table 7.8.2-10 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin Nominal Gains

Phase Margin 5.2 r/s 50
Low frequency gain margin 1.18 r/s 19 dB
High frequency gain margin 32.8 r/s 17 dB
The effect of the 1.6 dB gain variation are illustrated using the Bode gain and phase diagram in Figure 7.8.2-15.
The gain crossover frequency, c, and phase and gain margins are tabulated in Table 7.8.2-11. The phase margin
change is small thus preserving the response time and overshoot to a step input.

Figure 7.8.2-15 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating the effect of 1.6 dB gain variation
Table 7.8.2-11 Effect of gain variations on crossover frequency, phase margin and gain margin (all data
include thruster time delay)
Gain Variation Gain Crossover Phase Low Frequency High Frequency

Frequency, c Margin Gain Margin Gain Margin
1.6 dB 4.5 r/s 48 17.8 dB 19 dB
0 (nominal value) 5.2 r/s 50 19 dB 17 dB
+ 1.6 dB 6 r/s 51 20.5 dB 16 dB
open loop zeros and high frequency open loop poles. The Bode diagram factors GH/(1+GH). Thus, C(s)/R(s) =
[1/H(s)] [G(s)H(s)/(1+G(s)H(s))]. The complex closed loop poles and zeros due to H(s) essentially cancel and have
little effect on the transient response. Estimates of closed loop values are tabulated in Table 7.8.2-12.

Low frequency zero at 25.7 dB ~0.05 0.068 (1 0.05) ~ 0.065 r/s
0.068 r/s (19.3) (Time constant ~ 15 s)
Pole at 67 r/s 22.7 dB + 0.073* 67 (1 0.073) ~ 62 r/s
(0.073) (0.016 s)
Quadratic poles at 80 r/s 25.8 dB 0.058* 80 (1 + 0.058) ~ 85 r/s**
(0.058) Closed poles do not move far
from closed loop zeros
Quadratic poles at 94 r/s 25.4 dB 0.027* 94 (1 0.027) ~ 91.5 r/s**
(0.027) Closed poles do not move far
from closed loop zeros.
* A worst-case estimate of the magnitude of the effective high frequency residue is to add the residue estimates,
yielding ~ 0.16.
** Based on the root locus complex pole angle of departure. See Figure 7.8.2-20.
32 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.8.2-30
2 1.82
s
The estimate for the mid-frequency region is

s s
32 +1 +1
C(s) 1.82 1.82
= = 7.8.2-31
R(s) mid 32 s 2 2(0.82)
s2 + s + 32 + s +1
1.82 32 3
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) using = 0.82 for the mid-frequency region damping and
correcting the transfer function GH(s)/(1 + GH(s)) obtained from the Bode diagram by 1/HG(s) is
s s s 2 s
+1 +1 + 2(0.7) +1
C(s) 1 1 2 94
= 0.68 2 1.82 94 7.8.2-34
R(s) s +1 s 2(0.82) s +1 s 2 s s 2 s
0.65 32 + 3 s +1 62 85 2 + 2(0.6) 85 +1 91.5 2 + 2(0.7) 91.5 +1
The estimated residue for the low frequency dipole term is 0.05, i.e., 5%, for a unit step input command. Instead of
5%, the value of 3.5% obtained in evaluating the residue in equation 7.8.2-17 is used in sketching the low frequency
step response. The estimated time constants of the High Frequency roots are in the range of 0.015 s to 0.02 s. The
sketch of the unit step response is shown in Figure 7.8.2-17 illustrating the Low, Mid and High frequency estimates.
The Mid-Frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.8.2-7 and starts at t = 0 with a
negative value to balance the Low and High Frequency residues.

C. The minimum frequency for b is determined from Figure 7.8.2-18. Using the 1.6 dB straight-line gain
variation characteristics, a worst-case value of b 133 r/s is obtained. Considering the exact gain characteristics,
this minimum value is 130 r/s.
Figure 7.8.2-18 Determination of minimum structural frequency b

G. Bode gain and phase diagram for C(s)/(U(s)/JG). The closed loop transfer function is determined from the
block diagram in Figure 7.8.2-10 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions G A(s) and HG(s),
respectively. Only the rigid body transfer function is considered, i.e., the plant is G RB(s) = 1/(JG s2).
The equation relating U(s) and C(s) is
C(s) GRB (s)
= 7.8.2-35
U (s) 1+ KGc (s)G A (s)G RW (s)G RB (s)H G (s)

1
KG (s)G (s)G (s)H (s) ; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
J G (s)C(s) s= j
~ c A RW G s= j 7.8.2-36
U (s) s= j
GRB (s) ; K G(s)H (s) << 1
s= j s= j
or


s
; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
s s s= j
J G (s)C(s)
~ 6.063 0.68 +1 1.82 +1 7.8.2-37
U (s) s= j s= j
1
; K G(s)H (s) << 1
s= j
s2 s= j
Figure 7.8.2-19 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for C(s)/(U(s)/J G)
H. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.8.2-10 and the
rigid body equation 7.8.2-28 that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions.
s s
1.823 +1 +1
0.68 1.82
K G(s)H G (s) =
s
s 2
s s2 s
s3 +1 + 2(0.6) +1 + 2(0.7) +1
67 802 80 942 94 7.8.2-38
4.9(67)(802 )(942 )(s + 0.68)(s +1.82)

=
( )(
s3 ( s + 67 ) s2 + 2(0.6)80s + 802 s2 + 2(0.7)94s + 942 )
The last equation is in root locus form with a fixed root locus gain of KRL ~ 1.857x10+ 10. The root locus is drawn
using a variable KRL gain
K RL (s + 0.68)(s +1.82)
K G(s)H G (s) = 7.8.2-39
( )(
s3 ( s + 67 ) s2 + 2(0.6)80s + 802 s2 + 2(0.7)94s + 942 )
K G(s)H (s) K (s + 0.68)(s +1.82)

G = RL 7.8.2-40
simple
s3

The closed loop roots for the simple model occur when the value of KRL = kD = 4.9. Since the sensor and actuator
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 67, 48 j 64, 65.8 j 67.1
3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.068, 1.82 to 67
2k +1
4. Angle of asymptotes: -180 = 30,90150
8-2
-67 - 2(48) - 2(65.8) + 0.68 +1.82
= -48.6
8- 2
5. C.G. of asymptotes:

frequencies
only
d G(s)H(s) -3s2 (s + 0.68)(s +1.82) + s3(2s + 2.5)
=
ds K RL s6
-s 2 (s + 0.907)(s + 4.09)
=
s6
8. Angle of departure from reaction wheel -1 64
complex pole 180 - tan
48 - 0.68

64
+ 180 - tan -1
48 -1.82
48
- - 390 + tan -1 - 90
64
64 -1 64 + 67.8
- tan -1 - tan
67 - 48 65.8 - 48
67.8 - 64
-360 + tan -1 = (2k +1)180
65.8 - 48
= -182

8. Angle of departure from gyro complex -1 67.1

poles 180 - tan
65.8 - 0.68
67.1
+180 - tan-1
65.8 -1.82
65.8
- - 3 90 + tan-1 - 90
67.1
67.1
- tan -1
67 - 65.8
65.8 - 64
-90 - tan-1
67.1+ 64
65.8 - 48
-90 - tan-1 = (2k +1)180
67.1- 64
= -42
values

KRL = 0.495 and s = j 1.1
Using the simple model of the control system, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 4.9. The low
frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (4.9/0.495) = 19 dB and agrees with the
value found using the complete model in Part F that included the high frequency open loop poles.

