Volume 2

Part 12
Pavement Design
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PAVEMENTDESIGN

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Copyright2015.Allrightsreserved.

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Contents Page

Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................. vii

1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives and Basis of Design Procedure .................................................................. 2
1.1.1 Analysis of Traffic Data ................................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Ground Investigation.................................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Additional Factors ........................................................................................ 3
1.1.4 Choice of Materials and Thicknesses to Meet the Predicted Traffic Load ... 3
1.2 Empirical Design Method ............................................................................................ 4
1.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method ........................................................................ 4
1.4 Difference between the AASHTO Empirical and Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Methods....................................................................................................................... 4

2 Types of Pavement .........................................................................................................7

2.1 Flexible ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Rigid ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Flexible Composite ...................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Concrete Block and Modular Paving ........................................................................... 8

3 Pavement Structure Basics ..............................................................................................9

3.1 Introduction to Layered System .................................................................................. 9
3.2 Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements ...................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Wearing Course and Surface Course ............................................................ 9
3.2.2 Intermediate or Binder Course .................................................................... 9
3.2.3 Base Course .................................................................................................. 9
3.2.4 Subbase ........................................................................................................ 9
3.3 Structural Layers in Rigid Pavements ........................................................................ 10
3.4 Structural Layers in Composite Pavements ............................................................... 10

4 Subgrades .....................................................................................................................11
4.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 11
4.1.1 Role of Foundation during Construction .................................................... 11
4.1.2 Role of Base and Subbase in Service .......................................................... 12
4.2 Types of Subgrade ..................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Subgrade Strength Determination ............................................................................ 12
4.3.1 Geotechnical Investigation ......................................................................... 12
4.3.2 Subgrade Design Using California Bearing Ratio ........................................ 14
4.4 Parameters and Correlations ..................................................................................... 15
4.5 Drainage of Subgrade ................................................................................................ 17
4.6 Stabilization of Subgrade ........................................................................................... 17
4.7 Improvement of Subgrade......................................................................................... 17
4.8 Protection of Subgrade .............................................................................................. 18
4.9 Practical Guidelines for Subbase in Pavement Design .............................................. 18

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5 Aggregate Bases and Subbases ..................................................................................... 21

5.1 Selection of Materials ................................................................................................ 21
5.2 Aggregate Subbase .................................................................................................... 21
5.3 Aggregate Base Course .............................................................................................. 21

6 Stabilized Base Courses ................................................................................................ 23

6.1 Selection of Materials ................................................................................................ 23
6.2 Asphalt Concrete Base Course ................................................................................... 23
6.3 Asphalt Treated Permeable Base............................................................................... 23
6.4 Cement Treated Base ................................................................................................ 24
6.5 Roller-Compacted Concrete Base .............................................................................. 24

7 Surface Courses ............................................................................................................ 25

7.1 Asphalt Concrete ....................................................................................................... 25
7.1.1 Materials and Mix Design Selection ........................................................... 25
7.1.2 Surface Courses .......................................................................................... 25
7.1.3 Intermediate Courses ................................................................................. 26
7.2 Portland Cement Concrete ........................................................................................ 26

8 Design Elements and Construction Considerations ....................................................... 27

8.1 Design Elements: Failure Mechanisms ...................................................................... 27
8.1.1 Flexible Pavements with Flexible Base ....................................................... 28
8.1.2 Perpetual Pavements with Asphalt Base.................................................... 28
8.1.3 Flexible Pavements with Cement-Bound Base ........................................... 29
8.1.4 Rigid Pavements ......................................................................................... 29
8.2 Design Elements: 1993 AASHTO Guide...................................................................... 31
8.2.1 Input for the 1993 AASHTO Guide ............................................................. 31
8.2.2 Pavement Performance.............................................................................. 31
8.2.3 Reliability .................................................................................................... 32
8.2.4 Standard Deviation ..................................................................................... 32
8.2.5 Serviceability .............................................................................................. 32
8.2.6 Material Properties: Flexible Design .......................................................... 33
8.2.7 Material Properties: Rigid Design ............................................................... 33
8.2.8 Drainage Coefficient ................................................................................... 34
8.2.9 Environmental Conditions .......................................................................... 34
8.2.10 Traffic.......................................................................................................... 35
8.3 Construction Considerations ..................................................................................... 35
8.3.1 Asphalt Concrete ........................................................................................ 35
8.3.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete ............................................................ 35
8.3.3 Joints in Rigid Pavements ........................................................................... 36
8.3.4 Smoothness of Pavement Surface.............................................................. 37

9 Traffic Analysis ............................................................................................................. 39

9.1 Estimation of Annual Average Daily Traffic ............................................................... 39
9.1.1 Traffic Counts ............................................................................................. 39

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9.2 Estimating Equivalent Standard Axle Loads .............................................................. 42

9.2.1 Standard Axle Load..................................................................................... 44
9.2.2 Axle Load Limits.......................................................................................... 44
9.2.3 Design Life .................................................................................................. 44
9.2.4 Growth Rate ............................................................................................... 45
9.2.5 Directional and Lane Distribution Factors .................................................. 46
9.3 Determination of Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Loads ................................ 47

10 Design of New Pavements ............................................................................................57

10.1 Flexible Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide ........................................................... 57
10.1.1 Example Flexible Pavement Design ............................................................ 59
10.2 Rigid Pavement Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide .............................................. 67
10.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method .................................................... 72
10.3.1 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Process ...................................... 73
10.3.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters ......................... 73
10.3.3 Traffic Input Parameters ............................................................................ 74
10.3.4 Climate ....................................................................................................... 78
10.3.5 Subgrade .................................................................................................... 78
10.3.6 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for
Flexible Pavement ...................................................................................... 80
10.3.7 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Rigid
Pavement ................................................................................................... 85
10.3.8 Run Analysis and Report ............................................................................ 88
10.4 Ramp and Shoulder Pavements................................................................................. 89
10.5 Design for Special Pavements.................................................................................... 89
10.6 Selection of Pavement Design Method ..................................................................... 91

11 Design for Rehabilitation of Existing Pavements ...........................................................93

11.1 Rehabilitation Design Process ................................................................................... 93
11.1.1 Basis of Rehabilitation Design .................................................................... 94
11.1.2 Rehabilitation Design Using the 1993 AASHTO Guide ............................... 95
11.2 Pavement Assessment and Need for Rehabilitation ................................................. 96
11.3 Methods of Rehabilitation ......................................................................................... 96
11.3.1 Bituminous Overlays .................................................................................. 96
11.3.2 Mill and Overlay ......................................................................................... 97
11.3.3 Concrete Overlays ...................................................................................... 97
11.3.4 In-Place Recycling ....................................................................................... 97
11.4 Pavement Deterioration Mechanisms ....................................................................... 97
11.5 Pavement Survey and Investigation .......................................................................... 98
11.6 Network-Level Surveys .............................................................................................. 99
11.7 Project-Level Investigation and Assessment ............................................................. 99
11.7.1 Review existing information..................................................................... 100
11.7.2 Visual Survey ............................................................................................ 100
11.7.3 Coring ....................................................................................................... 100

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11.7.4 Test Pits .................................................................................................... 101

11.7.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar ....................................................................... 101
11.7.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer ................................................................... 102
11.8 Pavement Strength .................................................................................................. 102
11.8.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer ................................................................... 103
11.8.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer .................................................................. 103
11.8.3 Data Handling of FWD Results ................................................................. 104
11.8.4 Interpretation of FWD Data ..................................................................... 104

12 Evaluation of Pavement Alternatives .......................................................................... 107

12.1 Engineering and Design ........................................................................................... 107
12.2 Economic Analysis and Value Engineering .............................................................. 107
12.2.1 Life Cycle Cost........................................................................................... 107
12.2.2 Value Engineering..................................................................................... 109

13 Sustainable Pavement Practices ................................................................................. 111

13.1 Overview .................................................................................................................. 111
13.2 Recycled Aggregates ................................................................................................ 111
13.3 Warm-Mix Asphalt ................................................................................................... 112
13.4 Two-lift Concrete Construction ............................................................................... 112
13.5 Noise Reducing Pavements ..................................................................................... 113
13.6 Porous Pavement ..................................................................................................... 114

References ........................................................................................................................... 115

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Tables

Table 4.1 Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations ........................... 16

Table 8.1 Recommended Load Transfer Coefficients for Various Pavement Types and
Conditions ......................................................................................................... 34
Table 9.1 Qatar Standard Vehicle Classes ......................................................................... 40
Table 9.2 Damage Factors for Light Vehicles .................................................................... 43
Table 9.3 Damage Factors for Heavy Trucks ..................................................................... 43
Table 9.4 Growth Rate for Traffic to be Used to Estimate Design ESALs for Qatar .......... 46
Table 9.5 Traffic Distribution and Percentage of Design Traffic in the Design
Lane for Qatar ................................................................................................... 47
Table 9.6 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Single Axle,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 50
Table 9.7 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Tandem Axles,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 51
Table 9.8 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Single Axle,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 52
Table 9.9 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Tandem Axles,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 53
Table 9.10 Computation of Truck Load Factor for Five-Axle or Greater Trucks on
Flexible Pavements with an SN=5 and a Terminal Serviceability of 2.5 ............ 54
Table 9.11 Computation of Truck Load Factor for Five-Axle or Greater Trucks
on Rigid Pavements ........................................................................................... 55
Table 9.12 Worksheet for Calculating 18-kip ESAL Applications ........................................ 56
Table 10.1 Summary of Design Traffic Calculations ............................................................ 60
Table 10.2 Summary of Pavement Options ........................................................................ 67
Table 10.3 Typical Ranges of Loss of Support Factors for Various Types of Materials ....... 68
Table 10.4 Design Parameters and Input Levels ................................................................. 74
Table 10.5 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG ................ 76
Table 10.6 Unbound Granular and Subgrade Resilient Modulus Values (psi) for Level 3
Input .................................................................................................................. 79
Table 10.7 Subgrade Correlations for Level 2 Input for Use in the Mechanistic-Empirical
Design Method .................................................................................................. 80
Table 10.8 Typical Performance Criteria (Flexible Pavements) .......................................... 81
Table 10.9 Typical Performance Criteria for Rigid Pavements............................................ 86
Table 13.1 Noise Level Ranges for Different Concrete Surfaces ....................................... 113
Table 13.2 Noise Level Ranges for Different Asphalt Surfaces ......................................... 113

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Figures

Figure 3.1 Load Spreading through the Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements .............. 10
Figure 8.1 Designing for Vertical and Horizontal Strain in Pavement Layers ..................... 27
Figure 10.1 Procedure for Determining Thickness of Layers Using a Layered Analysis
Approach ........................................................................................................... 58
Figure 10.2 Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient of Dense-Graded Asphalt
Concrete Based on Elastic (Resilient) Modulus ................................................. 62
Figure 10.3 Variation in Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) with Various Base Strength
Parameters ........................................................................................................ 62
Figure 10.4 Variation in Aggregate Subbase Layer Coefficient (a32) with Various Base
Strength Parameters ......................................................................................... 63
Figure 10.5 Design Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for Each
Input .................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 10.6 Chart for Determining Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction .................. 68
Figure 10.7 Correction for Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Loss of Support ... 69
Figure 10.8 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input Variable............................................................................................ 71
Figure 10.9 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Process ................................................ 73
Figure 10.10 Traffic Data for the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method .............................. 74
Figure 10.11 Traffic Input for Various Input Levels in the Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Method .............................................................................................................. 77
Figure 11.1 Plastic Rutting (Internal Shear Failure) .............................................................. 98
Figure 11.2 Structural Rutting .............................................................................................. 98
Figure 11.3 Sample of DCP Test.......................................................................................... 102
Figure 11.4 Falling Weight Deflectometer ......................................................................... 103
Figure 11.5 Flow Chart for Iterative Back-Calculation of Pavement Layer Modulus ......... 105

Appendixes

Appendix A Parameters Appropriate for Use in Qatar ....................................................... 119

Appendix B Layer Coefficient Graphs from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures ....................................................................................... 123
Appendix C Effective k-value Charts from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures ....................................................................................... 131
Appendix D Design Charts from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement
Structures......................................................................................................... 135
Appendix E Mechanistic-Empirical Design Examples ......................................................... 141

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

1993 AASHTO Guide Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (AASHTO, 1993)
AADF annual average daily flow
AADT annual average daily traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC asphalt concrete
ADT average daily traffic
ai structural layer coefficient
ALEF axle load equivalency factor
Ashghal State of Qatar Public Works Authority
ASTM ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing Materials)
ATPB asphalt treated permeable base
C degrees Celsius
CBM cement-bound material
CBR California bearing ratio
cm centimetre(s)
CRCB continuously reinforced concrete base
CRCP continuously reinforced concrete pavement
CTB cement treated base
dBA decibels (A-weighted scale)
DCP dynamic cone penetrometer
EAL equivalent axle load
EICM Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (software)
ESAL equivalent single-axle load
FHWA Federal Highway Administration (United States)
FWD falling weight deflectometer
GF growth factor
GPR ground-penetrating radar
HMA hot mix asphalt
IRI International Roughness Index
JPCP jointed plain concrete pavement
JRC jointed reinforced concrete
kip 1,000 pounds-force

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kg kilogram
km kilometer
kN kilonewton
LS loss of support
LWD lightweight deflectometer
MR resilient modulus
MEPDG Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual
of Practice (United States)
m meter(s)
mi drainage coefficient
m/km meters per kilometer
mm millimeter(s)
MMUP Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning
MPa megapascal
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program (United States)
Nmm2 Newtons per square millimeter
pi initial serviceability index
pt terminal serviceability index
PCC portland cement concrete
pci pounds per cubic inch
PMB polymer-modified bitumen
psi pounds per square inch
PSI present serviceability index
QCS Qatar National Construction Standards
QHDM Qatar Highway Design Manual
RAP recycled asphalt pavement
RCC roller-compacted concrete
SBS styrene-butadiene-styrene
SMA stone matrix asphalt
SN structural number
t metric tons
UC unconfined compressive strength
URC unreinforced concrete

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1 Introduction
This Part describes the fundamentals of pavement design that are relevant to any
design method and any class of road. The design method in Qatar is based on the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide
for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993). The
State of Qatar Public Works Authority (Ashghal) has produced the following
documents to provide the groundwork for mechanistic-empirical pavement design:

Interim Advice Note 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a): This
document provides guidance for materials characterization for mechanistic-
empirical design, a range of values for various paving materials, and an
explanation of the mechanistic-empirical model and performance criteria.
Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement Layers (Ashghal, 2013a):
This document provides guidance on testing of materials to aid in determining
material characteristics that can be used in design.

Insufficient data existed within Qatar for the full implementation of the mechanistic-
empirical design method at the time the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) was
prepared. Therefore, this Part of the QHDM is a transition document that will lead to
a final version that provides information on appropriate designs for multiple
pavement types and will include full implementation of the mechanistic-empirical
design method. This manual discusses the pavement design methods described in the
1993 AASHTO Guide and the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim
Edition: A Manual of Practice (MEPDG) (AASHTO, 2008), the parameters for their use,
and their differences.

It is expected that the materials and workmanship used in the construction of

pavements will be in accordance with the latest edition of the Qatar National
Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (Ministry of Environment [MoE], 2011) at the time
of construction, including any applicable amendments published by Ashghal in the
form of Interim Advice Notices or other guides. Adhering to these publications for
materials, testing, quality control, and acceptance are needed for the pavement to
perform as designed. Consult the Civil Engineering Department laboratory during the
design and construction stages of any project to verify that current material
specifications are being used. The use of alternative or improved materials will be
considered in the design procedure described in this Part of the manual.

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1.1 Objectives and Basis of Design Procedure

The basic concept of the structural design of new and rehabilitated pavements is to
reduce to acceptable levels the strains, deflections, and stresses under repeated
traffic loads so that they can be resisted by various pavement layers.

Structural pavement design involves three primary elements: subgrade strength,

traffic loading, and materials behavior. The design of the pavement layer thicknesses
depends on such parameters as traffic, geotechnical information, material
characteristics, reliability, safety, and serviceability. Traffic loading is a mix of vehicles,
with different axle configurations, loads, and distributions that vary daily, seasonally,
and over the design life of the pavement. The pavements response to these loads is
affected by the magnitude of the load and corresponding stress, temperature,
moisture, time, and loading rate. Exposure to extreme environmental conditions
large variances in temperature and moisture statesadds to design complexity.
Unless these parameters can be accurately identified, caution is needed when
adopting pavement designs or design methods. The process of designing a reliable
performance of a pavement structure includes evaluation of these elements, as well
as construction practices and effective quality control.

Many countries have databases for traffic, climate conditions, material properties,
and historical performances of in-service pavement sections that can be applied to
site-specific designs. These and other assets provided the technical infrastructure that
led to the development of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim
Edition: A Manual of Practice (MEPDG) (AASHTO, 2008), hereinafter referred to as the
mechanistic-empirical design method.

Because it can accommodate the appropriate input parameters needed to reflect

local conditions and available resources, the mechanistic-empirical design method is
considered an appropriate method for future pavements in Qatar. Empirical methods
and, especially, the mechanistic-empirical design method, use many input parameters
for specific data with respect to different climate conditions, nonstandard materials,
and traffic loading. The mechanistic-empirical design method provides the flexibility
to consider elements in specific designs for Qatar based on available materials, traffic,
and climate conditions. Therefore, the key to adapting the mechanistic-empirical
design method is to use the correct input data for pavement design.

This Part discusses input parameters for empirical and mechanistic-empirical design
methods to enable designers to choose the appropriate method. Examples for
pavement design with a basic range of input parameters are also provided.
The differences between these two methods are discussed, and the use of design
software such as AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design is explained.

Regardless of the design method, a number of basic steps are involved in any
pavement design. Some of these steps are described in the following clauses.

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1.1.1 Analysis of Traffic Data

As with any structure, the accurate prediction of load is important. For pavement, the
load is proportional to the number of vehicles and their axle types and weights. It is
routine to predict the number of standard axles likely to use the pavement.
Typically, all axles are converted to equivalent numbers of single axles loaded with
8 or 12 tons. The 1993 AASHTO Guide considers only 80 kilonewtons (kN, or
18,000 pounds) on a single axle with dual tires. A similar load on a single-wheeled axle
is more damaging because of the increased tire pressure. The pavement designer uses
traffic surveys from which the number and weight of each axle type can be predicted.
If doubt exists about the traffic data, a conservative approach is adopted. Traffic
analysis is discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part.

Traffic data will be provided from on-site vehicle counts, transportation studies, or a
combination thereof. The designer will convert traffic flows and vehicle types into a
number of standard axles for the appropriate design period, usually 20 or 40 years. If
traffic counts are not available, a default hierarchical list of average traffic flows will
be prepared for the Qatar Road Classification.

1.1.2 Ground Investigation

The assessment of ground conditions, often in terms of California Bearing Ratio (CBR),
is undertaken by examining the results of field investigations. It will be necessary to
design a subbase to cope with construction conditions and long-term loading. For
some design methods, the foundation design is a discrete exercise; for others, the
foundation is considered with the structural layers as part of the overall structure. For
analytical methods, each layer is considered separately.

Loads on the pavement eventually will be transmitted through the subbase into the
natural ground, or subgrade. By developing pavement structural layers to adequately
reduce the vertical strain at the top of the subgrade, the pavement design will keep
the foundation from being overloaded. Depending on the road geometry and profile,
the subgrade is the existing ground in cut sections, and top layer of earthworks in
embankment or fill sections.

1.1.3 Additional Factors

The thickness of various layers for structural capacity is not the only consideration in
pavement design. The following are also important considerations:

The continuing strength and durability of the various layers

Thermal or block cracking
Resistance to rutting or plastic/shear deformation

1.1.4 Choice of Materials and Thicknesses to Meet the Predicted Traffic Load
Any design method will include knowledge of the properties of the materials to be
used. It is typical to adopt materials from local specifications; otherwise, there can be
difficulties with the supply of materials. In some circumstances, it can be
advantageous to use special or nonstandard materials.

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1.2 Empirical Design Method

Designs will be based to some extent on past performance of known designs, such as
the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method. It is important to understand the
conditions under which the data have been collected. This method is likely to use a
form of look-up tables, in which case there can be different tables for different
materials. The most effective combination of material types and thicknesses can be
chosen. The properties of the materials to be used, including stiffness modulus, need
to be accurate if the method is to be effective.

1.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method

The mechanistic-empirical design method uses analytical techniques that have been
calibrated by comparison with known performance. Analytical designs evaluate a
permissible level of strain or stress against which to assess the design adequacy.
Permissible stresses and strains are often empirically based and are derived from
experimental fatigue lines. From experience, a designer will assume a pavement type
and thickness, or a first iteration could be determined using empirical methods. A
stress and strain analysis is carried out for the assumed design. If the maximum
stresses and strains are exceeded, or the actual stresses and strains are much less
than permissible, the layer strengths and thicknesses can be amended and
reanalyzed. The process is repeated until an effective design is achieved.

A benefit of analytical design is that the known properties of materials can be

considered to maximize their effectiveness. If the properties are not known to the
right degree of confidence, a sensitivity analysis is needed. This method involves the
knowledge of the load/strain or stress behavior of the materials used. If too many
assumptions are necessary, there is no advantage in using a mechanistic-empirical
design method over empirical methods. At the time of publication of the QHDM,
there are insufficient data and information in Qatar for the parameters needed to use
the mechanistic-empirical design method.

1.4 Difference between the AASHTO Empirical and

Mechanistic-Empirical Design Methods
The advent of mechanistic-empirical pavement performance modeling allows for
more detailed input and analysis using site-specific and regional characteristics.
Detailed traffic and materials characterization are among the more important of
these detailed inputs. The benefit of the mechanistic-empirical design method is that
it allows engineers to enhance the design process in several key areas ranging from
data collection to interpretation of results. Additional effort and resources are needed
to characterize materials, improve traffic data quality, and effectively use
environmental conditions to make the mechanistic-empirical design method effective.

Comparing the empirical method described in the 1993 AASHTO Guide to the
mechanistic-empirical design method described in the MEPDG is an important step in
understanding the differences between the two approaches:

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The AASHTO empirical method designs pavements to a single performance criterion,

the present serviceability index (PSI). The mechanistic-empirical design method
simultaneously considers multiple performance criteria, such as rutting, cracking, and
roughness for flexible pavements.

The AASHTO empirical method directly computes the layer thicknesses. The
mechanistic-empirical design method uses an iterative process. A specific pavement
section is evaluated against predicted performance and design criteria. If the
pavement section does not meet the performance criteria, the section is modified
and reanalyzed until the criteria are met.

The mechanistic-empirical design method uses additional input parameters, especially

environmental and material properties. This designer chooses a quality level of input
parameter, depending on the level of information and resources available, the
technical issues, and the importance of the project.

The empirical method was developed in the 1950s for road design, vehicle taxation,
and costing and was based on limited field test data from only one location: Ottawa,
Illinois, United States. The seasonally adjusted subgrade resilient modulus (MR) and
the layer drainage coefficients are the only variables that can be adjusted for
environmental conditions. The mechanistic-empirical design method adjusts material
properties for temperature and moisture influences by using a set of project-specific
climate data that include air temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and relative
humidity.

The empirical method uses the concept of equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) to
define traffic levels. The mechanistic-empirical design method uses more detailed
load spectra. Pavement materials respond differently to the magnitude, variance,
frequency, and locations of traffic loads. Loading at different times of the year in
different environmental conditions will also have different effects on the response of
the pavement structure. These factors can be considered most effectively using the
load spectra concept.

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2 Types of Pavement
2.1 Flexible
A typical flexible pavement usually consists of two or three asphalt layers of wearing
course, an intermediate or binder course, a base course, and a subbase over the
subgrade. On less-trafficked roads, the base course could consist partly or wholly of
granular materials. Where the base course is also in asphalt, the pavement is
considered a full depth asphalt pavement.

2.2 Rigid
A rigid pavement consists of portland cement concrete (PCC) with granular or
cement-bound subbase layers over the subgrade, or a combination of both. The
concrete layer can be jointed plain unreinforced concrete (URC), jointed reinforced
concrete (JRC), or continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP). Higher
performing concrete pavements include a base layer of asphalt concrete (AC) or
asphalt-treated base to (1) improve stiffness, (2) act as a moisture barrier to prevent
surface water infiltration to the subgrade, (3) act as a barrier to groundwater pumping
through pavement joints and cracks under loading, and (4) act as a construction
platform to improve grade control. For areas with truck traffic, providing dowels at
pavement joints is encouraged to transfer loads and prevent faulting across joints.
Pavements with very high traffic levels are commonly constructed with CRCP.

2.3 Flexible Composite

A flexible composite pavement is one with a flexible surface and rigid base. An
example of this is a cement-bound base with asphalt surfacing. The cement-bound
materials usually have a lower compressive strength than pavement-quality concrete
and crack because of thermal movements. Cracks will propagate through the flexible
surface as a result of traffic movement. This process is called reflection cracking.
Reflection cracking can be controlled by adopting a thick asphalt layer for thermal
protection, precracking the cement-bound material, or a combination thereof.
A stress absorbing membrane interlayer is sometimes used, particularly in the
rehabilitation of existing pavements.

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2.4 Concrete Block and Modular Paving

Concrete block paving consists of concrete blocks on a laying course of sand, on top of
a granular or bound base. Bound bases are used for heavier traffic.

Other modular paving materials include quarry stone or cut concrete slabs. These
materials need special consideration on roads used by heavy vehicles because a single
overload can be catastrophic.

Concrete block pavement can be used in heavily trafficked areas. Modular paving
materials, including blocks, can be used in various colors and patterns to delineate
areas with contrasting appearance.

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3 Pavement Structure Basics

3.1 Introduction to Layered System
A pavement is a multilayered structure. The purpose of the design is to adequately
transfer the load, or traffic, on top of the pavement through the layers to the natural
subgrade. The pavement is designed to carry the load during its design life or
performance period without cracking, rutting, or developing defects that would need
rehabilitation or repair. A pavement carries the expected loads over its design life by
controlling the repeated bending and compression of the pavement layers. All layers
of a flexible pavement, including asphalt surfacing, intermediate and base courses,
and aggregate base and subbase courses, are structural layers and will be compressed
and flexed as the traffic load passes. Repeated flexing will eventually fatigue the
structural layers.

3.2 Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavements are constructed in several layers. Stiffer layers spread the load
over a wider area than do flexible layers; a thin, stiff layer is equivalent to a thick,
weak layer of the same material. For flexible pavement, the layers usually consist of
those described in the following clauses.

3.2.1 Wearing Course and Surface Course

A thin, rut-resistant layer is laid to relatively tight level tolerances to provide good ride
quality. Surfacing is usually a more waterproof layer and can sometimes be specified
with spray-reducing or noise-reducing properties.

3.2.2 Intermediate or Binder Course

The intermediate course often has higher binder content and a smaller aggregate size
than the layer beneath it to provide durability. It can be laid to a relatively tight level
to provide good ride quality. It is often called the binder course or leveling course, and
is sometimes included with the asphalt base course.

3.2.3 Base Course

The base course is the main structural layer, although materials used for the base and
intermediate courses can be interchangeable. The base layer can be granular, asphalt,
or cement-bound. A pavement with a cement-bound base is said to be flexible-
composite.

