Chapter 3

Boyles Law states at constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume
Charless Law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of gas is
proportional to its temperature, T
Gay-Lussacs Law -the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the kelvin
temperature, when the volume remains constant.
Combined Gas Equation PV = nRT
Partial Pressures PT= PA+ PB + PC
Xi=ni/nT
xa+xb+xc = 1
Pi = xi P
Molar volume (v) - v = V/n= RT/P
Molar Volume, at v STP is 0.022414 m3 = 22.414 L
Molar Volume, v at SATP is 0.02479 m3 = 24.79 L
Partial volume Vi = xi V

Chapter 5
Kinetic Theory of Gases
1) A gas consists of a large number of small identical particles, which are in constant random
motion.
2) Particles in a gas are infinitely small: they occupy no volume.
3) Particles move in straight lines and collide frequently with other molecules and the
container. These collisions are elastic so the total KE of the particles is conserved.
4) Particles in a gas interact with each other only when collisions occur.
5) The average kinetic energy of the particle in a gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas and does not depend on the identity of the gas.
For real gases Total Energy = Kinetic Energy (KE) + Potential Energy (PE)
In ideal gases (Total Energy) ideal gas= KE because PE is considered negligible
Types of Forces:
1. Attraction (-ve PE)
2. Repulsion (+ve PE)
The Critical Point: - the temperature Tc & pressure Pc at which the density of the liquid
equals the density of the gas (i.e., L = V) and the two phases can no longer be
distinguished
The compressibility factor (Z) can be used to modify the ideal gas law and account for real
gas behaviour, Z=PV/RT
The Virial Equation: Pv/RT = 1 + B(T)/v + C(T)/v2 Virial Coefficients: first virial coefficient is 1,
second B(T) and third C(T). At high temperatures and low pressures, the third term
contributes very little and can be omitted
The Van der Waals Equation: [P+a(n/V)2](V-nb )=nRT (a accounts for attractive forces
and b accounts for repulsive volume of molecules.
For one mole of gas [P+(a/v2)](v - b)=RT
Calculating VDW constants: a= 27R2Tc2 / 64 Pc
b = RTc / 8 Pc Where Tc is the critical temperature and Pc is the critical pressure.
 Chapter 6
Thermodynamics deals with the transformation of energy (energy is the ability to do work)
Heat (Q) to work (W)
Work (W) into heat (Q)
A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the system
boundary. The closed system boundary may move. A closed system cannot exchange matter
with its surroundings. However, energy in the form of heat and work may cross the
boundaries of a closed system. Ex. Piston or sealed tank
An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary, called
a control surface. An open system can exchange matter with its surroundings. Ex. Pumps,
compressors, turbines, valves and heat exchangers.
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the
boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system that cannot exchange matter or energy
with its surroundings.
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called internal energy of a system (U). Related
to motion (kinetic) and the influence of external effects such as gravity (potential)
Work (W) is the transfer of energy that can be used to change the height of a weight
somewhere in the surroundings
Power: the rate of doing work
Adiabatic system one in which no heat can flow into or out of the system (perfectly
insulated)
Diathermic system one in which heat can flow into or out of the system
Exothermic process: heat flows from the system to the surroundings
Endothermic process: heat flows from the surrounding into the system
W(+) work done on a system.
W(-) work done by a system.
Q (+)- heat is transferred to a system.
Q(-) heat is transferred from a system.
Isothermal Process a constant temperature process
Isobaric Process a constant pressure process
Isochoric Process a constant volume process
W = mgz
WPV = - Pext V
Wmax = -nRT ln (V2/V1)
Wmax= Wrev

Chapter 7
Ein Eout = Esystem
Total energy (E) = U + KE + PE ( Potential Energy = mgz & Kinetic Energy = 1/2 mV2)
If a closed system remains stationary, it has no change in kinetic or potential energy and as
such E= U
U(-) if energy is released.
U (+) if energy is taken in
First Law of Thermodynamics U = Q + W
U is the change in internal energy of the system in J
Q is the heat transfer to or from the system
 W is the work done on the system or work done by the system
State Function- A property of a system that depends only on the current state of a system (
i.e., P,V,T,n) and is independent of the path taken to reach that state.
Any property, such as Q or W, whose value depend on the process followed or the path
taken are known as a path functions
Isothermal expansion of a gas Wmax=-nRTln(V2/V1)
The internal energy of an isolated system (such as the universe) is constant as there can be
no change in internal energy . i.e. U=0 (and therefore W= -Q )
The internal energy of an ideal gas is dependent only on the temperature, and not on
volume
Isochoric reaction: Because volume does not change V=0 and WPV= -PextV system.
Therefore W=0 . Uv=W+Q = 0 + Q = Q. Uv=Q
Heat Capacity, is the amount of heat required to change its temperature by one degree, and
has units of energy per degree (Joules K-1 or J/K)
Total heat capacity Q = C T
Specific heat capacity Q= mc T
Molar heat capacity Q=nc T
Two Ways to heat a closed system:
1. Constant volume heating (V = 0) If there is no change in volume, no work is done,( Uv=
Qv)
2. Constant Pressure heating
Cp= Cv+ R
For a monatomic ideal gas (consists of single atoms and cant store energy), its internal
energy consists of only kinetic energy: U = 3/2KT per molecule or u = 3/2 RT per mole
For an ideal gas U=nCvT