Figure 7.8.2-21 illustrates the scan profile and includes the acceleration and jerk profiles. The maximum
acceleration is D T. The value of D is given by
vscan
D=2 7.8.2-41
T2
The maximum value of D is when vscan = 4/s; Dmax = 2/s3. The maximum value of acceleration is Dmax T = 2 (2) =
4/s2 (0.07 r/s2).
The budget for the maximum value for total reaction wheel torque is in Table 7.8.2-15.
Table 7.8.2-15 Maximum required gimbal 1 torque
Item Allocation (Nm) Comment

1. Maneuver 0.07 JG Constant 1 s jerk pulses
2. Disturbance umax
2. Control system 0.035 JG + umax 50% of maneuver + umax
3. Null Space 0.1 Allocation
3. Margin 0.035 JG + umax 50% of maneuver + umax
Total Torque Ttotal 0.14 JG + 3 umax+ 0.1
Based on the projection factor of (1 + 2 cos2 l) in equation 7.8.1-7, the required torque for each reaction wheel
torque is Ttotal/(1 + 2 cos2 l).
Figure 7.8.2-21 Scan profile including acceleration and jerk

J. Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams, and, the

s s
1.823 +1 +1
0.68 1.82
K G(s)H G (s) = 7.8.2-42
s
s 2
s s2 s
s3 +1 + 2(0.6) +1 + 2(0.7) +1
67 802 80 942 94
7.9 Science spacecraft control system
7.9.1 Overview and Equations

The science spacecraft control system is shown in Figure 7.9.1-1. The user input driven command generator
provides the vector commands r(t) and dr(t)/dt, the 3-axes commanded angles and rates, for the control system. For
small angles the angle change about the axes is given by the vector [cx cy cz]T; although not part of the problem, for
large angles kinematic equations as shown in Control System Synthesis Appendix 5A are required to determine
angular orientation. The control system flow is summarized by the block diagram showing command inputs and
spacecraft feedback of angle and rate vectors c m(t) and dcm(t)/dt, respectively, as inputs to the designer-determined
error driven compensation G(s). The compensation output vector T cmd(t) is distributed by the pseudoinverse matrix
A to create the output vector CMG(t) to the back-to-back control moment gyros (CMGs). Note that there are three
CMGs back-to-back torque vectors in the x-y plane, 1, 2, 3, and 1 CMG back-to-back vector, 4, in the z-direction.
Figure 7.9.1-2 shows the dynamics for a typical back-to-back configured CMG between the output CMG_j(t) of the
pseudoinverse matrix A and the input cmg _ j(t) to the CMG mounting matrix A (Note: since the bandwidth of the
CMG is much greater than the bandwidth of the control loop: cmg _ j cmg _ j ).
The output torque Tcmd (t) and the disturbance torque u(t) are the input to the dynamics whose output is the rate vector
SC. Three rate sensors (gyros) and three angle sensors (star sensors) mounted on the spacecraft provide the
feedback vectors dcm(t)/dt and cm(t), respectively. The payload is attached to the spacecraft equipment section and
has the structural parameters KB_PL, PL and PL. The solar array is attached to the spacecraft equipment section and
has the structural parameters KB_SA, SA and SA.

Three pairs of back-to-back CMGs lie in the x-y plane and provide control torques 1, 2, 3 only in this plane. Two
of these pairs of back-to-back CMGs have torques vectors 1 and 2 that are off the y-axis by the angle g. One
additional back-to-back CMG pair provides a torque vector 4 along the z-axis.
The transfer function of each angle sensor and rate sensor are Hss(s) and HG(s), respectively, such that
cm(s) = Hss(s) c(s) and s cm(s) = HG(s) SC(s).
For the Science spacecraft control system:
A. Write the equations for the j-th CMG based on Figure 7.9.1-2 and the spacecraft dynamics.
B. 1. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix A corresponding to the mounting matrix for the x-y plane back-to-back
CMGs with torques vectors 1, 2, 3. Determine the null space matrix Ncmg for x-y plane back-to-back CMG and its
vector direction in CMG space.
2. For the x-y plane back-to-back CMGs draw the flow of the torque command vector T cmd through the
pseudoinverse and null space matrix, CMG dynamics with torque saturation, mounting geometry matrix A to the
output torque TCMG , and, spacecraft dynamics (including both the variable c(t) and dc(t)/dt as outputs). Include the
null space control loop with scalar gain vector Knull and Ncmg. (Note. The implementation of a CMG desaturation
control system is not considered at this time.)
C. Draw the elemental block diagram for the z-axis back-to-back CMG control system (no differentiators, one
element per block where possible). In your diagram use Gc(s) to denote the compensation. Include only the payload
structural mode in your diagram.
D. Write the state equations using the block diagram in Part C. Label the state variables in block diagram. Start
numbering with state variable x1 nearest the torque input command T cmd_j to the CMG. Only one CMG pair need be
considered as the others are similar.
Figure 7.9.1-1 Science spacecraft