3.2.4 Subbase
The subbase layer immediately over the natural ground supports the base course,
allowing construction activities to progress without damaging the subgrade. It is the

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final load-spreading layer in the structure. Subbases are often granular materials, but
they can consist of other materials, including cement-bound materials.

Figure 3.1 is a general presentation of the structural layers in flexible pavements, and
how loads typically spread through the layers. The load is spread wider and at a
greater angle in stiffer materials, which reduces strain and stress at the base of the
layers.

Figure 3.1 Load Spreading through the Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements

The asphalt and base layers in flexible pavements each are contributing structural
layers but can be cement-bound materials. In unbound bases with variable aggregate
sizes, the base layer will often have larger sizes of coarse aggregate.

3.3 Structural Layers in Rigid Pavements

In rigid pavements, the structural elements will always be in PCC, usually with
compressive strengths exceeding 30 newtons per square millimeter (Nmm2) and
flexural strengths exceeding 4.5 Nmm2. The PCC can be in unreinforced slabs,
individual jointed reinforced slabs, or continuously reinforced slabs without joints. A
wearing or surface course can sometimes be used to improve ride quality or noise
reduction.

3.4 Structural Layers in Composite Pavements

The structural layers in composite pavements are cement-bound, but with lower
compressive strength than in PCC and usually no more than 20 Nmm2. The cement-
bound layers will crack naturally depending on the strength of the concrete used,
often at about 5-meter (m) centers. Cracking occurs primarily because of thermal
movements in the cement-bound materials. Cracking can be avoided by precracking
the materials at the construction stage and by overlaying them with HMA, which
provides thermal protection and load-spreading qualities.

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4 Subgrades
4.1 General
The main purpose of the pavement structure is to protect the subgrade from vertical
strain caused by vehicle loads by distributing the load through the pavement layers.
This distribution is needed during construction and during the service life of the
pavement.

The pavement design method includes a fundamental consideration of the underlying

subgrade soil conditions. The subgrade soil properties and the physical and chemical
characteristics determine, to a critical degree, the thickness of pavement structure
that can resist the expected design traffic-loading.

Sampling, testing, and reporting need to follow the recommended protocols in the
most recent QCS and any amendments.

4.1.1 Role of Foundation during Construction

Consider the following factors in foundation design when relating to construction:

Strains in the base and subbase are higher from construction equipment, although
the number of repetitions from construction traffic is much lower and is not as
channelized as during the in-service life of the pavement.
During construction, it is expected that loads will be applied to the base and
subbase by construction vehicles and equipment. Where such loading is applied,
the strength and material thickness is sufficient to withstand these loads without
damage occurring that might adversely affect future pavement performance.
Base and subbase layers need to be of sufficient durability to withstand
environmental effects.
Damage may occur from rutting, deformation, cracking of stabilized soils and
bases, or material-specific degradation.
The base and subbase need to be stiff enough to allow the overlying pavement
layers to be placed and adequately compacted.

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4.1.2 Role of Base and Subbase in Service

Consider the following factors relating to the in-service condition in the base and
subbase design:

Ability to withstand repeated traffic loads during the life of a pavement. If the
upper pavement materials begin to deteriorate toward the end of the pavements
design life, the pavement can also experience some ingress of water into the
pavement may occur, particularly if the upper pavement materials begin to
deteriorate toward the end of the pavements design life.
The MR use in the design is maintained throughout the life of the pavement. If the
MR is not maintained, deterioration of the upper layers can occur more rapidly
than assumed during design.
Deformation does not accumulate within the base and subbase under repeated
traffic loading.
The performance of the base and subbase is also affected by the design,
construction, and maintenance of the earthworks and associated drainage system.
A loss of concrete slab support can be caused by softening of the subgrade from
due to excess moisture, or from fine-grained material being forced to the surface
under heavy loads.

4.2 Types of Subgrade

In general, Qatar has high-strength natural soils consisting of weathered limestone
and sands. Historically, it was possible to construct earthworks, or at least the upper
layers, using material with a minimum soaked CBR of 25 percent. It is becoming
impractical and expensive to always achieve a CBR of 25. In some locations, such as
cuts, a significantly higher strength of in situ subgrade is possible; therefore, the in
situ subgrade CBR or MR must be determined.

Superficial deposits and sabkha (extensive salt flats underlain by sand, silt, and clay)
are often encrusted with salt (halite), which can have an effect on pavements. Sabkha
can be soft and loose, with high salt and chemical contents, which are damaging to
concrete and steel products and fittings. See Part 15, Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual for more discussion on sabkha
and the superficial geology of Qatar.

4.3 Subgrade Strength Determination

4.3.1 Geotechnical Investigation
The first step in assessing subgrade strength will be to carry out a ground
investigation. Details related to scoping and execution of ground investigation works
are covered in Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design
Guide, of this manual.

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To facilitate pavement design, the geotechnical investigation includes collecting

detailed data and information about the following:

Material types
Material composition
Subgrade layers
Subgrade strengths and physical properties including the possibility of having karst
formation and gypsum that can lead to potential sinkhole activities
Water table and groundwater level
Physical/chemical properties of groundwater

Field tests include the following. Tests marked with an asterisk (*) are optional,
depending on the circumstances:

Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP)

Soil electrical resistivity test
In situ density test
In situ CBR test
Infiltration test: permeability*
Falling head test: permeability*

The object of the investigation is to provide information on the existing soil and
groundwater conditions. These will be used to derive recommendations for a suitable
foundation for the design of pavement and other road structures.

Laboratory tests carried out on samples extracted from the site include the following:

Sieve analysis and Atterberg limits

Unconfined compressive strength
Specific gravity
Chemical tests that include:
Sulfate content: soil and water
Chloride content: soil and water
Determination of pH value: soil and water
Carbonate content: soil and water
Moisture content-dry density relationship
CBR or MR
Direct shear strength

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A pavement design report, with respect to subgrade characterization, including brief

descriptions of the following:

Subsurface profile with long section and cross sections showing groundwater
levels
Material classification
Sieve analysis results
Atterberg limits analysis
In situ density and moisture content
Determination of MR value from test results or correlation from CBR test values
Chemical analysis
Subgrade pH

4.3.2 Subgrade Design Using California Bearing Ratio

In situ tests in granular soil provide a good indication of performance in service. In
looser soils, field tests can underestimate strength because the soils do not have the
confining effect of the overlying pavement. Field tests are compared with laboratory
CBRs, carried out at a series of densities; most importantly, the density and moisture
condition expected on site. Where groundwater is expected to be high, 4-day soaked
CBR tests are performed in the laboratory.

During construction, the CBR will be checked to confirm that it is in conformance with
the design assumptions for that pavement section. The subgrade will be checked in
situ to verify the CBR is not lower than the value used for design. If the in situ CBR is
higher than the design value, maintain the subbase thickness because the design will
have taken long-term conditions into consideration.

Deterioration can be the result of the effects of both construction traffic and
inclement weather. Final grading to the subgrade level is carried out in conjunction
with construction of subsequent layers to minimize deterioration of the subgrade due
to construction traffic or inclement weather. If the subgrade has deteriorated, a
capping layer might be used to help protect the subgrade from damage imposed by
construction traffic.

CBR values are assessed using remolded soaked samples statically compacted to
95 percent of the maximum dry density. The specified subgrade strengths need to be
sustained for a depth of at least 300 millimeters (mm), with the material below this
having a CBR at the in situ density of at least 10 percent.

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The 1993 AASHTO Guide does not specifically consider construction traffic. Where the
subbase is likely to be used by vehicles other than those needed to construct the
overlying layers, for example, as a haul road or construction platform, check the
subbase thickness to verify such traffic will not affect the future life of the pavement.

If the subgrade soil strength in terms of CBR value is less than 15 percent, thicker
subbases will be needed. For lower CBRs, soil stabilization or removal and
replacement of a portion of the subgrade with higher quality material is needed.

4.4 Parameters and Correlations

To design the pavement structure by the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method, the
mean CBR value of the subgrade is used to calculate the MR. In the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, the design MR for each subgrade area is computed as the average values of the
soil strength. The MR is a measure of the elastic property of the soil, recognizing
certain nonlinear characteristics. The MR can be used directly for the design of flexible
pavement, but is converted to an effective modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value) for
the design of rigid or composite pavements, using Figures 3.3 through 3.6 in the 1993
AASHTO Guide. This process is explained in detail in Section 10.2 in this Part.

Because not all road agencies have the equipment to perform MR testing, several
approximate correlations have been developed to correlate other soil indicators to
MR. These relationships are approximate at best and need to be applied carefully.

Practice caution when selecting a design MR. Conduct an analysis of all the soils data
prior to selecting a value. If MR results are not available, the designer can use any of
the empirical equations developed for this purpose.

For the purpose of correlating the CBR values to the MR of subgrade, many empirical
equations have been developed, as shown in Table 4.1. Each equation has some
limitations.

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Table 4.1 Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations

Equation Reference Limitations

MR (psi) = (1,500)(CBR) Dynamic Testing as a Means of Only for fine-grained, nonexpansive

Controlling Pavements During and soils with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
After Construction (Heukelom
and Klomp, 1962)

MR (MPa)= 10 CBR Pavement DesignA Guide to the For fine-grained, nonexpansive soils
Structural Design of Road with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
Pavements (Austroads, 1992)

MR (MPa) = 17.6 CBR 0.64 Mechanistic-Empirical Design of For fine-grained, nonexpansive soils
New and Rehabilitated Pavement with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
Structures (NCHRP, 2004)

MR = 1,000 + (555)(R-value) 1993 AASHTO Guide Only for fine-grained, nonexpansive

soils with R-values of 20 or less.

Notes:
psi = pounds per square inch
MPa = megapascals

The best estimate for the MR of the fine-grained materials can be obtained using the
following equation (National Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2004):

MR = 2555 CBR 0.64

where:
MR = resilient modulus in pounds per square inch (psi)
CBR = California bearing ratio

Another method of determining resilient modulus is by correlating to unconfined

compressive strength from the following equation (Thompson and Robnett, 1979):

MR = 0.307 UC + 0.86

where:
MR = resilient modulus in kip per square inch
UC = unconfined compressive strength in psi

The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method for pavement design uses the mean value
of subgrade strength modulus, back-calculated from deflection when falling weight
deflectometer (FWD) testing is conducted and the back-calculated MR is determined,
then:

design MR = 0.33 back-calculated MR

If CBR and back-calculated MR results are available, use the smaller design MR for
pavement design purposes.

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For partially saturated soils, the stiffness is mainly dependent on the negative pore-
water pressure or soil moisture suction. Therefore, the laboratory-prepared specimen
exhibits have essentially the same stiffness as undisturbed specimens for comparable
suction values.

The modulus of subgrade reaction, or k-value, to be used for rigid pavement design
can be determined from plate load tests in the field by using established testing
protocols. In the absence of field testing, the k-value can be approximated from the
American Concrete Pavement Association k-value calculator tool, based on the
Evaluation of AASHTO Interim Guides for Design of Pavement Structures (NCHRP,
1972).

4.5 Drainage of Subgrade

High groundwater, surface drainage, or even landscape watering, combined with
poorly drainable, fine-grained soils, can cause a reduction in the strength of the
natural subgrade. This can lead to permanent deformation or loss of support (LS).

Unless subgrades are granular and self-draining, it will be necessary to provide

subgrade drainage. The capillary action of the groundwater rising to the surface in
soils with high salt and chemical contents can damage concrete pavement. The low
rainfall levels in Qatar result in subgrade drainage being needed only in locations with
a likelihood of high groundwater or in areas where irrigation activities are expected
on the sides of roads. According to the QCS 2010, at least 300 mm must be
maintained between the groundwater level and subgrade. Additional information
regarding surface and subdrainage is included in Part 10, Drainage, of this manual.

4.6 Stabilization of Subgrade

Under normal circumstances, the stabilization of sands and granular materials will not
be necessary. However, cement stabilization is a useful technique to provide a bound
subbase for concrete pavements.

4.7 Improvement of Subgrade

Where weak subgrades occur, several improvement methods can be used:

In situations where subgrades are soft, it can be economically advantageous to

excavate the soft material and replace it with soils of better quality, especially if the
excavated material can be used elsewhere on-site for nonstructural uses such as
landscaping.

Geogrids and geotextiles can be used in two ways: (1) to separate subbase materials
from soft plastic subgrades where they can punch-in to subgrades of lower strength
and become contaminated or (2) to reinforce subgrades and subbases. In some cases,
a geogrid combined with a bonded geotextile can be used.

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When used for reinforcement, geogrids stiffen the layers above and below by the
action of aggregate locking into the grid interstices. Geogrids can also provide an
element of separation over a softer subgrade where aggregate from the overlying
subbase locks into the grid.

A geogrid can assist with placing subbases over soft ground, in which case the grid can
be laid directly on the soft subgrade (for example, sabkha). Where significant
thicknesses of subbase are needed, an extra grid can be placed, usually at the center
of the subbase layer. When used in well-graded aggregates, grids will generally
influence a thickness ranging from 100 to 150 mm above and below the grid. Grids
will rarely be beneficial in subbases when the CBR is above 5 to 10 percent, which is
the case in most of Qatar subgrade, or the thicknesses of granular material is less than
300 mm.

4.8 Protection of Subgrade

The subgrade needs be protected from wet weather and construction traffic. Heavy
rainfall, which is not a significant risk in Qatar, can damage subgrades, particularly in
the short term. In granular soils, the subgrade strength is likely to be reestablished if
the subgrade is allowed to dry out; however, this condition can cause delays. Granular
subbase is usually designed to have a close-knit surface, which, if properly compacted
and shaped, will help protect the subgrade under normal circumstances.

Construction traffic can overstrain the subgrade, leaving it weaker than allowed for at
the design stage and resulting in ruts and deformation. If the subgrade/subbase is to
be used as a haul road, design the subbase layers accordingly to account for
construction loads. Alternatively, a capping or a sacrificial granular material can be
used as a temporary running surface to provide protection.

4.9 Practical Guidelines for Subbase in Pavement Design

In situ CBR measurements are valid only for prevailing conditions at a specific time.
Consider environmental factors that could reduce the subgrade strength during its
service life or during construction.

For subgrades with CBR values of 15 percent and greater, it is likely that the subbase
will have a compacted thickness of about 150 mm. This thickness is considered the
minimum needed for spreading and compaction.

For subgrades with CBR values in excess of 30 percent and a low water table or hard
rock subgrades, the subbase can be omitted. If a rock layer is encountered, the layer
is maintained and its surface scarified by digging roughly 10 centimeters (cm) into the
layer. If there is variability in stiffness or level, a subbase can help provide an
adequate structural platform.

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When determining the pavement section for a project, it is not advisable to vary the
subbase thickness over distances of less than 150 m. Instead, select an appropriate
value for each significant change in the subgrade properties and traffic levels.

During construction, check the CBR to confirm that it is in conformance with the
design assumptions for that pavement section. Check the subgrade in situ to verify
the CBR is not lower than that used in design. If the in situ CBR is greater than the
design value, the thickness of the designed subbase must be maintained, because the
design will have taken long-term conditions into consideration. Before construction of
the subbase or base course, proofroll the subgrade with a loaded vehicle to check for
localized areas of soft or weakened soil. Improve weakened soil, as described in
Section 4.7 in this Part. Compact subgrade foundations for pavement to a minimum
95 percent density, as determined by the Standard Method of Test for Moisture-
Density Relations of Soils Using a 4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop
(AASHTO T-180-10-UL). Densities greater than 95 percent are difficult to achieve in
the field, but can be warranted for roadways with concentrated heavy loads, such as
loading stations, toll plazas, port entry ways, and industrial areas.

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5 Aggregate Bases and

Subbases
5.1 Selection of Materials
Aggregates for base and subbase materials come from multiple sources both inside
and outside Qatar. To incorporate these materials into the pavement section, verify
that they are certified to meet the physical and quality specifications of the latest
edition of the QCS, including amendments. Take extra caution in selecting design
parameters to match the materials available at the time of the project. Additional
specifications for base and subbase are presented in Specifications and Quality
Control of Unbound Materials, Base Courses, Sub-bases, and Subgrades (Ashghal,
2013b).

5.2 Aggregate Subbase

Aggregate or unbound subbase is usually constructed from well-graded crushed rock.
Select a dense gradation to provide good load-bearing capacity and a close-knit
surface. The minimum CBR for subbase is usually about 60 percent. The subbase is
nonplastic or has a plasticity of less than 6 percent to reduce rutting and deformation,
particularly if the subbase is wetted. The aggregate will have minimum crushing or
abrasion values. It can also be specified for soundness. Provided they meet the
subbase specification, recycled materials can often be used.

5.3 Aggregate Base Course

Aggregate base will generally have the same features as subbase. The materials will
have gradings with tighter tolerances than subbase, and they will have improved
physical properties. The CBR would be expected to be at least 50 to 80 percent.
Provided they meet the specifications for base course, recycled materials can be used.
The use of recycled materials is discussed in Chapter 13 in this Part. Full details of
materials to be used for the pavement construction and subgrade are given in the
latest edition of the QCS, together with applicable test methods.

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6 Stabilized Base Courses

6.1 Selection of Materials
Aggregates, bitumen, and cement have an effect on the quality, strength, and
endurance of stabilized bases. To incorporate these materials into the pavement
section, verify that they will meet the specifications of the applicable sections of the
latest edition of the QCS, including amendments.

6.2 Asphalt Concrete Base Course

AC materials are characterized by an aggregate skeleton, in which the individual
particles are mechanically interlocked; that is, usually bound with 60/70 penetration
grade bitumen. The aggregate skeleton provides deformation resistance, provided
that in situ air voids are in the range of 6 to 8 percent, and contributes to stiffness.
The binder content is such that binder films are thick enough on the aggregate to
resist fatigue and provide durability. Generally, lower penetration binders are used
for increased stiffness and deformation resistance.

Polymer-modified bitumens (PMBs) in asphalt increase rut resistance and result in a

slightly stiffer material without making it more brittle; flexibility is retained. PMBs are
most often used in wearing courses and are used only in binder courses/bases where
there is a higher than usual risk of rutting in the lower material. The effect of
introducing PMBs varies according to the type and percentage used. PMBs such as
styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) and ethylene-vinyl acetate can have a similar
performance in increasing fatigue and rutting resistance.

In Qatar, the specified aggregate for asphaltic concrete is gabbro, which is imported.

6.3 Asphalt Treated Permeable Base

Asphalt treated permeable base (ATPB) is a material consisting of open-graded
aggregate, stabilized with AC. The layer is typically 100 mm to 150 mm thick and is
placed over an unbound granular aggregate subbase or base. It can be used under
rigid pavement types where excessive watering may result in higher groundwater,
and includes a subdrainage system for drainage collection. Additional information
regarding the use of subdrainage systems in included in Part 10, Drainage, of this
manual. The benefit of using ATPB is that it quickly removes groundwater from the
pavement system to prevent damage from weakening of the subgrade and loss of
support in rigid pavements.

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ATPB does not have the same strength and stability as dense-graded asphalt, and is
not used as a surface course. When using the 1993 AASHTO Guide, for rigid
pavements, the resilient modulus of this material is not greater than 2,070 MPa
(300,000 psi) when determining an effective k-value. The use of ATPB is a good
practice and is warranted in areas of very high truck traffic and high groundwater
levels.

6.4 Cement Treated Base

Cement treated base (CTB) is an aggregate base course in which cement has been
added for stabilization. Strength values of CTB vary with the gradation of the
aggregate and the amount of cement to be added. Before using CTB in a pavement
section, trial mix designs need to be performed to determine the unconfined
compressive strength. AASHTO layer coefficients and corresponding resilient modulus
values for this material can be determined by using Figure 2.8 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide. Typical CTB mixes contain approximately 3 percent cement and have a 7-day
compressive strength of 4 MPa to 6.2 MPa (575 psi to 900 psi).

6.5 Roller-Compacted Concrete Base

Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a zero-slump concrete that uses conventional
asphalt paving equipment and compaction equipment. RCC can achieve compressive
strengths equal to or greater than conventional concrete mixes. RCC has a different
mix design than conventional pavement quality concrete and does not include
reinforcing, jointing, or load transfer. Because of the specific mix design and
construction methods, RCC is not as common in roadway construction but can be
used as a rigid base in composite pavements. If used, measures are needed to prevent
bonding of PCC pavements and reflective cracking in flexible pavement surfaces.

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7 Surface Courses
7.1 Asphalt Concrete
7.1.1 Materials and Mix Design Selection
The technology of asphalt mixes and materials is continually developing. It is
important to use the latest QCS specifications and amendments when specifying
materials. For mix design specifications, mix design development, and binder
specifications, use the Guide for Superpave Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt
Mixtures (Ashghal, 2012b). The Guide for Marshall Mix Design and Quality Control of
Asphalt Mixtures (Ashghal, 2013c) can be applied where Superpave is not used.

7.1.2 Surface Courses

Surface courses for AC pavements can consist of dense-graded, open-graded, or stone
matrix AC. AC behavior is dependent on the quality and proportions of the aggregate
and binder in the mix.

Dense-graded AC is made with a polymer-modified binder. Practices in Qatar also

include the use of scrap tire rubber in the binder as a modifier. Interim Advice
Note 019, Amendments to Earthworks, Unbound Pavement Materials and Asphalt
Works of Qatar Construction from Specifications (Ashghal, 2012c) provides the
specification for asphalt binders meeting Standard Specification for Performance-
Graded Asphalt Binder Using Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test (AASHTO
MP 19-10). The guides for Superpave and Marshall mix designs provide additional
specifications when crumb rubber is added to the binder. Test dense-graded AC
according to Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test
of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) (AASHTO TP 70-13) using
the multiple stress creep recovery test. Binders used in Qatar are Performance
Grade PG-76-10 and PG-76-22. The selection of binder grades, designated S, H,
V, and E in Interim Advice Notice 019, depends on traffic volume. Guidance for
the selection of binder designation based on traffic levels is provided in the Ashghal
guidance documents referenced in Clause 7.1.1 in this part.

The benefits of open-graded AC are improved surface skid resistance, improved

surface drainage, and a quieter pavement than dense-graded asphalt. The concrete
mix uses a gap-graded aggregate and an asphalt content of 1 to 2 percent higher than
dense graded mixes because of greater void space and needs for more stability from
the binder. It is placed in thin lifts, with thicknesses of less than 25 mm. This material
does not add any structural value and, therefore, no layer coefficient is applied to this
material.

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Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) surfacing is a gap-graded material with synthetic fibers
that is added to the aggregate matrix. The aggregate gradation is similar to open-
graded asphalt, yet has more fine aggregate. SMA has high stability to guard against
rutting and is placed in thicknesses of less than 150 mm. Material properties similar to
those of dense-graded AC can be used for SMA.

7.1.3 Intermediate Courses

In thicker asphalt pavements and perpetual pavements, an intermediate course is
developed as the main section of the pavement to carry traffic loads. The gradation
and mix design of this material is different than the surface course or base course and
is described in more detail in the QCS 2010.

Intermediate courses in asphalt pavements can include the same dense-graded

asphalt mix as the surface course. This may be the case in pavements where the total
asphalt thickness does not justify the use of two mix types. Rather than construct the
asphalt with two separate mixes, it can be more economical to construct the asphalt
with one mix for consistency. When developing plans, the terms base lift and surface
lift are sometimes used for construction of a course and are not be confused with
base course and surface course.

7.2 Portland Cement Concrete

PCC usually has a compressive strength of about 32 MPa to 40 MPa and is laid wet,
without compaction. In Qatar, concrete is usually made with local limestone aggregates.

The stress generated in a concrete slab partly depends on the stiffness ratio between
the slab and its underlying support. To maximize the pavement life, rigid pavements
can be designed with a bound subbase at least 150 mm thick to reduce stress at the
base of the concrete. For lower trafficked roads with a minimum slab thickness for
construction, a granular subbase is usually sufficient.

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8 Design Elements and

Construction Considerations
8.1 Design Elements: Failure Mechanisms
The basic concept of the structural design of new and rehabilitated pavements is to
reduce the strains, deflections, and stresses under repeated traffic loads to the
acceptable levels that can be resisted by the various pavement layers. There are two
primary modes of failure:

Fatigue in the asphalt or concrete at the base of the structural layer, where the
horizontal strain is exceeded for asphalt, or stress exceeded for cement-bound
aggregate
Rutting and permanent deformation of unbound granular materials caused by
excess vertical strain in the subgrade/subbase interface

Figure 8.1 shows the location and failure mechanisms in pavement layers.

Figure 8.1 Designing for Vertical and Horizontal Strain in Pavement Layers

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8.1.1 Flexible Pavements with Flexible Base

Deterioration in flexible pavements with asphalt base is predominantly caused by
traffic loading, environmental factors, or a combination thereof. Deterioration from
traffic loading is associated with the following mechanisms:

Repeated tensile strains within the bound layers under vehicle loading, which
cause fatigue cracks to initiate in the asphalt. Traditional pavement analysis
indicates that these cracks start at the bottom of the asphalt base and then
propagate upward through the materials. Further investigations have shown that
fatigue cracking in thicker pavements is different. Fatigue cracking initiates as
bottom-up cracking for thinner pavements; in thicker pavements, failure tends to
be top-down, with fatigue cracking starting at the surface.
Rutting caused by cumulative deformation of one or more of the layers within the
pavement structure including the subgrade. When rutting emanates from the
subgrade or base layers and the entire pavement structure is deformed, it is
referred to as structural deformation. When rutting is within the asphalt surfacing
only, it is referred to as nonstructural deformation. (Department for Transport,
1992). Examples of each are shown in Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2.

The main environmental causes of pavement deterioration are as follows:

The asphalt binder hardens over time with consequent effects on the fatigue-
resisting properties of the mixture. Hardening of the binder is a result of oxidation
occurring at the surface of the pavement, which is exposed to air and solar
radiation. Strains at the pavement surface caused by thermal cycling and vehicle
loading can eventually lead to surface cracks. Over time, the cracks can propagate
downward and ultimately reach the base of the bound layers. Hardening can also
reduce cohesion of the mixture, resulting in a loss of aggregate; this is often called
fretting, raveling, or surface disintegration.
Asphalt binder is a material that shows both viscous and elastic behaviors under
different conditions, primarily temperature and loading. Performance of asphalt
mixtures is influenced by the service temperature. At higher temperatures, the
binder is more fluid, and the risk of the accumulation of permanent deformation
in the surfacing increases. This is referred to as nonstructural rutting. This risk is
increased by slow moving or stationary traffic but can be mitigated by selecting
appropriate, well-designed, and well-placed materials.
Deterioration can result from a variation in foundation strength caused by changes
in moisture levels, particularly on cracked pavements of thin construction.
(Department for Transport, 1992)

8.1.2 Perpetual Pavements with Asphalt Base

Perpetual (long-life) pavement is an ultra-thick, full-depth asphalt pavement section
designed with multiple layers and specific mixes to guard against rutting and fatigue
cracking. A perpetual pavement system consists of a base layer with high asphalt
content for flexibility to guard against fatigue cracking, one or more intermediate
courses designed for high stability and rut resistance, and a high-performing surface

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course. Thick, well-constructed, flexible pavements with asphalt bases on strong

foundations will not suffer structural deformation or bottom-up fatigue cracking of
the base. The pavement section is designed for a 50-year service life, with the only
rehabilitation to replace the surface course from normal wear. Environmental factors
and repeated traffic loading can lead to cracking at the surface that can increase in
depth. Rutting in these pavements is limited to the surfacing layers (i.e., it is
nonstructural). Long pavement life can be achieved by removing and replacing the
cracked or rutted surface material before the defect has progressed too deeply and
deterioration begins to affect the structural integrity of the road. For particular
materials and axle loads, there is a thickness of pavement beyond which a further
increase in thickness does not necessarily add life. According to Interim Advice
Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines, traffic loads of over 50 million standard
axles warrant a perpetual pavement design (Ashghal, 2012a).

8.1.3 Flexible Pavements with Cement-Bound Base

These pavements consist of a lower base, usually of cement-bound material (CBM),
designed to handle traffic-induced stresses, and an asphalt upper base and surfacing
that protect the CBM and help spread the loading. The strength and thickness of the
CBM layer has a significant influence on the progression of deterioration, which is also
associated with the effects of traffic and the environment, as previously described.

Thermal stresses in this type of pavement usually result in transverse shrinkage cracks
in the CBM during construction. In time, shrinkage cracks can cause stresses in the
overlying asphalt, leading to reflective cracking. Reflective cracking, like
environmental cracking, begins in the surfacing but does not penetrate to the full
depth of the asphalt layers. Reflective and environmental cracks can allow the ingress
of water to the pavement structure and moisture-susceptible materials beneath the
surface if left untreated. If transverse cracks are wide enough, they can reduce
aggregate interlock, resulting in reduced load transfer capacity, which can cause
significant pavement deterioration. Thermal cracking from CBM can be reduced or
eliminated by precracking the CBM before paving the surface and overlaying it with
an adequate thickness of asphalt.

8.1.4 Rigid Pavements

Defects in rigid pavement include spalling, raveling, faulting, cracking and loss of load
transfer. Surface spalling is associated with the durability of the concrete, but it is not
generally a sign of structural deterioration of the pavement.

The reasons for structural deterioration in rigid pavements are very different from
those in flexible pavements. In rigid pavements, horizontal tensile stresses are
generated by the combined effects of wheel loading and thermally induced stresses.
Under certain conditions these stresses can lead to cracking, especially in corners and
along the edges of concrete slabs. Such cracking is often associated with diminished
support of the slab caused by drainage problems or water ingress at joints.

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The repeated traffic loads on rigid pavements create pumping under the transverse
joint, due to excessive deflections that lead to joint faulting, corner and edge breaks,
and transverse cracking near the middle of the concrete slab. The corner/edge break
and transverse cracking are caused by the excessive tensile stresses on the top face of
the slab due to the cantilever action.

8.1.4.1 Jointed Rigid Pavements

Jointed concrete pavement (JRC) can be unreinforced (URC) or reinforced. They are
designed to minimize the occurrence of uncontrolled, random cracking. Dowel bars
are used in JRC and URC for load transfer across joints. Cracking in URC pavements is a
major problem because there is no reinforcement to hold the material together. JRC
pavements can tolerate transverse cracking if good load transfer is maintained.

Structural defects are mainly in the form of cracking. Settlement from joint failure can
also occur. If not remedied, this can lead to the development of cracks and
subsequent failure.

Expansion joints in concrete pavement are placed at intervals and wide enough to
allow for expansion and contraction of the concrete as a result of temperature
changes and thermal expansion. In extremely high temperatures, concrete pavement
can expand a distance that exceeds the spacing provided by the joints. The dowels
can become locked and debris can fill the expansion gap, resulting in expansion joints
that have lost their capacity to absorb movement. In these instances, blow ups,
where two consecutive slabs rise up in an inverted V, can occur.

8.1.4.2 Continuously Reinforced Rigid Pavements

CRCPs and pavements with continuously reinforced concrete bases (CRCBs) have
longitudinal reinforcement without intermediate expansion or contraction joints.
Thermally induced stresses within the concrete slab are relieved by minor transverse
cracks occurring at 1-m to 2-m spacings held tightly closed by the reinforcement. The
middle of a long slab of CRCP does not move when subjected to temperature
changes. Longitudinal movement is limited to the ends of the slab. This end
movement can be partly restrained with ground beams in a ground beam anchorage
or can be accommodated by a special joint.

Another form of defect called a punchout occurs when closely spaced transverse
cracks are connected by parallel longitudinal cracks. Small blocks of concrete are
formed, become loose, and eventually detach from the pavement when subject to
repeated traffic loads.

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8.2 Design Elements: 1993 AASHTO Guide

8.2.1 Input for the 1993 AASHTO Guide
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical pavement design method is widely used in many
countries and by many road agencies in the United States. Factors other than the
determination of pavement layer thickness are to be considered for a reliable
pavement design. The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method includes consideration
of these items:

Design life
Traffic
Foundation ground conditions
Pavement performance parameters
Reliability
Standard deviation
Material properties
Drainage coefficients of layers
Environmental conditions
Life cycle cost

The following clauses provide brief guidelines on input values recommended for
pavement design in Qatar using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method.
Appendix A contains a table of parameters appropriate for use in Qatar.

Most transportation agencies in the United States have recently implemented, or

have plans to implement, the mechanistic-empirical design method described in the
MEPDG. These plans include local calibration testing and verification to determine
input values and failure criteria. Furthermore, the United States Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) advocates implementation of the mechanistic-empirical
design method. The Guide for the Local Calibration of the Mechanistic-Empirical
Pavement Design Guide (AASHTO, 2010) describes the steps necessary for full
implementation of the mechanistic-empirical method.

8.2.2 Pavement Performance

The functional performance of a pavement depends on how well the pavement serves
the user. In this context, riding comfort or ride quality is the dominant characteristic.
To quantify riding comfort, the serviceability-performance concept was developed by
AASHTO in 1957. The serviceability of a pavement is expressed in terms of the Present
Serviceability Index (PSI). The PSI is obtained from measurements of roughness and
distress such as cracking, patching, and rut depth at a particular time during the
service life of the pavement. Roughness is the dominant factor in estimating the PSI of
a pavement. Both initial serviceability and terminal serviceability are important for
the pavement design. The initial serviceability index (pi) is an estimate by the user of
what the PSI will be immediately after construction. Values of PSI established for
AASHTO road test conditions were 4.2 for flexible pavements and 4.5 for rigid
pavement. The terminal serviceability index (pt) is the lowest acceptable level before
resurfacing or reconstruction is necessary for particular class of road.

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8.2.3 Reliability
Reliability is a means of incorporating certainty into the design process to increase
probability that the various design alternatives will function as planned through the
analysis period. Reliability can also be defined as the probability of achieving the
design life that Ashghal desires for a certain roadway. As the volume of traffic,
difficulty of diverting traffic, and public expectation of availability increase, the risk of
not performing to expectations needs to be minimized. This is accomplished by
selecting higher levels of reliability.

Appendix A presents recommended levels of reliability for various functional

classifications. The higher levels correspond to the facilities that receive the most use,
and the lowest level corresponds to local roads. When selecting the appropriate level
of reliability, consider such factors as the importance of the roadway under
consideration, new or rehabilitation design, implications of future reconstruction,
traffic level, and minor or major road classification. Reliability levels can be slightly
higher or lower based on specific site conditions and should be confirmed with
Ashghal.

8.2.4 Standard Deviation

Select a standard deviation that is representative of local conditions. The 1993
AASHTO Guide recommends a total standard deviation of 0.35 for rigid pavements
and 0.45 for flexible pavements.

8.2.5 Serviceability
The serviceability of pavement is defined as its ability to serve the type of traffic using
the facility. The primary measure of serviceability is the PSI, which ranges from 0 for
an impassible road to 5 for a perfect road. Selection of the lowest allowable PSI or pt
is based on the lowest index that will be tolerated before rehabilitation, resurfacing,
or reconstruction is necessary. In the 1993 AASHTO Guide, an index of 2.5 or higher is
suggested for major arterials, and 2.0 for arterials with smaller traffic volumes. An
index of 2.5 or 3 is often suggested for use in the design of major roads and an index
of 2 for roads with lower classification. For relatively minor roads, for which economic
considerations dictate that initial expenditures be kept low, a pt of 1.5 can be used.
The time at which a given pavement structure reaches its terminal serviceability
depends on traffic volume and the original or initial serviceability.

Values of 4.2 for flexible pavement and 4.5 for rigid pavement are recommended in
the 1993 AASHTO Guide. Appendix A provides levels of serviceability for roadway
classifications in Qatar, based on information provided in Interim Advice Notice 016,
Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a).

Once pi and pt are established, the following equation is used to define the total
change in serviceability index:

PSI = pi pt

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8.2.6 Material Properties: Flexible Design

A structural layer coefficient, ai, is assigned to each pavement layer thickness to
convert actual layer thickness to a Structural Number (SN). This coefficient is assigned
to each layer of materials in the pavement structure. This layer coefficient expresses
the empirical relationship between SN and thickness, and is a measure of the relative
ability of the material to function as a structural component of the pavement
(AASHTO, 1986).

Appendix B provides charts for estimating the structural layer coefficient of AC,
granular base, granular subbase, and cement-treated base. The structural coefficients
of these materials are based on their modulus of elasticity, or resilience.

When considering the modulus for asphalts, it is important to know the ambient
temperature under which the material will be operating. Values in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide are based on a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius (C) and will need to be
adjusted to account for the climate in Qatar.

The modulus of resilience refers to the materials stress-strain behavior under normal
pavement loading conditions. For pavement layer materials, established laboratory
tests are performed to calculate the MR of different materials. For example, the
stiffness of AC can be assessed using Standard Test Method for Determining the
Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures by Indirect Tension Test (ASTM D7369-11).

8.2.7 Material Properties: Rigid Design

Properties for rigid pavement design using the 1993 AASHTO Guide include:

Concrete modulus of rupture

Concrete modulus of elasticity
Load transfer coefficient
Loss of support factor

Concrete modulus of rupture is a measure of the concrete flexural strength. The

flexural strength will vary with concrete mix design, aggregate type and gradation,
and the amount of cement. Flexural strength is proportional to compressive strength.
The modulus of rupture can be approximated by the following equation:

Modulus of rupture (psi) = [fc]2 10

where:
fc = compressive strength in psi.

Values for modulus rupture range from 3.8 MPa to 5.2 MPa (550 psi to 750 psi). PCC
pavement has a value of approximately 4.5 MPa (650 psi).

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Concrete modulus of elasticity can also be approximated from the compressive

strength by the following equation:

elastic modulus (psi) = [fc]0.5 59,000

where:
fc = compressive strength in psi

Values for concrete range from 20,700 MPa to 34,500 MPa (3,000,000 psi to
5,000,000 psi). A typical value for paving grade concrete is 27,600 MPa
(4,000,000 psi).

The load transfer coefficient number will vary, depending on pavement type,
reinforcing, joint properties, and shoulder construction. The load transfer coefficient
can be determined using Table 8.1. In this example, a plain-jointed concrete
pavement with dowelled joints and tied concrete shoulders would provide a load
transfer coefficient of 2.8.

Table 8.1 Recommended Load Transfer Coefficients for Various Pavement Types
and Conditions
Shoulder Asphalt Tied PCC
Load transfer devices Yes No Yes No
Pavement Type
Plain jointed and jointed reinforced 3.2 3.84.4 2.53.1 3.64.2
CRCP 2.93.2 Not applicable 2.32.9 Not applicable

Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

8.2.8 Drainage Coefficient

Drainage of water from over and under the pavement is an important consideration
in pavement design. The drainage coefficient methodology uses a modified layer
coefficient to represent drainage conditions. For example, a higher effective layer
coefficient would be used for improved drainage conditions.

A drainage coefficient (mi) is selected based on the quality of drainage on the

pavement system and percentage of time that the pavement structure is exposed to
moisture levels approaching saturation. These coefficients are used to modify the
structural layer coefficients for granular base and subbase. Recommended mi values
are provided in Table 2.4 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide. However, for general use in
Qatar, a value of 1.0 could be assumed unless there is a risk of high water tables or
excessive irrigation for landscapes on the sides of the road. If conditions cannot be
predicted with accuracy, a value of 1.2 is used.

8.2.9 Environmental Conditions

For pavement performance and pavement structural design, the two main
environmental factors are temperature and rainfall. Temperature will affect the creep
properties of AC, thermal-induced stresses in AC, and contraction and expansion of

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concrete pavement. Material properties used in designs need to be appropriate for

the environmental conditions anticipated.

8.2.10 Traffic
Traffic loading is input as a cumulative number of ESALs. Assessment and prediction
of traffic is discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part.

8.3 Construction Considerations

8.3.1 Asphalt Concrete
For AC to be effective in flexible or composite pavement structure, full adhesion is
needed between the individual layers of asphalt materials so that they act as a single
monolithic layer. To achieve this in practice and to help achieve good, long-life
performance, a tack or bond coat is needed between all layers.

A prime coat shall be placed on granular layers below the AC. The prime coat will aid
in binding and sealing the surface of the granular layer, and bonding the asphalt.

The jointing between paving lanes, if not constructed properly, can allow water to
enter the pavement structure, which could lead to stripping of the binder, loss of
aggregate, and raveling. When preparing specifications for construction, address joint
construction. Density along paving joints and staggering paving joints between
successive lifts need to be addressed. Check asphalt field density at the joint or within
60 cm of the joint. A wedge detail can be used along edges of paving lanes to provide
more surface contact between adjacent lanes. Pavers can also be equipped with a
joint-matching apparatus for continuity between paving lanes or a joint heater device
to ensure good bond between the existing (cold) and new (hot) asphalt layers.
Longitudinal joints between lifts of asphalt need to overlap by at least 150 mm.

To facilitate the development of AC materials for pavement design purposes, Ashghal

has recommended specific performance tests to obtain specific information that can
be used in further pavement designs. Use the Guide for the Performance Testing of
Flexible Pavement Layers (Ashghal, 2013a) as directed.

8.3.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete

CRCP and continuously reinforced concrete base (CRCB) pavements develop a fine
transverse crack pattern soon after the concrete is laid. The crack spacing is initially
about 3 m or 4 m. Further cracking is usual after the road has been in service for a few
years. Continuous longitudinal steel holds the cracks tightly closed, ensuring load
transfer by aggregate interlock and minimizing steel corrosion. Crack propagation in
CRCP/CRCB pavements is closely related to the subsurface friction, the aggregate
used, the strength of the concrete, and the proportion of steel.

The restraint provided by the subbase reduces the amount of movement and is
related to the desired crack pattern. The use of a layer of material under the
CRCP/CRCB with uniform surface properties, such as paver-laid wet-lean concrete or

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an asphalt material, is recommended. The thickness of any underlying asphalt

material can be considered as part of the bound subbase.

Discontinuities in the slab need to be prevented, because they encourage the

formation of closely spaced cracks, which increases the risk of spalling. For this
reason, locate gullies and manholes outside the main CRCP/CRCB slab. If this is not
possible, then the slab around the gullies and manholes is heavily reinforced.

Where a CRCP has an asphalt surface, including a wearing course, surface noise
generation is reduced and water penetration (and the potential for steel corrosion) is
likely to be reduced. A surfacing thickness of 100 mm (or greater) also provides a
degree of thermal protection from rapid temperature changes for the concrete base.

8.3.3 Joints in Rigid Pavements

Temperature and, to a lesser extent, moisture changes cause contraction/expansion
of the slab, which, if retained, induce stresses in the concrete. A separation
membrane is needed between the slab and subbase for URC and JRC pavements to
reduce this effect and to inhibit the formation of mid-bay cracks. The membrane also
helps reduce the loss of water from fresh concrete.

The types of joints used in concrete pavements include contraction, expansion,

warping, isolation, and construction joints. Each type of joint is described in the
following paragraphs.

Contraction joints are constructed in strategic locations to allow the slab to shrink and
crack when its temperature falls. Joints are sawcut or formed to a depth of one-fourth
to one-third the slab thickness and sealed. Consequently, adequate joint design will
allow the slab to expand by approximately the same amount. Contraction joints are
saw-cut to relieve stresses from concrete shrinkage and to control the location of
shrinkage cracks. Saw-cutting is performed after concrete placement and before
hardening, while the concrete is still plastic. Sawcut joints within 24 hours after
placement to prevent random cracking away from joints and load transfer devices.

Expansion joints allow movement that would naturally occur at temperatures higher
than that of the concrete at the time the slab was constructed and allow the slab to
shrink. Transverse joints are either expansion or contraction types.

Warping joints are provided for longitudinal joints only and tie the slabs together;
they act as hinges in the slab.

Isolation joints are used around structures such as manholes, catch basins, and vaults
to prevent bonding of the concrete to fixed objects, and to isolate areas of differing
pavement thicknesses and widths. Isolation joints can include a thickened edge of
150 percent of the normal pavement thickness. They can be doweled if loads will be
transferred across adjoining pavement slabs. Spacing between the adjoining
pavement and structure will be the same as an expansion joint.

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Construction joints are joints made at the end of a days paving in advance
preparation for future paving. Construction joints include load transfer through
dowels in transverse construction joints and tie bars in longitudinal joints and are
sealed the same as contraction joints.

The permitted spacing of transverse joints is a function of slab thickness, aggregate

type, and, for JRC, the quantity of reinforcement. Joint spacing reflects the capacity of
the slab to distribute strain, rather than allow damaging strain concentrations. For
jointed plain concrete pavement, joint spacing is typically 5 m. Dowels are added to
transverse contraction joints for load transfer. Dowel bar sizes vary with slab
thickness, but are typically 460 mm long at 305-mm spacing. Dowel bar diameters are
20 mm to 40 mm for a concrete thickness of 160 mm to 320 mm.

The advantage of concrete containing aggregate with a lower coefficient of thermal

expansion is that it results in less expansion/contraction of the slab, which allows a
greater joint spacing.

The ability of reinforcement to distribute strain increases with the amount of

reinforcement used. Greater joint spacings can be used with larger areas of
reinforcement, although this results in greater movement at each joint and
appropriate sealants must be used.

8.3.4 Smoothness of Pavement Surface

Pavement performance is affected by the smoothness of the pavement surface and
ride quality, which in turn is affected by sound subgrade, subbase, and base
construction; proper jointing in rigid pavements; control of finish grade; and final
surface finish. Pavement surface smoothness can be determined in several ways. The
selection of the method is dependent on the volume and speed of traffic, road
category, and use.

In areas of light and low traffic, it can be permissible to check surface deviations by
using a straight edge. In other areas, a rolling inclinometer, or profilograph, can be
used to check deviations to grade along the profile. In higher speed and higher
classifications of pavement, the International Roughness Index (IRI) is used to
determine ride quality. If using of a profilograph, follow the procedures in Standard
Test Method for Using a Rolling Inclinometer to Measure Longitudinal and Transverse
Profiles of a Traveled Surface [ASTM E2133-03(2013)]. The IRI is reported in
accordance with Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of
Roads from Longitudinal Profile Measurements (ASTM E1926-08).

The QCS 2010 lists the specifications for testing with a 3-m straight edge on minor
roads. A laser road surface testing machine is used to test the finished wearing course
of major roads, such as freeways, expressways, and arterials. Acceptable IRI values for
new construction, rehabilitation, and flexible and rigid pavement are provided in the
QCS 2010. Select the method of testing and determining pavement smoothness with
concurrence with Ashghal procedures at the time of construction.

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9 Traffic Analysis
9.1 Estimation of Annual Average Daily Traffic
A pavement is expected to carry the predicted traffic volume and allowable axle loads
without requiring complete reconstruction for the duration of its design life. At some
point during the design life, the pavement may be in a condition that requires
rehabilitation to improve performance. The pavement then may have reached the
end of its performance life but is still able to carry the traffic loading. Rehabilitation
may consist of an overlay without requiring reconstruction.

In Qatar, the design life for most pavements is 20 years. At 20 years, major
refurbishment is expected. A design life of 20 years does not indicate that routine
maintenance, or surface replacement, is not needed during that time. Significant
changes in predicted traffic, climate, and inadequate maintenance practices may
shorten the life of the pavement and result in the need for early rehabilitation.

At the end of the design life, when the allowable axle loading has been applied or
when the pavement reaches the end of its service life as indicated by the pavement
evaluation survey, the pavement will probably need rehabilitation. Pavement
assessment and rehabilitation are discussed in Chapter 11 in this Part.

9.1.1 Traffic Counts

The necessity for traffic counts depends on the types of road projects being
considered and the relative magnitude of the three types of traffic expected to use
them. These are normal, diverted and developed traffic. Normal traffic is that which
uses or will use the particular roadway. Diverted traffic is that which is attracted to
the new roadway. Developed traffic is that which is generated from the result of new
development.

The determination of traffic, traffic loads, prediction of future traffic, and how loads
are accounted will have a significant impact on the overall pavement structure
needed to support the traffic. Predicting normal and diverted traffic requires
knowledge of the flows on the existing road or near the proposed road, and of the
types of vehicles that are expected to use the road.

Developed traffic cannot be directly counted in advance of construction and is

estimated. Traffic resulting from planned development can be quantified using details
of the planned residential, commercial, and industrial projects. For most roads, it is
likely that some relevant data are available but will likely need to be augmented or
updated by additional counts. Similarly, diverted traffic cannot be counted directly.
Traffic studies need to assess the volume of local traffic diverted to a new or
improved road.

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Conventional traffic counts used to justify or to geometrically design a road project

are usually based on manual or automatic methods where all vehicles are combined
to produce a single value for average daily traffic (ADT). ADT is the total average daily
traffic in both directions, based on annual data. However, for pavement design
purposes, it is essential that classified counts are carried out so that heavy vehicles,
which cause the most pavement damage, can be clearly quantified. A standard
classification is needed in the counting process to yield separate ADT values for each
class of vehicle. For pavement design, axle loading in one direction using one lane is
considered.

Conduct classified counts using Qatars standard 13 traffic classes, as shown in

Table 9.1 Class 1, consisting of cars, and Class 2, consisting of four-wheel drive
vehicles and light pick-ups, cause negligible pavement damage, and hence, are
omitted from the table. Additional information on these vehicles can be found in
Tables 5.2 and 5.3 of Part 2, Planning, of this manual. At the time of design, verify the
information in Table 9.1 for updates on axle loads.

Table 9.1 Qatar Standard Vehicle Classes

Number Wheels (on each side Number of Standard Axles per

Class Type of Axles of the vehicle) Vehicle (80 kilonewtons)

3 Minibus 2 1+2 / 1+1 0.20.5

4 Bus/coach 2 1+2 0.75.0

5 Pickup truck 2 1+1 / 1+2 0.13.0

6 Rigid truck 2 1+2 0.47.0

7 Rigid truck 3 1+2+2 1.56.0

8 Articulated truck 3 1+2+22 0.610.0

9 Articulated truck 4 1+2+22 1.510.0

10 Articulated truck 5 1+2+222 2.57.0

11 Articulated truck 4 1+22+2 1.57.0

12 Articulated truck 5 1+22+22 2.07.0

13 Articulated truck 6 1+22+222 1.57.0

14 Trailer 3 1+2+22 2.07.0

15 Trailer 4 1+22+22 2. 010.0

The number of standard axles per vehicle ranges from vehicles carrying no loads to
those fully loaded at the legal limit, or over the limit. The classification can be manual or
automated.

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In order for axle loading and composition percentages to be representative of the

annual traffic, the method described below is followed unless otherwise stated in the
contract, such as the case of detailed traffic data being unavailable:

Perform traffic counts over 7 days, preferably in each direction separately.

Perform counts outside times of abnormal traffic activity, such as public holidays.
Consider the average of the 24-hour counts, total or vehicle class, in each direction
as one-way ADT, total or vehicle class. One-way ADT may also be calculated from
actual survey volumes from one or more traffic counts for six consecutive days. A
detailed vehicle classification can then developed based on the actual traffic data.
For important roads, repeat the counts several times throughout the year to
improve the accuracy of the ADT values.
If classified counts are not available use the following procedures:
1. Preferably, perform traffic count surveys at similar sites to develop an
approximate traffic volume and heavy vehicle classification.
2. With total traffic, use typical class percentages from historic statistics.
3. If a brownfield site, extract traffic volumes from Qatar Standard Traffic
Manual work peak hour volumes and heavy vehicle classification extracted
from full day model runs.

For the purpose of pavement design, daily traffic is usually assessed from counts by
using one of the following three methods described below. Additional information
transportation study procedures, traffic surveys, data collection and reporting can be
found in the Guidelines and Procedures for Transportation Studies, Rev. 3 (Ministry of
Municipality and Urban Planning [MMUP], 2011).

Classified Countsaxle configuration, number, and weight: Traffic is counted in

accordance with a prescribed classification with axle layout and a sample of
vehicles is weighed to determine actual axle weights. This approach is considered
the most accurate method for estimating load from design traffic loading over the
design period. In this method, the number, configuration, and loading of axles for
each vehicle class are counted and used in design traffic calculations. The classes
include passenger cars, buses, light trucks, and commercial vehicles or heavy
trucks. With knowledge of axle number, axle configuration, and axle load, the
equivalent design loads are then estimated using axle load equivalency factors
(ALEFs) to convert all axles into 80 kN, single-axle, dual-tire axles used in
pavement design. The annual equivalent axle load is then projected and factored
over the design period to calculate the cumulative design traffic loading.
Classified Countstruck class: Vehicles are counted in accordance with a
prescribed classification. For the purpose of traffic prediction, an axle load
equivalency factor (ALEF) is assigned to the axle configuration for each truck class.
The equivalent design loads are then estimated using truck equivalency factors to
convert all traffic into 80 kN, single-axle, dual-tire axles used in pavement design.
The annual equivalent axle load is then projected and factored over the design

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period to calculate the cumulative design traffic loading. ALEFs are provided in the
1993 AASHTO Guide. These ALEF values are used to determine the total number of
equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) used for design purposes. ALEF, and
corresponding ESAL, values vary depending on pavement type and thickness, and
are not the same for flexible and rigid pavement for the same mix of traffic when
using the 1993 AASHTO Guide.
Truck percentage: This method is used when classified counts are not available.
The percentage of heavy traffic is either counted directly, but not classified, or
estimated and used to calculate the design traffic loading in terms of ESALs over
the selected design period by using a single factor calculated based on field
surveys and research studies. The annual equivalent axle load is then projected
and factored over the design period to calculate the cumulative design traffic
loading. Truck percentages will vary depending on location and classification of
roadway. Expressways may have as much as 15 percent trucks, where local roads
may have as little as 1 percent trucks, and industrial areas, weigh stations, and
construction sites could have all trucks.

9.2 Estimating Equivalent Standard Axle Loads

Pavement performance is affected by the magnitude of the applied wheel loads and
the load repetitions. For pavement design purposes, it is essential to consider not only
the number of vehicles that will use the pavement over the design life, but also the
axle loads of these vehicles, as well as tire type, configuration, and pressure. The design
procedure is to calculate cumulative ESALs for the design period. A design traffic
number of a mixed traffic stream of different trucks, axle loads, and axle configurations
is determined by converting each axle load into an equivalent number of standard axle
loads and summing these loads over the design period.