Figure 7.9.1-2 j-th back to back CMG pair equivalent control loop


Symbol Definition
A, A CMG mounting and pseudoinverse matrices
ci, i = x, y, z Components of spacecraft (small) angle vector c, rad
dci/dt, i = x, y, z Components of spacecraft rate vector SC, r/s
cmi, i = x, y, z Measured components of spacecraft (small) angle vector c m, rad
dcmi/dt, i = x, y, z Measured components of spacecraft rate vector SC, r/s
C1, C2, C3 j-th CMG pair op amp capacitors, f
Gc(s) Compensation transfer function, Nm/rad
Hcmg Each CMGs angular momentum, Nms
HG(s) Gyro transfer function
Hss(s) Star sensor transfer function
icmg CMG current, amp
JSC, JES, JPL Spacecraft, equipment section-solar array and payload inertias, Kg-m2
Jcmg Inertia of each CMGs gimbal assembly, Kg-m2
kcmg j-th CMG torquer current to torque conversion, Nm/amp
kemf j-th CMG back emf constant, v/(r/s)
KB_PLi , i = x, y, z Components of spacecraft-payload structural mode coefficient KB_PL
KB_ SAi , i = x, y, z Components of spacecraft-solar array structural mode coefficient KB_ SA
Kdot j-th CMG pair gimbal rate to voltage conversion factor, v/r/s
Knull Gain vector for null space control loop, v/r
Ks j-th CMG pair gimbal rate to voltage conversion, v/r/s
Lcmg CMG torquer winding inductance, Henries
Ncmg Null space matrix for back-to-back CMGs in x-y plane
ri , i = x, y, z Components of command input vector r(t), rad
dri/dt, i = x, y, z Components of command input rate vector dr/dt, r/s
Rcmg CMG armature resistance, Ohms
Ri, i = 1, 2, 3, 4 Op amp resistances, MOhms
Tcmd_i , i = x, y, z Components of CMG control torque T cmd output by G(s), Nm
T cmd_i , i = x, y, z Components of CMG output torque based on mounting matrix A, Nm
u Components of disturbance torque vector u(t) on spacecraft, Nm
Va Equivalent j-th CMG pair power amplifier output voltage, v
Vi, i = 1, 2 Equivalent j-th CMG op amp output voltages, v
Vcmd Equivalent j-th CMG pair gimbal rate command voltage, v/r/s
V _ dot Equivalent j-th CMG pair gimbal rate feedback voltage, v/r/s
g Back to back CMG y-axis torque vectors 1 and 2 offset angle, rad
, , Back to back CMG pair gimbal rates, r/s
j, j = 1, 2, 3, 4 Back to back CMG pair gimbal angles, r/s

cmd Equivalent j-th CMG pair rate command, r/s
j , j=1, 2, 3, 4 j-th back-to-back CMG torque vector direction, Nm
cmg_j , j=1, 2, 3, 4 Pseudoinverse j-th back-to-back CMG torque vector command, Nm
cmg_j , j=1, 2, 3, 4 j-th back-to-back CMG torque vector output, Nm
gi , i = x, y, z Components of measured rate vector, dcm/dt, r/s
PL , i = x, y, z Components of spacecraft-payload structural frequency vector, r/s

SA , i = x, y, z Components of spacecraft-solar array structural frequency vector, r/s

SC Spacecraft rate vector, r/s
PL Spacecraft-payload damping vector, components PL_x, PL_y, PL_z
SA Spacecraft-solar array damping vector, components SA_x, SA_y, SA_z
Solution to 7.9.1
Item Equations
Equations for j-th CMG (Figure 7.9.1-2)
Command torque to gimbal = cmd_j/(2 Hcmg cos )
rate (one CMG in pair)
Gimbal rate to voltage Vcmd = Ks
Feedback gimbal rate to V_dot = Kdot
voltage
Op amp #1 Vcmd/R1 + V_dot/R1 +V1/Z0 = 0, 1/Z0 = 1/R2 +C1 s = (R2C1 s + 1)/R2
V1 = (Vcmd + V_dot) (R2/R1)/(R2C1 s + 1)
Op amp #2 1/Zi = 1/R3 +C2 s = (R3C2 s + 1)/R3, 1/Z0 = 1/R4 +C3 s = (R4C3 s + 1)/R4
V2 = (R4/R3) (R3C2 s + 1)/(R4C3 s + 1) V1
Power Amp Va = K a V 2
Circuit Va Icmg Rcmg Lcmg s Icmg kemf s = 0
Torque Generated Tcmg = kcmg Icmg
Reaction wheel dynamics Jcmg s2 = Tcmg
Spacecraft Dynamics
C(s)/TT(s), where (1/s) [1/(JSC s) + {(KB_PL/JSC) s/( s2 + 2 PL PL s + PL2)}
TT(s) = Tcmd (s) + U(s) + {(KB_SA/JSC) s/( s2 + 2 SA SA s + SA2)}]
The op amp #1 transfer function is

V1(s) R 1
= - 2
Vcmd (s) +V _ dot (s) R1 R2C1s +1 7.9.1-1
The corresponding differential equation is
7.9.1-2
The op amp #2 lag-lead transfer function is

V2 (s) R R C s +1
= - 4 3 2
V1(s) R3 R4C3s +1 7.9.1-3
The corresponding differential equation with the state variable V1 + C1/C2 V1 is
7.9.1-4
B. Back-to-Back Control Moment Gyros

1. Pseudoinverse and Null Space Matrix. The relationship of the back-to-back CMG torques to spacecraft axes is
shown in Figure 7.9.1-1. The CMG torques on the spacecraft in the xy coordinate frame are

T - 1 1
1

x = sin g + sin g + - 1 = sin g sin g
= A
T cos g 1 -cos g 2 0 3 cos g 2
2 7.9.1-5
- cos g 0
y

3 3
The pseudoinverse is A = AT (A AT)1. Constructing the pseudoinverse

sin g cos g
sin g sin g - 1 1+ 2sin 2 g 0
A AT = sin g
-cos g = 7.9.1-6
cos g - cos g 0 0 2
2cos g
-1 0
7.9.1-7
sin g 1

2 1+ 2sin 2 g 2cos g
2cos g sin g cos g (1+ 2sin 2 g )
1 sin g 1
A = 2
- cos g (1+ 2sin 2 g ) = -
2 2 2cos g sin g 1+ 2sin 2 g 2cos g 7.9.1-8
2cos g (1+ 2sin g )
- 2cos2 g
0 1
- 2
0
1+ 2sin g
The null space matrix is given by Ncmg = I3 AA.
sin g 1

1+ 2sin g 2 2cos g
1 0 0
sin g 1 sin g sin g -1
= 0 1 0 -
N cmg - 2cos g cos g
0 0 1 1+ 2sin 2 g -cos g 0

1
- 0
1+ 2sin 2 g

sin 2 g 1 1sin 2 g sin g
+ - -
1+ 2sin 2 g 1+ 2sin 2 g 2
2 1+ 2sin 2 g
1 0 0
sin 2 g 1 sin 2 g 1 sin g
= 0 1 0 - - + - 7.9.1-9
2 2 2
0 0 1 1+ 2sin g 2 1+ 2sin g 2 1+ 2sin g
sin g sin g 1
- -
1+ 2sin 2 g 1+ 2sin 2 g 1+ 2sin 2 l
1
1 1
sin g
2 2 2
=
1 1 1 = 1 1 1
2 sin l
1
1+ 2sin 2 g sin g 1+ 2sin 2 g 2 2
2 2 2

sin g sin g 2sin g 2
2 sin l

condition that A NRW = 0.
The null space feedback voltages are given by
Vnull = K null N cmg
1 1
V sin g
null1 2 2 1
K null
V = 1 1 2
null 2 1+ 2sin 2 g sin g
Vnull3 2 2 3
sin g sin g 2sin 2 g

7.9.1-10
1 1
V 1 + 2 + 3 sin g
null1 2 2
K null
V = K 1 1 ; Kn =
null 2 n 1 + 2 + 3 sin g 1+ 2sin 2 g
Vnull3 2 2
sin g - sin g + 2 sin 2 g
1 2 3

2. Back-to-back CMG pairs Signal Flow. Figure 7.9.1-3 is the block diagram showing the flow from Tcmd to the
spacecraft dynamics. Figure 7.9.1-4 illustrates the pair of back-to-back CMGs for the z-axis and shows the elemental
block diagram for the payload structural mode.
Figure 7.9.1-3 Flow from Tcmd through dynamics

C. Elemental Block Diagram for the z-axis control system

The spacecraft z-axis control system elemental block diagram is in Figure 7.9.1-4.
Figure 7.9.1-4 Elemental Block Diagram for z-axis control system

D. State Equations for z-axis Control System

7.9.1-4.
The CMG A dynamics are given by (Note: sat is saturation function with linear gain between T max)
7.9.1-11
The CMG B dynamics are given by (Note: sat is saturation function with linear gain between T max)
7.9.1-12
The rigid body and structural mode equations are
7.9.1-13
The angle sensor dynamics are given by
7.9.1-14

The rate sensor dynamics are
7.9.1-15
7.9.2 Pitch Axis Design. Compensation Designed Using the Straight-Line Bode Diagram method and
the Standard Form of the 2nd Order System for Mid Frequency Region
Design the spacecraft pitch axis control system using the block diagram shown in Figure 7.9.2-1 assuming the
pseudoinverse matrix is implied in obtaining the control torque. The control system requirements are in Table 7.9.2-
1. The parameters are given in Table 7.9.2-2. The variability in parameter values are given in the table.
Note:
Use design-to value of = 0.7 shown in Table 7.9.2-1 for Mid Frequency Region
Design-to value of n to be determined based on = 0.7 and Mid Frequency requirements
Using straight-line Bode diagram for standard form of the 2nd order differential equation for the Mid Frequency
region, shape straight-line portions of straight-line diagram for the Low and High Frequency Regions consistent
with requirements in Table 7.9.2-1 and your assignment of actuator and sensor parameters.
Design derived from the straight-line method is to be evaluated against requirements and is the basis for the
subsequent root locus, Nyquist and Bode diagrams.
Table 7.9.2-1 Control system requirements
Requirement Value
1 Track constant acceleration command input Zero steady state error
2 Track command inputs with frequencies up to 0.004 n Error 0.1%
3 Total Residue(s) of Low Frequency root(s) to step input 5%
4 Overshoot to a step command input Design-to = 0.7
5 Time to peak for step input command 0.2 sec
7 Phase Margin 30
8 Low and High Frequency Gain Margins 6 dB
9 Suppress structural mode peak value at 7 n 10 dB below 0 dB axis
10 Maneuver using profile in Figure 7.9.2-2 Maneuver 90 in 4 minutes.

Figure 7.9.2-1 Spacecraft control system
Figure 7.9.2-2 Spacecraft constant jerk pulse maneuver profile

Design the spacecraft controller using a straight-line gain Bode diagram. Specify actuator and sensor parameters.
Explain any requirements you cannot meet as well as any derived requirements and assumptions you make in your
design. Wherever possible estimate or size the credibility of your design decisions and assumptions.
A. Determine your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine system type, n, etc.); use
a table-format to display results.
B. Design a controller to meet requirements using Bode straight-line diagram using the standard form of the 2 nd
order differential equation for the Mid Frequency region. Draw both the open loop straight-line magnitude and
exact Bode magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper and straight-edge (e.g., ruler) for the rigid body
system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on same graph construct the phase angle for the system
with values shown at the Phase Margin and Gain Margin frequencies. Include in your diagram the gain and phase of
the actuator and sensor parameters that you assigned. Your reasoning and approximations to obtain diagram is
required; computer generated results not acceptable. Explain your design choice for the controller. Explain the
assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
1. Evaluate the gain margins and phase margin. For the phase margin use a table to show each source e.g., poles
2. Determine the attenuation of the structural mode for your design compared with Table 7.9.2-1 requirement.
3. Determine K Gc(s). Implement the compensation in terms of PID gains and Low and High Frequency filters, if
any.
C. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the controller gain values and actuator and sensor

D. Summarize in a table-format the expected performance of your design compared to the requirements. Explain
how you determined the expected performance. Discuss any requirements you cannot meet.
E. the rigid body unit step response using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components.
Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required; computer generated results not acceptable.
F. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper and straight-edge (e.g., ruler)
for |C(s)/(U(s)/JSC)| considering rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required;
G. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the actuator and sensor time constants you set for
your design. Determine j-axis crossing via Rouths criteria using the transfer function KG(s)H(s) without the
actuator and sensor poles and zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root
locus using the closed loop estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F. Computer generated results not
acceptable.
H. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
J. Provide the scan profile parameters in Figure 7.9.2-2 and CMG torque sizing, i.e., maximum value of T cmg, for
your design to achieve the value of Tcmd required.

Table 7.9.2-2 Definition of gimbal 1 control system parameters

c, dc/dt Spacecraft angle and rate, r and r/s, respectively
cm, dcm/dt Measured spacecraft angle and rate, r and r/s, respectively
Gc(s) Frequency sensitive portion of compensation TBD
GCMG(s) CMG transfer function
HG(s) Rate sensor transfer function
HSS(s) Angle sensor transfer function
J Jerk command amplitude, r/s3 TBD
JSC Inertia of spacecraft, Kg-m2 1 5%
K Compensation gain TBD
KB Coefficient of fundamental payload structural mode 0.32
KB * Coefficient of fundamental solar array structural mode 0.06
KCMG Gain of control moment gyro (CMG) complement, Nm/Nm 1 10%
KG Rate sensor gain, (r/s)/(r/s) 1 0.05%
KSS Angle sensor gain, r/r 1 0.1%
r, dr/dt Command angle and rate, r and r/s
T Total command profile time, s
Tcmd Total CMG torque command, Nm
Tcmg Total CMG torque on spacecraft, Nm
Ta Constant acceleration time interval, s TBD
TJ Constant jerk pulse time interval, s TBD
TR Constant rate time interval, s TBD
TT Total torque on spacecraft, Nm
u Disturbance torque, Nm; (Maximum value umax) umax
Angle sensor time delay, s 1/(600 n)
1, CMG CMG transfer function frequencies, r/s TBD*
b Payload mode undamped natural frequency, r/s 7
b* Solar array mode undamped natural frequency, r/s << 0.005

G Rate sensor transfer function undamped natural frequency, r/s TBD*
n Undamped natural frequency of std form of 2nd order system, r/s TBD*
SS Angle sensor transfer function frequency, r/s TBD*
b, b* Payload and solar array mode damping ratio 0.005
G Rate sensor damping ratio TBD*
RW CMG damping ratio TBD*
* To be determined by designer.