There is an approximate relationship between the damage from a given axle load and
that for any standard axle load, known as the fourth power law, as shown in the
following equation:

ALEF = (AL/ALS)4

where:
ALEF = axle load equivalency factor of axle in question
AL = axle load of axle in question
ALS = standard axle load to which all other axle loads are compared

The factors listed in Table 9.2 and Table 9.3 are for single axles, as compared to an
80 kN standard single axle. Axle type, single, tandem, or tridem, is also important.
Because heavy trucks have multiple axles, most pavement designs primarily consider
the accurate prediction of heavy trucks and their respective expected axle weights.
This also demonstrates the importance of the knowledge of the number of axles per
heavy truck and the expected weight of the axles. The pavement designer needs
traffic surveys from which the number and weight of vehicles can be predicted. If only
inadequate and incomplete data is available, other known and reliable information

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such as product data and truck equipment information and truck percentages and
data from similar locations can be used, along with good engineering judgment, to
estimate axle loads for certain truck types.

Table 9.2 Damage Factors for Light Vehicles

Vehicle Description Damage Factor
1-metric-ton axle (10 kilonewtons) a car) (10/80)4 = 0.00024 (almost zero)
2-metric-ton (20 kilonewtons) a light goods vehicle (20/80)4 = 0.0039

Table 9.3 Damage Factors for Heavy Trucks

Vehicle Description Damage Factor
8-metric-ton axle (80/80)4 = 1
10-metric-ton axle (100/80)4 = 2.44
13-metric-ton axle (130/80)4 = 6.97
15-metric-ton axle (150/80)4 = 12.36
20-metric-ton axle (200/80)4 = 39.06

It is typical to design pavements on the basis of the cumulative traffic to be carried

over the design life in years, expressed in standard axles. Needed information
includes:

Traffic counts, both trucks and cars

Axles per vehicle and axle types
Axle loads
ESALs
Growth rates and corresponding growth factor
Directional or proportioned traffic
Determination of cumulative standard axles
Design life

Accurate traffic predictions can significantly influence the life of a designed pavement.
Key considerations are:

Correctness of load equivalency values used to estimate relative damage of axle

loads of different mass and configurations
Accuracy of traffic volume and weight information used to represent the actual
loading projections
Prediction of ESALs over the design period
Interaction of age and traffic as it affects pavement performance

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9.2.1 Standard Axle Load

For pavement design purposes, the effect of vehicle axles can be expressed in terms
of a standard axle. In the AASHTO road test conducted in the United States from
1958 to 1960, this term was defined as one axle carrying 18,000 pounds.
Subsequently, the load has been rationalized in metric units to 80 kN (equivalent to
8,157 kilograms [kg]). To determine the cumulative axle loads over the design life of
the pavement, it is typical to convert the number of each class of heavy vehicle axles
to an equivalent number of 80 kN standard axles. The relationship between axle loads
can be expressed using the following equation:

()
= ( )

where:
= typically between 4 and 5 depending on the type of distress and the design of the
pavement structure. This exponent is less for weaker asphalt pavements.

Overloaded vehicles cause significant pavement damage. In the case of a five-axle

articulated truck, this can increase from about four equivalent standard axles for the
designed weight limit, up to 160 equivalent standard axles for some overloaded
vehicles.

If data are unavailable, axle loads can be measured using portable weighbridges or
weigh-in-motion systems. Several types of weigh-in-motion systems are available.
Associated measurement errors are available in Standard Specification for Highway
Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Systems with User Requirements and Test Methods
(ASTM E1318-09). Such systems generally need regular calibration and can be
corrected for vehicle speed and road surface smoothness.

9.2.2 Axle Load Limits

Chapter XII, Article 86 of Law No. 19 of 2007 regarding the Traffic Law established
legal load limits for vehicles using public roads in Qatar. Legal load limits were
established for two types of axles: single axle with dual-tire assembly, and tandem
axle with dual-tire assembly. No specific legal limit is defined for the now common
tridem axle with dual-tire assembly or the single axle with a single tire

9.2.3 Design Life

Pavements in Qatar have been designed for a predicted life of 20 years. As materials,
construction methods, and pavement design become more advanced, and where there
are also small differences between pavement design thickness for 20 and 40 years of
design life, it is probably more cost-effective to consider a 40-year design life for new
pavement. Designs for 20 years and 40 years can be compared to determine which
provide the best value. In some cases, it can be cost-effective to design for 20 years
with the intention to apply an overlay to extend the life from 20 years to 40 years.
Expressways and freeways with high traffic volumes warrant the application of a
40-year design life because of the high user costs associated with a reconstruction in

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20-years. In any case, a life-cycle cost analysis, as discussed in Chapter 12 in this Part,
may be performed to compare the life-cycle costs of 20- and 40-year pavements.

During the design period, the road pavement is expected to perform with no major
failures. Because of environmental conditions, it is inevitable that surfacing materials
will need to be replaced.

9.2.4 Growth Rate

Once traffic levels have been determined for current conditions, they need to be
predicted for future growth to comply with the development of the country. Growth
can be negligible for some minor roads, but for major roads growth may be
significant. Given the developing economy in Qatar, uncertainty about traffic volumes
and types is high. To predict traffic growth, consider the following four traffic
categories:

Normal traffic that uses the route

Planned traffic for proposed roads
Diverted traffic, which is attracted to the route because of the improved
pavement, detour from construction or other road closure, or congestion and
delays on other roads
Development traffic, which arises from planned and unplanned development
along the road corridor (this is sometimes called generated traffic)

Normal traffic can be assumed to continue to grow according to current trends, either
as a fixed number of vehicles per year or as a cumulative percentage of the current
total. Diverted traffic can be considered from an economic perspective; this could
include all vehicles that would save time or money by switching from an existing route
to the newly paved route. Diverted traffic is usually predicted to grow at the same
rate as the traffic on the road from which it has been diverted.

The volume of the traffic due to planned development can be estimated from the
details of policy plans, but is often difficult to predict with accuracy. The prediction is
influenced by factors such as the availability of land for such development and
economic growth. Historical data from previous road projects can provide relevant
information. The Qatar Strategic Transport Model was developed for all of Qatar and
is a good source of information for development traffic of different land uses. The use
of different trip rates for different land uses is also a common practice to estimate
developed traffic. The Guidelines and Procedures for Transportation, Rev. 3 (MMUP,
2011) provides additional information on the development of trip generation and land
use data. A construction traffic due to new development is also to be considered.

For roads that are to be rehabilitated, past growth can be an indication of future
growth. For new roads, predicted growth will depend on the results of traffic impact
studies. Traffic growth, which is dependent on the selected design period and growth
rate, can be calculated for each type of vehicle.

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Growth is usually compound and cumulative from year to year. It is sometimes easier
to work with an overall growth factor (GF) where the initial traffic (year one) is
multiplied by a single factor, taking the compound growth into account. For a growth
rate (g) and design period (t), a GF can be expressed as follows:

(1 + ) 1
=

For ease of calculation, GF can be determined for any type of vehicle for any design
period and growth rate. For example, the GF is 29.78 for a 20-year design period and
a growth rate of 4 percent per year.

Different growth rates can be used for different vehicle classes if sufficiently detailed
information is available. Past experience in Qatar road projects has shown that GFs
for traffic to be used to estimate design ESALs are as shown in Interim Advice
Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a), provided here as Table 9.4.
Higher growth rates are unlikely to be sustained for the whole of the design life; few
economies will sustain the economic growth needed for continuing high traffic
growth. Growth rates were determined at the time of the development of this
manual, and care needs to be taken when selecting and verifying the growth rate to
be applied at the time the roadway is opened to traffic. Because the growth rate will
influence the total traffic volume for the life of the pavement, it is important to
consider all factors and resources to determine a sustainable growth rate for the
entire design life.

Table 9.4 Growth Rate for Traffic to be Used to Estimate Design ESALs for Qatar

Traffic Growth Rate per Annum

Type Compoundeda Remarks

New construction This value is subject to change due to

46%
projects significant proposed construction works.

Rehabilitation and This value is subject to change due to

24%
twinning projects significant proposed construction works.

Notes:
a These values are estimates only; use actual figures where possible.

Further growth ought not be applied to any given lane once traffic levels are saturated.
Source: Table A-2 in Interim Advice Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a)

9.2.5 Directional and Lane Distribution Factors

Some traffic count data will be in the form of annual average daily traffic (AADT). For
pavement design only, the traffic in one direction is needed; this is annual average
daily flow (AADF). It is best to carry out traffic counts in each direction separately;
however, if this is not possible and the directional split is not known, then the flow in
one direction is assumed as a minimum of 55 percent of the total.

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Traffic distribution on multi-lane roads is an additional factor to consider. On roads

with more than one lane in each direction, it is necessary to assume a split between
lanes. As flow increases in the right lane, more vehicles, including heavy vehicles, will
generally move over to an adjacent lane. For two-lane highways, the lane in each
direction is the design lane and so the lane distribution is 100 percent. For multi-lane
highways, the design lane is the outside lane. Table 9.5 shows the approved lane
distribution factors used in Qatar.

Where detailed information is not available, the values in Table 9.5 can be considered
under normal traffic conditions. Use these valies with caution if directional
distribution is not balanced or if designated heavy vehicle lanes are used, or both. On
multi-lane highways, the total traffic volume represents all lanes in one direction.

The AASHTO design guidelines can be used where such distribution factors based on
actual field surveys are not available. The 1993 AASHTO Guide provides a good basis
for traffic distribution and percentage of design traffic in the design lane, depending
on the number of lanes open to truck traffic in each direction. In Qatar, the values
shown in Table 9.5 can be used, as presented in Interim Advice Notice 016 (Ashgahl,
2012a).

Table 9.5 Traffic Distribution and Percentage of Design Traffic in the Design Lane
for Qatar
Number of Lanes per Direction % in Design Lane
1 100
2 90
3 60
4 40
Source: Interim Advice Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a)

Give special consideration when estimating ESAL on a high volume heavy goods
vehicle turning lanes for heavy trucks. Evaluate the selection and application of the
lane distribution factor based on engineering judgment or actual survey data on
turning volumes for heavy trucks.

9.3 Determination of Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle

Loads
As stated in Section 9.2 in this Part, the purpose of predicting future traffic is to
calculate cumulative ESALs for the design period to determine a design traffic number
for a mixed traffic stream of different trucks, axle loads, and axle configurations. This
is accomplished by converting each axle load into an equivalent number of equivalent
axle loads) and summing these loads over the design period.

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The basic process is accomplished by conducting the following steps:

Step 1: Determine vehicle flow (AADT) at the beginning of the design period.

Calculation of predicted traffic will usually begin with results of a traffic count. It is
likely that one of three types of count will be available (see Section 9.1 in this Part):

1a All traffic count: all vehicles not classified by type.

1b Total count: all traffic count with truck and car classifications.
1c Classified count: the number of vehicles in specific classes. Qatar uses a
classification system with 15 classes (see Table 9.1).

For each type of count, the count can be one-way or two-way.

Step 2: Determine largest AADF in one direction.

If counts have been carried out in each direction separately, the traffic from Step 1
can be proportioned appropriately. If counts are two-way, then a split needs to be
assumed. If local knowledge suggests that the road is traveled more in one direction
than the other, this is taken into account. In the absence of other information, it is
prudent to adopt a 55 percent flow in the direction being designed.

AADF in one direction is adopted based on six consecutive days of traffic count survey
data from one or more counts through the year. If estimating AADF from traffic model
data, full day or peak hour volumes, calculate AADF from two-way volumes and
applicable directional and lane distribution factors.

Step 3: Determine the proportion and number of trucks in the overall flow.

From Step 1a: In this case, the designer will make an assessment of the number of
trucks in the overall vehicle count. If no other information is available, then the Qatar
average proportion of trucks for the appropriate road classification can be used.
Figure 7.1 from Guidelines and Procedures for Transportation Studies, Rev. 3 (MMUP,
2011), can also be used to estimate the percentage of heavy vehicle by road
classification.

From Step 1b: The overall proportion/number of trucks will be identified.

From Step 1c: A classified traffic count will give the number of trucks in the overall
traffic flow, classified by truck type or class. For example, bus/coach, rigid truck-three-
axle, articulated truck-six-axle, or 1+tandem+tridem. In Qatar, Classes 1 and 2 are
light vehicles and are not considered in the calculation. Classes 3 to 15 are counted as
heavy vehicles or trucks.

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Step 4: If sufficient information is available over the proposed design life, apply a
growth rate to the overall number of trucks or to each individual truck class. Growth
factors (GFs) can be used instead of growth rates; GFs take the design life into
account.

For roads where trucks are permitted to use more than one lane, growth rates and
GFs need to be applied to the ADT or average daily flow value, not to the expected
lane flow at opening. The traffic is then apportioned between lanes as described in
Step 6. Where high growth rates are used for long design lives or there is high traffic
for a single lane flow, or a combination thereof, it is possible to generate a traffic flow
that will not be sustained by the road layout. This will result in a disproportionately
high cumulative ESAL value.

Step 5: Determine an average ESAL factor, or truck factor, or the ESAL factor for
each class of truck to determine the total number of ESALs.

Where only the total number of trucks is available (Steps 1a and 1b), an overall ESAL
factor is used. If the proportion (and hence number) of trucks in the overall flow can
be identified, but no classification of different trucks is available, then it will be
necessary to apply a single representative ESAL factor to the truck count.

Where a classified count is available from Step 1c, then a separate ESAL factor is
applied to each class. If no other information is available, then it will be necessary to
apply a single representative ESAL factor to the entire truck count.

ESAL factors can be established only where actual axle weights are known. It is
unusual to commission axle weight studies for a particular project. It is expected that
values are determined from several counts set up on a regional or countrywide basis.

The assessment of the truck factor is critical in determining the cumulative ESALs.
Establishing ESALs from tandem and tridem axles is not straightforward. Tables 9.6
through 9.12 can be used for estimating ESALs.

Factors for the consideration of single, tandem, and tridem axles are provided in the
1993 AASHTO Guide. Tables D.4, D.5, D.13 and D.14 in Appendix D of the 1993
AASHTO Guide are provided herein as Table 9.6 and Table 9.7.

In this method, the axle equivalency factor is dependent on the pt and the overall SN.
For instance, from Table 9.7, for a serviceability level of 2.5 and an SN of 4, a tandem
axle carrying 80 kN (18 kips) has an equivalence of about 0.092, and a 150-kN
(40-kips) tandem axle has an equivalence of about 2.03. Examples of tabulated values
from Appendix D, Tables D.4 and D.5, in the 1993 AASHTO Guide are shown in
Table 9.6 through Table 9.9. An example calculation of the overall truck factor from
Figure D.1 in Appendix D of the 1993 AASHTO Guide is reproduced here as Table 9.10.
A rigid ESAL calculation is provided in Table 9.11 and a blank worksheet for
determining 18-kip ESALs is provided as Table 9.12.

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Step 6: Determine the proportion of truck traffic in the most heavily trafficked lane

See Table 9.5.

Step 7: Calculate traffic using information from Steps 1 to 6.

The calculation can be tabulated as the example from the 1993 AASHTO Guide, using
Table 9.10 and the worksheet in Table 9.12.

Table 9.6 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Single Axle, and
Pt of 2.5
Pavement Structural Number
Axle Load (kip) 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0.0004 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
4 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.002
6 0.011 0.017 0.017 0.013 0.010 0.009
8 0.032 0.047 0.051 0.041 0.034 0.031
10 0.078 0.102 0.118 0.102 0.088 0.080
12 0.168 0.198 0.229 0.213 0.189 0.176
14 0.328 0.358 0.399 0.388 0.360 0.342
16 0.591 0.613 0.646 0.645 0.623 0.606
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 1.61 1.57 1.49 1.47 1.51 1.55
22 2.48 2.38 2.17 2.09 2.18 2.30
24 3.69 3.49 3.09 2.89 3.03 3.27
26 5.33 4.99 4.31 3.91 4.09 4.48
28 7.49 6.98 5.90 5.21 5.39 5.98
30 10.3 9.5 7.9 6.8 7.0 7.8
32 13.9 12.8 10.5 8.8 8.9 10.0
34 18.4 16.9 13.7 11.3 11.2 12.5
Source: Table D4 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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Table 9.7 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Tandem Axles,
and Pt of 2.5
Pavement Structural Number
Axle Load
(kip) 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0005 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002
6 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001
8 0.004 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.003
10 0.008 0.013 0.011 0.009 0.007 0.006
12 0.015 0.024 0.023 0.018 0.014 0.013
14 0.026 0.041 0.042 0.033 0.027 0.024
16 0.044 0.065 0.070 0.057 0.047 0.043
18 0.070 0.097 0.109 0.092 0.077 0.070
20 0.107 0.141 0.162 0.141 0.121 0.110
22 0.160 0.198 0.229 0.207 0.180 0.166
24 0.231 0.273 0.315 0.292 0.260 0.242
26 0.327 0.370 0.420 0.401 0.364 0.342
28 0.451 0.493 0.548 0.534 0.495 0.470
30 0.611 0.648 0.703 0.695 0.658 0.633
32 0.813 0.843 0.889 0.887 0.857 0.834
34 1.06 1.08 1.11 1.11 1.09 1.08
36 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38
38 1.75 1.73 1.69 1.68 1.70 1.73
40 2.21 2.16 2.06 2.03 2.08 2.14
42 2.76 2.67 2.49 2.43 2.51 2.61
44 3.41 3.27 2.99 2.88 3.00 3.16
Source: Table D5 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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Table 9.8 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Single Axle, and Pt
of 2.5
Axle Slab Thickness, D (inches)
Load
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(kip)
0.000
2 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
2
4 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
6 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
8 0.039 0.035 0.033 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032
10 0.097 0.089 0.084 0.082 0.081 0.080 0.080 0.080 0.080
12 0.203 0.189 0.181 0.176 0.175 0.174 0.174 0.173 0.173
14 0.376 0.360 0.347 0.341 0.338 0.337 0.336 0.336 0.336
16 0.634 0.623 0.610 0.604 0.601 0.599 0.599 0.599 0.598
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 1.51 1.52 1.55 1.57 1.58 1.58 1.59 1.59 1.59
22 2.21 2.20 2.28 2.34 2.38 2.40 2.41 2.41 2.41
24 3.16 3.10 3.22 3.36 3.45 3.50 3.53 3.54 3.55
26 4.41 4.26 4.42 4.67 4.85 4.95 5.01 5.04 5.05
28 6.05 5.76 5.92 6.29 6.61 6.81 6.92 6.98 7.01
30 8.16 7.67 7.79 8.28 8.79 9.14 9.35 9.46 9.52
32 10.8 10.1 10.1 10.7 11.4 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7
34 14.1 13.0 12.9 13.6 14.6 15.4 16.0 16.4 16.5
Source: Table D13 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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Table 9.9 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Tandem Axles, and
Pt of 2.5
Axle Slab Thickness, D (inches)
Load
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(kip)
2 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
4 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
6 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
8 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
10 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012
12 0.031 0.028 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025
14 0.057 0.052 0.049 0.048 0.047 0.047 0.047 0.047 0.047
16 0.097 0.089 0.084 0.082 0.081 0.081 0.080 0.080 0.080
18 0.155 0.143 0.136 0.133 0.132 0.131 0.131 0.131 0.131
20 0.234 0.220 0.211 0.206 0.204 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.203
22 0.340 0.325 0.313 0.308 0.305 0.304 0.304 0.304 0.304
24 0.475 0.462 0.450 0.444 0.441 0.440 0.439 0.439 0.439
26 0.644 0.637 0.627 0.622 0.620 0.619 0.618 0.618 0.618
28 0.855 0.854 0.852 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.840 0.840 0.840
30 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14
32 1.43 1.44 1.47 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.51 1.51 1.51
34 1.82 1.82 1.87 1.92 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.97 1.97
36 2.29 2.27 2.35 2.43 2.48 2.51 2.52 2.52 2.53
38 2.85 2.80 2.91 3.03 3.12 3.16 3.18 3.20 3.20
40 3.52 3.42 3.55 3.74 3.87 3.94 3.98 4.00 4.01
42 4.32 4.16 4.30 4.55 4.74 4.86 4.91 4.95 4.96
44 5.26 5.01 5.16 5.48 5.75 5.92 6.01 6.06 6.09
Source: Table D14 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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Table 9.10 Computation of Truck Load Factor for Five-Axle or Greater Trucks on
Flexible Pavements with an SN=5 and a Terminal Serviceability of 2.5
Axle Load Axle Load Equivalency Factor Number of Axles 18-kip EALs
P = 2.5
Single Axles SN = 5
Under 3,000 0.0002 0 = 0.000
3,0006,999 0.0050 1 = 0.005
7,0007,999 0.0320 6 = 0.192
8,00011,999 0.0870 144 = 12.528
12,00015,999 0.3600 16 = 5,760
26,00029,999 5,3890 1 = 5.3890
Tandem Axle Groups
Under 6,000 0.0100 0 = 0.000
6,00011,993 0.0100 14 = 0.140
12,00017,999 0.0440 21 = 0.924
18,00023,999 0.1480 44 = 6.512
24,00029,999 0.4260 42 = 17.892
30,00032,000 0.7530 44 = 33.132
32,00132,500 0.8850 21 = 18.585
32,50133,999 1.0020 101 = 101.202
34,00035,999 1.2300 43 = 52.890
18-kips EALs for all trucks weighed = 255.151
Truck Load Factor = 18-kip EALs for all trucks weighed = 255.151 = 1.5464
Number of trucks weighed 165 = 165
Notes:
kip = 1,000 pounds-force
EAL = equivalent axle load
Source: Figure D.1 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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Table 9.11 Computation of Truck Load Factor for Five-Axle or Greater Trucks on
Rigid Pavements
Axle Load Axle Load Equivalency Factor Number of Axles 18-kip EALs
P = 2.5
Single Axles
D = 12 inches
Under 3,000 0.0011 0 = 0.000
3,0006,999 0.0006 1 = 0.006
7,0007,999 0.0265 6 = 0.159
8,00011,999 0.0800 144 = 11.52
12,00015,999 0.3360 16 = 5.376
26,00029,999 6.9200 1 = 6.92
Tandem Axle Groups
Under 6,000 0.002 0 = 0.000
6,00011,993 0.0085 14 = 0.119
12,00017,999 0.0635 21 = 1.754
18,00023,999 0.2530 44 = 11.132
24,00029,999 0.7335 42 = 30.807
30,00032,000 1.3250 44 = 58.300
32,00132,500 1.5675 21 = 32.918
32,50133,999 1.7975 101 = 181.548
34,00035,999 2.2450 43 = 96.535
18-kip EALs for all trucks weighed = 437.094
Truck load factor = 18-kip EALs for all trucks weighed = 413.11 = 2.649
Number of trucks weighed = 165
Notes:
kip = 1,000 pounds-force
EAL = equivalent axle load

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Table 9.12 Worksheet for Calculating 18-kip ESAL Applications

Analysis Period =______________________Years
Location_______________ Assumed SN or D = ___________________________
Current Growth Design ESAL Factor Design ESAL
Vehicle Types Traffic (A) Factors (B) Traffic (C) (D) (E)
Passenger cars
Buses
Panel and pickup trucks
Other 2-axle/4-tire trucks
2-axle/6-tire trucks
3 or more axle trucks
All single unit trucks
3 axle tractor semitrailers
4 axle tractor semitrailers
5+ axle tractor semitrailers
All tractor semitrailers
5 axle double trailers
6+axle double trailers
All double trailer combos
3 axle truck-trailers
4 axle truck-trailers
5+ axle truck-trailers
All truck-trailer combos
All Vehicles Design ESAL
Source: Table D.19 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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10 Design of New Pavements

10.1 Flexible Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide
The following steps are used for the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for
flexible pavement.

Step 1: Estimate future traffic for the performance period in ESAL.

This is explained in detail in Chapter 9 in this Part.

Step 2: Calculate appropriate SN for the initial pavement.

The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for flexible pavement is based on
identifying a flexible pavement SN to withstand the projected level of axle load traffic.

The following information will be needed to calculate SN:

The estimated future traffic for the performance period in ESALs

The reliability, R, which assume all inputs at average value
The overall standard deviation, S0
The effective resilient modulus of roadbed material, MR
The design serviceability loss, PSI = Terminal PSI - Initial PSI

The SN can be calculated from the formula or nomograph presented in the 1993
AASHTO Guide and reproduced in Appendix D.

Step 3: Select layer thicknesses.

Once the SN for an initial pavement structure is determined, it is necessary to identify

a set of pavement layer thicknesses which, when combined, will provide the load-
carrying capacity corresponding to the design SN. The following equation provides the
basis for converting SN into actual thickness of surface, base, and subbase:

SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3

where:
a1, a2, a3 = Layers coefficient representative of surface, base and subbase
courses, respectively
D1, D2, D3 = actual thicknesses (in inches) of surface, base, and subbase courses,
respectively
m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for base and subbase, respectively

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The SN equation does not have a unique solution. Many combinations of layer
thicknesses are satisfactory solutions. The design process is an example of the 1993
AASHTO Guide empirical design method. Other considerations are also included in the
process, such as the minimum design thickness of pavement layers from the layered
design analysis. This is needed to design an adequate thickness for each pavement layer
under traffic loading.

The layered design analysis is used for solving the design equation in this step.
Figure 10.1 shows the procedures for determining thickness of the pavement layers
using a layered analysis approach. In a layered analysis approach, the SN needed over
the roadbed soil and each pavement layer is determined using the applicable strength
values for each. Using the differences between the computed SNs over each layer, the
minimum allowable thickness of any given layer can be determined. Figure 3.2 in the
1993 AASHTO Guide is provided herein as Figure 10.1 and Appendix D. Note that the
1993 AASHTO Guide and the equations and nomographs within that are referenced
and used in this manual are in imperial units. Therefore, the example provided is in
imperial units and the designer must convert to metric units as appropriate. Software
for the empirical design method is available.

Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.1 Procedure for Determining Thickness of Layers Using a Layered
Analysis Approach

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10.1.1 Example Flexible Pavement Design

10.1.1.1 Assumptions
Performance period: 40 years
Two-way AADT: 10,000 vehicles
Number of lanes in each direction: 2
Percentage of traffic in design 60%
direction:
Percentage of trucks in design lane: 90%
Annual growth: 2.7%

AADT in design direction = 10,000 0.6 = 6,000

AADT in design lane = 6,000 0.9 = 5,400

10.1.1.2 Determine Design Traffic

The truck factor depends on the weight of the vehicle and the wheel configuration.
The truck factors, or ESALs per truck are assumed for this example and are shown in
Column (b) of Table 10.1, which summarizes the design traffic calculations. The truck
factors are provided for this illustration only and are not intended to apply to any or
all cases of actual loads. Actual truck factors are to be verified for design.

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Table 10.1 Summary of Design Traffic Calculations

(a) (c) (d) (e)
Assumed (b) Commercial ESALs per ESALs per
Percentage of ESALs per Vehicle Per Day Vehicle per Vehicle per
Category AADT Truck (5,400 (a/100)) Day, (b) (c) Year, (d) 365r
3 1 0.5 54 27 9,855
4 1 2 54 108 39,420
5 1 2 54 108 39,420
6 1 4 54 216 78,840
7 1 4 54 216 78,840
8 1 5 54 270 98,550
9 1 5 54 270 98,550
10 1 6 54 324 118,260
11 1 6 54 324 118,260
12 0.5 6 27 162 59,130
13 0.5 6 27 162 59,130
(g) ESAL
(f) 40-year Compound Growth Factor (Compound)
Category Assumed Annual Growth, g (1+g)t 1)/g (e) (g)
3 2.7 70.474 694,521
4 2.7 70.474 2,778,085
5 2.7 70.474 2,778,085
6 2.7 70.474 5,556,170
7 2.7 70.474 5,556,170
8 2.7 70.474 6,945,213
9 2.7 70.474 6,945,213
10 2.7 70.474 8,334,255
11 2.7 70.474 8,334,255
12 27 70.474 4,167,128
13 27 70.474 4,167,128
Total ESAL: 56,256,223
Notes:
AADT = annual average daily traffic
ESAL = equivalent single-axle load

10.1.1.3 Selection of Design Parameters

Reliability is a means of incorporating a degree of certainty in the design process to
increase the probability that the various design alternatives will function as planned
through the analysis period. The reliability factor accounts for variations in the traffic
and performance predictions and, therefore, provides a predetermined level of
reliability that facility will correctly function for the design period.

Select higher levels of reliability to minimize the performance risk because the volume
of traffic, the difficulty of diverting the traffic, and public expectations of availability
increase.

Reliability (FreewayRural): 90%

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Serviceability is the ability of a pavement to serve the type of traffic that uses it. The
primary measure of serviceability is the Present Serviceability Index (PSI), which
ranges from 0 (impassible road) to 5 (perfect road). The basic design philosophy is the
serviceability-performance concept, which provides a means of designing a pavement
based on a specific total traffic volume and a minimum level of serviceability desired
at the end of the performance period (1993 AASHTO Guide).

Standard Deviation (Flexible): 0.45

Assumed Serviceability Index:
P0 (initial) = 4.2
Pt (Terminal) = 2.5 minimum
PSI = P0 Pt = 1.7

Layer coefficient: a

Three-layer designs (asphalt, aggregate base, subbase):

Surface course: 3,000 MPa = 435,000 psi (assumed)
Aggregate base: 200 MPa = 30,000 psi (assumed)
Subbase: 145 MPa = 21,000 psi (assumed)

According to Figure 10.2, Figure 10.3, and Figure 10.4, the coefficients of layers are
summarized below. Copies of these figures are provided in Appendix B.

a1 (asphalt) = 0.44
a2 (aggregate base) = 0.14
a3 (subbase) = 0.10

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Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.2 Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient of Dense-Graded
Asphalt Concrete Based on Elastic (Resilient) Modulus

Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.3 Variation in Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) with Various Base
Strength Parameters

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Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.4 Variation in Aggregate Subbase Layer Coefficient (a32) with Various
Base Strength Parameters

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10.1.1.4 Layered System Analysis

With flexible pavements, the structure is a layered system and is designed
accordingly. The SN needed over the roadbed soil, subbase layer, and base layer is
calculated using the applicable strength values for each, with the layer immediately
below acting as the foundation. This provides the minimum allowable thickness for
any given layer. The SN for the subbase layer is equal to the SN over the subbase
layer, subtracted from the SN needed over the roadbed soil.

Assumed CBR: 5%
Roadbed soil MR: 1,500 CBR
MR : 1,500 5% = 7,500 psi
SN needed above the subgrade from Figure 10.5:
SN3 = 6.3 for surface course + base course + subbase

SN2 above subbase with a CBR of 26 percent assumed:

From Figure 10.3, MR = 21,000 psi

Using Figure 10.5, SN2 = 4.50 for surface course + base course

SN1 above aggregate base with a CBR of 100 percent assumed:

From Figure 10.3, MR = 30,000 psi

Using Figure 10.5, SN1 = 4.00 (surface course)

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Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.5 Design Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input

For calculating the layer thickness according to layered method:

D1 (asphalt) > SN1/a1

= 4.0 0.44 = 9.09 inches, use 9.5 inches

SN1 = a1 D1 = 0.44 9.5 = 4.18

D2 (base course) > (SN2 - SN1) a2m2; where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for
no drainage issues

= (4.50 4.18) (0.14 1.0) = 2.28 inches, assume minimum of 6 inches

SN2 = (D2 a2 m2) = 6 0.14 1.0= 0.84

D3 (subbase) > SN3 (SN1 + SN2) a3m3, where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1
for no drainage issues.

= 6.30 (4.18 + 0.84) (0.1 1.0) = 12.8 inches, assume 13 inches

SN3 = D3 a3 m3 = 13 0.1 1.0 = 1.30

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Check:

Total SN needed = 6.30

SN1 = 4.18 (asphalt)

SN2 = 0.84 (aggregate base)
SN3 = 1.30 (subbase)
Total = 6.32 > 6.30; the design is sufficient

There is no unique answer for the pavement design. This procedure will give a preliminary
design thickness for each layer. However, it is possible to increase the thickness of one
layer and consider the effect on other layers. For example, if we consider 11 inches for
asphalt, the subbase thickness will be reduced as shown in the following:

SN1 = 0.44 1 = 4.84

Maintain the minimum 6 inches of base.

SN = 6 0.14 = 0.84

D3 (subbase) > SN3 (SN1 + SN2) a3m3, where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for
no drainage issues.

= 6.30 (4.84 + 0.84) (0.1 1.0) = 6.2 inches, assume 7 inches

By adding 1.5 inches of asphalt, the subbase thickness will be reduced by 6 inches.

Check:

Total SN needed = 6.30

SN1 = 4.84 (asphalt)

SN2 = 0.84 (aggregate base)
SN3 = 0.70 (subbase)
Total = 6.38 > 6.30; the design is sufficient

Table 10.2 summarizes the two pavement design options. It shows the subbase
thickness can be reduced by 6 inches by increasing the asphalt thickness by 1.5 inches.
There is no unique answer for the pavement design. The designer needs to choose the
appropriate design option based on constructability, material availability, and cost.
When evaluating a reduced subbase alternative, verify that the subbase can adequately
support construction traffic.

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Table 10.2 Summary of Pavement Options

Layer Option 1 Option 2
Asphalt thickness (inches) 9.5 11
Granular base thickness (inches) 6 6
Subbase thickness (inches) 13 7

10.2 Rigid Pavement Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide

The following steps are used for the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for
rigid pavement:

Step 1: Estimate future traffic for the performance period in ESAL

As discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part, the ESAL value for each vehicle is dependent on
pavement type, serviceability, and slab thickness. The ESAL values per category of
vehicle in the flexible design example were assumed and were within the range of
ESAL values shown in Table 9.1. Because damage factors are different for rigid
pavement, ESAL values for rigid pavement will be greater than those for flexible
pavement for the same mix of traffic. However, for this example, the same number of
ESALs will be used as in the flexible design examples. When specific axles weights are
known, determine the design ESAL values, as shown in Table 9.10.

Design ESALs = 56,256,223

Step 2: Determine the effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k-value, of the

supporting foundation, determined by subgrade soil Resilient Modulus (MR) and
thickness and Elastic Modulus of any subbase layers.

For this example, the foundation will consist of 150 mm of aggregate subbase, placed
on the same subgrade as in the flexible design example.

The following information will be needed to calculate the effective k-value:

Subgrade soil MR
Base MR and thickness
Depth to bedrock
Loss of support factor

Determine the effective subgrade k-value by using Figure 3.3 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, included herein as Figure 10.6. Figure 3.3 is also provided in Appendix C.

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Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.6 Chart for Determining Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

In this example, the effective k-value is approximately 400 pounds per cubic inch (pci).
This value is then corrected for depth to bedrock, if applicable, and LS, depending on
the material. Figure 3.4 from the 1993 AAHSTO Guide is used to correct the k-value
for the effects of bedrock. Table 2.7 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide, included herein as
Table 10.3, can be used to estimate the Loss of Support, LS, value.

Table 10.3 Typical Ranges of Loss of Support Factors for Various Types of
Materials
Type of Material Loss of Support
Cement Treated Granular Base (E = 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Cement Aggregate Mixtures (E = 500,000 to 1,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Asphalt Treated Base (E = 350,000 to 1,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Bituminous Stabilized Mixtures (E = 40,000 to 300,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Lime Stabilized (E = 20,000 to 70,000 psi) 1.0 to 3.0
Unbound Ground Materials (E = 15,000 to 45,000 psi) 1.0 to 3.0
Fine Grained or Natural Subgrade Materials (E = 3,000 to 40,000 psi) 2.0 to 3.0
Note:
psi = pounds per square inch
Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)

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Assuming an LS value of 2.0 for a granular subbase with an MR value of 145 MPa, and
a depth to bedrock of greater than 10 feet, use the previously determined effective
k-value (400 pci) and Figure 3.6 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide, reproduced herein as
Figure 10.7, to determine the final effective k-value. In this example, the value is 40.
Figure 3.6 is also provided in Appendix C.

Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.7 Correction for Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Loss of
Support

Step 3: Determine values for design parameters

The following information will be needed to determine the slab thickness:

Reliability
Serviceability loss
Overall standard deviation
Concrete modulus of rupture
Concrete modulus of elasticity
Load transfer coefficient

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Overall Drainage Coefficient: Reliability for this example is the same as for the flexible
design example.

Reliability (FreewayRural): 90%

Serviceability for rigid pavements will differ from that for flexible pavements. Initial
serviceability is set at 4.50 for rigid pavements. Terminal serviceability will vary with
the classification of roadway. In this case, for a roadway with a high traffic volume, a
terminal serviceability is set at 3.00.

Assumed Serviceability Index: P0 (initial) = 4.5

Pt (Terminal) = 3.0 minimum

PSI = P0 - Pt = 1.5

Standard Deviation (Rigid): 0.35

Concrete Modulus Rupture: As discussed in Section 8.2 in this Part, a value of

4.5 MPa is used.

Concrete Modulus of Elasticity: As discussed in Section 8.2 in this Part, a value of

28,000 MPa is used.

Load Transfer Coefficient: The load transfer coefficient is discussed in Section 8.2 in
this Part. In this example, a plain-jointed concrete pavement with doweled joints and
tied concrete shoulders would provide a load transfer coefficient of 2.8 (see
Table 8.1).

Drainage Coefficient: For this example, 1.0 will be used for granular subbase, as in the
flexible design example. If using an open-graded drainable base, a value of 1.2 can be
used.

Step 4: Determine slab thickness

With the values determined in Steps 1 through 3, use Figure 3.7 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, reproduced here as Figure 10.8, to determine slab thickness. In this example,
the slab thickness is 13.2 inches, or 340 mm.

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Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
Figure 10.8 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input Variable

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10.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method

From the early 1960s until recently, all versions of AASHTO pavement design were
based on empirical performance equations developed at the AASHTO Road Test
facility in the late 1950s using limited data. In the late 1980s, the need for and
benefits of a mechanistic-based pavement design procedure were recognized. To
meet that need, a new method was commissioned that resulted in MEPDG software
and the MEPDG (AASHTO, 2008).

In this approach, the main pavement design inputs are the same as empirical method
with regard to design traffic and subgrade calculations. The subgrade needs to be
characterized in terms of its modulus (MR) and Poissons ratio. These are best
measured directly by repeated triaxial loading (MR) testing. Other construction
materials used in pavement layers are also characterized by modulus (MR) and
Poissons ratio to build the pavement design model. Loading positions and critical
strain locations are to be estimated by the design engineer based on the pavement
layering system and other design inputs.

The mechanistic-empirical design method has the following main advantages:

The reliable performance of a pavement structure will include determining the

pavement layer thickness, material specifications, construction specifications, and
quality control.
The design of pavement layer thicknesses depends on many parameters, such as
traffic, geotechnical, and material information.
Other parameters such as reliability, safety, and serviceability are key inputs for
the pavement design.
Unless these parameters can be identified with accuracy, a degree of caution is
needed when adopting pavement designs and design methods.
Analytical methods need detailed analysis of multilayered structures. Historically,
therefore, pavement design has tended towards empirical methods.

Because of the complexity of the mechanistic-empirical design method, software

must be used for this analysis. AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design 2.0 (formally
known as DARWin-ME) builds upon the research-grade MEPDG software and is
intended to support the MEPDG (AASHTO, 2008). ME Design is a production-ready
software tool that supports the mechanistic-empirical pavement design and analysis.
This software represents a major change in the way pavement design is performed, by
providing a direct link between pavement materials, structure, construction practices,
climate, traffic, and pavement design features.

The AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design software needs correct input data, input by
an experienced pavement engineer, to carry out accurate pavement design. The
software is suitable for different types of pavement, including flexible, flexible
composite, and rigid pavements.

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10.3.1 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Process

Figure 10.9 shows the design process used in the mechanistic-empirical design
method.

Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)
Figure 10.9 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Process

The mechanistic-empirical design method consists of three stages of input

parameters, analysis, and strategic selection. The most important part is to select
appropriate input parameters, which include traffic, foundation, climate and material
properties. Also, design criteria for analysis need to be specified, which will have a
significant impact on pavement design thicknesses. Design criteria consist of design
life, reliability, and performance criteria.

10.3.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters

The fundamental input parameters are for traffic, including axle loads, configuration,
and axle number, material properties, and foundation modulus. These are described
in detail in the following clauses. Table 10.4 gives a description of the design
parameters and input levels. There are three levels of input. Level 1 is the highest
level, indicating a thorough knowledge of all the information needed for design. At
Level 2, the designer has a modest understanding of the information. At Level 3, the
information is not as thorough and the designer has only basic knowledge; in this
case, the software will populate the data with best-fit default data and the designer
needs to be aware of the limitations, and the sensitivity of the design outcome.

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Table 10.4 Design Parameters and Input Levels

Input Level Determination of Input Values Knowledge of Input Parameter
1 Project/segment specific measurements Good
2 Correlations/regression equations, regional values Fair
3 Defaults, educated guess Poor

10.3.3 Traffic Input Parameters

As shown on Figure 10.10, the number of axles by axle type, truck type, and axle load
intervals are needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method. In addition, the
number of axles for each year, each season, and each hour can be considered in the
mechanistic-empirical design method. Input Levels 2 and 3 can be considered if there
is not sufficient information to cover all these parameters.

Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)

Figure 10.10 Traffic Data for the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method

Traffic data are a key element needed for the analysis of pavement structures. Load
estimates and frequencies throughout the life of the pavement are needed. The
following traffic data are needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method:

Base year truck volume and speed

Traffic capacity
Axle configuration
Lateral wander
Wheelbase
Vehicle class distribution and growth
Hourly adjustment
Axles per truck
Monthly adjustment
Axle load distribution factors
Initial two-way annual average daily truck traffic (AADTT)
Number of lanes in design direction
Percent of trucks in design direction
Percent trucks in design lane
Operational speed

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All this information may not be available. Therefore, traffic inputs can be provided in
three levels, depending upon the traffic information available for the project and the
accuracy of that information. Traffic assessment and prediction is discussed further in
Chapter 9 in this Part.

Level 1: Actual numbers of trucks, truck weights, axle loads, and truck volumes are
known. Obtaining these data will involve gathering and analysis of site-specific traffic
volume and load data. The traffic data measured at or near a site includes counting
and classifying the number of trucks travelling over the roadway, a breakdown by lane
and direction, and measuring the axle loads for each truck class. These data will
determine the truck traffic for the first year after construction. Level 1 traffic data are
the most accurate.

Level 2: Enough truck traffic information is obtained at a site to measure truck

volumes accurately. Accounting for any weekday/weekend volume variation, and any
significant seasonal trends in truck loads. For example, areas affected by heavy,
seasonal, agricultural hauls. Regional weight summaries maintained by each
government organization can be used to determine vehicle weights. An example is
the truck weight road groups defined in the Traffic Monitoring Guide (FHWA, 2013).
This information is used to differentiate routes with heavy or loaded trucks weights,
from those with light or unloaded truck weights. Regional axle load spectra for each
truck class are analyzed and then completed separately to the traffic module.

Level 3: There is little information about truck traffic. Only the AADT and truck
percentage are known, with no site-specific information. AADT and percent trucks or
from simple truck volume counts with no knowledge on the size of the loads those
trucks are carrying. This needs the use of a regional average load distribution
information or other default load distribution information. An estimate of traffic
inputs based on local experience is also considered Level 3.

The FHWA defines 10 truck classes that need to be considered with Vehicle Classes 4
through 13 (see Table 10.5):

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Table 10.5 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG
Class Schematic Description

Class 1 Motorcycles

Class 2 Passenger cars

Other two-axle, four-tire, single unit

Class 3 vehicles

Buses: Two-axle/six-tire, or three or

Class 4 more axles

Class 5 Two-axle, six-tire, single unit trucks

Class 6 Three-axle, single unit trucks

Class 7 Four or more axle single unit trucks

Class 8 Four or less axle single trailer trucks

Class 9 Five axle single trailer trucks

Class 10 Six or more axle single trailer trucks

Five or less axle multi-trailer trucks,

Class 11 three or mor units

Six-axle multi trailer trucks, three or

Class 12 more units

Seven or more axle multi trailer

Class 13 trucks, three or more units

Figure 10.11 demonstrates the traffic data input for Levels 1, 2, and 3:

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Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)
Figure 10.11 Traffic Input for Various Input Levels in the Mechanistic-Empirical
Design Method

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10.3.4 Climate
Environmental conditions affect the performance of flexible and rigid pavements.
Precipitation, ambient temperature, and depth to water table may affect the
temperature and moisture content of unbound materials. Changes to aggregate
materials directly affect the load-carrying capacity of the pavement. Furthermore,
temperature levels have a direct bearing on the stiffness of asphalt materials, and
temperature gradients induce stresses and deformations in PCC layers. The
mechanistic-empirical design method considers the effects of environmental factors,
and it models diurnal and seasonal changes in the moisture and temperature of the
pavement structure caused by changes in groundwater table, precipitation/
infiltration, freeze-thaw cycles, and other external factors. Climate data have been
prepared for different states in the United States, and those with a similar climate to
Qatar can be used for the design input.

All distresses are affected by the environmental factors to some extent. Therefore,
diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in the moisture and temperature of the pavement
structure brought about by changes in groundwater table, precipitation/infiltration,
freeze-thaw cycles, and other external factors are modeled in a very comprehensive
manner in the mechanistic-empirical design method.

Temperatures and moisture profiles in the pavement and subgrade are modeled using
the Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (EICM) software, which is integrated into the
MEPDG software. The EICM consists of three major components:

Climatic-Materials-Structural Model
CRREL Frost Heave and Thaw Settlement Model
Infiltration and Drainage Model

Moisture and temperature profiles are predicted through the EICM module
integrated in the MEPDG software.

10.3.5 Subgrade
Level 1, 2, and 3 input parameters for subgrade are as follows:

Level 1 MR values for unbound aggregate materials, subgrade, and bedrock are
determined from cyclic triaxial tests on prepared representative samples.
Level 2 analysis uses resilient modulus (MR). Level 2 inputs use general
correlations between soil index and strength properties and resilient modulus to
estimate MR. The relationships could be direct or indirect. For the indirect
relationships, the material property is first related to CBR and then CBR is related
to MR.
Level 3 inputs uses a default value for the MR of the unbound material. For
Level 3, only a typical representative MR value is needed at optimum moisture
content. Climate data are used to modify the representative MR for the seasonal
effect of climate.

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Typical MR values for unbound granular and subgrade materials at optimum moisture
content for input Level 3 are shown in Table 10.6

Table 10.6 Unbound Granular and Subgrade Resilient Modulus Values

(psi) for Level 3 Input
Material Classifications Mr Range Typical Mr*
A-1-a 18,50042,000 40,000

A-1-b 15,50040,000 38,000

A-2-4 28,00037,500 32,000

A-2-5 24,00033,000 28,000

A-2-6 21,50031,000 26,000

A-2-7 21,50028,000 24,000

A-3 24,50035,500 29,000

A-4 21,50029,000 24,000

A-5 17,00025,500 20,000

A-6 13,50024,000 17,000

A-7-5 8,00017,500 12,000

A-7-6 5,00013,500 8,000

CH 5,00013,500 8,000

MH 8,00017,500 11,500

CL 13,50024,000 17,000

ML 17,00025,500 20,000

SW 28,00037,500 32,000

SP 24,00033,000 28,000

SW-SC 21,50031,000 25,500

SW-SM 24,00033,000 28,000

SP-SC 21,50031,000 25,500

SP-SM 24,00033,000 28,000

SC 21,50028,000 24,000

SM 28,00037,500 32,000

GW 39,50042,500 41,000

GP 35,50040,000 38,000

GW-GC 28,00040,000 34,500

GW-GM 35,50040,500 38,500

GP-GC 28,00039,000 34,000

GP-GM 31,00040,000 36,000

GC 24,00037,500 31,000

GM 33,00042,000 38,500
Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)

For Level 2 input parameters, Table 10.7 summarizes the correlations the MEPDG has
adopted to estimate modulus from other material properties.

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Table 10.7 Subgrade Correlations for Level 2 Input for Use in the Mechanistic-
Empirical Design Method
Subgrade/Index
Property Model Comments Test Standard
CBR MR = 2555(CBR)0.64 CBR = California bearing AASHTO T-193, Standard
ratio Method of Test for the
California Bearing Ratio
R-value MR = 1155 + 555R R = R-value AASHTO T-190, Standard
Method of Test for Resistance
R-Value and Expansion
Pressure of Compacted Soils
AASHTO layer MR = 3000(ai/0.14) Ai = AASHTO layer Guide for the Design of
coefficient coefficient Pavement Structures (1993
AASHTO Guide)
PI and Gradation CBR = 75/(1.0.728 wPI) wPI = P200 PI AASHTO T-27, Standard
P200 = percent passing Method of Test for Sieve
No. 200 sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
PI = plasticity index, Aggregates
percent AASHTO T-90, Standard
Method of Test for
Determining the Plastic Limit
and Plasticity Index of Soils
DCP CBR = 292/DCP1.12 CBR = California bearing ASTM D6951/D6951M 09,
ratio, percent Standard Test Method for Use
DCP = DCP index, of the Dynamic Cone
in/blow Penetrometer in Shallow
Pavement Applications
Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)

10.3.6 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for

Flexible Pavement
The following AC surfaced pavements are considered flexible pavements in the
mechanistic-empirical design method:

Conventional Flexible Pavements: Pavements with AC surfaces less than 150 mm

thick and unbound aggregate base layers of crushed stone or gravel, and soil-
aggregate mixtures.
Deep-strength AC Pavements: Pavements with AC surface greater than 150 mm
and a dense-graded AC or asphalt stabilized base placed over an aggregate base.
These pavements also include a stabilized or treated subgrade.
Full-depth AC Pavements: AC layers placed on a stabilized subgrade or directly on
the prepared embankment or foundation soil.

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Semi-rigid Pavements: AC placed over a chemically stabilized layer. Chemically

stabilized materials include lime, lime-fly ash, and portland cement stabilizers.
Allowable cross sections for a flexible pavement include conventional layering and
sandwich aggregate layers. In conventional layering, material quality decreases in
depth. A sandwich aggregate layer involves an unbound aggregate layer placed
between two stabilized layers. Regardless of the materials and stiffness of layers
underneath an AC surface, the MEPDG methodology analyzes the pavement as a
flexible pavement. This pavement structure maintains contact with, and
distributes loads to, the subgrade while relying on aggregate interlock, particle
friction, and cohesion for stability.

10.3.6.1 Performance Criteria

The mechanistic-empirical design method is based on pavement performance;
therefore, the critical levels of pavement distresses that can be tolerated at the
selected level of reliability needs to be specified by the user. If the simulation process
shows the trial design produces an excessive amount of distresses, then the trial
design is modified accordingly to produce a feasible design in the future trials.

The distress types considered in the design of a new flexible pavement are: total
rutting of all layers and subgrade; AC rutting; load-related, longitudinal top-down
cracking in the wheel path; and bottom-up fatigue cracking or alligator cracking. In
addition, pavement smoothness is considered for performance verification and is
characterized using the IRI. Table 10.8 shows typical values for performance criteria.

Table 10.8 Typical Performance Criteria (Flexible Pavements)

Performance Criteria Limit Reliability
Initial IRI (m/km) 1 Not applicable
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.7 90
AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km) 378.8 90
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent) 25 90
Chemically stabilized layerfatigue fracture (percent) 25 90
Permanent deformationtotal pavement (mm) 19 90
Permanent deformationAC only (mm) 6 90
Reflective cracking (percent) 100 50*
Notes:
* For reflective cracking, the form of distress is only applicable to a flexible pavement with a chemically
stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. The limit control allows you to define the not-to-exceed
limit for reflective cracking at the end of the design life at 50 percent reliability level.
m/km = meters per kilometer
mm = millimeters
Source: DARWin-ME software, Version 3.1 (Applied Research Associates, 2014)

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The following summarize each of the performance criteria, limits, and reliability
values in Table 10.8:

Performance Criteria: Performance indicators to evaluate if a pavement design

will perform satisfactorily over its design life.
Limit: Threshold values of these performance indicators to evaluate the adequacy
of a design.
Reliability: The probability at which the predicted distresses and smoothness will
be less than the limits over the design period.
Initial IRI (m/km): The limit control definition of the expected smoothness
immediately after new pavement construction (expressed in terms of IRI). Initial
IRI is a very important input because the time from initial construction to attaining
a threshold IRI value is very dependent on the initial IRI obtained at the time of
construction. Thus, the initial IRI value provided is what is typically obtained in the
field.
Terminal IRI (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion allow
definition of the not-to-exceed limit for IRI at the end of the design life at a
specified reliability level.
AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for surface-initiated fatigue
cracking at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion controls allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for bottom-initiated
fatigue cracking at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
AC thermal fracture (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion
allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for non-load related transverse cracking
at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
Chemically stabilized layer with fatigue fracture (percent): The limit and
reliability controls for this criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for
fatigue fracture in the underlying chemically stabilized base layers at the end of
the design life at a specified reliability level. This form of distress is only applicable
to a flexible pavement with a chemically stabilized layer directly placed under the
AC layer. Therefore, no inputs are needed if the pavement structure is otherwise.
Permanent deformation in total pavement (mm): The limit and reliability controls
for this criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for total rutting at the
end of the design life at a specified reliability level. Total permanent deformation
at the surface is the accumulation of the permanent deformation in all of the
asphalt and unbound layers in the pavement system.
Permanent deformation in AC only (mm): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for rutting contributed by the
AC layers at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.

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Reflective cracking (percent): This form of distress is only applicable to a flexible

pavement with a chemically stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. The
limit control allows definition of the not-to-exceed limit for reflective cracking at
the end of the design life at a 50 percent reliability level. In Pavement ME Design,
reflective cracking is computed as a fraction of the fatigue cracking in the
chemically stabilized layer that reflects through the HMA layer to the surface. The
sum of reflective cracking and bottom initiated fatigue cracking is reported as total
cracking.

10.3.6.2 Pavement Structure Definition and Materials

The AC material types that fall under the following general definitions can be defined
as an asphalt layer:

Dense-graded asphalt
Open-graded asphalt
Asphalt-stabilized base mixes
Sand asphalt mixtures
Stone matrix asphalt
Cold-mix asphalt
Central plant processed asphalt
Cold in-place recycling

If a small amount of asphalt, emulsion, or a combination thereof, is added to granular

base materials, and can be produced at a plant or mixed in-place, this material is not
considered an AC layer. If needed, it is combined with the crushed stone base
materials or considered an unbound aggregate mixture.