Solution to Problem 7.9.2

Note: The solution uses a normalized frequency s/n to illustrate that results scale with n.
Additions to Gain Margin Requirement. The gain variation due to parameter variations Kcmg Kcmg and JSC JSC
is
K cmg
1
0.9 K cmg 1.1
( 1.3 dB) (+ 1.3 dB) 7.9.2-1
1.05 J sc 0.95
1
J sc
The bounding value of 2 dB is used in the design.

The peak value of the payload structural mode is
KB 0.32
20 log = 20 log = 30 dB 7.9.2-2
2 2(0.005)
The solar array structural mode frequency b* is << 0.005 n thus it causes only a decrease in the High Frequency
gain margin (HFGM). The decrease is 20 log (1.06) = 0.5 dB. Other effects due to the slight solar array gain
increase at frequencies above the solar array frequency are not considered at this stage of the synthesis.
A. Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.9.2-3. The damping ratio, , is given. The residue
of the low frequency zero is set 5% by the designer setting the gain at the low frequency open loop zero(s). The
plant shown in Figure 7.9.2-1 is Type 2.
Requirement Mid-Frequency shaped by standard form of 2nd order system

Mid Frequency
4. Overshoot: Design-to (Information only: Associated Overshoot ~ 5%, Phase margin 65.
= 0.7 These values are not a requirement, but merely starting point for design. m and
associated for control system depends on resulting design)
5. Time to peak 0.2 n = 22 r/s
sec
6. Settling time ( 2 %) n = 2.9 r/s (for = 0.7)
2 sec
7. Phase Margin 30
8. Gain Margins 6 dB (Design-to value of 8 dB for the LFGM and 8.5 dB for the HFGM
thereby accounting for gain variations and solar array)
Low Frequency
3. Total residue of Low If a single Low Frequency: Gain at open loop zero 20 (26 dB); if two zeros:
Frequency root(s) 5% Gain at zeros 32 dB. (Design-to values of 28 dB and 34 dB accounting for
gain variations)
1. Zero steady state Closed loop: match coefficients of right and left hand side of the differential
error to a constant equation up through d2c/dt2 term; i.e., a Type 3 system with 1/s3 in the open
acceleration input loop transfer function.
2. Track command |G(j)| 1000 (60 dB) for 0 0.004 n. (Design-to value of 62 dB
inputs with frequencies accounting for the gain variations)
up to 0.004 n with
0.1% error

High Frequency
9. Suppress payload KB = 0.32; KB/(2 b = 0.32/(2*0.005) = 32 (30 dB)
fundamental mode at b Therefore, accounting for gain variations, rigid body Bode gain diagram must
= 7 n by 10 dB below be at least 42 dB (30 + 10 + 2 +0.5) below 0 dB axis at b, i.e., rigid body Bode
0 dB axis diagram gain 42.5 dB at b.
10. Maneuver Profile: Profile shaping and choice of CMG torque; see section I
90 in 4 minutes
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant, C(s)/TT(s), is Type 2 with an open loop transfer function
of the form 1/s2. To meet requirements 1 and 3 (in order to get sufficient Low Frequency tracking gain) a Type 3,
i.e., 1/s3 open loop transfer function, is needed.
K
1 1 s
C(s) = + B T (s)
7.9.2-3
s J sc s J sc s2 + 2 s + 2 cmg
b b b
The control system block diagram is shown in Figure 7.9.2-3. The partition of the compensation between PID and
Low and High Frequency filters is performed after derivation of the form of the compensation using the straight-line
method for determining K G(s).
Figure 7.9.2-3 Block diagram of spacecraft control loop with PID controller
1. Ignore the structural mode in sketching the Bode diagram for the initial design. The rigid body design is shaped
to provide the required 42.5 dB gain of the rigid body open loop gain |K G(j)| at b. Thus, the synthesis is
carried out relative to only the rigid body dynamics.
2. The CMG frequencies 1 and CMG are selected as 65 n and 40 n (with CMG = 1), respectively, to provide
approximately 0.6 and 2 phase shift, respectively, at n. Hence, the CMG transfer function is represented by
the gain KCMG KCMG within the bandwidth of the control system.
3. The rate sensor and angle sensor transfer function frequencies G (with G = 1) and SS are both selected as 40 n
so that they provide a phase shift of approximately 2 and 1, respectively, at n. The sensor transfer functions
are represented as 1 within the bandwidth of the control system.
The phase angle for the angle sensor time delay at n is 57.3/(600 n) ~ 0.1 and is insignificant; therefore not
considered further in design.
The simplified rigid body control system block diagram is shown in Figure 7.9.2-4.

Figure 7.9.2-4 Simplified rigid body block diagram

B. Synthesis of controller K Gc(s) using straight-line Bode diagram. A 1/s3 controller is selected to achieve
zero steady state error in tracking an acceleration input. This also enables the Low Frequency tracking requirement
to be meet.
Requirements on a Bode Diagram. The requirements in Table 7.9.2-3 are shown on a Bode gain diagram in Figure
7.9.2-5 using a normalized frequency axis /n. The normalized frequency /n = 1 corresponds to the bandwidth
frequency n. Certain key frequencies are also shown on the diagram with their corresponding un-normalized
frequencies, e.g., the structural mode at the normalized frequency /n = 7 is also shown as 7 n.
Construction of Mid Frequency Region. The form of the 2nd order system is
n 1
2 2
Gmid (s) = = 7.9.2-4
s s 1 s
s +1 +1
2 n n 2 n
The second expression is in the normalized frequency form using s/n. Since = 0.7, the 0 dB axis crossing is at
/n = 1/(2) = 0.714 and the open loop pole is at /n = 2 = 1.4 as shown in Figure 7.9.2-6. The Bode
arctangent ruler is shown with the indicator arrow set at /n = 0.714 allowing estimation of the phase
contribution of poles and zeros as they are added in the synthesis process.
Note that the pole at /n = 1.4 contributes about 27 of phase lag. The exact phase lag contribution at the gain
crossover frequency c is determined once the exact overall gain curve is obtain, but 27 is a good initial
approximation.
Either the Low or High Frequency region can be considered next as they are mutually independent.