The key material inputs needed for AC layers are:

Dynamic modulus of asphalt mixtures

Rheological properties of asphalt binders which include, viscosity, penetration,
complex modulus, and phase angles
Creep compliance and indirect tensile strength
Mix-related and other properties, such as effective binder content, air voids, heat
capacity, and thermal conductivity

Other input parameters are material thickness and mix volumetric, which consist of:

Unit weight (kilograms per cubic meter [kg/m3])

Effective binder content (percent)
Air voids (percent)
Poissons ratio

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There are other parameters for granular materials, such as subbase. These materials
are called nonstabilized materials. Nonstabilized materials include AASHTO soil
classes A-1 through A-3, and those commonly defined in practice as crushed stone,
crushed gravel, river gravel, permeable aggregate, and recycled asphalt material,
which includes millings and in-place pulverized material.

Inputs needed for nonstabilized materials include physical and engineering

properties, such as dry density, moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, specific
gravity, soil-water characteristic curve parameters, classification properties, and the
MR. Methods for estimating the MR include the following:

Resilient modulus (MPa)

CBR (percent)
R-value
Layer coefficient (ai)
DCP penetration (mm per blow)
Plasticity index and gradation (percent passing 0.075-mm sieve)

Subgrade materials include AASHTO soil classes A-1 through A-7-6, defined in
accordance with the AASHTO soil classification system. Inputs for subgrade materials
are the same as those for nonstabilized materials and include physical and engineering
properties, such as dry density, moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, specific
gravity, soil-water characteristic curve parameters, classification properties, and the MR.

10.3.6.3 Perpetual Pavement

Perpetual pavement designs are considered in cases where traffic loads exceed
50 million ESALs and with low reliability in predicting traffic. A perpetual pavement is
an asphalt pavement designed to last 50 years or more without requiring major
structural rehabilitation or reconstruction. It is important remember that perpetual
pavements are not maintenance-free; periodic surface renewal is still needed in
response to distresses confined to the top part of the pavement. If this maintenance
is not carried out and cracks propagate into the structural layers, then major
rehabilitation will be necessary.

The design concept of perpetual pavements is to combine (1) a rut-resistant and high-
friction-wearing course layer, (2) a rut-resistant and durable intermediate/leveling
course, and (3) a fatigue-resistant and durable lower base layer. These layers are
designed to minimize the horizontal tensile stresses at the bottom of the asphalt base
layer, and the compressive vertical stresses at the top of the subgrade.

It is important to select proper asphalt mixtures for each layer of the perpetual
pavement to meet its specific functions. See Sections 7.1 and 8.3.1 in this Part for
more information on the selection of mix design and material specifications. Design
the surface wearing layer to provide smooth, high-friction, and quiet pavement. An
SMA with a high-quality, polymer-modified binder is recommended for the wearing
surface layer. The durability and the rutting resistance of the upper part of the
structural layers, surfacing, and intermediate/leveling course can be achieved using a

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Superpave mix with a polymer-modified binder. The fatigue resistance of the lower
base layer can be achieved by using a fine mix with rich-binder content. Performance
tests characterize the resistance of the asphalt layers to permanent deformation and
fatigue cracking. The long-term performance of the pavement structure depends on
good bonding between the pavement layers.

In summary, perpetual pavement options can be used in the following cases:

Direct instruction from the client to adopt one of the typical perpetual pavement
structures with a design life of 50 years or more regardless of traffic level and
subgrade condition.
Lack of information on future changes in traffic loads.
Design traffic volumes and axle loading cannot be estimated accurately as a result
of uncertain development or planning policies.
Design traffic loading exceeds 50 million ESAL over the design period.

10.3.7 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Rigid

Pavement
There are different input parameters and design criteria for jointed plain concrete
pavement (JPCP), which is a PCC pavement that can be used:

With no steel reinforcement for controlling random cracking

With or without transverse joint load transfer devices, such as dowels
With joints spaced 3 m to 6 m to minimize transverse cracking from temperature
gradient and drying gradient shrinkage stresses
With mostly PCC or AC shoulders
With or without tied lane to lane or lane to PCC shoulder longitudinal joints

Although the JPCPs PCC slab can be placed directly over the pavement foundation
subgrade, there is usually a base layer. Any other layers underneath the base layer are
described as subbase, and there can be several types of these. The base and subbase
layers can consist of a wide variety of materials, including nonstabilized, asphalt
stabilized, cement stabilized, lean concrete, crushed concrete, lime stabilized,
recycled asphalt pavement (RAP), and other materials. The base and subbase layers
can be dense-graded or a combination of dense-graded and permeable drainage layers.
JPCP is typically placed over a natural subgrade foundation or embankment soil.

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Pavement design begins when users establish a trial JPCP design by selecting
appropriate inputs for the following:

Site conditions, including traffic, climate, and subgrade

Design features, such as layer types and thicknesses, edge support, transverse
joint load transfer mechanism, and shoulder type
Materials properties
Performance criteria

The trial design is checked for compliance with user or agency performance criteria.
The prediction of distresses and smoothness at a given reliability level are evaluated
against the criteria. If the design does not pass the performance criteria at the
specified reliability, changes are made to the pavement section and the evaluation
process is repeated. Thus, the pavement designer is engaged throughout the design
process and can consider different design features and materials.

10.3.7.1 Performance Criteria

Performance verification forms the basis for determining the adequacy of a trial
design. Adequacy for the mechanistic-empirical design method analysis implies that
the trial design meets all performance criteria at a user- or agency-selected level of
reliability within the trial pavements design life or the mechanistic-empirical design
method analysis period. If the trial design after analysis does produce
distress/smoothness levels in excess of the user or agencys threshold levels, then the
trial design is modified to produce more acceptable levels of distress and smoothness.
Trial design modification includes changes to layer material types and properties and
JPCP design features. In general, trial design site properties such as climate, traffic,
and foundation/subgrade type cannot be altered to improve design adequacy. The
distress types considered in JPCP design are transverse slab cracking and transverse
joint faulting. The mechanistic-empirical design method analysis predicts transverse
joint spalling, which is used solely as an input for predicting smoothness characterized
by using the IRI. Table 10.9 shows typical performance criteria for rigid pavements.

Table 10.9 Typical Performance Criteria for Rigid Pavements

Performance Criteria Limit Reliability
Initial IRI (m/km) 1 Not applicable
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.715 90
JPCP transverse cracking (percent slabs) 15 90
Mean joint faulting (mm) 3.048 90
Notes:
m/km = meters per kilometer
mm = millimeters
Source: DARWin-ME software, Version 3.1 (Applied Research Associates, 2014)

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The following summarizes each of the performance criteria, limits, and reliability
values in Table 10.9:

Performance criteria: Distresses and smoothness criteria by the mechanistic-

empirical design method to assess adequacy of JPCP trial design.
Limit: The limit or threshold values of the distresses and smoothness provided.
Reliability: The probability that the trial design using a combination of variables
such as climate, materials, and design features will perform as predicted over the
design life of the JPCP for a given level of traffic loading.
Initial IRI (m/km): The limit control defines the level of smoothness immediately
after JPCP construction, expressed in terms of IRI. Initial IRI is a very important
input, because the time from initial construction to attaining a threshold IRI value
is very dependent on the initial IRI obtained at the time of construction. Thus, the
initial IRI value provided is what is typically obtained in the field.
Terminal IRI (m/km): The limit and reliability controls allow the definition of the
threshold value for IRI at the end of the design life at a user- or agency-specified
reliability level.
Mean transverse joint faulting (mm): The limit and reliability controls allow the
definition of the threshold value for transverse joint faulting at the end of the
design life at a user- or agency-specified reliability level. Transverse joint faulting is
the differential elevation across the transverse joint measured approximately
0.3 m from the slab edge or longitudinal joint for a conventional lane width, or
from the rightmost lane paint stripe for a widened slab. Because joint faulting
varies significantly from joint to joint, the mean faulting of all transverse joints in a
pavement section is the parameter predicted by the mechanistic-empirical design
method analysis.
Transverse cracking (percent of all slabs): The limit and reliability controls allow
the definition of the threshold value for transverse cracking at the end of the
design life at a user- or agency-specified reliability level. The mechanistic-empirical
design method analysis predicts the combined percentage of PCC slabs with
bottom-up and top-down transverse cracks, which occur mostly in the middle
third of the slab. It is reported as percent of slabs cracked.

The two main transverse cracking mechanisms are described below (Watson et al.,
2009):

Bottom-up transverse cracking: When the truck axles are near the longitudinal
edge of the slab, midway between the transverse joints, a critical tensile bending
stress occurs at the bottom of the slab under the wheel load. This stress increases
greatly when there is a high positive temperature gradient through the slab (the
top of the slab is warmer than the bottom of the slab). Repeated loadings of heavy
axles under those conditions result in fatigue damage along the bottom edge of
the slab, which eventually results in a transverse crack that propagates to the
surface of the pavement.

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Top-down transverse cracking: Repeated loadings by heavy trucks when the

pavement is exposed to high negative temperature gradients (the top of the slab
cooler than the bottom of the slab) result in fatigue damage at the top of the slab,
which eventually results in a transverse or diagonal crack that is initiated on the
surface of the pavement. The critical wheel loading condition for top-down
cracking involves a combination of axles that load the opposite ends of a slab
simultaneously. In the presence of a high negative temperature gradient, such
load combinations cause a high tensile stress at the top of the slab near the critical
pavement edge. This type of loading is most often produced by the combination of
steering and drive axles of truck tractors and other vehicles. Multiple trailers with
relatively short trailer-to-trailer axle spacing are other common sources of critical
loadings for top-down cracking.

10.3.7.2 Materials Input for PCC (New JPCP) Layer

PCC consists of portland cement, water, and fine and coarse aggregates. In general,
PCC properties, such as early and long-term strength, elastic modulus, shrinkage,
thermal expansion, and durability depend on the quantities and qualities of its
components. Some special applications, as in the need to open a pavement early for
traffic, use special cements such as high-early strength cements to provide higher
levels of properties or blended cements with aggregates susceptible to alkali-
aggregate reactions. It is important that pavement designers select the type of
cement and aggregates that will provide suitable performance. This choice involves
knowing the correct relationship between cement and aggregate properties and PCC
performance.

The key PCC materials inputs needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method are
as follows:

Flexural strength (MR)

Elastic modulus
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Ultimate shrinkage
Concrete mix properties, such as cement type, cement content, and aggregate
type

These inputs are needed to predict pavement responses to applied loads, long-term
strength and elastic modulus, and effect of temperature, moisture, and humidity on
PCC expansion and contraction.

10.3.8 Run Analysis and Report

The mechanistic-empirical design method is an iterative process. It does not
determine a pavement section, rather it evaluates the performance of a user-
specified section. A trial section is defined and evaluated by its predicted performance
against the design criteria. If the result is not satisfactory, the section is modified and
reanalyzed until an acceptable design is reached.

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After an analysis run has been successfully completed, the application will generate
and display a report in Adobe Acrobat portable document format containing an input
summary and output results of the trial design. The output results indicate the
proposed pavement thickness to satisfy the performance criteria. The report will also
include the calculated strain and stress in pavement layers.

As noted, the design procedure is based on pavement performance; therefore, the

critical levels of pavement distresses that can be tolerated at the selected level of
reliability needs to be specified by the user. The definition of the trial section,
selection of critical levels of pavement distress, and assessment of the analysis need
to be carried out by a competent and experienced pavement engineer.

10.4 Ramp and Shoulder Pavements

For design of pavement for ramps and shoulders, follow the same procedures as for
the main roadway. Ramps are designed for the intended traffic and appropriate
subgrade CBR value. Mainline shoulders can be designed for a reduction of traffic, but
must be verified and confirmed. Usual practice on freeways and expressways is to
maintain the same pavement section all through the shoulders to allow for future
widening and movement of traffic during future maintenance and construction.
However, management practices may allow for reduction of traffic and corresponding
pavement or the use of asphalt concrete or aggregate for shoulders. In all cases,
maintain the same subgrade elevation through the shoulder to allow for continuity of
subdrainage. This will result in a thicker subbase with less surfacing.

10.5 Design for Special Pavements

Modular paving can take several forms, from block paving and setts, to larger element
slabs of natural stone, and flags of concrete. There are three main paving systems:

Flexible: typically blocks on laying course of sand with a granular base

Flexible/rigid with flexible surfacing: typically blocks on laying course of sand over
an asphalt or cement-bound or concrete base, with flexible joints
Rigid: typically slabs, flags, or setts on mortar bed over asphalt or cement-bound
or concrete base, with rigid pointing in joints

For roadworthy, highway legal vehicles, the British Standards Institution Standard
Elemental PavementsPavements Constructed with Clay, Natural Stone or Concrete
Pavers (BS 7533 Series, various dates) is appropriate for use in Qatar. The documents
are in 13 volumes and include design guides, specifications, workmanship, and
construction. For all types of pavement, it is important to use the appropriate
specification and construction guide. For this reason, it is not possible to simplify the
standard for use in this manual. Because the construction elements of pavers, laying
course, and base are less influenced by environmental factors, BS 7533 can easily be
adapted for use in Qatar.

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For very heavily laden pavements, or pavements with abnormal wheel loads, use The
Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and Other Industries (Knapton,
2008), previously known as the British Ports Association Manual.

There are several important design considerations for modular pavements. Modular
pavements have different performance characteristics than fully flexible, flexible-
composite, or rigid pavements.

Slabs and flags are to be designed not just for overall structural strength, but for
individual catastrophic failure. It is not sufficient to design for cumulative ESALs; the
individual loads on the paving elements need to be considered. Even if the overall
depth of the pavement is adequate for structural thickness, this is not sufficient. It is
necessary, by design and construction, that individual slabs or flags prevent cracking
under loads. Unlike flexible pavements, a slab or flag will crack and fail if overloaded.
Overloads can occur if the volume or type of traffic has not been properly anticipated,
or if the construction does not take into account all elements of the design. Large
pavers, such as flags and slabs, used by heavy vehicles will usually need a rigid
construction. The deflection of the base needs to be restricted, and the slab, laying
course, and base all should be monolithic. If any elements debond, then the
redistributed strain will cause the surfacing elements to crack.

In areas that are predominantly for pedestrian use, consider heavy-truck traffic. Even
a single vehicle can overload the pavement and make it unserviceable.

There are several considerations for block paving. The laying course of sand is used
for the placement of and leveling of the pavers. Therefore, the thickness and
compaction need to be consistent. For pavements carrying heavy vehicles, the laying
course is determined by the design methodology. Edge restraint is vital; without it, the
blocks can spread and lose their load-carrying capacity. The laying pattern of blocks is
an important consideration. Stretcher bond is less able to resist traffic loads;
therefore, a herringbone pattern at 45 degrees to direction of traffic is the best pattern
to resist load.

Drainage of the subgrade is considered, as for any other pavement. With modular
pavements, drainage of the laying course sand is also considered. If there is a risk of
the sand becoming saturated, then either fin drains could be installed at the edges,
or, and probably preferably, holes can be cored through the base into the subgrade
and backfilled with laying course.

Ashghal has developed separate guidelines for bike paths and sidewalks. Because
these pavements are intended for bike and foot traffic only, design these facilities in
accordance with the Cycleways and Footways Pavement Design Guidelines, Revision
No. A1 (Ashghal, 2013).

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10.6 Selection of Pavement Design Method

The recommended pavement design method for Qatar is the empirical method based
on the 1993 AASHTO Guide. When sufficient information is available, designs can be
based on the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical design method. It is best to adopt one
method for all designs, because this leads to familiarity and efficiency of use. Of the
other methods often adopted, the Austroads mechanistic-empirical method needs
similar information as the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical design method. The United
Kingdom Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (Department for Transport, various
dates) pavement design charts are not applicable to conditions in Qatar.

It is a good practice to compare thick pavement designs using the 1993 AASHTO
Guide empirical design method against the mechanistic-empirical design method
described in the MEPDG. Until local calibration is performed for Level 1 and 2 inputs
into the mechanistic-empirical design method, use best judgment to select
parameters for Level 3 input and performance criteria to become familiar with the
mechanistic-empirical design method and its use in Qatar.

Appendix E contains examples of the mechanistic-empirical design method for flexible

and rigid pavements to further illustrate the level of input and analysis reporting
involved with the mechanistic-empirical design. The samples presented and
information therein are not to be used for design purposes. They are included only to
compare to empirical design and to demonstrate the level of detail used for input
parameters and the reporting of the analysis.

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11 Design for Rehabilitation of

Existing Pavements
11.1 Rehabilitation Design Process
The rehabilitation of pavements involves restoring ride quality, improving
performance, repairing defects, and restoring or improving structural integrity.
Restoration to improve performance and repair defects may improve structural
integrity but may not necessarily be designed to a specific design life for a certain
level of traffic. These methods may include crack sealing, seal coats, milling and
nominal asphalt replacement, joint seal repair and resealing, diamond grinding,
partial or full-depth slab repairs, dowel bar retrofit, and localized repairs.

This Chapter covers aspects of rehabilitation that are required to restore structural
capacity. It involves designing a new pavement structure over an existing pavement
structure to provide the necessary structural capacity for a given design life. The
following are basic design principles to accomplish this:

Determining the repairs required of the existing pavement

Determining the structural capacity, or structural number, of the existing
pavement after repairs
Determining the strength of the subgrade
Determining the future traffic and required structural number for the selected
design life
Determining the overlay thickness, or alternative pavement methods

As part of the design process, it is necessary to determine what repairs are needed
before resurfacing may take place. The intent of repairing existing pavements is to
prepare the pavement to a uniform condition on which to evaluate structural capacity
and not to overdesign the new section based on locally failed areas that do not
represent the entire condition. For flexible pavements, this would include sealing
cracks and the localized repair of major ruts, depressions, and potholes by removing
and replacing the pavement in its entirety, or by milling or applying a leveling course,
or both. For rigid pavements, it may be necessary to repair joints, repair dowel bars,
partially replace slabs, or underseal slabs that have lost support. Chapter 4 of the
1993 AASHTO Guide contains information on rehabilitation strategies for different
pavement types and distresses. The amount and extent of repair is to be evaluated
with the overall cost of the project and compared against the value of providing a
better structural number for the existing pavement. In some cases, the pavement may
be in such poor condition that repair is infeasible.

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11.1.1 Basis of Rehabilitation Design

An experienced engineer might be able to present a reasonable remedial solution
based on a visual inspections and core data, and possibly DCP data alone. This might
be appropriate for minor roads but may carry high design risk for major roads or
where major expenditures are expected.

FWD back-analysis results will be used for calculating pavement residual life and
pavement rehabilitation design. All deflection bowls obtained from the FWD data are
analyzed using a computer program that determines the effective stiffness of the
various pavement and subgrade layers by matching measured deflections to
computed values. The program uses a multilayer linear elastic model for the
pavement layers and a nonlinear model for unbound material below formation level
consisting of fill and natural ground, the stiffness of which is stress-dependent. The
thickness of pavement layers is needed for this back-analysis, and this are usually
determined by coring of the bound layers followed by DCP testing of the unbound
layers, in conjunction with GPR, for a continuous thickness profile, where appropriate.

Pavement evaluation uses the same principles as analytical pavement design, except
that the effective stiffness and material properties represent the in situ pavement
condition. Using multi-layer elastic theory, interactions between the different
pavement layers are defined. The stresses/strains generated in the pavement are
calculated for the loading from the design vehicle. Compressive strains on the
subgrade, tensile strains in the bottom of the surface layer, and total deflection can
be analyzed. Using typical properties of the pavement materials, relationships are
obtained between the stress/strain criteria and the number of load applications
before the pavement reaches its design life.

Perform material testing on samples cored from the pavement to better characterize
material behavior. Stiffness modulus test results provide data on stiffness at different
temperatures and strains, which is used in the interpretation of the FWD data.

According to Pavement Testing Services International (2013):

For concrete slabs, the life of the pavement is assessed by calculating the
stresses that are induced under the passage of the design loading. The most
significant stresses are the horizontal tensile stress at the bottom of the
concrete in a slab center location, and the tensile stress at the top of the
concrete at an edge or corner location. The former is calculated using the
pavement model determined from the back-analysis, and then factors are
applied (based on developments of the Westergaard equations) to determine
the edge or corner stresses. The stresses caused by restraint of temperature-
induced movements can also be considered. The life prior to the onset of
fatigue cracking can then be determined from the ratio of induced stress to
concrete strength. For a lean concrete base, the design criterion relating to
fatigue is maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the layer.

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If the residual life of the existing pavement is inadequate, the pavement needs to be
refurbished. Remedial treatment often takes the form of overlays and inlays.

An overlay is placed where the finished pavement level is higher than the existing
pavement after maintenance. Essentially, new material is laid over the existing surface,
but removal of some of the deteriorated material may be necessary. Overlays are the
most effective form of remedial treatment. An overlay has the advantage adding
thickness to the surfacing, hence reducing the horizontal strain in the bound layer and
the vertical strain in the foundation.

An inlay is placed where material is removed and replaced to the existing level with
material of higher strength. Inlays are effective where existing materials have become
relatively weak. However, inlays only strengthen the pavement to the extent to which
the newer material is stronger than the existing material in the limited depth of
replacement.

Where levels and overlaying of structures permit, overlays are usually the optimum
solution. If existing layers are weak, particularly the upper layers, a combination of
inlay and overlay can be used. For example, plane out 100 mm of existing pavement
and replace with 150 mm of new pavement. Hence, replacing weak layers with an
inlay is advantageous.

Modulus values for new materials can be assessed by experience or by laboratory

testing. In an iterative process, several designs can be assessed until a variation is
found that gives the desired residual life. Full or partial reconstruction options can be
assessed using stiffnesses of lower pavement layers and subgrade, which are based
on the back-analyzed values.

11.1.2 Rehabilitation Design Using the 1993 AASHTO Guide

The structural capacity and effective structural number of the existing pavement can
be determined in a number of ways. The preferable method is to perform in-place
testing and coring of the existing pavement as discussed in this Chapter. Other
methods as presented in the 1993 AASHTO Guide include visual condition surveys and
remaining life.

Visual condition surveys involve determining the extent and severity of existing
cracking in the pavement that result in a reduction of the layer coefficient for that
material. Table 5.2 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide provides guidance on the selection of
layer coefficients based on condition surveys. Table 5.3 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide
can be used as a worksheet to determine effective structural number for this method,
as well as for using non-destructive test data. Tables 5.5 and 5.6 of the 1993 AASHTO
Guide provide guidance for layer coefficients and a worksheet to determine effective
structural number of existing rigid pavements.

The remaining life method involves determining the amount of traffic the existing
pavement has carried during its design life against the amount of traffic the pavement
can carry to failure, or a serviceability index of 1.5. A condition factor is obtained

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using Figure 5.2 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide based on the percentage of remaining life.
The condition factor is then applied to the layer coefficients and layers to determine
and effective structural number.

11.2 Pavement Assessment and Need for Rehabilitation

Road pavements will in time need rehabilitation. Signs of wear and surface
disintegration through polishing, rutting, fretting, raveling, and cracking will show on
road surfaces. When wear affects the quality of service and the integrity of the
pavement structure, maintenance is needed to restore the pavement to an
acceptable level. To be cost-effective, a logical assessment is needed to determine the
most effective and timely maintenance treatment. If strengthening or resurfacing, a
carefully considered and designed pavement assessment is performed to determine if
it is warranted and will accommodate future traffic, and to prevent laying
improvements on structurally inadequate pavement.

Pavements gradually deteriorate with time because of environmental and traffic

loading. Environmental deterioration can take the form of bitumen surface-hardening
because of aging. This increases brittleness, which can cause early cracking. Poorly
designed or maintained drainage systems can lead to a reduction in the pavement
systems structural capacity, which can result in various pavement distresses under
vehicular loading. Traffic-related deterioration can take many forms, including the
development of ruts and cracking, which can lead to heaving, pop-outs, and potholes.

Determining when a pavement has failed or is no longer providing the intended level
of service needs structural or functional pavement evaluations or a combination
thereof. Criteria for failure can be identified based on the severity and extent of
distress, such as rut depth, roughness, pavement deflection under known loading,
surface distress, or the level and frequency of maintenance and its extent.

Major deterioration can sometimes occur over a short period because of the use of
inappropriate or moisture-susceptible materials, inadequate construction practices,
and the presence of high groundwater levels. Distress at the surface of the pavement
does not necessarily indicate structural failure. Surface cracking and rutting within the
wearing course material can be mitigated without major structural rehabilitation if
the main structural layers of the pavement are intact or structurally sound. Surface
cracking, sometimes called block cracking, is not unusual in hot climates and occurs
because of the hardening of the binder in the surfacing caused by oxidation.

11.3 Methods of Rehabilitation

11.3.1 Bituminous Overlays
The most common method of rehabilitating flexible pavements is to place new
bituminous surfacing over the existing surface. The thickness of the overlay depends
on the structural capacity of the existing pavement. The added asphalt will provide
the SN for future design traffic when it is added to the SN of the existing pavement in
its condition. Before placing new asphalt, existing pavement distresses such as cracks,

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raveling, localized subgrade failure, or rutting needs to be repaired. If the depth

needed for repair is such that it is not feasible to construct, full-depth replacement
might be necessary.

11.3.2 Mill and Overlay

Another method of rehabilitating flexible pavements is to mill the pavement to a
specified depth before placing the new bituminous surfacing. The depth of milling
depends on the depth of rutting, the depth of surface cracking, the existing cross
section, and the ability to raise the grade. Milling needs to be deep enough to remove
surface cracking and rutting to create a smooth profile. At least 150 mm of surface
needs to remain to support paving equipment. For thinner pavements, complete
removal of the asphalt surfacing might be necessary.

11.3.3 Concrete Overlays

11.3.3.1 Concrete over Concrete

Concrete overlays on concrete pavement can be bonded or unbonded. Bonded
overlays are to be placed only on pavements that are in good condition. Pavement
jointing and joint types on bonded overlays need to mirror the joints of the existing
pavement.

Unbonded concrete overlays typically are applied over concrete pavements in poor
condition. A stress absorbing membrane interlayer acts as a bond-breaker to relieve
the stress from existing cracks and pavement deformities and to prevent them from
affecting the new overlay.

For both cases, existing pavement distresses need to be addressed.

11.3.3.2 White Topping

White topping is a rehabilitation method that involves the overlay of bituminous
pavement with concrete. The existing pavement acts as the base for the new
concrete. The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method can be used to develop an
effective k-value to determine the concrete thickness.

Ultrathin white topping is 50 mm to 100 mm thick. The thinness of the concrete

necessitates detailed surface preparation, joint spacing, and joint design.

11.3.4 In-Place Recycling

Existing pavement can be rehabilitated in place by adding stabilizers and rejuvenating
agents to produce a new base or a new surface with the existing materials. These
methods are described in greater detail in Chapter 13 in this Part.

11.4 Pavement Deterioration Mechanisms

To decide which test methods are appropriate and which means of refurbishment are
necessary, it is necessary to understand how pavements perform and deteriorate.
Pavement surfaces eventually lose skid resistance. In flexible pavements, loss of

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surface texture and rutting can occur in surfacing materials with relatively high binder
contents. Rutting can be the result of shear failure of the asphalt courses or deep
structural failure from the subgrade and base layers, as show in Figure 11.1 and
Figure 11.2, respectively.