Figure 7.9.2-5 Requirements on a Bode gain diagram
Figure 7.9.2-6 Mid Frequency straight-line gain diagram

Construction of Low Frequency Region. As shown in Figure 7.9.2-7 there is a 60 dB/dec slope starting at /n = 0
based on the Type 3 1/s3 Low Frequency transfer function. The tracking requirements can be achieved by
intersecting the Mid Frequency 20 dB/dec slope at /n = 0.012. This creates double zero values at /n = 0.012
(or = 0.012 n) providing a slight margin against both the tracking and residue requirements; the phase lead value
is relatively insensitive to slight variations in the location of the 2 zeros.
Figure 7.9.2-7 Addition of Low Frequency gain characteristic

Construction of High Frequency Region. As shown in Figure 7.9.2-8 there is a 60 dB/dec slope starting at /n =
7 based on the required 42.5 dB gain attenuation for the structural mode. The 40 dB/dec Mid Frequency slope is
intersected at /n = 2.6. The phase lag at /n = 0.714 is approximately 15.

Figure 7.9.2-8 Addition of High Frequency gain characteristic

Summarizing, the approximate estimate of the phase contributions is: 270 from 1/s3 term, + 178 from the 2
zeros, 27 from the Mid Frequency pole, 15 from the Hi Frequency pole, 3 from the CMG, and 2 from the
sensor. The estimated total phase lag is 139; the estimated phase margin is 41. These are acceptable values
compared to the phase margin 30 requirement. The exact phase margin value is determined by sketching the
exact gain and phase characteristics.
Figure 7.9.2-9 shows the exact gain characteristic and the gain crossover frequency of c/n = 0.63 (i.e., c = 0.63
n) and the phase margin is approximately 46.

Figure 7.9.2-9 K G(s) and associated Phase margin m

B 1. The phase margin contributors are shown in Table 7.9.2-4 based on Figure 7.9.2-9. The Low Frequency
gain margin (LFGM) and High Frequency gain margin (HFGM) are shown in Figure 7.9.2-10.
Table 7.9.2-4 Comparison of exact and estimated phase margin values
Phase Contribution Phase Contribution

Source
Estimated Value (Figure 7.9.2-7) Exact Values (Figure 7.9.2-8)
Type 3 system: 1/s3 slope 270 270
2 zeros + 178 + 178
Pole at 1.4 n 27 24
Pole at 2.8 n 15 14
CMG 3 2
Sensor (rate) 2 2
Total 139 134
Phase Margin, m 41 46

Figure 7.9.2-10 Low and High Frequency gain margins

B 2. Attenuation of structural mode. The exact gain at b/n = 7 (i.e., b = 7 n) is 44 dB compared to the
required value of 42.5 dB, which includes 2 dB for gain variation plus 0.5 dB Low Frequency solar array mode
gain increase.
B 3. Determination of K G(s) and compensation to terms of PID gains and Low and High Frequency filters. The
rigid body forward loop transfer function is
1 s 2

0.012 +1
0.0468 3 n
K G(s) = 7.9.2-5
s
1 s 2
1 s 1 s 2 s 1 s
+1 +1 + +1 +1
n 1.4
n 2.6 n 402 n2 40 n 65 n
The compensation is given by

G(s)
K Gc (s) = 7.9.2-6
G (s) G (s)
cmg p
K
cmg J SC
Evaluating
1 2 1 s 2
s
+1 +1
(0.0468 n ) 0.012 n = 0.0468 3 0.012 n
3
1
( n)
K Gc (s) =
s 1 s 1 s s 1 s 1 s 7.9.2-7
+1 +1 +1 +1
1.4 n 2.6 n 1.4 n 2.6 n
= ( PID) ( Mid and Hi Frequency filters)

k 2 1
D s + s +1
k ki
Manipulate into the form k p ki i
s
1 s 2 1 2
+1 s2 + s +1
3 3 0.012 n
2 2
3 3 0.012 n
0.012 n
0.0468 n = 0.0468 n 7.9.2-8
s s
Thus
0.012 k 1 41.667
ki = n = 0.006 n , D = kD = k p ki = 0.04683 n3 k p = 0.01708 n2 7.9.2-9
2 ki 0.012 2 2 n
n
Evaluating the gains for n = 22 r/s

41.667
k p = (0.01708) 3.52 = 8.268 ; k D = = 1.894 ; ki = 0.006 (22) = 0.132 7.9.2-10
22
There is no Low Frequency filter. The filters are
1
1 s 1 s 7.9.2-11
+1 +1
1.4 n 2.6 n
C. Block Diagram of Control System
Figure 7.9.2-11 shows the system with the gains determined above and n = 22 r/s. The command values are
obtained from the command generator profile discussed in Section I.
Figure 7.9.2-11 Block diagram of spacecraft control system

D. Comparison of Candidate Control System Against Requirements
Low Frequency Residue. The gain at the two zeros is 36 dB (63). The approximate estimate of the residue is, since
there are 2 zeros, 2/63, or 3%.Table 7.9.2-5 shows that Requirements are met. Capability against the requirements
such as phase margin and gain margins are obtained from the Bode gain-phase diagram. The 46 phase margin
leads to an estimate based on the 2nd order approximation of a value of = 0.43 and an associated 22% overshoot to
a step input. There is approximately and additional 3% added to the Mid Frequency component of overshoot based
on the tail due to the Low Frequency roots. For n = 22 r/s the estimated time to peak is 0.16 sec.
Table 7.9.2-5 Estimate of Requirements Compliance

1. Track constant acceleration Comply Type 3 system

command with zero steady state
error
2. Track command inputs with Comply Gain 64 dB
frequencies up to 0.004 n
(0.088 r/s) with error 0.1%
3. Total residue(s) of Low Frequency Comply Estimate ~ 3% based
roots(s) to step command 5% on 36 dB gain at two
between 2% and 5% zeros
4. Overshoot to step command Comply 25% (estimate); 22%
(accept what design yields) for Mid Frequency
and 3% for Low
Frequency tail
5. Time to peak for step command Comply 0.16 sec (estimate)
0.2 sec
6. Settling time ( 2 %) 2 sec, Comply 4/(4322 =
based on 4/( n) 0.42 s
7. Phase Margin 30 Comply 46
8. Low and High Frequency Gain Comply LFGM = 41.5 dB
Margins 6 dB HFGM = 12 dB
9. Suppress structural mode peak Comply Approximately
value at 7 n (154 r/s) 10 dB 12 dB suppression
below 0 dB axis
10. Maneuver using profile in Figure Comply Section 7.9.2 I
7.9.2-2
E. Sketch of rigid body unit step response

The estimated Low Frequency and High Frequency closed loop roots based on the straight-line Bode diagram are
summarized in Table 7.9.2-6. The sketch of the estimated unit step response based these roots and phase margin is
shown in Figure 7.9.2-12.

Figure 7.9.2-6 Estimate of Low and High Frequency closed loop roots
Open Loop Straight- Linear Residue Factor

Source line Gain Gain
Low 36 dB 63 2/63 = 0.03 2
Frequency (3%) s
+1
zeros at 0.012 n
=
0.012 n s s

0.012 1-1/ 63 +1 0.012 1+1/ 63 +1
n( ) n( )
s 2
+1
0.012 n
s s
+1 +1
0.0118 n 0.0121 n
High Frequency poles
Pole at 17 dB 1/7 1/7 = 0.141 1 1
2.6 n =
s s
+1 +1
2.6 n (1+1 / 7) 3 n
4 quadratic 87 dB 4.5x105 4.5x105 Same location as open loop transfer functions
poles at (negligible)
40 n
Pole at < 100 dB Negligible Same location as open loop transfer function
65 n

Figure 7.9.2-12 Sketch of unit step response

F. Bode gain and phase diagram for C(s)/(U(s)/JSC). The closed loop transfer function is determined from the
block diagram in Figure 7.9.2-11 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions G A(s) and HG(s),
respectively. Only the rigid body transfer function is considered, i.e., the plant is G RB(s) = 1/(JSC s2).
The equation relating U(s) and C(s) is
C(s) G RB (s)
= 7.9.2-12
U (s) 1+ KGc (s)GCMG (s)G RB (s)H G (s)

1
; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
KGc (s)GCMG (s)H G (s) s= j
J SC (s)C(s) s= j
~ 7.9.2-13
U (s) s= j G RB (s)
; K G(s)H (s) << 1
J SC s= j
s= j

or

s s
= ; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
J G (s)C(s) 2
s 2 s= j
~ (0.0468 n )3 s 1.09 +1
+1 7.9.2-14
U (s) s= j 0.012 n s= j 0.264 s= j

1
; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
s= j
s 2 s= j
The straight-line approximation for the disturbance is in Figure 7.9.2-13.
Figure 7.9.2-13 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for C(s)/(U(s)/J G)
G. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.9.2-11 and the
rigid body equation 7.9.2-5 (repeated below) that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions.
s 2
0.04683 +1
0.012 n
K G(s)H G (s) =
s2 2
s3 s s
s s
+1 +1 +2 +1 +1
n3 1.4 n 2.6 n 402 n2 40 n 65 n
7.9.2-15
s 2
+ 0.012
n
= 4.3115108
s2 2
s3 s s
s 2 s
+1.4 + 2.6 + 2 (40) + 40 + 65
n3 n n n2 n
n
The last equation is in root locus form with a fixed root locus gain of KRL = 4.3115x108. The root locus is drawn
using a variable KRL gain.
s 2
+ 0.012
n
K G(s)H G (s) = K RL 7.9.2-16
s 2 2
s3 s s
s 2 s
+1.4 + 2.6 + 2 (40) + 40 + 65
3
n n n 2
n n n

( s + 0.012 n )
2
K G(s)H (s) = k RL
s3 ( s +1.4 n ) ( s + 2.6 n )
G simple 7.9.2-17
Since the sensor and actuator poles are at a high frequency relative to n, the root locus near the origin based on the
simple model is assumed to be relatively unaffected by these poles for determining the locus for the low and mid
frequency regions.
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 1.4 n, 2.6 n, four real poles at
40 n, 65 n
2 The loci terminate at the zeros Two zeros at s = 0.012 n and 8 at
infinity.
3. Real axis loci 0 to 1.4 n, 2.6 n to 65 n
4. Angle of asymptotes: 2k +1
-180
10 - 2
= 22.5,67.5, 112.5, 157.5
(-65- 4(40) - 2.6 -1.4 + 2(0.012)) n
10 - 2
5. C.G. of asymptotes:
= - 28.6 n

frequencies
7. Real axis breakaway Based on the normalized frequency (i.e.,
s = s/n) low and mid frequency roots
d G( s)H ( s) d ( s + 0.012)2
=
ds K RL ds s 3( s +1.4)
- 2s 2 ( s + 0.037)( s + 0.69)( s + 0.012)
=
s 6
Breakaway at s = 0, 0. 69; breakin at s = 0.037 (other value for KRL < 0)
9. j axis crossover Using only the normalized frequency ( s =
s 2 s/n) low and mid frequency values
+ 0.012 ce = s 4 +1.4 s 3 + k RL s 2 + 0.024 k RLs
( s + 0.012)
2
n
k RL = k RL
s 3 s s 3 ( s +1.4 ) + 0.012 2 k RL
+1.4
n n

kRL = 0.00855 and s = j 0.012
Stable for kRL > 0.00855 (Low Frequency
region only; High Frequency region
stability depends on other poles of GH)

H. Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams, and, the
s 2
0.04683 +1
0.012 n
K G(s)H G (s) = 7.9.2-18
s2 2
s3 s s s s
+1 +1 +2 +1 +1
n3 1.4 n 2.6 n 402 n2 40 n 65 n

The designer selected jerk profile to meet the requirement that the system is to maneuver 90 in 4 minutes is shown
in Figure 7.9.2-16 and is used to size components. For smaller angles than 90 the jerk value J is decreased. For
angles greater than 90 there is a period of constant acceleration T a and constant velocity TR as shown in Figure
7.9.2-2.
Figure 7.6.2-16 Design-to maneuver profile for maneuver angle of 90

The acceleration is the integral of jerk, the rate is the integral of acceleration and angle is the integral of rate. Due to
symmetry, equal angle increments are gained in each of the 4 jerk pulse regions so only the first region need be
considered to obtain design values. The relationships at the end of the first period are
7.6.2-19
One-quarter of the angle, or 90/4 = 22.5, is accomplished in the first jerk period, therefore T J = 1 minutes, or 60 s.
The maximum value of J is Jmax = 22.5*6/603 = 0.000625 /s3 (1.09x10 5 r/s3). The corresponding maximum value
of acceleration and rate are 0.0375/s2 and 1.125/s, respectively.
The budget for the maximum value of pitch torque is in Table 7.6.2-8.