Figure 11.1 Plastic Rutting (Internal Shear Failure)

Figure 11.2 Structural Rutting

11.5 Pavement Survey and Investigation

A pavement assessment is usually carried out first at the network level and then at
the project level. Different survey types tend to be more applicable at one level or the
other but rarely both.

The purpose of a network-level survey is to determine an approximate, needs-based

level, at which informed decisions can be based on where and how to obtain more
detailed information to identify projects. Network-level data are useful for identifying

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annual trends and establishing a cost-effective sifting process to determine existing

problem areas and where problems are likely to occur in the near future.

Network-level data can be used to:

Provide a network level performance indicator.

Determine an appropriate level of budget.
Determine physical condition, defects, etc.
Target more detailed assessments for scheme identification.

At project level, the data can be used to:

Inform decisions on what, where, and how to treat defects.

Provide information for conceptual design.
Develop options for conceptual designs and subsequent detailed designs.

11.6 Network-Level Surveys

Network-level surveys are usually based on surface characteristics and can vary from
simple drive-through surveys, to visual surveys where data on general deterioration,
cracking, and rutting are obtained. Surface characteristics can be measured from
visual surveys or automated surveys. Ride quality can also be measured using
profilometers and output such as the IRI. The IRI is sometimes used to assess
pavements. A maximum IRI can be used to identify failure, or lack of serviceability.
The usual characteristics for measurement are rutting, cracking, edge deterioration,
fretting, and raveling. Surface characteristics can provide a great deal of data about
the condition of a road. However, they cannot directly evaluate residual life, although
combinations of defects can be combined to give a proxy value. It is important to
measure and collect appropriate data for the design.

Network surveys indicate the sections of roadway that need further investigation,
usually for a scheme design. Project-level surveys are carried out as needed, rather
than cyclically.

11.7 Project-Level Investigation and Assessment

When assessing existing pavements, the following processes are needed:

Review existing information

Visual survey
Establish construction from coring, DCP, test pits, or ground-penetrating radar [GPR]
Assess strength

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11.7.1 Review existing information

The first stage of any pavement assessment is to review all existing information:

As-built records
Maintenance records
Records of repeated maintenance or specific maintenance issues
Network surveys to determine general condition (cracks, ruts, IRI)

Assessment of this information can give an indication of the pavement condition and
the reasons for failure or lack of serviceability, such as aged, inadequate construction,
or high traffic. Such indicators can be taken into account when designing the
remaining investigation.

11.7.2 Visual Survey

A detailed visual survey needs to be carried out by an experienced pavement
engineer. Ideally, this is done before core positions are established, to inform the
process of core position. The survey is done on foot and in good weather, and it
includes inspecting for the following defects and the severity of each:

Transverse cracking
Longitudinal cracking
Crazing
Rutting
Signs of previous maintenance such as patching, crack seal, and slurry seal
Settlement or subsidence
Off-road features, such as drainage features, signs of defective drainage, adjacent
trees, and steep side slopes

In addition to a narrative report, it is useful to indicate defects on a diagram of the

site or a chart. Site record charts are particularly useful when surveying rigid
pavements. Charts showing defects such as joint faulting, corner spalling, and cracking
can be quickly completed on-site.

11.7.3 Coring
Existing pavement construction typically will be determined by coring. Coring has the
disadvantages of requiring road space and disrupting traffic. Choose locations to be
representative of the overall construction as well as the weak and defective areas. It
is important to target the worst areas, but it is also important to core good areas to
compare materials and performance. Cores will identify many features and provide
significant information that GPR cannot.

Extend cores through all bound materials wherever possible. Recovery can be difficult
in weak, broken materials. Cores provide information on overall pavement depth and
construction and the means for carrying out DCP testing, sampling for laboratory
testing, and correlating GPR.

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Where cores are taken to establish cracking, take an adjacent core in sound material
to ascertain thickness. Where rutting has occurred, take at least three cores to try to
establish a profile. Where cores are taken in heavily cracked areas, expect only partial
recovery. If coring is being undertaken to establish the reason for failure, note that
cracking will have allowed ingress of water, deterioration of subgrade, and other
factors. Although it is important to assess the additional damage to design the
remedial work, the cause of failure can be disguised. For example, the primary mode
of failure may be cracking that causes a secondary mode of failure of a weak
subgrade.

Cores need to be properly logged with the following data:

Core reference
Unique location reference such as road/lane/chainage/direction of traffic/core
number referenced to site plan
Layer and total thickness, and depth of core hole to identify lost material
Material type, thickness, and condition, such as sound, friable, or cracked, for each
layer
Missing layers
Material
Voiding and segregation
Binder stripping
Debonding and any detritus between debonded layers
Depth of cracking
Material type at base of core
Photograph with scale

11.7.4 Test Pits

Test pits are very disruptive and are made only where necessary. The bound
materials, particularly the upper layers, are always saw cut. Test pits can provide a
cross section of layers to identify rutting or other deformation and to allow inspection
of the behavior of the material under the excavation. In addition, test pits provide for
a greater degree of testing, such as in situ CBR, and the collection of bulk samples of
bound materials, subbase, and subgrade. Test pits are most likely to be used for
investigations of premature failure.

11.7.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

GPR is used to gather data on pavement thickness and construction. It is useful in
determining continuous information on pavement structures. GPR can identify
anomalies and discontinuities that coring would miss. It can also be used to build a
database of pavement constructions. This is useful at the initial assessment stage,
because changes or deficiencies in construction can be identified and compared with

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the incidence of defects. GPR involves correlation and calibration with core data. It is
nondestructive and can be carried out at normal road speeds. GPR might give only
approximations of construction. If detailed information is needed, such as accurate
layer thickness and the presence of underslab voids, then walking-speed surveys
could be necessary. GPR will tell little about the condition of a pavement, but the
information adds significantly to other surveys and assessments.

11.7.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

The DCP consists of a specific cone driven by a specific drop-weight. The equipment is
low-cost and is easy to transport and use. There are published correlations of blows
against penetration to give values of CBR. In pavement investigations, the DCP is usually
driven from the base of the bound material. The thickness of the underlying layers can,
to some extent, be estimated by changes in blow count, and hence stiffness. Individual
readings are not to be used to define a CBR value at a specific depth. Results need to be
plotted graphically with cumulative blows against depth. Sections with similar gradients
can be plotted. It can be seen from Figure 11.3 that the bound material was about
270 mm thick, followed by a layer 150 mm thick with a CBR of 138 percent. There is also
a base layer with a CBR of 30 percent. There is an intermediate 300 mm layer of CBR of
7 percent. This indicates a subbase over a relatively stiff subgrade with an upper layer of
soft subgrade.

Figure 11.3 Sample of DCP Test

11.8 Pavement Strength

Surveys of surface characteristics alone can be misleading. A rutted, cracked surface
does not always indicate a failing pavement, and recent thin resurfacing can disguise a
failing pavement. Therefore, particularly on major projects, it will be necessary to try
to assess the structural capacity of the pavement through testing procedures to

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estimate the residual life of a pavement structure and to establish information about
layer stiffness to be used in analytical techniques to design refurbishment works.

11.8.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

As noted, a DCP can be used to assess CBR values beneath pavements. It can also be a
good guide about changes in strength with depth immediately below the pavement,
even if the absolute strength cannot be measured.

11.8.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer

An FWD (see Figure 11.4) can be used to identify the strength or modulus values in
pavement layers. This allows a back-analysis to determine residual life, as well as an
analysis of proposed strengthening measures. It is possible to analyze overlays and
inlays.

Figure 11.4 Falling Weight Deflectometer

FWD testing is carried out using integral trailer-mounted equipment. The equipment
is static at each test location, so traffic management is needed. The FWD can be used
as a network tool but it is more usual to use an FWD for information at the scheme or
project level. FWD testing ought to be carried out on projects consisting only of
superficial resurfacing to uncover underlying, unidentified, structural problems.

The trailer consists of an impulse-generating device with a guide system that

comprises a variable weight that can be dropped from different heights; a loading

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plate that uniformly distributes the force on the test layer; a load cell to measure the
actual applied impulse; and a row of geophones spread along the length of the trailer
to measure deflection. The weight is dropped onto the loading plate. The impulse is
similar in magnitude and duration to a single, heavy, wheel load. The reflection of the
impact is measured by the geophones and can be interpreted as a bowl. For
detailed design, the spacing between drops is usually 10 m to 20 m, with closer
spacings in areas of greater interest. The shape of the reflected bowl is an indication
of the strength, or modulus value, of the basic layers in the pavement construction.
The software used calculates the modulus values from the deflection data.

A road pavement is a multi-layered structure. The modulus values of the layers can be
used to analyze strains in the layers, and hence its residual life. The equipment is
static at each test location, so traffic management is needed.

11.8.3 Data Handling of FWD Results

The FWD results are tabulated in the form of normalized deflection bowls for each
FWD test. Deflections are adjusted to a common contact pressure of the FWD loading
plate on the pavement surface. In addition, statistical analyses are performed for
three or more deflection criteria. The central deflection (d1) gives an indication of
overall pavement performance; the deflection difference, d0 to d300, d0 to d900, or
d300 to d900, indicates the condition of the bound pavement layers at different
depths. Deflection d1500 is used as an indicator of the subgrade condition.

The statistical analyses indicate the spread of results by giving maximum, minimum, and
85th, 50th, and 15th percentile values for the three deflection criteria. The
85th percentile value is such that 85 percent of the measured deflections are less
than or equal to it. Alternatively, the mean and standard deviations are calculated.
The statistics are used later to obtain representative effective stiffnesses for the
various pavement and subgrade layers, which are then used for the assessment of
residual life and the design of strengthening measures.

Profiles of deflection criteria are often plotted to show the variation of pavement
layers and subgrade stiffnesses along a length of pavement. The profiles support the
development of appropriate strategies for future maintenance and strengthening
measures.

11.8.4 Interpretation of FWD Data

Before data analysis, the FWD data are checked first for abnormalities. Data with
abnormalities are discarded and noted when reporting the FWD results.

Depending on the collected FWD data, two types of methods can be used to back-
calculate the modulus of pavement layers: the closed-form method and the iterative
method. The iterative method is more commonly used in current practice. Various
iterative back-calculation programs are available, such as MICHBAK, Evercalc,
MODULUS, and ELMOD. The agency reviewing and approving the analysis must
preapprove the software to be used. Regardless of the software selected, follow the

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flow chart shown on Figure 11.5 to obtain the reasonable modulus value for each
layer.

Document and report data with the FWD results on the following items:

Pavement surface condition. Conduct a pavement survey before FWD testing to

identify distress type, severity, extent, and exact location.
Pavement layer structure information. For most pavements, the exact structure is
unknown; therefore, pavement cores are usually extracted. For materials above
the subgrade, record the following information: layer material, layer thickness,
layer condition, and material type. For the subgrade, record the following
information: soil classification, natural moisture content, and laboratory CBR and
MR. This information can be used to validate the FWD data analysis results.

For quality assurance, a lightweight deflectometer (LWD), a portable, lighter version

of the FWD, can be used after compaction of unbound pavement materials. It can be
also used for quality control of asphaltic bound materials immediately after
compaction, to determine appropriate timing to open the road after construction.
Relative to the FWD, the LWD has a shallow depth of influence because of the lighter
weight, less than 20 kg, being dropped by hand.

Figure 11.5 Flow Chart for Iterative Back-Calculation of Pavement Layer Modulus

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12 Evaluation of Pavement
Alternatives
12.1 Engineering and Design
The selection of pavement type will usually be based on lowest first-time cost for a
given design period. This assumes that special factors, such as rut resistance, special
drainage conditions, high water table, and long-term settlement, were considered in
the design.

There can be special circumstances. Continuously reinforced concrete pavements are

the only types suitable where large or significant differential movement or settlement
is expected, because they can withstand large strains and remain intact. Flexible
pavements with asphalt base and jointed, reinforced pavements are suitable where
slight differential movements, or settlement caused by compressible ground, or
subsidence are expected. Flexible pavements with cement-bound bases and
unreinforced concrete pavements are not suitable where differential movement,
subsidence, or appreciable settlement is expected.

When evaluating different paving alternatives, construction methods and practices,

availability and quality of materials, time of construction, and maintenance during the
life of the pavement all need to be considered. The economic analysis and value
engineering of these alternatives are described in this Chapter.

12.2 Economic Analysis and Value Engineering

12.2.1 Life Cycle Cost
Life cycle costing is a method of assessing the overall cost of an asset, in this case
pavement over a specified duration. It uses a structured approach to identify the
direct and indirect costs that can be incurred over the life of the pavement. It can also
be used to identify the cost-effectiveness of future planned maintenance treatments.
Life cycle costing, or value comparison, can compare the cost-effectiveness or value of
options for the same scheme or compare the effectiveness of schemes. The adoption
of a life cycle cost approach enables informed maintenance decisions.

Life cycle costing involves the evaluation of treatment costs for a range of alternative
maintenance treatments over a set period. All costs and any benefits are then
discounted back to a common reference point, typically the current works year. The
discounting process reflects the time value of money, usually borrowing or interest
rates, and enables options to be assessed on a comparable basis. The option with the
lowest total discounted cost indicates the most advantageous investment. Life cycle

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costs can be developed for a newly constructed road or a road receiving a

maintenance treatment at a given time. The intention is to determine the likely cost
of construction or maintenance, or a combination thereof, for a given period. The life
cycle period needs to be at least as long as the longest design life for the alternatives
that are analyzed, and extend to the next maintenance period. By comparing life cycle
costs for a long period, the effectiveness of different constructions, maintenance
techniques, and treatments can be assessed. The following factors are to be
considered:

The time period to be used: 10, 20, 40 years, or more

Initial construction costs, including full construction for new build, or cost of
maintenance treatment for an existing road
Traffic control costs
Road user costs during works, including time delay and additional vehicle
operating costs
Future treatment costs
Timings of future treatments
Salvage value or disposal costs of materials and recycling
Interest rate

Determining the future maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements involves

reviewing historical information and considering the maintenance practices of the
owning agency. These practices depend on available funding and priorities of
roadways. Confirmation of the selected maintenance strategy needs to take place
before a life cycle cost analysis is performed. In the absence of such information, the
following can be used as a guide for flexible and rigid pavements.

Flexible Pavement

Year 5: Clean and seal 25 percent of longitudinal joints, clean and seal cracks,
100 m/km of lane width
Year 10: Full depth patching of 2 percent of pavement, mill and inlay pavement,
10 mm to 25 mm depth
Year 15: Clean and seal 15 percent of longitudinal joints, clean and seal cracks,
100 m/km
Year 20: Full depth patching of 2 percent of pavement, mill wearing course and
replace, apply 10 mm to 50 mm of overlay
Repeat maintenance tasks from years 5 to 20, beginning year 25, applying to
year 40.

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Rigid Pavement

Year 8: Clean and seal 25 percent of longitudinal and transverse joints

Year 15: Patch 2 percent of pavement area with new concrete, diamond grind or
refinish 50 percent of pavement area, clean and seal all longitudinal and
transverse joints
Year 25: Concrete patch 8 percent of pavement area, clean and seal all
longitudinal and transverse joints, place bituminous leveling course, place 100-mm
overlay, saw and seal all transverse joints
Year 30: Clean and seal 25 percent of sawed and sealed joints, clean and seal
cracks, 100 m/km
Year 35: Partial depth patching of 5 percent of pavement area, mill wearing
course, 10 mm to 25 mm bituminous overlay, saw and seal all transverse joints
Year 40: Clean and seal 25 percent of sawed and sealed joints, clean and seal
cracks, 100 m/km
Year 45: Full depth patching of 8 percent of pavement area, place bituminous
leveling course, place 10 mm to 25 mm thick bituminous overlay, saw and seal all
transverse joints

A life cycle analysis can be carried out to indicate which set of treatments are most
appropriate. The life cycle costing approach offers the following benefits:

It provides a means of evaluating maintenance options over a defined period.

It increases awareness of the life cycle costs of various maintenance options.
It can demonstrate to decision makers the long-term performance and economic
implications of various treatment strategies and funding levels.

By using life cycle costing to aid investment planning, engineers can demonstrate
long-term value.

12.2.2 Value Engineering

Value engineering can be a useful tool in the overall design process. When significant
elements of the design and construction process have been established, they ought to
be analyzed to verify the initial concepts and parameters are still valid, and to
determine whether improvements can be made. Value engineering can be an integral
stage of any project to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness in design and
construction, and sometimes to compare the effectiveness of different schemes for
prioritization. With respect to pavement alternatives, value engineering can compare
different sections that would add value in the following ways:

Reducing cost, time of construction, or maintenance

Increasing design life
Increasing quality
Deferring costs with staged construction
Using alternative materials

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13 Sustainable Pavement
Practices
13.1 Overview
The design methods in this manual direct the designer to assess the strength of
available materials and design accordingly. This allows the designer to choose
materials suitable to achieve the optimum design. The key drivers for sustainability
are reuse, reduce, and recycle. Reuse of pavement materials is usually limited to curbs
and paving elements such as concrete blocks and slabs. Reduction in the use of
materials can be achieved by adopting the most appropriate materials in the design.

This manual is not prescriptive regarding materials. If the designer can assess the
necessary parameters, any appropriate material can be used. The design methods
adopted allow the designer to compare any number of options, substituting different
thicknesses of different materials to achieve the overall objective. Many materials can
be recycled. In the case of granular material, if a material meets the specifications it can
be included, even it is not a prime material. Again, if the necessary design parameters
can be assessed such as primarily modulus, recycled materials can be used.

Particularly for lower classes of road, reduced specifications could be permitted, if the
relevant parameters can be identified and the material will perform in the conditions
and environment. Durability of recycled materials is always considered.

13.2 Recycled Aggregates

The most common applications of recycled aggregates include crushed recycled
concrete and RAP. Crushed recycled concrete can be used as a base or subbase
material, provided it meets the gradation and physical qualities of the applicable
specification. It can be blended with virgin aggregate or used in cement-treated bases
or concrete. RAP is typically used in AC, but it can also be used as a subbase or base
course when blended with virgin aggregate. Precaution must be taken to verify the
origin of recycled materials and to check for contaminants or previous material flaws.

Existing pavement can be recycled in-situ. Cold in situ recycling is a rehabilitation

method that reduces the cost of the pavement structure by reusing the existing
asphalt pavement. Existing asphalt is pulverized in place and mixed with native base.
New binder is added and the asphalt/base mixture is compacted in place to form a
new asphalt stabilized layer. The process uses 100 percent RAP mixed with a new
binder consisting of either emulsion or foamed asphalt cement. Because heat is not
used in the process, less energy is used, and the impact on the environment is less.

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Hot in situ recycling involves heating the existing pavement before it is milled, adding
hot emulsified asphalt binder, and replacing and repaving the RAP in the field. It is
used for thinner pavement sections because of the limits of the depth of recycling.
Cement recycled asphalt base is a method of milling and pulverizing existing asphalt
with part of the aggregate base and adding cement to produce a new cement-treated
base in situ.

13.3 Warm-Mix Asphalt

Warm-mix asphalt is a technology that uses admixtures and changes in production to
help inhibit the coating of the aggregate using asphalt with a lower viscosity to allow
AC to be produced and placed at temperatures of 10C to 40C lower than
conventional asphalt. Warm-mix is attained through chemical admixtures, organic
additives (wax), foaming, materials processing, or combinations at the asphalt paving
plant. By lowering the mix temperature, the warm-mix process has the following
environmental benefits:

Reduced volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide
Less energy and less fuel usage
A better work environment with fewer fumes, less heat stress, and improved air
quality
A higher percentage of RAP usage by decreasing the aging of the binder during
production, rejuvenating the old binder in the RAP, offsetting stiffness from added
RAP, and aiding in compaction

Warm-mix asphalt is an emerging technology. Its use and implementation on projects

needs to be evaluated closely against cost, contractor experience, and available
suppliers. The following are sources of additional information on warm-mix asphalt:

Mix Design Practices for Warm Mix Asphalt (NCHRP, 2011)

Warm-Mix Asphalt: Best Practices (National Asphalt Pavement Association [NAPA],
2012)
Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice (FHWA, 2008)

13.4 Two-lift Concrete Construction

Two-lift concrete construction, originally developed in Europe, is a process involving
placing a concrete pavement with two separate mixes. The lower lift is made of
coarse-graded concrete consisting of recycled aggregate. The upper lift consists of a
finer, dense-graded, high-quality concrete. The benefits of dual-layer concrete are the
use of recycled materials, low cost, and smooth pavement surface.

Two-lift concrete construction has been used and evaluated on multiple projects.
Additional information can be obtained from the FHWA.

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13.5 Noise Reducing Pavements

On high-speed expressways, tire contact on the pavement surface can generate noise
levels greater than 100 decibels. Noise levels are directly related to surface texture.
To reduce noise and noise pollution, certain methods of surface finish and mix types
can be used for better results. For flexible pavement, an open-graded surface course
has provided the best results for noise reduction. For rigid pavements, next-
generation concrete surfacing provides the lowest noise levels. Diamond grinding,
drag texturing, and longitudinal tining have provided results similar to and better than
transverse tining, shot peening, and grooving. Next-generation concrete surfacing is
produced with a new type of diamond grinding apparatus that creates a smooth
profile with consistently spaced grooves. The method is still being researched.
Table 13.1 and Table 13.2 compare the noise levels of different pavement types from
previous studies.

Table 13.1 Noise Level Ranges for Different Concrete Surfaces

Noise Level at the Est. Noise Level Est. Noise Level
Texture Type Source (dBA) at 50 feet (dBA) at 100 feet (dBA)
Next-generation concrete surfacing 99100 7173 6870
Conventional diamond grinding 100104 7276 6973
Drag texture 100102 7274 6971
Longitudinal tines 101106 7378 7075
Grooving 106108 7880 7577
Shot peening 105108 7780 7477
Transverse tines 103100 7582 7279
Random transverse tines 103100 7582 7278
Note:
dBA = decibels (A-weighted scale)
Sources: Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface (Scofield, 2012);
Quieter Pavement Research (Washington State Department of Transportation, 2013);
ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data
Collection (National Concrete Pavement Techology Center, 2007); Tire-Pavement and Environmental
Traffic Noise Research Study (Rasmussen and Sohaney, 2012); Pavement Noise (Pavement
Interactive, 2014)

Table 13.2 Noise Level Ranges for Different Asphalt Surfaces

Est. Noise Level Est. Noise Level
Texture Type Noise Level (dBA) at the Source (dBA) at 50 feet (dBA) at 100 feet
HMA (open- 9899 (after construction) 7071 6768
graded, modified) 102104 (after 34 years of service) 7476 7173
HMA (dense- 99101 (after construction) 7173 6870
graded) 104105 (after 34 years of service) 7677 7374
SMA 101103 7375 7072
Note:
dBA = decibels (A-weighted scale)
Sources: Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface (Scofield, 2012);
Quieter Pavement Research (Washington State Department of Transportation, 2013);
ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data
Collection (National Concrete Pavement Techology Center, 2007); Tire-Pavement and Environmental
Traffic Noise Research Study (Rasmussen and Sohaney, 2012); Pavement Noise (Pavement
Interactive, 2014)

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13.6 Porous Pavement

Porous pavements are constructed with permeable materials to allow stormwater to
infiltrate to the subsurface. Surface materials can consist of permeable concrete
pavers, concrete, or AC with at least a 20 percent void content to allow for infiltration.
Base materials are free-draining and open-graded.

The benefits of porous paving are improved stormwater quality, replenishment of the
groundwater, and elimination or reduction of drainage system infrastructure.

Porous pavement sections are limited to areas that have lower vehicle speeds and
light traffic such as parking areas and sidewalks. Porous pavements are maintained to
prevent clogging of the surface. They are best used in granular soils, but can be used
in fine-grained soils with the addition of subdrains. More information on subdrains is
provided in Part 10, Drainage, of this manual.

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References

AASHTO. Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 1986.

AASHTO. Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide). American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 1993.

AASHTO. Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual of Practice

(MEPDG). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC,
United States. July 2008.

AASHTO. Guide for the Local Calibration of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United
States. November 2010.

AASHTO MP 19-10. Standard Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Using Multiple
Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2010.

AASHTO T- 27. Standard Method of Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United
States. 2011.

AASHTO T-90. Standard Method of Test for Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of
Soils. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC,
United States. 2008.

AASHTO T-180-10-UL. Standard Method of Test for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a
4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2010.

AASHTO T-190. Standard Method of Test for Resistance R-Value and Expansion Pressure of
Compacted Soils. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Washington, DC, United States. 2009.

AASHTO T-193. Standard Method of Test for the California Bearing Ratio. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2013.

AASHTO TP 70-13. Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test of
Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. August 2013.

Applied Research Associates. DARWin-ME software. Version 3.1.

http://www.ara.com/products/DARwin.htm. Accessed June 13, 2014.

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Ashghal. Pavement Design Guidelines, Interim Advice Notice 016. Rev. No. 2. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. July 26, 2012a.

Ashghal. Guide for Superpave Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2012b.

Ashghal. Amendments to Earthworks, Unbound Pavement Materials and Asphalt Works of Qatar
Construction Specifications. Interim Advice Note 019. Rev. No. 1. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2012c.

Ashghal. Cycleways and Footways Pavement Design Guideline, Revision No. 1A. Interim Advice Note
No. 021. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. September 2013.

Ashghal. Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement Layers. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013a.

Ashghal. Specifications and Quality Control of Unbound Materials, Base Courses, Sub-bases, and
Subgrades. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. November 2013b.

Ashghal. Guide for Marshall Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013c.

ASTM D6951/D6951M-09. Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in
Shallow Pavement Applications. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2009.

ASTM D7369-11. Standard Test Method for Determining the Resilient Modulus of Bituminous
Mixtures by Indirect Tension Test. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2011.

ASTM E1318-09. Standard Specification for Highway Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Systems with User
Requirements and Test Methods. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2009.

ASTM E1926-08. Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of Roads from
Longitudinal Profile Measurements. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania,
United States. 2008.

ASTM E2133-03(2013). Standard Test Method for Using a Rolling Inclinometer to Measure
Longitudinal and Transverse Profiles of a Traveled Surface. ASTM International: West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States. 2013.

Austroads. Pavement DesignA Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements. Sydney,
Australia. 1992.

BS 7533 Series. Elemental PavementsPavements Constructed with Clay, Natural Stone or

Concrete Pavers. Parts 1 to 13. British Standards Institution: London, England. Various dates.

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Department for Transport. New Roads Heritage. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 10, Section 1, Part 5. HA 60/92. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol10/section1/ha6092.pdf. December 1992.

Department for Transport. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volumes 0 to 15. UK Highways
Agency: London, England. Various dates.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice. Report

No. FHWA-PL-08-007. International Technology Scanning Program, U.S. Department of
Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. February 2008.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Traffic Monitoring Guide. Publication

No. FHWA-PL-13-015. Office of Highway Policy Information, U.S. Department of Transportation:
Washington, DC, United States. September 2013.

Heukelom, W., and A. J. G. Klomp. Dynamic Testing as a Means of Controlling Pavements During
and After Construction. Proceedings of the (1st) International Conference on the Structural
Design of Asphalt Pavements. Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. pp. 667-685. August 20-24,
1962.

Knapton, John. The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and Other Industries,
Edition 4. Uniclass L534. (previously known as the British Ports Association Manual.) Interpave
(a Product Association of the British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd.): Leicester, England.
December 2008.

Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards 2010 (QCS 2010). State of
Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2011.

Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Guidelines and Procedures for Transport
Studies, Revision 3. Transportation and Infrastructure Planning Department; State of Qatar: Doha,
Qatar. May 2011.

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). Warm-Mix Asphalt: Best Practices. 3rd edition.
Quality Improvement Publication 125. Lanham, Massachusetts, United States. January 2012.

National Concrete Pavement Technology Center. ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface

Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data Collection. Prepared for Federal Highway
Administration. Iowa State University: Ames, Iowa, United States. 2007.

National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Evaluation of AASHTO Design Guides
for Design of Pavement Structures. Report 128. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC,
United States. 1972.

National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New

and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. Research Report 1-37A. Transportation Research Board:
Washington, DC. 2004.

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National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Mix Design Practices for Warm Mix
Asphalt. Report 691. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States. 2011.

Pavement Interactive. Pavement Noise.

http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/pavement-noise/. February 28, 2008. Accessed
2014.

Pavement Testing Services International (PTS). Website. Adlington, Lancashire, United Kingdom.
http://www.ptsinternational.co.uk/. Accessed 2014

Rasmussen, R. O., and R. C. Sohaney. Tire-Pavement and Environmental Traffic Noise Research
Study. Final Report. Report No. CDOT-2012-5. Prepared for Colorado Department of
Transportation: Denver, Colorado, United States. June 2012.

Scofield, Larry. Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface. Final
Report. American Concrete Pavement Association: Rosemont, Illinois, United States. January
2012.

Thompson, Marshal R., and Quentin L. Robnett. 1979. Resilient Properties of Subgrade Soils.
Transportation Engineering Journal. Vol. 105, No. 1: pp. 71-89. January/February 1979.

Washington State Department of Transportation. Quieter Pavement Research. Olympia,

Washington, United States. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Business/materialslab/quieterpavement.
Accessed April 17, 2013.

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Appendix A
Parameters Appropriate for Use
in Qatar

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Design Parameters for Qatar for Use in 1993 AASHTO Design

Standard Drainage
Reliability Deviation (S0) Coefficient, m Service- Service-
Flexibl ability ability
Rural Urban e Rigid Fair Poor (Initial) (Final) PSI
Freeeways and Expressways 97 97 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 3.0 1.2
Arterials 95 85 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 2.5 1.7
Collectors 90 80 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 2.0 2.2
Local Roads 80 75 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 1.5 2.7

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Appendix B
Layer Coefficient Graphs from
the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the
Design of Pavement Structures

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Appendix C
Effective k-value Charts from
the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the
Design of Pavement Structures

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Appendix D
Design Charts from the 1993
AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures

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Appendix E
Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Examples

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 Qatar Highway Design Manual Flexilble Pavement Example
File Name: C:\PROJECTS\Qatar Highway Design Manual\Qatar Highway Design Manual Flexilble Pavement Example.dgpx

Design Inputs
Design Life: 20 years Base construction: May, 2015 Climate Data 36.079, -115.155
Design Type: Flexible Pavement Pavement construction: June, 2016 Sources (Lat/Lon)
Traffic opening: September, 2016

Design Structure Traffic

Layer type Material Type Thickness(mm): Volumetric at Construction: Heavy Trucks

Age (year)
Default asphalt Effective binder (cumulative)
Flexible 310.0 5.5
concrete content (%) 2016 (initial) 1,000
NonStabilized Crushed stone 150.0 Air voids (%) 4.0
2026 (10 years) 2,230,090
NonStabilized A-2-7 150.0
2036 (20 years) 5,140,980
Subgrade A-5 Semi-infinite

Design Outputs
Distress Prediction Summary

Distress @ Specified
Reliability (%) Criterion
Distress Type Reliability
Satisfied?
Target Predicted Target Achieved
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.70 2.22 90.00 99.01 Pass
Permanent deformation - total pavement (mm) 19.00 15.82 90.00 99.61 Pass
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent) 25.00 1.56 90.00 100.00 Pass
AC thermal cracking (m/km) 47.30 5.15 90.00 100.00 Pass
AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km) 378.80 49.79 90.00 100.00 Pass
Permanent deformation - AC only (mm) 6.00 5.98 90.00 90.17 Pass

Distress Charts

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Traffic Inputs
Graphical Representation of Traffic Inputs
Initial two-way AADTT: 1,000 Percent of trucks in design direction (%): 60.0
Number of lanes in design direction: 2 Percent of trucks in design lane (%): 90.0
Operational speed (kph) 100.0

Traffic Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 Class 12 Class 13

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Tabular Representation of Traffic Inputs

Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors Level 3: Default MAF

Vehicle Class
Month
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
January 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
February 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
March 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
April 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
May 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
June 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
July 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
August 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
September 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
October 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
November 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
December 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Distributions by Vehicle Class Truck Distribution by Hour

AADTT Growth Factor Distribution Distribution

Hour Hour
Vehicle Class Distribution (%) (%) (%)
(Level 3) Rate (%) Function 12 AM 12 PM
2.3% 5.9%
Class 4 10% 2.7% Compound 1 AM 2.3% 1 PM 5.9%
Class 5 10% 2.7% Compound 2 AM 2.3% 2 PM 5.9%
Class 6 12% 2.7% Compound 3 AM 2.3% 3 PM 5.9%
Class 7 12% 2.7% Compound 4 AM 2.3% 4 PM 4.6%
Class 8 12% 2.7% Compound 5 AM 2.3% 5 PM 4.6%
Class 9 12% 2.7% Compound 6 AM 5% 6 PM 4.6%
Class 10 12% 2.7% Compound 7 AM 5% 7 PM 4.6%
Class 11 10% 2.7% Compound 8 AM 5% 8 PM 3.1%
Class 12 5% 2.7% Compound 9 AM 5% 9 PM 3.1%
Class 13 5% 2.7% Compound 10 AM 5.9% 10 PM 3.1%
11 AM 5.9% 11 PM 3.1%
Total 100%

Axle Configuration Number of Axles per Truck

Traffic Wander Axle Configuration Vehicle Single Tandem Tridem Quad

Mean wheel location (mm) 460 Average axle width (m) 2.59 Class Axle Axle Axle Axle
Traffic wander standard deviation (mm) 254 Dual tire spacing (mm) 305 Class 4 1.62 0.39 0 0
Design lane width (m) 3.7 Tire pressure (kPa) 827.4 Class 5 2 0 0 0
Class 6 1.02 0.99 0 0
Average Axle Spacing Wheelbase does not apply Class 7 1 0.26 0.83 0
Tandem axle Class 8 2.38 0.67 0 0
1.31
spacing (m) Class 9 1.13 1.93 0 0
Tridem axle Class 10 1.19 1.09 0.89 0
1.25
spacing (m) Class 11 4.29 0.26 0.06 0
Quad axle spacing Class 12
1.25 3.52 1.14 0.06 0
(m)
Class 13 2.15 2.13 0.35 0

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AADTT (Average Annual Daily Truck Traffic) Growth

* Traffic cap is not enforced

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Climate Inputs
Climate Data Sources:
Climate Station Cities: Location (lat lon elevation(m))
LAS VEGAS, NV 36.07900 -115.15500 648

Annual Statistics:

Mean annual air temperature (C) 20.73

Mean annual precipitation (mm) 136.40
Freezing index (C - days) 0.83
Water table depth 10.00
Average annual number of freeze/thaw cycles: 5.12
(m)
Monthly Climate Summary:

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Hourly Air Temperature Distribution by Month:

< -25C -25C to -20C -20C to -15C -15C to -10C -10C to -5C -5C to 0C 0C to 5C 5C to 10C

10C to 15C 15C to 20C 20C to 25C 25C to 30C 30C to 35C 35C to 40C 40C to 45C > 45C

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Design Properties
HMA Design Properties

Using G* based model (not nationally Interface

True Layer Name Layer Type
calibrated) Friction
Is NCHRP 1-37A HMA Rutting Model Layer 1 Flexible : Default asphalt
True Flexible (1) 1.00
Coefficients concrete
Endurance Limit - Layer 2 Non-stabilized Base :
Non-stabilized Base (4) 1.00
Crushed stone
Use Reflective Cracking True
Layer 3 Non-stabilized Base : A-2
Non-stabilized Base (4) 1.00
Structure - ICM Properties -7
AC surface shortwave absorptivity 0.85 Layer 4 Subgrade : A-5 Subgrade (5) -

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Thermal Cracking (Input Level: 3)

Creep Compliance (1/GPa)

Indirect tensile strength at -10 C (MPa) 4.82 Loading time (sec) -20 C -10 C 0 C
Thermal Contraction 1 1.82e-002 2.97e-002 4.21e-002
Is thermal contraction calculated? True 2 1.94e-002 3.38e-002 5.14e-002
Mix coefficient of thermal contraction (mm/mm/C) - 5 2.12e-002 3.99e-002 6.69e-002
Aggregate coefficient of thermal contraction 10 2.26e-002 4.53e-002 8.16e-002
9.0e-006
(mm/mm/C)
20 2.41e-002 5.15e-002 9.95e-002
Voids in Mineral Aggregate (%) 9.5
50 2.63e-002 6.09e-002 1.29e-001
100 2.81e-002 6.91e-002 1.58e-001

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HMA Layer 1: Layer 1 Flexible : Default asphalt concrete

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Analysis Output Charts

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Layer Information
Layer 1 Flexible : Default asphalt concrete

Asphalt General Info

Thickness (mm) 310.0
Name Value
Unit weight (kgf/m^3) 2400.0
Reference temperature (C) 21.1
Poisson's ratio Is Calculated? False
Effective binder content (%) 5.5
Ratio 0.35
Air voids (%) 4
Parameter A -
Thermal conductivity (watt/meter-
Parameter B - 1.16
kelvin)
Heat capacity (joule/kg-kelvin ) 963
Asphalt Dynamic Modulus (Input Level: 3)

Gradation Percent Passing Identifiers

19 mm-inch sieve 100 Field Value
9.5 mm sieve 77 Display name/identifier Default asphalt concrete
4.75 mm sieve 60
0.075mm sieve 6 Description of object

Asphalt Binder Author

Date Created 9/16/2010 8:00:00 AM
Parameter Value Approver
Grade Superpave Performance Grade Date approved 9/16/2010 8:00:00 AM
Binder Type 76-10 State
A 10.059 District
VTS -3.331 County
Highway
Direction of Travel
From station (km)
To station (km)
Province
User defined field 2
User defined field 3
Revision Number 0

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Layer 2 Non-stabilized Base : Crushed stone

Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) 150.0
Liquid Limit 6.0
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Plasticity Index 1.0
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (k0) 0.5
Is layer compacted? False
Modulus (Input Level: 3) Is User
Value
Defined?
Modify input values by
Analysis Type: Maximum dry unit weight
temperature/moisture False 2038.2
(kgf/m^3)
Method: Resilient Modulus (MPa) Saturated hydraulic conductivity
False 5.054e-02
(m/hr)
Resilient Modulus (MPa) Specific gravity of solids False 2.7
210.0 Optimum gravimetric water
False 7.4
content (%)
Use Correction factor for NDT modulus? -
User-defined Soil Water Characteristic Curve
NDT Correction Factor: - (SWCC)
Is User Defined? False
Identifiers
af 7.2555
Field Value bf 1.3328
Display name/identifier Crushed stone cf 0.8242
hr 117.4000
Description of object Default material
Sieve Size % Passing
Author AASHTO 0.001mm
Date Created 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.002mm
Approver 0.020mm
Date approved 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.075mm 8.7
State 0.150mm
District 0.180mm 12.9
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Direction of Travel 0.425mm 20.0
From station (km) 0.600mm
To station (km) 0.850mm
Province 1.18mm
User defined field 2 2.0mm 33.8
User defined field 3 2.36mm
Revision Number 0 4.75mm 44.7
9.5mm 57.2
12.5mm 63.1
19.0mm 72.7
25.0mm 78.8
37.5mm 85.8
50.0mm 91.6
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 97.6

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Layer 3 Non-stabilized Base : A-2-7

Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) 150.0
Liquid Limit 50.0
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Plasticity Index 29.0
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (k0) 0.5
Is layer compacted? False
Modulus (Input Level: 3) Is User
Value
Defined?
Modify input values by
Analysis Type: Maximum dry unit weight
temperature/moisture False 1935.2
(kgf/m^3)
Method: Resilient Modulus (MPa) Saturated hydraulic conductivity
False 6.832e-06
(m/hr)
Resilient Modulus (MPa) Specific gravity of solids False 2.7
165.5 Optimum gravimetric water
False 10.6
content (%)
Use Correction factor for NDT modulus? -
User-defined Soil Water Characteristic Curve
NDT Correction Factor: - (SWCC)
Is User Defined? False
Identifiers
af 100.4941
Field Value bf 0.7343
Display name/identifier A-2-7 cf 0.2680
hr 500.0000
Description of object Default material
Sieve Size % Passing
Author AASHTO 0.001mm
Date Created 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.002mm
Approver 0.020mm
Date approved 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.075mm 27.4
State 0.150mm
District 0.180mm 32.0
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Direction of Travel 0.425mm 37.1
From station (km) 0.600mm
To station (km) 0.850mm
Province 1.18mm
User defined field 2 2.0mm 47.6
User defined field 3 2.36mm
Revision Number 0 4.75mm 55.4
9.5mm 72.4
12.5mm 78.1
19.0mm 85.3
25.0mm 89.1
37.5mm 94.6
50.0mm 97.0
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 100.0

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Layer 4 Subgrade : A-5

Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) Semi-infinite
Liquid Limit 45.0
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Plasticity Index 5.0
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (k0) 0.5
Is layer compacted? False
Modulus (Input Level: 3) Is User
Value
Defined?
Modify input values by
Analysis Type: Maximum dry unit weight
temperature/moisture False 1908.8
(kgf/m^3)
Method: Resilient Modulus (MPa) Saturated hydraulic conductivity
False 9.256e-07
(m/hr)
Resilient Modulus (MPa) Specific gravity of solids False 2.7
55.2 Optimum gravimetric water
False 11.4
content (%)
Use Correction factor for NDT modulus? -
User-defined Soil Water Characteristic Curve
NDT Correction Factor: - (SWCC)
Is User Defined? False
Identifiers
af 65.2333
Field Value bf 1.0338
Display name/identifier A-5 cf 0.4994
hr 500.0000
Description of object Default material
Sieve Size % Passing
Author AASHTO 0.001mm
Date Created 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.002mm
Approver 0.020mm
Date approved 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.075mm 54.3
State 0.150mm
District 0.180mm 66.2
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Direction of Travel 0.425mm 74.3
From station (km) 0.600mm
To station (km) 0.850mm
Province 1.18mm
User defined field 2 2.0mm 82.6
User defined field 3 2.36mm
Revision Number 0 4.75mm 86.9
9.5mm 90.2
12.5mm 91.9
19.0mm 94.1
25.0mm 95.9
37.5mm 97.5
50.0mm 98.5
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 99.5

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Calibration Coefficients

AC Fatigue
k1: 0.007566
k2: 3.9492
k3: 1.281
Bf1: 1
Bf2: 1
Bf3: 1

AC Rutting

K1: -3.35412 K2: 1.5606 K3: 0.4791

Br2: 1 Br3: 1 Br1: 1
AC Rutting Standard Deviation
0.24*Pow(RUT,0.8026)+0.001

Thermal Fracture

Level 1 K: 1.5 Level 1 Standard Deviation: 0.1468 * THERMAL + 65.027

Level 2 K: 0.5 Level 2 Standard Deviation: 0.2841 *THERMAL + 55.462
Level 3 K: 1.5 Level 3 Standard Deviation: 0.3972 * THERMAL + 20.422

CSM Fatigue

k1: 1 k2: 1 Bc1: 1 Bc2:1

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Subgrade Rutting

Granular Fine
k1: 2.03 Bs1: 1 k1: 1.35 Bs1: 1
Standard Deviation (BASERUT) Standard Deviation (BASERUT)
0.1477*Pow(BASERUT,0.6711)+0.001 0.1235*Pow(SUBRUT,0.5012)+0.001

AC Cracking
AC Top Down Cracking AC Bottom Up Cracking

c1: 7 c2: 3.5 c3: 0 c4: 1000 c1: 1 c2: 1 c3: 6000
AC Cracking Top Standard Deviation AC Cracking Bottom Standard Deviation
200 + 2300/(1+exp(1.072-2.1654*LOG10 1.13+13/(1+exp(7.57-15.5*LOG10
(TOP+0.0001))) (BOTTOM+0.0001)))

CSM Cracking IRI Flexible Pavements

C1: 1 C2: 1 C3: 0 C4: 1000 C1: 40 C2: 0.4 C3: 0.008 C4: 0.015
CSM Standard Deviation
CTB*1

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Design Inputs
Design Life: 20 years Existing construction: - Climate Data 36.079, -115.155
Design Type: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement construction: June, 2016 Sources (Lat/Lon)
Pavement (JPCP) Traffic opening: September, 2016

Design Structure Traffic

Layer type Material Type Thickness(mm): Joint Design: Heavy Trucks

Age (year)
PCC JPCP Default 240.0 Joint spacing (m) 5.0 (cumulative)
NonStabilized Crushed stone 150.0 Dowel diameter (mm) 32.0 2016 (initial) 1,000
Subgrade A-5 Semi-infinite Slab width (m) 3.7 2026 (10 years) 2,230,090
2036 (20 years) 5,140,980

Design Outputs
Distress Prediction Summary

Distress @ Specified
Reliability (%) Criterion
Distress Type Reliability
Satisfied?
Target Predicted Target Achieved
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.70 1.69 90.00 99.99 Pass
Mean joint faulting (mm) 3.00 1.32 90.00 99.99 Pass
JPCP transverse cracking (percent slabs) 15.00 8.56 90.00 99.35 Pass

Distress Charts

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Traffic Inputs
Graphical Representation of Traffic Inputs
Initial two-way AADTT: 1,000 Percent of trucks in design direction (%): 60.0
Number of lanes in design direction: 2 Percent of trucks in design lane (%): 90.0
Operational speed (kph) 100.0

Traffic Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 Class 12 Class 13

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Tabular Representation of Traffic Inputs

Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors Level 3: Default MAF

Vehicle Class
Month
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
January 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
February 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
March 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
April 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
May 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
June 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
July 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
August 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
September 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
October 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
November 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
December 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Distributions by Vehicle Class Truck Distribution by Hour

AADTT Growth Factor Distribution Distribution

Hour Hour
Vehicle Class Distribution (%) (%) (%)
(Level 3) Rate (%) Function 12 AM 12 PM
2.3% 5.9%
Class 4 10% 2.7% Compound 1 AM 2.3% 1 PM 5.9%
Class 5 10% 2.7% Compound 2 AM 2.3% 2 PM 5.9%
Class 6 12% 2.7% Compound 3 AM 2.3% 3 PM 5.9%
Class 7 12% 2.7% Compound 4 AM 2.3% 4 PM 4.6%
Class 8 12% 2.7% Compound 5 AM 2.3% 5 PM 4.6%
Class 9 12% 2.7% Compound 6 AM 5% 6 PM 4.6%
Class 10 12% 2.7% Compound 7 AM 5% 7 PM 4.6%
Class 11 10% 2.7% Compound 8 AM 5% 8 PM 3.1%
Class 12 5% 2.7% Compound 9 AM 5% 9 PM 3.1%
Class 13 5% 2.7% Compound 10 AM 5.9% 10 PM 3.1%
11 AM 5.9% 11 PM 3.1%
Total 100%

Axle Configuration Number of Axles per Truck

Traffic Wander Axle Configuration Vehicle Single Tandem Tridem Quad

Mean wheel location (mm) 460 Average axle width (m) 2.59 Class Axle Axle Axle Axle
Traffic wander standard deviation (mm) 254 Dual tire spacing (mm) 305 Class 4 1.62 0.39 0 0
Design lane width (m) 3.7 Tire pressure (kPa) 827.4 Class 5 2 0 0 0
Class 6 1.02 0.99 0 0
Average Axle Spacing Wheelbase Class 7 1 0.26 0.83 0
Tandem axle Axle Type Class 8 2.38 0.67 0 0
1.31 Short Medium Long
spacing (m) Value Type Class 9 1.13 1.93 0 0
Tridem axle Average spacing of axles Class 10 1.19 1.09 0.89 0
1.25 3.66 4.57 5.49
spacing (m) (m) Class 11 4.29 0.26 0.06 0
Quad axle spacing Class 12
1.25 Percent of Trucks (%) 33 33 34 3.52 1.14 0.06 0
(m)
Class 13 2.15 2.13 0.35 0

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AADTT (Average Annual Daily Truck Traffic) Growth

* Traffic cap is not enforced

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Climate Inputs
Climate Data Sources:
Climate Station Cities: Location (lat lon elevation(m))
LAS VEGAS, NV 36.07900 -115.15500 648

Annual Statistics:

Mean annual air temperature (C) 20.71

Mean annual precipitation (mm) 136.40
Freezing index (C - days) 0.83
Water table depth 10.00
Average annual number of freeze/thaw cycles: 5.12
(m)
Monthly Climate Summary:

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Hourly Air Temperature Distribution by Month:

< -25C -25C to -20C -20C to -15C -15C to -10C -10C to -5C -5C to 0C 0C to 5C 5C to 10C

10C to 15C 15C to 20C 20C to 25C 25C to 30C 30C to 35C 35C to 40C 40C to 45C > 45C

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Design Properties
JPCP Design Properties

Structure - ICM Properties Doweled Joints Tied Shoulders

PCC surface shortwave Is joint doweled ? True Tied shoulders False
0.85
absorptivity Dowel diameter (mm) 32.00 Load transfer efficiency (%) -
Dowel spacing (mm) 300.00

PCC joint spacing (m) Widened Slab PCC-Base Contact Friction

Is joint spacing random ? False Is slab widened ? False PCC-Base full friction contact True
Joint spacing (m) 5.00 Slab width (m) 3.66 Months until friction loss 240.00

Sealant type Preformed Erodibility index 5

Permanent curl/warp effective temperature difference (C) -5.60

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Analysis Output Charts

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Layer Information
Layer 1 PCC : JPCP Default

PCC Identifiers
Thickness (mm) 240.0
Unit weight (kgf/m^3) 2400.0
Field Value
Display name/identifier JPCP Default
Poisson's ratio 0.2

Thermal Description of object

PCC coefficient of thermal expansion
9.9
(mm/mm/C x 10^-6) Author
PCC thermal conductivity (watt/meter-kelvin) 2.16
Date Created 4/7/2014 4:42:44 PM
PCC heat capacity (joule/kg-kelvin) 1172.3
Approver
Mix Date approved 4/7/2014 4:42:44 PM
Cement type GU(Type I)(1) State
Cementitious material content (kgf/m^3) 356 District
Water to cement ratio 0.42 County
Aggregate type Dolomite (2) Highway
PCC zero-stress Calculated Internally? True Direction of Travel
temperature (C)
User Value - From station (km)
Calculated Value 51.2 To station (km)
Ultimate shrinkage Calculated Internally? True Province
(microstrain)
User Value - User defined field 2
Calculated Value 632.3 User defined field 3
Reversible shrinkage (%) 50 Revision Number 0
Time to develop 50% of ultimate shrinkage
35
(days)
Curing method Curing Compound

PCC strength and modulus (Input Level: 3)

28-Day PCC modulus of rupture (MPa) 4.8

28-Day PCC elastic modulus (MPa) 28958.0

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Layer 2 Non-stabilized Base : Crushed stone

Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) 150.0
Liquid Limit 6.0
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Plasticity Index 1.0
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (k0) 0.5
Is layer compacted? False
Modulus (Input Level: 3) Is User
Value
Defined?
Modify input values by
Analysis Type: Maximum dry unit weight
temperature/moisture False 2038.2
(kgf/m^3)
Method: Resilient Modulus (MPa) Saturated hydraulic conductivity
False 5.054e-02
(m/hr)
Resilient Modulus (MPa) Specific gravity of solids False 2.7
206.8 Optimum gravimetric water
False 7.4
content (%)
Use Correction factor for NDT modulus? -
User-defined Soil Water Characteristic Curve
NDT Correction Factor: - (SWCC)
Is User Defined? False
Identifiers
af 7.2555
Field Value bf 1.3328
Display name/identifier Crushed stone cf 0.8242
hr 117.4000
Description of object Default material
Sieve Size % Passing
Author AASHTO 0.001mm
Date Created 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.002mm
Approver 0.020mm
Date approved 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.075mm 8.7
State 0.150mm
District 0.180mm 12.9
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Direction of Travel 0.425mm 20.0
From station (km) 0.600mm
To station (km) 0.850mm
Province 1.18mm
User defined field 2 2.0mm 33.8
User defined field 3 2.36mm
Revision Number 0 4.75mm 44.7
9.5mm 57.2
12.5mm 63.1
19.0mm 72.7
25.0mm 78.8
37.5mm 85.8
50.0mm 91.6
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 97.6

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Layer 3 Subgrade : A-5

Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) Semi-infinite
Liquid Limit 45.0
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Plasticity Index 5.0
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (k0) 0.5
Is layer compacted? False
Modulus (Input Level: 3) Is User
Value
Defined?
Modify input values by
Analysis Type: Maximum dry unit weight
temperature/moisture False 1908.8
(kgf/m^3)
Method: Resilient Modulus (MPa) Saturated hydraulic conductivity
False 9.256e-07
(m/hr)
Resilient Modulus (MPa) Specific gravity of solids False 2.7
55.2 Optimum gravimetric water
False 11.4
content (%)
Use Correction factor for NDT modulus? -
User-defined Soil Water Characteristic Curve
NDT Correction Factor: - (SWCC)
Is User Defined? False
Identifiers
af 65.2333
Field Value bf 1.0338
Display name/identifier A-5 cf 0.4994
hr 500.0000
Description of object Default material
Sieve Size % Passing
Author AASHTO 0.001mm
Date Created 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.002mm
Approver 0.020mm
Date approved 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.075mm 54.3
State 0.150mm
District 0.180mm 66.2
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Direction of Travel 0.425mm 74.3
From station (km) 0.600mm
To station (km) 0.850mm
Province 1.18mm
User defined field 2 2.0mm 82.6
User defined field 3 2.36mm
Revision Number 0 4.75mm 86.9
9.5mm 90.2
12.5mm 91.9
19.0mm 94.1
25.0mm 95.9
37.5mm 97.5
50.0mm 98.5
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 99.5

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Calibration Coefficients

PCC Faulting

C1: 1.0184 C2: 0.91656 C3: 0.0021848 C4: 0.000883739

C5: 250 C6: 0.4 C7: 1.83312 C8: 400
PCC Reliability Faulting Standard Deviation
Pow(0.0097*FAULT,0.5178)+0.014

IRI-jpcp
C1: 0.8203 C2: 0.4417
C3: 1.4929 C4: 25.24
Reliability Standard Deviation
5.4

PCC Cracking
Fatigue Coefficients Cracking Coefficients
C1: 2 C2: 1.22 C4: 1 C5: -1.98
PCC Reliability Cracking Standard Deviation
Pow(5.3116*CRACK,0.3903) + 2.99

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