Table 7.6.2-8 Maximum Tcmd_y pitch torque value
Item Allocation (Nm) Comment

1. Maneuver 0.0375 JSC_y With no margin
2. Control system 0. 01 JSC_y ~ 25% of maneuver rate
3. Disturbance umax_y
4. Null space torque 0.005 JSC_y + ~ 10% of items 1 thru 3
0.1 umax_y
5. Margin 0. 03 JSC_y + ~ 50% of Items 1 thru 4
0.6 umax_y
Total Tcmd_y 0. 0825 JSC_y +
1.7 umax_y
Assumptions in determining the required maximum CMG torque: 1.) CMG bandwidth is much higher than that of
the control system (and therefore op amp filers are well above control system frequency), 2.) maximum value of
= max, where max is designer-selected to be in the range of 60 to 70, and 3.) using the signal flow in Figure
7.9.2-1-3, obtain
1 1 R R 1
Tmax = Tcmd _ y 2 4 K
a
k
2 sin g 2 H cmg cos max R1 R3 Rcmg
cmg 7.6.2-20
Appendix Verification
The roots are
Approximate Exact
Normalized Non-normalized Normalized Non-normalized
Low Frequency
0.0118 0.26 0.0107 0.235
0.0121 0.266 0.0139 0.307
Mid Frequency
n 1 22 0.9 19.8*
0.43 0.43 0.49 0.49*
Hi Frequency
3 66 3.09 68
* Estimated overshoot and time to peak based on 2nd order characteristics only is 17% and 0.18 sec, respectively.
The step response using normalized time nt is
- 0.442 nt - 0.442 nt
c(t) = 1- 0.926 e cos 0.784 nt - 954 e sin 0.784 nt
- 0.0107 nt - 0.0139 nt -3.09 nt
- 0.0515 e + 0.0876 e - 0.11 e
The non-normalized time response with n = 22 r/s is
c(t) = 1- 0.926 e- 9.72 t cos 17.24 t - 0.954 e- 9.72 t sin 17.24 t
- 0.0515 e- 0.235 t + 0.0876 e- 0.307 t) - 0.11 e(-68 t )
The comparison of the estimate of residues is: for Low Frequency, estimate = 2/63 = 0.0317, the exact = 0.0876
0.515 = 0.361 residual; for High Frequency, estimate = 0.14; exact = 0.11. The comparisons are good and useful for
guiding the synthesis process.

The step response in terms of non-normalized time is
Figure 7.9.2-17 Step response

The overshoot is 20% and the time to peak is 0.2 sec that meets requirements. The straight-line Bode approximation
tended to over estimate the overshoot and under estimate the time to peak but provided a good initial estimate of the
design. If it were desired to decrease the time to peak to provide design margin, increasing the design-to n and
would be indicated for the next iteration.

Control System Examples Index
INDEX
A Laplace transform
Approximation for the closed loop transfer function differential equation, solution of, 23, 27
position control system, 219 inverse transform, 25
Approximations for disturbance transfer function partial fraction expansion, 23
position control system, 222 springs, masses and dampers, 38
B state equations, solution of, 42
Bode diagram M
position control system, 210 Mathematical modeling
welding control system, 208 coupled spring, mass and damper system, 80
C electrical circuit, 81
Closed loop transfer function, 218 nodal current equations, 83
D position control system, 210
Differential equation spring, mass and damper system, 79
homogeneous solution, 13, 15 state equations for electrical circuit, 83
impulse response, 18 table control system, 87
particular solution, 14, 16 transfer function for electrical circuit, 84
second order, 13 voltage loop equations, 82
third order, 15 welding control system, 193
step and impulse inputs, 17 Mid Frequency region
total solution, 14, 16 position control system, 218
E N
Elemental block diagram Nichols diagram
electrical circuit, 81, 84 position control system, 220
spring, mass and damper system, 81 Nyquist Diagram
welding control system, 195 position control system, 221
Examples O
Chapter 5 Observer-controller
Elemental block diagram of electrical circuit, 81 full state feedback controller, 68
I partial state feedback, 72
Inner loop and outer loop controllers, 228 PID controller design, comparison with
Iteration of control design, 205 rotational control system, 64
L spring mass system, for, 42
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Control System Examples Chapter 10 Nonlinear
state space approach, 47 welding control system, 201, 206

Open loop transfer function, 210 S
P State equations
PID control design coupled springs, masses and dampers, 37
rotational control system, 66 differential equation representation, 41
PID controller, 57 table control system, 87
PID controller design welding control system, 196
welding control system, 199 Straight-line approximation
R disturbance
Root locus position control system, 222
position control system, 218, 227

Control System Examples - CH 1 - 7 - Sept 2017

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CONTROL SYSTEM

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

4.5 Laplace transform of , ........ 42

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 iii

4.6.4 Comparison of Controller Designs ........................................................................................................61

iv Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

C. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller ................................................................................................... 140

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 v

vi Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 1

Figure 1.1-2 Linear block diagrams

2 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Solving for C(s)

The closed loop transfer function is

Solving for C(s)

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 3

Closed Loop Differential Equations Equation

s3 + bs2 + bs+1= 0 1.1-21

( s+1)(s2 + (b-1)s+1) = 0 1.1-22

4 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

The closed loop pole-zero sketches are in Table 1.1-2.

Optimal Controller PID Controller

C. Comparison of Tracking and Steady State Error to a Unit Step Disturbance.

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 5

Using the equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-29 at time t = 0

6 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Substituting the numeric values of n = 1, = 2 /2 and b = 2 + 1 = 2 +1 yields

Solving for the ks

Substituting into equation 1.1-30

c(t) =1+ 2.414e-t - 3.414e-0.707t cos(0.707t) 1.1-37

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 7

Solving for the ks

Substituting into equation 1.1-30

c(t) =1-1.707 e-t -1.707 e-0.707t sin(0.707t)+0.707e-0.707t cos(0.707t) 1.1-44

8 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Substituting the numeric values of n = 1, = 2 /2 and b = 2 + 1 = 2 +1 yields

Solving for the ks

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 9

Substituting into equation 1.1-48

The total solution c(t) is

Solving for the ks

Substituting into equation 1.1-56

10 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 11

CHAPTER 2 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION EXAMPLES

2.0 Overview of Chapter 2

2.1. Differential Equation: with zero initial conditions at time t = 0

yielding the characteristic polynomial

ki es t (s2 +10 s + 100) = 0

Figure 2.1-1 Closed loop pole pattern for differential equation

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 13

that when substituted into the differential equation yields

c(t) = ch (t) + c p (t) = k1 e

Evaluating using the initial conditions at time t = 0. For c(0) = 0

In matrix formulation these two equations are

Hence the solution c(t) is

Checking that the solution satisfies the initial conditions at time t = 0

Figure 2.1-2 Response c(t) of differential equation

2.2 with zero initial conditions at time t = 0.

Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 15

2nd Order Closed j

Figure 2.2-1 Closed loop pole-zero plot